The Journal of Indian Education is a quarterly periodical published every year in May, August, November and February by the National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi. The purpose is to provide a forum for teachers, teacher-educators, educational administrators and research workers; to encourage original and critical thinking in education through presentation of novel ideas, critical appraisals of contemporary educational problems and views and experiences on improved educational practices. The contents include thought-provoking articles by distinguished educationists, challenging discussions, analysis of educational issues and problems, book reviews and other features. Manuscripts along with computer soft copy, if any, sent in for publication should be exclusive to the Journal of Indian Education. These, along with the abstracts, should be in duplicate, typed double-spaced and on one side of the sheet only, addressed to the Academic Editor, Journal of Indian Education, Department of Teacher Education, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016. The Journal reviews educational publications other than textbooks. Publishers are invited to send two copies of their latest publications for review. Copyright of the articles published in the Journal will vest with the NCERT and no matter may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of the NCERT.

Academic Editor Raj Rani

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Ranjana Arora Kiran Walia Yogesh Kumar Anupam Ahuja M.V. Srinivasan Lungthuiyang Riamei (JPF)

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Published by the Head, Publication Division, National Council of Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016, and printed at Chaar Dishayen Printers Pvt. Ltd., G-40, Sector 3, Noida 201 301 JOURNAL OF INDIAN EDUCATION

Volume XXXVI Number 4 February 2011

CONTENTS Editor’s Note 3

Role of Lawyers in Education 5 ASHOK AGARWAL

Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach in Special Education 18 POONAM AND SHEELA SANGWAN

School Education of Scheduled Castes Population in India: 33 A Statistical Analysis VISHAL D. PAJANKAR AND PRANALI P.

Aggression in Children: Reasons and Remedies 45 RANJANA BHATIA

Cooperative Learning and Social Development in Elementary Classroom 51 SUNITAH SUSAN JOSE AND P.J. POULOSE

Relation between School Environment Variables and Mathematics 58 Achievement among School Students in Bongaigaon District KUNTALA PATRA AND ARUNDHATI MECH

Achievement and Personality Pattern of Secondary Level Scheduled Tribe 71 Students in Relation to Gender and Type of Institutions B.N. PANDA AND LAXMIDHAR BEHERA

A Comparative Assessment of the Creativity in Adolescents across 81 Two Categories of Schools in Pithoragarh, Central Himalaya ANIL KUMAR NAUTIYAL AND PRABHA NEGI Media Studies in School Curriculum: 93 Obstacles, Challenges and Possibilities ANUBHUTI YADAV

An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme 100 in Puducherry P. ADINARAYANA REDDY , D. UMA DEVI AND E. MAHADEVA REDDY

Teaching through Stress Management and Stress Proofing 119 A. SUDHARMA AND LEKSHMI V.

Book Review 126 Tricia Hedge. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom KIRTI KAPOOR

Reportage 130 Should We Teach Economics in Schools? R. SRINIVASAN EDITOR’S NOTE

Law and Judiciary have significant role in all the sectors including education. However, until not so long ago in education, law has played its role mostly in relation to cases regarding service matters of teachers and cases of school managements against teachers. But now with the implementation of Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act 2009, the role of lawyers has suddenly become very important in education. Not only this, the need to orient them on various aspects of education is also being felt. On this emerging concern, Ashok Agarwal delivered a lecture entitled 'Role of Lawyers in Education', for one of the memorial lecture series organised by the NCERT. The present issue includes this lecture in the form of an article with the purpose of reaching to large number of stakeholders to initiate a dialogue on this issue as its importance is being strongly visualised for the future. Further, with regard to elementary education which comes under RTE Act 2009, articles contributed by Poonam and Sheela Sangwan, Vishal D Pajankar and Pranali P, Ranjana Bhatia, Sunitah Susan Jose and P.J. Poulose, which are included in this issue, highlight various related concerns such as inclusive education, problems of education of Scheduled Castes population, aggression in children, cooperative learning and social development in elementary classroom. A series of engagement with the concern related to secondary education is reflected in research articles contributed by Kuntala Patra and Arundhati Mech, Laxmidhar Behera and B. N Panda, Anil Kumar Nautiyal and Prabha Negi. These research articles are based on studies conducted to explain the relation between school environment and mathematics achievement, personality pattern and achievement of ST students in relation to gender and type of institutions, and assessment of the creativity in adolescents. These articles may provide a forum for dialogues and research in these areas as well as in other related areas. An article by Anubhuti Yadav explains the need and challenges to include ‘media studies’ as a subject in school curriculum. For any stage of school education, teacher is a crucial factor but if teacher is under stress, what strategies need to be adopted to overcome his/her stress? An article by A. Sudharma and Lekshmi V. deals with the issue of 'Teaching through Stress Management and Stress Proofing'. This issue also includes an article contributed by P. Adinarayana Reddy, D. Uma Devi and E. Mahadeva Reddy on the programme evaluation aspect of Continuing Education Programme in Puducherry. The findings of this evaluation clearly indicate the need for improvement in the delivery mechanism and also in concern areas. The issue concludes with a book review by Kirti Kapoor, and a reportage by R. Srinivasan which tries to find out the answer to the issues of related need and rationale of teaching economics in India.

Academic Editor JIE Role of Lawyers in Education*

ASHOK AGARWAL**

Abstract

Until not so long ago, lawyers had little or no role in school education, except perhaps in relation to cases regarding service matters of teachers and cases of school managements against teachers, etc. The phenomenon of voluntary action by lawyers, acting on behalf of children too poor to afford either private schooling or lawyers, is a fairly recent trend, perhaps not more than 10 to 15 years old. However, as soon as education comes to be defined as a right of the child, the importance of lawyers in completing the circuit that will ensure the right to education becomes inevitable. This lecture will trace the movement for defending the right to education from the advent of PILs to the present, before discussing some issues that can and have emerged in the context of right to education in schools. Some of these relate to— denial of admission in government schools; cruelty against children in the name of private school admissions; lack of basic amenities in schools, such as, water, electricity, proper roofs and walls which can protect from harsh weather, etc.; corporal punishment and other forms of humiliation; lack of connection between primary and upper-primary education; the dissociation between the aims of education and the goals of schools; the issue of unjustifiable fee hike in private schools; the issue of allotment of free land to private schools; and violation of educational rights of poor children. This lecture will discuss how in taking action on behalf of poor children for ensuring their educational rights, one comes to the awareness that simply finding a case and fighting it is not enough. Unless public opinion and public anger are also not built up against such denials, these wrongs will continue. I will discuss how I learnt to enlist the support of the media in creating awareness and opinion. At the same time, however, I realised that going to the courts alone cannot and should not be an answer to all the ills in education. Mobilising public outcry is also important. Sometimes, when people come together to demand action, matters can be rectified without going to a court. I will discuss in my lecture how at this point, I learnt to make correct strategy to achieve justice for children’s right to education.

* This article was presented during the Fourth Mahadevi Verma Memorial Lecture 2010 at Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal, on 5 October 2010 and published by the NCERT, New Delhi. **He has been practising Law at Supreme Court and the Delhi High Court. 6 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

However, there is a limit to what a lawyer can do. There are many problems for a lawyer to cope with. Through my work so far I have merely demonstrated what lawyers can do and how to do it. But it cannot be denied that there needs to be an escalation of lawyer intervention on behalf of the child. Perhaps, time has come to move from individual initiative to networked legal aid; to development of systems of case support to lawyers; to build NGO linkages with lawyers; to evolution of government schemes of lawyer involvement; for informational systems to be developed for orientation and briefing of lawyers and judges in right to education. Maybe it is also time for including Right to Education (RTE) in the formal and informal curriculum of legal education. Students in law colleges should learn about child rights and their defence in the curriculum, just as they learn about contracts and criminal law. Universities should actively think about separate optional papers, diploma and certificate courses in RTE. Similarly, there could be research on PILs in education. In closing, I would like to argue that legal intervention acts as a trigger to reform in education. Not only does it serve to highlight wrongs and rectify them, but ultimately, it will also build communities in schools who know their rights and duties, and hence there are fewer predispositions towards violation of children’s right to education. Already, the parents in private schools are no longer as timid as they once were, and already government officers are becoming alert to ensure transparency and justice. Through the intervention of lawyers, I see a vision of future with mutual respect and improved provisioning of education from a rights- based perspective.

I am grateful for this honour of being I have been remembered as a friend chosen to deliver the 4th Mahadevi among this much respected community Verma Memorial Lecture, which gives me of educationists. an opportunity to talk to you about some The fact that I have been remembered matters related to the right to education by educationists is in itself a sign of the that has been very dear to my heart, and change in the relationship between the to which I have devoted most of my world of education and the world of the working life, and will continue to do so I courts. Until not very long ago, we hope, for as long as I am needed and lawyers had very little, if at all anything, able to serve. I am all the more grateful to do with school education. May be these for this honour because we lawyers are two worlds met in relation to cases seldom remembered at happy moments. regarding service matters of teachers, Generally, lawyers are seen as associated and cases of school managements taking only with bad moments, and when you action against teachers, etc. Other than curse someone you wish on your enemies that, to this world of educationists, a to have trouble and to visit courts lawyer was either someone you hired, or and lawyers. We lawyers seem to be someone who was an adversary—the associated with nothing but trouble, and lawyer was never a friend or a partner. therefore, I am all the more grateful that The phenomenon of the lawyer as a friend Role of Lawyers in Education 7 of the educationist is of very recent idea was perhaps too progressive for that origin, perhaps not more than 10 to 15 period—as the world in that period had years old, and it is this phenomenon, its enough problems with accepting all evolution, its progression and its humans as equal. potential, that shall be the subject of my You may be surprised to know that it lecture today. Many consider me to be was only in 1989 that the rights of one of the pioneers in this area, that may children came into being in international or may not be true, but certainly because law, through the UN Convention on of the media reports of my cases, the Rights of the Child (CRC), and India positive role that lawyers can play in signed it in 1992. defending the right to education has Most of us, who are present here become known to more and more people. today, have spent their childhoods In many ways, the evolution and without being the subject of rights. But progression of the new role of lawyers in the very fact that we are here today, education follows along the trajectory of shows that we were the lucky ones who my own career in fighting for the right to received food, shelter, clothing, education, education, and the rights in education. etc., and everything else that made it You must be very well aware that the possible for us to be what we are today. whole concept of human rights itself Many children even today are not so is very recent. The term human rights lucky. They continue to be deprived of came in after World War II with the birth all those things that we have perhaps of the United Nations, and the Universal enjoyed and which have enabled us to Declaration of Human Rights. The very reach where we are today. So if even idea of a right, and an equal right to all after having these things called rights, humans simply by virtue of being human if children are still no better off than was itself a novel idea around that time. before, then you will say, of what use are Some races were considered superior to these things called rights if it makes no other races, some castes higher than difference whether you have them or others and the males superior to not? If ultimately everything is only going females—many of these ideas still linger to depend on personal goodwill, and you on in the minds of some people, but they may even say, on the sweet will of others, have been more or less eradicated in the then why talk of rights if they mean laws of the nations. In such a context, nothing at all? there was hardly any space to even When we say that someone has a consider the question of children having right to something, or that children have rights of their own. rights today, it does not mean that with People had duties and respon- a magic wand, things that children have sibilities towards children, that much a right to, such as, food, shelter, was there, but that a child should be clothing education, etc., will appear out having rights, may be even against of nowhere for each child. Then what parents, simply by virtue of being a child, does it mean to say that we have a in the same way that humans had rights right? To understand this, let us simply by virtue of being human—that think of those days when these rights did 8 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 not exist even on paper. For example, parents should not prevent them from not so long ago, it was believed that getting that right. As I said, our ideas children are the property of their change—these days hardly anyone parents—they are owned by their would agree with those who argue that parents, and that parents can do it is the right of the parent to keep the anything to them. While many still think child ignorant. in this way even today, the majority of To me, this is what a right means, a us tend to believe that there are some right is first adopted by the mind, it things that even a parent has no right makes our ideas change, and as our to do to a child, and that children cannot ideas change, society changes. It is the be treated as wished by those in society that ensures that rights are authority. In our time, our father’s words achieved. Rights do not make things were taken as law, fathers (or appear out of thin air as if by magic. As I grandfathers) decided for us, what we said, by making or adopting something, are to become, how we are to act, what for example, education as a right, that we are to do or not do, and it was our something does not appear out of thin duty to pursue that course and no other. air by magic, but certainly our ideas Is that the case in our own homes today? begin to change, we begin to recognise Not at all, for my generation it seems that that all children can and should get we were dictated to by our parents and education. The adoption of a right on now we are dictated to by our children. paper is merely a milestone. Some would Certainly the idea of a parent–child say, it is a goal post, it gives us a point relationship has changed in many and a direction to work towards. homes. How did they change? So friends, to me, that is what changes I would say that the ideas of rights when we say someone has a right to have gained a lot of ground since then— something, a standard is established, just as we were first intrigued and then and gradually, attitudes, values and obsessed by the idea of gaining freedom. practices start to follow until real life, It is as though a wind blows, and it reality, or the norm becomes that situation changes what we think and how we do what was aspired by the right. things. At one time, we used to think it And when rights get established in was the parents’ wish whether to send law, such rights can be claimed by well- their children to school or not—now we wishers on behalf of children. Even if a tend to think that any person who child is not so lucky to have family and chooses not to send their child to school friends to fight for them, the fact of having is doing something not good for the a right works to ensure that some agency, child, they are depriving the child of or even the government, works for the education and the child will suffer later. child to ensure that the child’s care, Nowadays we consider any parent who shelter, food and education along with does not send his/her child to school an identity, a birth certificate, as neglectful or ignorant. People have nationality, dignity even at school, the now come to believe that children have right not to be beaten under the pretext a right to education; people now believe of education, etc., are all taken care of. Role of Lawyers in Education 9

All of these rights became accepted How can a child who is not even able to the world over with the acceptance of afford a school, or a teacher, can afford the CRC. a lawyer? As you know, lawyers are You might ask why am I talking about private practitioners—we lawyers the CRC, which is an international depend on the income from the practice, convention, and which is not binding as we depend on the fees. So on the one a law in India? While that is the case, it hand, we make free and compulsory is also true, that our Constitution asks education a fundamental right, and on us to honour international treaties and the other, in order to enforce this right, conventions and our judgements are in we have to go to lawyers, who are by no harmony with international means free and compulsory, then how is conventions. For example, as soon as the child to get the right? India signed the CRC in 1992, the Therefore, if without a lawyer, it is not Supreme Court of India passed a historic possible to seek to enforce the right in judgement in the case of Unnikrishnan the courts, then it surely amounts to the J.P. vs. The State of Andhra Pradesh, right remaining where it is—on paper. which made education a fundamental The purpose of my talk today before this right. And, even though, the judgement august audience is just this—to reflect itself did not move the government to take on the role of the lawyer in the right to any great steps, a movement began which free and compulsory education. ultimately led to the right to education You will ask—but I am a lawyer—why being placed even on election am I doing this? How am I fighting for the manifestoes, on Common Minimum right to education? How does a child who Programmes, and eventually to cannot even afford a teacher, who does amendment of the Constitution and not even know that he has a right to a education becoming a fundamental right. teacher, would come to me and expect me A fundamental right is a justiciable to fight for him in the courts? What are right. Justiciable means that if the right the problems that children face? In order as it is stated is not given, or if the to reflect on the role of the lawyer in government or anyone else who is bound education, I will tell you about my role as by it defaults in some way, then one can a lawyer fighting for the right to education, turn to the courts for remedy. And even and then perhaps we can together reflect before the courts come into the picture, on whether a lawyer is enough, or we need the lawyers have to be brought in, in more lawyers, and if we need more lawyers, order to complete this circuit of where are they to come from? Why would justiciability for which we amended the they come? How to sensitise them about Constitution. Therefore, although we do denials of rights in education? How to not hear too much on this issue, and ensure that the lawyer finds the children, even the government has not taken steps because surely, such children cannot in this direction, the right to education find the lawyer? cannot be enforced without a lawyer My own initiation in the right of coming into the picture. But you will children to education was actually very surely see the irony of this situation— conventional. I basically fought labour 10 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 cases. My ideological leanings were also children in private schools will also get sympathetic to the right of the workers their rights and not be at the whims and and the poor, but my first case in mercy of the private managements. education came from a very typical There is one system, one set of rights, route—some people known to me were one set of laws, so improvement has to concerned that the private school that be done in both kinds of schools. their children were attending had again Anyway, I was lucky to win the case raised the fees and there seemed to be of the fee hike in private schools, and it nothing that the schools were afraid of. had the effect of enforcing the law in My own education had been in a respect of other private schools. Because government school, and I told them, it was a private school case, the news "Instead of complaining, you should send was carried in many of the papers, and your children to a government school, people came to realise that the private there would be no question of fees." I told schools were making profits from one them, "You have come from a government school, and using that profit to set up school, I have come from a government another school, and another, until they school, and we are doing OK." They told became more and more powerful as a me, "When was the last time you saw a chain of schools. Now Godrej and government primary school. Go and see Reliance, for example, can set up chains a government primary school." So I went of establishments. They are commercial to a government primary school. I saw organisations and are subject to the tax, the state of the school, and the attitude the scrutiny, the quality standards, and of the head master and the teachers, I consumer interest laws that all such found that even the teachers were very commercial establishments are subject few and they were not teaching, only to. Now any philanthropist can set up minding the children so that they do not any number of schools if he has the run around or make noise. money and make a chain. But one school After seeing the state of the cannot give birth to another school to government schools, I realised that the make a chain. reason that parents are at the mercy of A school is a philanthropic, non-profit the private schools is that the organisation in our country. So where is government schools are in a very bad the question of profit, and that too so shape, and that the reason that the much profit that you can set up another government schools are getting worse is and yet another school? And if there is because more and more people are profit, then where is the question of not leaving them for other kinds of schools, being able to meet the costs, and of hiking and the ones left have no power to make fees? It was decided after that case that a demand for better schools and better no school can use the fees from one management. Therefore, I came to the school for the purpose of another school realisation that if the situation has to even under the same trust. And in order change, then both schools have to to establish profit, the rule regarding improve. When children in government submission of audited balance sheets got schools get their due rights, then the highlighted. Thirdly, another rule Role of Lawyers in Education 11 regarding submission and approval of patronage, anyone who is anybody or statement of fees before every term got knows anybody tries to use influence to known and enforced. get admission. The rest go to the other I realised during this case that the industry—that of training the children reason why the profits from one school like animals in a circus—even that is not can be used to set up another, is because allowed nowadays, but it is allowed to everywhere the governments were train children to perform in the supporting the establishment of admission interview. The school becomes philanthropic effort such as educational more powerful, and even the government institutions and hospitals for public officers fear to oppose anything the school purpose by giving them free land. So if does. It seems that they cannot be the land is free and the proceeds from approached twice even to secure the another school are funding the building, filling up of the DISE Information then what was the problem in building Proforma, which carries individual report chains of schools? Also, as with any cards of 1.3 million schools in India. But private commercial enterprise, the surprisingly, how many private schools ‘brand marketing’ exercise ensures that are there in the list? You only need to the school seems better and more check to see if the schools you know desirable than the existing government about are represented there and you will schools. So why should people who have have your answer. more money not show it? Private schools, You will find that I started from one far from serving a public purpose, became case, and it was not a case, it was a box— status symbols and everyone wanted to a Pandora’s box. I have linked everything be seen only in these schools. to everything else through it—actually We all know the story of Akbar and that is exactly what happened. One thing Birbal in which one day Akbar drew one just led to another. I also realised that line and told Birbal to make it smaller when the government granted the free without touching it. All Birbal had to do land to the schools, they attached a was to make another bigger line next to condition, that the schools would reserve the first line and the first line became 25 per cent of its total pupil strength for the smaller one. Same is the case with poor children and provide them free the government school. If another school education. But the schools never next to it, is better, even if it is only bothered, and no one bothered to trouble because of the shiny building and the the schools on behalf of the poor. brand marketing, then automatically, This realisation served me well the government school becomes less because it set the basis for some of my desirable. All those who would have future cases, for example, the case about attended it, want to go to the status- nursery schools admissions, about the symbol school, and the private school is free seats in land-grant schools, the poor placed in the powerful position of being condition of government schools and the able to select and reject the children of fee hike in relation to the 6th Pay the rich. Other ancillary industries also Commission. But after my first case, I develop—one industry is that of wanted to do something about the 12 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 government schools. But where to start? they could see that the cement was still I started visiting the government wet, that the school had facilities for schools and meeting the teachers, the water, but that the child had run out headmasters and the parents in order simply out of mischief. to see where the problems lie. Every The moment they pleaded in that Saturday when there was no court, I direction, they got caught for not having would take my car and go and visit some a proper boundary wall with a gate and government schools. I noted the poor a guard. The people had trusted the conditions, the apathy of the government schools with their children and the towards the teaching staff, the apathy of schools were responsible for their safety the teaching staff to the children, etc. and care. With this case, all the One of the first cases I filed was about municipal schools became equipped with the infrastructural facilities. Many water, boundary walls, and security schools were running in tents, in rooms guard. In another case, it was also made with tin roofs, which became unbearable the duty of the government to ensure that in summer and bitterly cold in winter, electricity supply to a school was never even the buildings were in dilapidated cut off for non-payment of electricity bills. conditions. I took photographs and filed The fault was of the government, and the them in the court in a series of cases. children were made to suffer. The courts were kind enough to issue As you can imagine, I became fairly orders banning the use of tents, the use well received in the schools. Even the of tin roofs, stating that only proper pre- senior officials in the municipal fabricated structures may be used for corporation surprisingly did not resent temporary classes. Noting that the me—they saw that I had managed to schools were running in old and bring about the orders for the insecure buildings, the courts ordered improvement of faculities in the schools, that the buildings be replaced by new which they had wanted but were not able structures. Today, you will find the to do. teachers working not under trees and in Alongside the improvement in the verandas, but in well-constructed structures, I had noted that a number of classrooms, and people are surprised to processes also needed improvement. see the new face of schools of the I realised that in the school there was a Municipal Corporation of Delhi. regular turnover of teachers- some joined It came to my notice that one child the secondary schools, some got married had been run over by a truck just outside and left, some retired, etc. But there a municipal primary school. What was seemed to be no regular system to take the child doing outside the school? It note of this need for teachers or to ensure came to light that the school had no that there were enough teachers in the facilities for drinking water. When this schools. So the matter was taken to court issue was raised in the courts, the to say that if the government was indeed officials set up the hand pump and water serious about ensuring education, then tap overnight, then tried to explain to the the process of recruitment of teachers inspection team of the court, even though should have begun, but not even the Role of Lawyers in Education 13 vacancies have been advertised to date. case. What I am trying to say is that The court eventfully ordered that a there is very little that I can take sole regular calendar of recruitment be credit for, and indeed this battle requires prepared and followed every year to teamwork and team support. If I had streamline this process. anything, it was my persistence and the Another example, the schools were support of my family. They did not saying they wanted universal enrolment, complain that I could have earned more but they themselves were hampering this or had a better standard of living if I had process, due to their demand for this or devoted this time to paid cases. If you that certificate. So a court order was think I am rare, I think my family is rare. obtained (after a PIL) that the parents But if lawyers who fight for children are could admit the child without birth not to be rare, then we must do something certificate or affidavit. But what about that will enable the average person to join the children without parents, i.e., the as a lawyer in the fight for right to children on the streets. We took this education. I will return to this issue later, issue to the courts and there was great and let us first discuss the ways in which drama, because we had brought some children are denied the right to street children into the court and the education and why there is need for judge asked the director of education, support. who are the parents of these children? Along with the removal of document The media also had a great moment barriers to admission, I supported the reporting cases like these, and I realised Dakhila Abhiyan. This was a process that that in the right to education, the had the support of the SCERT of Delhi greatest battle is that of realisation—once and was instrumental in generating people become aware and realise what awareness about school enrolment. is a right, then they also begin to Similarly, I found that some fee (not recognise the violation of the right. So I exactly fees but some amount for some realised that the media can play a big fund or the other) was being collected at role in creating awareness. the time of admission in the municipal By this time the Internet also schools. We first asked the MCD how the became popular, and I learnt how to use schools were collecting anything without it. I learnt how to use the email, and kept receipt. So they issued an order to give the media and a few friends and well receipt. The moment we had a receipt, we wishers aware of my cases and they in produced it in the court saying that turn gave publicity in the papers. I contrary to the stated policy, the schools created a website and kept some are charging money, and free and important background information on compulsory education is not 'free'. After the website for ready reference. that court judgement, now admission is I gradually made friends among the truly cashless and paperless. educationists also and through them I Another barrier to the right to became aware of some of the issues. elementary education in Delhi was also Many times, they would be useful to me realised quite by chance. One of my in discussing the different aspects of a educationist friends mentioned about 14 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 the system in Mumbai, where despite is happening. My only guide was the law, education being a right until the age of the Constitution of India, and the fourteen, the municipal schools would International Conventions. These gave give the children a Transfer Certificate me a frame of reference to judge whether (TC) at the end of the last class of the what ever happening is right or not. municipal school. The upper primary However, I still go to the schools, stage is in an aided school, also free, but especially the schools in the outlying it was not the responsibility of the areas in Delhi in order to see if children government to see that the child who left are being deprived of their rights. the municipal school was able to join an However, the problems of the rich are also aided school. Then I realised that same no less than the problems of right to is the case in Delhi. Even though the education. Even though my practice also government provides secondary picked up regarding violation of rights in education, it does not care to take the schools, I kept my time for my ‘own’ suo children of the municipal schools from moto cases. One of these was regarding the last class of the municipal school to the admission of children of the weaker the next class in the upper primary in sections to the free seats that these the government secondary school. I children were to get after the school got added this issue to an ongoing case and a land grant from the government. sure enough, the order came that the When I took this case to the court, right to education meant that the onus suddenly, a large number of schools in of education within the elementary stage Delhi spontaneously developed a change was on the government. The government of heart and opened non-formal should ensure the transition of children education classes in the afternoon. The from the primary stage in the municipal Delhi Government which had so far not schools to the upper primary stage in bothered to enforce this clause, suddenly government schools. At first there was became aware of it, although the same little response, but after filing a case of rule gave free land to the schools. They contempt of court, I think the government blamed the DDA which gave the land, also realised that this was a good way to and the DDA blamed the Directorate of ensure a high transition rate. Today, Education and ultimately rules were each government secondary school has prepared, a set of criteria was evolved to a number of feeder primary municipal decide who would be called ‘weaker schools attached to it and the section. A process was evolved for government is proud to have taken a lead securing an income certificate of in something that is now mandatory economically weaker' section. NGOs through the Right to Education Act. made the weaker sections aware of the You can see, therefore, that although process of obtaining admission to the when I started out, I neither knew about schools. Even then, the schools were education or about the ways in which reluctant to admit the poor. children are deprived of their rights in The schools which had been claiming the schools and outside the schools. I to give quality education, when the time slowly began to gain awareness of what came for them to prove it, their behaviour Role of Lawyers in Education 15 gave away the truth, that the ‘quality’ ‘clever’ enough to make it to a particular they professed to be manufacturing in sought-after school. I took a case the schools, actually lay in the selected regarding the admission process of a and handpicked batch they admitted private school to the court. The court every year to the school. Children of naturally spoke on behalf of the child, professionals, who may be genetically but recognising the need to have some endowed with this thing called criteria other than the present ad hoc intelligence and by the success achieved tests and interviews, it appointed a by their parents, are expected to have committee to be headed by the then the right attitudes and home CBSE Chairman, Mr. Ashok Ganguly to circumstances to foster good grades—the develop some criteria. The Ganguly indicator of ‘quality’. Of course they also Committee debated and evolved a had a good mix of children of business- method to restrict admission to children class parents. Very reluctantly, these who live within a certain radius of the schools gave admission to only those school, and also gave ‘points’ for other children who were assisted by some criteria such as a sibling in the same NGOs or whom they could not manage school, parents being alumni of the to push away. Some schools of course school, etc. Although even now the truly embraced their obligation and are system is far from perfect, the fact educating the children of the poor and remains that an evil in education and of the rich, but such schools are rare. its vicious effects on children was Although schools all over India receive recognised as such, and an effort was land grants under the same conditions, made to induce transparency into a but since law is a state subject and the system that had so far resisted all case was in the High Court and restricted interference into a domain that gave it to Delhi, the implementation of this great power and privilege. nationwide obligation is also limited to Whether rich or poor, children suffer Delhi. Now of course, this need for social equally from corporal punishment. They mixing and the harmful effects of suffer disproportionately when they have economic apartheid in education have disabilities. All types of schools try to hide been widely recognised, and now this the fact of child abuse by torture and to clause is one of the best-known clauses keep the disabled out. Even the so-called of the ‘Right of Children to Free and schemes of the education of disabled Compulsory Education Act 2009’. children are not able to identify the Admission to a private school of disabled through household survey. I do choice is an annual affair marked with not know what kind of survey is a lot of tension for both parents and conducted, because when I went into a children. But for the schools it is like a basti, I was surprised to find a large harvest festival. I hear that money is number that were there and known to made and people are ‘obliged’. Children all to be there but were unable to access who ‘fail’ the admission test and interview schooling. If you keep only the face of recognise early in life, that they are the child in your mind, it might occur to somehow ‘less’ than those who were you, if you had been that child what 16 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 would have been your fate? They deserve or like any other service that NGOs pay better, and a society that calls itself for, the cost of a lawyer and court charges civilised should look after its people could be built into their plans. NGOs in especially those who cannot look after the education sector, use many themselves. strategies—the legal route could be one This brings me to the role of the of the strategies that the NGOs could lawyer in education. It is for you to decide, use, and in the process they can train whether a lawyer is the last mile link to the lawyers who work with them. seek remedy from a court of law or not. I NGOs could also link with legal also wish that a lawyer is never needed service authorities that are there in every and that no child or parent needs to state. So far these authorities are fairly enforce their right to education through understaffed and overworked, so they do a court of law. But I have seen that the not actually go looking for instances real world is not like that, and if you have where the rights have been violated. They reached the same conclusion after are not used to dealing with situations hearing about some of the types of issues in which even the victim does not realise that I have had to handle through courts, they have been wronged. NGOs could you will also wonder how to bring about link with them as well. situations in which lawyers seek There is a need I think for a centralised opportunities to serve free of charge for resource—maybe through websites the cause of education. I have no doubt where information about cases related to that many more lawyers would like to the right to education could be collated serve but they do not know where to and made available. Such sites would start or what kind of issues need sensitise NGOs, lawyers, judges, etc., their attention. about the types of problems encountered I have made a start in my community by children in the field. Such a site would by sensitising my colleagues, but they be essential especially for a state subject are confined to Delhi. What about such as law, because the cases would be Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, West Bengal, limited to the district or the High Court of Sikkim, Gujarat? Every state, every town a state. Cases in one state would create and every village needs someone to awareness about issues and inspire other protect the interests of children because states to get the same or similar situation they are unable to look after their own solved. The fee hike following the 6th Pay interests. Commission, for example, is an issue that I realise my own example may not be many states have in common. For the first that easy for everyone to follow, but what time, an All India Parents Association has if NGOs who are already sensitised to been formed and is informing other states serve, are also sensitised to rights to about issues and rights. What is needed education, rights in education, and how perhaps is a less partisan and more to enforce them. If these NGOs could stable informational resource. work in coordination with lawyers, I am I would say, even sensitisation sure there will be enough lawyers who lectures are useful. There may be some would be happy to provide free service, among you, who did not know about many Role of Lawyers in Education 17 of the rights or how they are violated even Constitution and made education into a by governments or schools. It is my justiciable fundamental right, the role of suggestion that organisations like lawyers in making that connection with NCERT, SCERT, NUEPA, etc., should give the court of law becomes inevitable. lectures even in law colleges and judicial Children have been denied their right to academies. They could even run courses education for too long. I envisage a day on right to education and its defence. in the not too distant future, when They could run courses in public legal speaking softly but carrying a big stick, education in collaboration with law we will build a future of mutual respect colleges and even train children to and improved provisioning of education know their rights and recognise from a rights-based perspective. their violations. With these words I thank you for Friends, the possibilities are endless. listening to me so patiently, and for giving Now that we have amended the me this honour of speaking to you.

Thank you. Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach in Special Education

POONAM* SHEELA SANGWAN**

Abstract

The goal of this review paper is to examine the issues related to the provisions, practices and curricular concerns for children with Special Educational Needs (SEN) in inclusive education. The paper focuses on educational outcomes of inclusion for students with and without developmental disabilities, including studies that have measured both traditional academic outcomes (for example literacy, mathematics, etc.) and non-academic skill development in areas such as basic life skills (for example communication, motor skills, functional life skills). It also reviews the research literature related to teaching techniques and educational contexts that have been found to promote effective inclusion (i.e., to provide optimal learning for all students, both with and without developmental disabilities).

To educate means to develop and should develop the whole child and cultivate (Merriam-Webster, 1978). To cultivate all of the skills, attitudes, and teach, on the other hand, is defined as knowledge necessary for successful to cause to know; to show how; to guide; integration into society. Schools should to make to know the consequences of provide students with opportunities to (Merriam-Webster, 1978). Thus, discover, model, experience, and learn education includes more than consequences. This is true for all instruction in academic subjects; and populations of learners, both with and teaching includes more than just without disabilities; but it is especially delivery of academic content. Education true for students with developmental

*Research Scholar, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, C.C.S.Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar-125 004 **Professsor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, C.C.S.Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar-125 004 Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach... 19 disabilities, because they often have not been accompanied by changes in the difficulties with social, emotional, organisation of the ordinary school, its communication, motor, and behavioural curriculum and teaching and learning development in addition to academic strategies. This lack of organisational learning (Alper and Ryndak, 1992). Thus, change has proved to be one of the major practices such as inclusion that aim to barriers to the implementation of Inclusive educate such students in the full sense Education policies. Revised thinking has of the word must promote development thus led to a re-conceptualisation of across all educational domains. 'special needs'. This view implies that Inclusion as we know it today has its progress is more likely if we recognise that origin in Special Education. The difficulties experienced by pupils result development of the field of special from the ways in which schools are education has involved a series of stages during which education systems have currently organised and from rigid explored different ways of responding to teaching methods. It has been argued children with disabilities and to students that schools need to be reformed and who experience difficulties in learning. In pedagogy needs to be improved in ways some cases, Special Education has been that will lead them to respond positively provided as a supplement to general to pupil diversity – seeing individual education provision; in other cases it has differences not as problems to be fixed, been entirely separate. In recent years, but as opportunities for enriching the appropriateness of separate systems learning. of education has been challenged, both How is Inclusion different from from a human rights perspective and from Integration? the point of view of effectiveness. Special Education practices were moved into the In special school concept, the special mainstream through an approach known education component is apart from the as integration. The main challenge with general education system, whereas in 'integration' is that 'mainstreaming' had integrated approach, it is a part of the

Shifting Models of Disability: Historical Progression 20 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 general education. Inclusive education The Human Rights Model: The human goes one step further. In this approach, rights model positions disability as an the special education is an integral part important dimension of human culture of the general education system. and it affirms that all human beings are Therefore, the transition from 'Special born with certain inalienable rights. School Concept' to 'Inclusive Education' Inclusive Education in India can be treated as an evolutionary process in the services for children with Trends in provisions in India reflect that disabilities. the leading policy predisposition before the 1970s has been that of segregation. Shifting Models of Disability: Historical During the 1880s Christian missionaries Progression started schools for the disabled on The shifting approaches to disability grounds of charity. This was followed by have translated into very diverse policies the government initiatives to establish and practices. The four major identifiable separate workshops, model schools, formulations of disability are: the charity central Braille presses and employment model, the bio-centric model, the exchanges for the disabled population of functional model, and the human rights the country. model. In the 1970s the Integrated The Charity Model: The charity Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) approach gave birth to a model of scheme was launched by the Union custodial care, causing extreme isolation government for providing educational and the marginalisation of people with opportunities to learners with SEN in disabilities. regular schools. Nevertheless, the The Bio-centric Model : The conte- statistics show that though the mporary bio-centric model of disability integration of learners with SEN gathered regards disability as a medical or genetic some momentum, the coverage under condition. The implication remains that this scheme remained inadequate. There 'disabled persons' and their families should strive for 'normalisation', through was a clear need for fuller access of medical cures and miracles. Although, children with SEN to all educational biology is no longer the only lens through opportunities. Dissatisfaction with the which disability is viewed in law and slow progress towards integration along policy, it continues to play a prominent with the consideration of the costs role in determining programme eligibility, involved led to a demand for a radical entitlement to benefits and it also change. influences access to rights and full social Meanwhile, the National Council of participation (Mohit, 2003). Educational Research and Training The Functional Model: In the functional (NCERT) joined hands with United model, entitlement to rights is Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and differentiated according to judgements of launched Project Integrated Education individual incapacity and the extent to for Disabled Children (PIED) in the year which a person is perceived as being 1987, to strengthen the integration of independent to exercise his/her rights. learners with disabilities into regular Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach... 21 schools. An external evaluation of this DPEP and now the Sarva Shiksha project in 1994 showed that not only did Abhiyaan (SSA), most of them address the enrolment of learners with disabilities SEN as a segregated issue rather than increase considerably, but the retention as one that runs through all initiatives. rate among disabled children was also This is supported by the fact that under much higher than the other children in the SSA, training, linkages with parents, the same blocks. In 1997 IEDC was salaries of special educators, aids and amalgamated with other major basic appliances, etc. are all provided through education projects like the District the separate provision of `1200 per Primary Education Programme (DPEP) disabled child per annum. (Chadha, 2002). The Draft Scheme on Inclusive After the World Conference on Education prepared by the MHRD Special Needs Education in Salamanca (2003) uses the following definition: in 1990s, inclusion became the magic Inclusive education means all learners, word in the educational field. The young people—with or without Salamanca Statement adopted by disabilities being able to learn together representatives of 92 governments and in ordinary preschool provisions, 25 international organisations has, in schools, and community educational fact, set the policy agenda for inclusive settings with appropriate network of education on a global basis. India is a support services (Draft of Inclusive signatory to the Salamanca Statement Education Scheme, MHRD, 2003) . and Framework for Action on Special Benefits of Inclusion Needs Education (1994) that emphasises The benefits of inclusion for students access to quality education for all. with SEN are as follows: The National Policy on Education • Spending the day at school with (NPE)1986 envisaged measures for classmates who do not have integrating the physically and mentally disabilities provides many handicapped with the general opportunities for social interaction community as equal partners, to prepare that would not be available in them for normal growth and to enable segregated settings. them to face life with courage and • Children with SEN have appropriate confidence. model of behaviour. They can observe The 86th Amendment of the and imitate the socially acceptable Constitution of India has made behaviour of the students without education a fundamental human right SEN. for children in the 6 to 14 age group • Teachers often develop higher thereby making it mandatory for all standards of performance for children to be brought under the fold of students with SEN. education. This includes children with • Both general and special educators disability. in inclusive settings expect Though awareness is being created appropriate conduct from all students. by the inclusion of learners with SEN in • Students with SEN are taught age- major educational programmes like the appropriate, functional components 22 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

of academic content, which may participate in a pluralistic society never be part of the curriculum in when they are adults (Ryndak and segregated settings (for example, the Alper, 1996). sciences, social studies, etc.). • Inclusive education ensures that a • Attending inclusive schools school responds to the educational increases the probability that needs of children in the students with SEN will continue to neighbourhood. It brings a school participate in a variety of integrated closer to the community (Jha, 2002). settings throughout their lives Social Interactions and Educational (Ryndak and Alper, 1996). Outcomes of Inclusion Benefits of Inclusion for Students In the course of exploring the social without SEN are as follows: benefits of inclusion, researchers • Students without SEN have a variety discovered that the opportunity to of opportunities for interacting with interact with peers without disabilities peers of their own age who experience also had academic benefits. Brinker and SEN, in inclusive school settings. Thorpe (1984) wrote a seminal article • They may serve as peer tutors during exploring the rate of peer interactions as instructional activities. a predictor of inclusion outcomes. They • They may play the role of a special observed the rates of interaction with 'buddy' for the children with SEN typical peers by 245 students with severe during lunch, in the bus or at the disabilities. When level of functioning was playground. held constant, the rate of interaction with • Children without SEN can learn a typical students accounted for a good deal about tolerance, individual statistically significant 2.1 per cent of the difference, and human exceptionality variance. However, the rate of interaction by interacting with those with SEN. with other students with severe • Children without SEN can learn that disabilities was not a significant students with SEN have many predictor of students’ educational positive characteristics and abilities. achievement. This is an important • Children without SEN have the finding since it establishes a clear chance to learn about many of the relationship between social interactions human service professions such as, with typical peers and the achievement special education, speech therapy, of Individual Education Plan (IEP) goals physical therapy, recreational by students with severe disabilities. therapy and vocational rehabi- litation. For some, exposure to these Class Placement and Educational areas may help them to make a Outcomes of Inclusion career in any of these areas later on. Meta-analyses and comparative studies • Inclusion offers the opportunity for that have compared the educational students without SEN to learn to outcomes of students with developmental communicate and deal effectively disabilities in inclusive versus with a wide range of individuals. This segregated classrooms have found either also prepares them to fully no difference in educational outcomes or Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach... 23 positive effects for inclusion (Hunt and suggested that students with disabilities Goetz, 1997). For example, Cole and in mainstream classrooms made greater Meyer (1991), in their longitudinal study overall academic gains then their peers that explored the benefits of inclusion for with similar disabilities in segregated students with severe disabilities, found classrooms. no significant differences over a two year Helmstetter, Curry, Brennan, and period in the traditional domains of self- Sampson-Saul (1998) compared the use help skills, gross and fine motor of instructional time for students with co-ordination, communication, and developmental disabilities in general and adaptive behaviour for students in special education classrooms. All of the integrated versus segregated settings. participants spent some time in inclusive However, students in the integrated classrooms and some time in segregated settings spent less time in their school classrooms. The percentage of non- buildings and more time in the instructional time was significantly community than their segregated different in the two settings, with 58 per counterparts. This is a surprising finding cent in the segregated classrooms and given the common belief that specialised only 35 per cent in inclusive classrooms. settings are better able to promote In fact, even when whole class instruction instruction in life skills/vocational/work was deleted from the computation of settings in the community (Cole and instructional time, a significantly greater Meyer, 1991). Also of significance was the amount of time was devoted to instruction finding that the students in integrated in the inclusive classrooms. settings spent as much time in contact with special education teachers as those Engaged Behaviour and Educational in segregated settings. Thus, the claim Outcomes of Inclusion that segregated settings provide more Engaged behaviour (i.e., active intensive and direct instruction is called involvement in learning and time on into question by these results. task) is a measure that has been shown Most of the research studies that to predict academic achievement have studied the relationship between (Bulgren and Carta, 1993). In fact, class placement and educational previous research has suggested that the outcomes have found positive effects for engaged behaviour of students with inclusion. In 1985-86, Wang and Baker disabilities is the single best predictor of conducted a meta-analysis to review and academic gains (Bulgren and Carta, analyse the design features and efficacy 1993). Thus, if general education of mainstreaming as an educational classrooms promote the active approach to serving students with engagement of students with disabilities, disabilities. Over 50 per cent of the it would be expected that academic students were classified as mentally achievement would also be improved. retarded, 25 per cent included mixed Logan and Malone (1998) examined categories of exceptionalities, 19 per cent the instructional contexts provided for were hearing impaired, and 3 per cent students with moderate, severe, and were learning disabled. The findings profound developmental disabilities in 24 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 general education classrooms and their All of the students spent some time in effect on engaged behaviour. Students of each of the two settings and spent less all disability levels spent a significantly time engaged in non-instructional greater amount of time engaged in activities when they were in the inclusive academic activities than in any other classrooms. Active engagement was most activities. They were involved in more prevalent when the students worked in whole-class activities than in small group 1:1 formats, regardless of the setting. or individual structures and were taught However, because more individual work most often by general education teachers. was done in special education The students’ level of disability had some classrooms, and more whole-group effect on their engaged behaviour, although instruction was provided in general all students demonstrated a high rate of education classrooms, active engagement in academic activities. The engagement was higher in the special students’ level of participation in classrooms. The authors noted these functional skills training was limited; results are not surprising, given that however, most of the data were not passive engagement (i.e., where students collected during the non-instructional listen while the teacher talks) is often the times when functional skills instruction norm in the whole-class instructional was most likely to have occurred. activities frequently encountered in Hollowood, Salisbury, Rainforth, and general education classrooms. Palombaro (1994) investigated the Altman and Kanagawa (1994) also amount of time allocated for instruction, raised the issue of the need to explore the actual time used for instruction and specific instructional contexts and students’ engaged time in inclusive variables that promote the engaged classrooms. Students with severe behaviour of students with developmental disabilities had more of their daily disabilities. They observed three students schedules allocated to instructional tasks with mild developmental disabilities who than did students without disabilities. spent half of their days in integrated Both groups spent comparable kindergartens and half of their days in proportions of time passively engaged in specialised programmes. They found instruction; however, students with considerable individual social and disabilities spent less of their school day academic variation in engaged behaviour actively engaged than did students across the three students. However, they without disabilities. The authors concluded that the opportunity to engage suggested that this might have been due in academic and social activities varied to the presence of instructional aides for according to the degree to which the students with disabilities, who potential social agents and presumably provided extended instruction that often academic ones as well, were available relegated the students to passive roles. and responsive in the environment. Helmstetter et al. (1998) also Inclusive classrooms provide a greater assessed the engaged behaviour of their number of social agents and more students with severe disabilities in responsive peers and should, therefore, integrated versus segregated classrooms. promote the engagement of students Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach... 25 with disabilities to a greater degree than without disabilities in the context of co- self-contained classrooms in which all of operative mathematics learning groups the students have social, commu- in inclusive classrooms. Typical nication, and learning difficulties. In fact, students were taught to prompt, cue, and the bulk of the research has shown that facilitate specific communication and students with disabilities are more motor skills for students with severe engaged in academic activities in disabilities in co-operative group inclusive classrooms than in segregated activities. The results indicated that the classrooms (Logan et al., 1997). peer-facilitated interactions did not negatively affect the peers’ achievement Academic Benefits of Inclusion for of academic objectives. Students without Students without Disabilities disabilities in the experimental co- Concerns have often been raised in the operative learning groups performed inclusion literature about the impact of equally well as their peers in co- the presence of students with operative groups that did not include a developmental disabilities, particularly student with a disability. those with challenging behaviours, on It has also been well documented in the learning of typical students (Peltier, the literature that students who act as 1997). Hollowood et al. (1994) investigated peer tutors in academic areas learn the the degree to which the presence of related academic content to a greater students with severe disabilities in degree and depth than those who inclusive classrooms affected the time passively listen to or read the material allocated for instruction, the actual time (Fisher, Schumaker, and Deshler, 1995). used for instruction, and students’ From this review, there is little doubt engaged time. Classrooms with and that research over the past 20 years has without students with severe disabilities identified many social and academic were compared on all three variables. advantages of inclusion for students both The average time allocated and used for with and without disabilities. Thus, it instruction was comparable for both seems that Baker et al. (1994-95) were types of classrooms. There were no prophetic in saying: As schools are increasingly challenged to serve a diverse differences in the percentage of time student population . . . the concern is no typical students were engaged in longer whether to provide inclusive instruction across the two classroom education, but how to implement inclusive types. This was a significant finding, as education in ways that are both feasible it demonstrated that the presence of and effective in ensuring schooling success students with severe disabilities, even for all children (p. 34). those with challenging behaviours, did not negatively impact the amount of Emerging Curricular Issues and engaged time for typical learners. This Concerns in Inclusive Education finding has since been replicated in • Making all options of education such other studies (Peltier, 1997). as open schools, regular schools, Hunt, Staub et al. (1994), assessed special schools, nonformal and the achievement of students with and alternative education systems, 26 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

available to all children including activities, curriculum or performance children with disabilities. based assessment, and collaborative • Developing strategies for meeting the teaching. The uses of technology and educational needs of learners with community involvement have also been disabilities in large classrooms. shown to improve the efficacy of inclusion • Developing national support for all students. systems. Instructional arrangements: Logan et • Understanding the significance of al. (1997) investigated the effects of early identification and intervention. interactional and contextual variables on • Emphasising good teaching–learning students’ academic achievement. The practices. results indicated that 1:1 and small- • Making the curriculum flexible and group instructional arrangements accessible. resulted in higher levels of engaged • Utilising technology and assistive behaviour than whole-class arrange- devices. ments. In addition, the researchers noted • Developing appropriate assessment that engaged behaviour was highest and evaluation procedures. when peers acted as tutors of students • Capacity building and empowering with disabilities. In fact, the use of small teachers and stakeholders. group and 1:1 instruction (including peer • Providing vocational education. tutoring or partner work), as opposed to • Identifying suitable sports and other whole-class or independent seatwork, co-curricular activities for optimal has repeatedly been shown to result in development of learners with SEN. superior levels of engagement and • Barrier-free intervention/educational achievement for students both with and environment (including attitudinal without disabilities (Muyskens and barriers). Ysseldyke, 1998). It seems clear that, by simply providing more opportunities for Instructional Contexts and Teaching small group or partner learning, Techniques That Promote Academic inclusive classrooms could increase the Achievement in Inclusive engaged behaviour and academic Classrooms achievement of students both with and Recognition that inclusion benefits both without disabilities. learners with and without disabilities has In a study on practitioners’ led to a body of research which has sought perspectives in some inclusive schools to more clearly define the necessary carried out by Singhal and Rouse (2003), contexts, techniques, and curricular many teachers who were interviewed reforms that support the learning of all stated that there have been no changes students. The most commonly mentioned in their teaching. Some justified this adaptations in this literature include the status quo by stating that the included use of flexible groupings, co-operative children do not have less IQ, hence they learning and peer tutoring, choice- can fit into the existing classroom making opportunities, multi-modality procedures. Teachers also argued that instruction and flexible response many existing constraints did not allow Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach... 27 them to make significant changes in learning groups also showed their practices. These constraints improvements with regard to teacher included large class sizes, task of ratings of classroom behaviour and self- maintaining discipline—hallmark of a confidence. good teacher, vast amount of syllabus, Peer tutoring programmes are a and the fact that the included student specialised form of co-operative learning. was just one of many in the class. Students work together to learn Krishnaswamy and Shankar (2003), academic content, with a typical student point towards differentiated instruction playing the role of a tutor to a student as an approach for the teacher to weave with disabilities. Programmes that have individual goals into the classroom used students without disabilities as content and instructional strategies. tutors have consistently proven to be Valmiki (2003) emphasises culture effective in teaching a wide range of specific pedagogy and culturally academic, self-help, communication and responsive teaching as major initiatives social skills to students with disabilities in making education culturally inclusive. (McDonnell, 1998). Mani and Mulharah (2003) have talked Instructional adaptations: Instru- about creating effective classrooms ctional adaptations have also been found through cooperative learning. According to aid in the successful inclusion of to Malhotra (2003) teachers should be students with developmental disabilities. provided flexible syllabi, which would give For example, the provision of choice- them more time and freedom. making opportunities has been shown to Co-operative learning and peer increase engaged behaviour and improve tutoring: Given the above, it is not performance in children with disabilities surprising that one of the most common (Moes, 1998). As an example, Downing educational adaptations for inclusion et al. (1996) found that the most common cited in the literature is co-operative instructional adaptation for three learning (Jackson, Ryndak, and students with autism involved providing Billingsley, 2000). In a co-operative choices of activities, materials, learning programme, instructional groupings, and response methods. methods such as direct instruction, Parallel instruction: Differentiated (or small-group instruction, individualisation parallel) instruction, in which curricula, of roles and accountability and goals, methods, pace, or conceptual level independent practice are combined in a of instructional activities are varied team-based learning approach. according to individualised needs, has Slavin, Madden, and Leavey (1984) been shown to be one of the most effective explored the effects of cooperative methods for including students with learning and individualised instruction disabilities (King-Sears, 1997). A number on mainstream students. The authors of case studies have demonstrated the concluded that cooperative learning effective use of parallel instruction programmes resulted in increased (Ryndak et al., 1999). In all such cases, sociometric status of students with students were included in regular disabilities. Students in cooperative education classrooms and had 28 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 assignments modified to their cognitive/ in their classes than their male skill levels. counterparts. Teacher Perceptions on Inclusive 6. Science teachers had a more positive Education :Overall, it seems that attitude towards inclusion than teachers like the theory behind inclusion, those teaching humanities subjects. but feel that they do not have sufficient 7. The higher the confidence in the use skills, knowledge or training in order to of teaching strategies, the more teach the vast range of students in their positive the attitude of the teacher classes under the inclusion model. towards the disabled. Sharma (2002) analysed the 8. All teachers reported that they attitudes of teachers towards the needed more information regarding disabled, how these attitudes relate to the types of disabilities, curriculum various background factors and the ways adaptation, educational implications, of bringing about a change in the and skills and strategies required for attitudes of teachers. She reported that: meeting the needs of students with 1. The willingness of teachers to include SEN. children with SEN in the general Studying the teacher education class depended on the children’s curriculum of the District Institutes of disabling conditions. Teachers had Education and Training (DIETs) from the positive attitudes towards some perspective of learners with SEN, Julka children with specific disabilities like (2004) has implicated a need for all visual and hearing disabilities. Teacher Education Institutes to ensure Attitudes were least positive towards inclusive education theory and practice the intellectually impaired and those strategies in their programmes. At with behavioural problems. present, there are no specific provisions 2. The severity of problems in case of in the form of trained teacher educators, locomotors and intellectual resource materials and standardised disabilities negatively influenced inputs on learners with SEN in the in- their attitudes towards the inclusion service programmes of the DIETs. In the of children with disabilities in their pre-service programme, only one optional classroom. paper or one unit in a compulsory paper 3. The majority of the teachers felt the are the inputs provided. Training need for change in the school and programmes under DPEP and now the classroom infrastructure. SSA, cover this component, but it needs 4. The attitudes were found to be to be strengthened and made more inversely related to the age and relevant to the needs of the teachers from experience of the teachers teaching the perspective of inclusive education. ordinary children. However, Fuchs (2008) found that teachers feel experience of working with the a lack of understanding of implemen- disabled was positively related to the tation and support to use the inclusion attitudes of the teachers. model and also did not feel they could 5. Female teachers were more positive effectively teach mainstream students in towards the inclusion of the disabled the general education setting. Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach... 29

Recommendations for Effective service) to developing the pedagogical Implementation of Inclusive skills required in inclusive Education in India classrooms. The following are the major • mobilise special schools as resource recommendations of National Focus centres that provide support to Group on Education of Children With inclusive schools. Special Needs (2006) NCERT: • develop partnerships with • Make all early education and care institutions of higher learning, programmes (from 0–6 years) sensitive governmental organisations, and and responsive to the special needs NGOs to promote participation of of children, including training of children with disabilities in all Anganwadi workers in identification aspects of education. of needs of the children with • reduce class size to a maximum of disabilities, use of age-appropriate 30 students and a maximum of 20 in play and learning materials and the case the class includes children with counselling of parents. SEN. • Make all schools inclusive by: • Make the class teacher responsible www enforcing the neighbourhood for all the children in the class. In school policy without exception. case special support is required on account of SEN, this should be in the www removing physical barriers form of assistance to the class www reviewing barriers created by teacher. admission procedures • Regard all special teachers in a given (screening, identification, school as full-fledged members of parental interaction, selection the school community. and evaluation). This should • Make all curriculum-related policies include private schools. and programmes inclusive in nature www building the capacity of to effectively address issues related teachers to function in an to the education of children with SEN. inclusive setting. • develop perspective and skills in all www making the curriculum flexible administrators, including school and appropriate to principals, for planning and accommodate the diversity of executing programmes based on the school children including those philosophy of inclusion. with disability in both cognitive • develop strengths and abilities of all and non- cognitive areas. children rather than highlighting • making support services available in limitations. the form of Information, • recognising diversity among Communication and Technology learners, the medium of instruction (ICT), Teaching Learning Materials should include sign language for (TLM) and specialists. children with hearing impairment, • gear all teacher education and Braille for children with visual programmes (both pre-service and in- impairment. At the same time as an 30 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

optional subject/third language, techniques, curricula, and assessment learning of sign language, Braille, methods. Use of these strategies appears finger Braille, etc. should be to facilitate the academic and social introduced for all children. success of students both with and • incorporate a component of human without disabilities. In the coming years, rights education in teacher research investigating the extent to which education programmes to inculcate these contexts and strategies are respect for diversity and the concept implemented and their effects on the of an inclusive society. social and academic inclusion of both • do not subject the admission, students with developmental disabilities retention, support facilities, and their typical classmates should scholarships, and full participation continue. Implementation of an inclusive of children in all aspects of curriculum would require a number of education, to any criteria based on changes in present day teaching assessment tests, judgment by practices, curriculum content, evaluation professionals and experts, including procedures and available resources at psycho-medical certificates. the school level. The goal of providing Conclusion quality education would remain elusive The goal of this review was to provide a so long as the concept of inclusion is not summary of research outcomes and linked to broader discussions on available pedagogies related to the pedagogy and effective participation of all successful inclusion of students with children in the learning experiences developmental disabilities in elementary provided in the classrooms. The school classrooms. Research detailing the implementation of a programme of academic benefits for students with and inclusive education would also involve without disabilities has continued to curricular modifications and the use of mount. Given that research has human and technological support, delineated such benefits, it is incumbent including the use of ICT. It is also on educators to investigate and important to mobilise support from implement educational contexts and parents, the community, and special strategies that support effective inclusion. schools. Considering the above context, A large body of research has identified specific recommendations have been effective instructional options for made in the paper for developing inclusive classrooms, including the use guidelines for planning and implementing of specific educational contexts (for effective policies and programmes for example grouping strategies), education of children with special needs. Inclusive Education: A Developmental Approach... 31

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LOGAN, K.R., BAKEMAN, R., and F.B. K EEFE. 1997. “Effects of instructional variables on engaged behavior of students with disabilities in general education classrooms”, Exceptional Children, 63, 481-497. LOGAN, K. R., and MALONE, D.M. 1998. “Instructional contexts for students with moderate, severe, and profound intellectual disabilities in general education elementary classrooms”, Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 33, 62-75. MALHOTRA, S. 2003. Management of Attitudinal Barriers at different levels of inclusive education implementation. Paper presented in the National Seminar on Innovative Approaches to Education and Empowerment of the Disabled. NCERT, 2003. MANI, M.N.G. and MULHARIAH, N. 2003. Creating effective classroom through cooperative learning. Paper presented in the National Seminar on Innovative Approaches to Education and Empowerment of the Disabled. NCERT, 2003. MCDONNELL, J. 1998. “Instruction for students with severe disabilities in general education settings”. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 33, 199-215. MCDONNELL, J., THORSON, N. and MCQUIVEY, C. 2000. “Comparison of the instructional contexts of students with severe disabilities and their peers in general education classes”, Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 25, 54-58. Merriam-Webster dictionary (pocketbook edition. 1978. New York, NY: Merriam-Webster. Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD). Annual Report 2002-2003. New Delhi: GOI. MOES, D.R. 1998. “Integrating choice-making opportunities within teacher-assigned academic tasks to facilitate the performance of children with autism”, Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 23, 319-328. Mohit, A. 2003. “Human Rights Model and Access”, International Journal of Human Rights. MUYSKENS, P., and YSSELDYKE, J.E. 1998. “Student academic responding time as a function of classroom ecology and time of day”, Journal of Special Education, 31, 411-424. Position paper, National Focus Group on Education of children with special needs, National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2006. New Delhi PELTIER, G. L. 1997. “The effect of inclusion on non-disabled children: A review of the research”, Contemporary Education, 68, 234-238. RYNDAK, D.L. and ALPER, S.K. 1996. Curriculum Content for Students with Moderate and Severe Disabilities in Inclusive Settings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, pp. 5–6. RYNDAK, D. L., MORRISON, A.P. and SOMMERSTEIN, L. 1999. Literacy before and after inclusion in general education settings: A case study. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 5-22. SHARMA K. 2002. “Attitudinal Changes—Breaking the Psycho-social Barriers”, Journal of Indian Education, 27 (4): 85–89. SINGHAL, N. and ROUSE, M. (2003). “We Do Inclusion: Practitioner Perspectives in some Inclusive Schools in India”, Perspectives in Education, 21 (3): 85–98. SLAVIN, R. E., M ADDEN, N.A. and LEAVEY, M. 1984. Effects of cooperative learning and individualized instruction on mainstreamed students. Exceptional Children, 50, 434-443. WANG, M. C., and BAKER, E.T. 1985-1986. Mainstreaming programs: Design features and effects. Journal of Special Education, 19, 503-521. School Education of Scheduled Castes Population in India : A Statistical Analysis

VISHAL D. P AJANKAR* PRANALI P.**

Abstract

The greatest challenge faced by India since independence is the mainstreaming of socially excluded group like scheduled caste. The scheduled caste constitutes one of the weakest sections of India’s population, from ecological, economical and educational angles. Some primary and secondary schools have been opened in their areas but the number of school going SC children is very less. Many of them are denied education because either there is no school in their villages or they do not get any facilities to attend them. In order to have a greater coverage on the scheduled castes areas it may be necessary to launch increasingly expanding programmes so that most of the villages should be covered by at least a primary school. This paper is an attempt to study the school education status in the scheduled caste communities in India. The study also focused on some education related parameters and highlights the important issues. The data is analysed statistically on some important indicators and parameters.

Introduction it is a State after consultation with the The term ‘Scheduled Caste’ is an Governor thereof, by public notification, expression standardised in the specify the castes, races or tribes or parts Constitution of India though nowhere of, or groups within castes, races, or tribes defined therein. The Article 341 of the which shall for the purposes of this Indian Constitution declares that the Constitution be deemed to be scheduled President of India “may with respect to castes in relation to that State or Union any State or Union Territories, and where Territory as the case may be.” It is further

* Assistant Professor, DESDP, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi -110 016. **Research scholar, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur-440 010 34 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 stated in Article 366(24)2 that, embodied in the Government of India Act “Parliament may by law include in or of 1935. While the castes were listed exclude from the list of scheduled castes systematically in the 1931 census of India, specified in a notification any caste, race, the Scheduled Castes (SC) was applied to or tribes”. Thus scheduled castes may these castes for the first time in the be defined as those groups which are Government of India Act of 1935. Until then named in the Scheduled Castes Order they were known as untouchables, of the Government of India, in force from depressed classes or exterior castes. Then time to time. The Scheduled Caste Order the Government of India published a list is an order containing a schedule of of scheduled castes under the castes entitled to benefit from the various Government of India (Scheduled Castes) special arrangements exclusively Order, 1936 (Kamble 1982). earmarked for them. In accordance with During the British rule in India, the the provision of the Constitution, the British Government’s programme of Scheduled Castes Order was education and social reform, much more promulgated in August 1950. It was than the work of missionaries that paved amended in 1956 (Santhakumari 1982). the way for the mitigation of their social The scheduled castes were the former misery. Their educational system untouchable castes of Hinduism. Besides created a new generation of intellectuals the four traditional castes, there was and reformers who were imbibed with another group of people even during the liberalistics ideas. The founding of the early days of chaturvarya, who came to Brahma Samaj and Arya Samaj and the be described as untouchables because teachings of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, they were of darker skin and were Kesav Chandra Sen, Shri Ram Krishna, engaged in unclean occupations Swami Vivekanand, all had one (Santhakumari 1982). These castes were common aim – to do away with the evils systematically listed in the 1931 census of caste and to raise the status of the lower caste communities. The Indian of India by British Government. These National Congress which crystallised untouchables’ castes in India were the social thinking of the time officially officially defined as depressed castes in took up the work of uplifting the 1932. Mahatma Gandhi named them depressed classes on a national scale Harijan where Hari means God, Jan (Santhakumari 1982). means people and thus Harijan means people of God. But there was a wild cry, Share of Scheduled Castes Population agitation and a strong opposition to the The population of the scheduled castes Bill using the word Harijan in the in India is 166.6 million as per census Bombay Legislative Assembly. It was duly 2001 and accounts for 16.67 per cent of replaced by the term scheduled castes the total population of the country. There in 1938 and it continues to be used as are 49.6 million scheduled castes scheduled castes in government records children as per 2001 census, out of the and circulars even today (Kamble 1982). total child population of about 35.6 The expression scheduled castes was million in the age group of 6-14 years in first coined by the Simon Commission and the country. The scheduled castes School Education of Scheduled Castes... 35 population in India is quite unevenly Islands and Lakshadweep or less distributed in the country. Some parts population, for example, Arunachal of the country have high scheduled caste Pradesh, Goa, Meghalaya, and Mizoram concentration while in other areas the (Census of India 2001). There is great scheduled castes communities form only variation in the style of living and level a small portion of the total population. of development of the different scheduled There is hardly any schedule caste castes communities in India. There are community in states/ union territories scheduled caste groups, which are still like Nagaland, Andaman and Nikobar at the food gathering stage.

Table 1 Total and Scheduled Castes Population in India (1961–2001) Decadal Variation and Sex Ratio Decadal Variation Sex Ratio Census Total Scheduled Total Scheduled Year Population Castes Population Caste 1961 —— 941 957 1971 24.8 24.02 930 935 1981 24.66 30.93 934 932 1991 23.85 31.95 927 922 2001 21.54 20.56 933 936 Source: Census of India 2001.

The population of the scheduled case of the schedule castes population castes has been growing at a faster rate in India. The scheduled castes population than the general population in India over in India grew by 24.02 per cent during the last five decades. All the last four 1961-71 and by as high as 30.93 per cent census enumerations recorded a higher in the subsequent decade. In the next rate of growth in the schedule caste two decades the growth rate showed a population in India (Table 1). While the downward trend. It was a bit sharp rate of growth was 24.02 and 24.80 per during 1991-2001, growth rate of cent for the scheduled castes and general scheduled castes population dropped population respectively in 1971, the from 31.95 in 1991 to 20.56 in 2001. growth rate was 20.56 for the schedule Higher growth rate of the schedule caste caste population and 21.54 for the population probably reflects the relative general population in 2001. Another backwardness of the schedule castes interesting observation is that while communities in India. there has been consistent decrease in Another interesting observation the growth rate of the general population, about the scheduled castes population growth rate has been fluctuating in the in India is that sex ratio (the number of 36 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 females per 1000 males in the strategy took note of the fact that an population) has consistently been higher integrated approach to the scheduled for the scheduled castes population castes problems was necessary in terms compared to the general population of their geographic and demographic during the last five census decades concentration. (Table 1). In 1961, sex ratio was 941 and Education is the key to social 957 for the general and scheduled caste progress and development. It constitutes population respectively. In 1971 sex ratio the major factor in social mobility. was as high as 935 for the scheduled Education enables members of society to castes population while it was only 930 play new roles enjoyed by for the general population. In the last industrialisation. The Government of census (2001) sex ratio in the scheduled India and the State government have castes population was 936, which is realised the crucial role which education higher than the country’s sex ratio, 933. can play in the social progress. They Thus, on the whole the sex ratio of the have, therefore, used education as the scheduled castes population shows prime mover in the welfare policies and better situation in the matter of gender programmes intended for the scheduled equality. However, it may be noted that castes. They have also realised that scheduled castes population too has without special facilities the scheduled shown a downward trend in the matter castes communities would not be able to of sex ratio during the last three census avail themselves of the educational enumerations. opportunities offered to them. Accordingly, the scheduled castes are Educational Progress of the given complete exemption from the Scheduled Castes Population payment of tuition fees. They are also One of the challenges faced by India since given a lump sum grant for their the independence is the mainstreaming educational accessories, stipends, of the socially excluded groups like the scholarships, incentive schemes etc. The scheduled castes. These social groups governments, therefore, are having have been victims of multiple forms of various schemes for the promotion of oppression and deprivation. The scheduled caste education. Generally, backwardness of the scheduled castes the schemes provide scholarships, free in India has several dimensions – textbooks, free/subsidised transports, ecological, economic and educational. free boarding and lodging facilities, and The Constitution of India provides for a mid-day meals. Some primary and comprehensive framework for the socio- secondary schools have been opened in economic development of the scheduled the scheduled caste areas. castes and for preventing their Despite the special educational exploitation by the other groups in the schemes and the efforts made during country. A detailed and comprehensive the last six decades after the review of the scheduled castes problem independence for the development of was taken on the eve of the Five Year the scheduled caste people, the Plan and the scheduled caste sub-plan scheduled caste have continued to School Education of Scheduled Castes... 37 remain backward in access to and total population in the country is 64.80 pursuit of education. They lag behind and the female literacy 53.70 (Census the general population in educational of India 2001). However, it may be noted achievement at various stages of with some level of gratification that the school/higher education. As per 2001 literacy rate of the scheduled caste census the literacy rate among the population has consistently improved scheduled caste is 54.69 and female during the last five decades. Literacy literacy rate of the scheduled caste rate of scheduled caste population, population is as low as 41.90 (Table 2). which is 54.69 as per 2001 census, was In comparison the literacy rate of the as low as 10.27 in 1961.

Table 2 Literacy Rates of Scheduled Castes Population By Sex and Urban/Rural Areas

Census Year Areas Male Female Total Rural 15.06 2.52 8.89 1961 Urban 32.21 10.04 21.81 Total 16.96 3.29 10.27 Rural 63.66 37.84 51.16 2001 Urban 77.93 57.49 68.12 Total 66.64 41.90 54.69 Source: Government of India: 2007

There is conspicuous gender population the rate was 21.81 per cent. inequality in the schedule caste literacy Literacy rate was as low as 2.52 in the rate (Table 2). As per 2001 census data case of rural females in the schedule female literacy rate is 41.90 compared caste population in 1961. Although the to the male literacy rate of 66.64. But a literacy rate rose substantially in 2001, positive trend regarding gender and the rural-urban difference continues to literacy is that there has been notable exist. According to the 2001 census, improvement in the literacy rate of the rural literacy rate among the schedule females. Female literacy rose from 3.29 caste population is 51.16 per cent, in 1961 to 41.90 in 2001. whereas it is 68.12 per cent for the urban Within the scheduled caste areas. population there is great disparity in the Enrolment of Scheduled Castes literacy rate of the rural and urban areas. Population In the year 1961, literacy rate of the rural Two aspects of enrolment are considered population was 8.89 per cent (15.06 per in discussing school enrolment – the cent male and 2.52 per cent female), number of children enrolled and the whereas in the case of the urban gross enrolment ratio (GER). The first is 38 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 the absolute number of students enrolled of the students (Singh and Raju 2006). in a given class or stage of school GER refers to the enrolment in a class or education (viz., primary, upper primary, stage of schooling as percentage of total secondary and higher secondary level) children of the respective age group in of school education, regardless of the age the population. Table 3 Enrolment of Scheduled Castes Students in School During 1991-2004 (Figures in ‘000’) Primary Upper Primary Sec./Higher Secondary Year (Class I – V) (Class VI – VIII) (Class IX – XII) Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1991 9709 6328 16037 3137 1556 4693 1878 703 2581 2000 12059 9136 21195 4066 2628 6694 2418 1394 3812 2004* 13762 10995 24757 5100 3597 8697 3228 1990 5218 *Provisional Source: Government of India: 2007

Data on the enrolment of the Gross Enrolment Ratio scheduled-caste students during the The measure of GER is the percentage of period of 1991-2004 (Table 3) shows the children of the relevant age group that the number of students increased enrolled in school. The data on the GER from 16037 thousand in 1991 to 24754 of scheduled caste children in school thousand at the primary stage, from (Table 4) too show that there has been 4693 thousand to 8697 thousand at the good progress in the matter of enrolment upper primary stage, and from 2581 of the scheduled caste students in thousand to 5218 thousand at the schools. In 1991-92 the GER of scheduled secondary and higher secondary stage caste children was 102.9 at the primary during the period of 1991-2004. The school, 52.9 at the upper primary level increase in enrolment during this period and 84.8 at the elementary level. In the has been by 64.78 per cent, 53.96 per year 2004-05 it rose to 115.3 and 70.2 cent and 49.46 per cent in primary, at the primary and upper primary levels upper primary and secondary/higher of schooling respectively. The GER above secondary stages of school education 100 indicates the presence of largely respectively. The pattern of increase in over-aged (and rarely under-aged) school enrolment of the scheduled castes children in respective stage of schooling. during the period of 1991-2004 indicates Late enrolment in school and stagnation not only larger enrolment but also generally account for the presence of greater retention of the scheduled caste over-aged children in school. Presence students at the higher stages of of over-aged children, therefore, is in schooling. This is a positive trend as far some way an indication of the relative as education of the scheduled castes is educational backwardness of the concerned. scheduled caste population. School Education of Scheduled Castes... 39

Table 4 Gross Enrolment Ratio of Scheduled Castes Students (1991-92 – 2004-05) Primary Upper Primary Elementary Year (Class I – V) (Class VI – VIII) (Class I – VIII) Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1991-92 121.4 83.5 102.9 68.9 36.0 52.9 102.3 66.3 84.8 2000-01* 107.3 85.8 96.8 76.2 53.3 65.3 97.3 75.5 86.8 2004-05* 123.3 106.6 115.3 77.9 61.5 70.2 106.5 90.3 98.8 * Provisional Source: Government of India: 2007

Gender Inequality difference in the percentage of boys and The unequal participation of females in girls in school education is gradually education as compared to their male decreasing. During 1991-2004 enrolment counterpart has been one of the striking of the scheduled-castes girls increased inequalities that can be seen in education from 6328 thousand to 10995 thousand (Yadav 2007). Gender inequality is visible at the primary stage, from 1556 thousand in the schooling of the scheduled caste to 3597 thousand at the upper primary children also at the different stages stage and from 703 thousand to 1990 (Table 5). However, the situation has been thousand at the secondary/higher improving over the years, in so far as the secondary stage.

Table 5 School Enrolment of Scheduled Castes During 1991-2004 Percentage of Boys and Girls Primary Upper Primary Sec./Higher Secondary Year (Class I – V) (Class VI – VIII) (Class IX – XII) Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1991 60.54 39.46 100.00 66.84 33.16 100.00 72.76 27.24 100.00 (9709) (6328) (16037) (3137) (1556) (4693) (1878) (703) (2581) 2004* 55.59 44.41 100.00 58.64 41.36 100.00 61.86 38.14 100.00 (13762) (10995) (24757) (5100) (3597) (8697) (3228) (1990) (5218) * Provisional Parenthesis figures show the enrolment in thousand Source: Government of India: 2007

While in 1991 girls constituted secondary/higher secondary), in 2004 39.46, 33.16 and 27.24 per cent of the the respective figures rose to 44.41, students in the three levels of schooling 41.36 and 38.14. In other words, the (primary, upper primary and relative growth in school enrolment has 40 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 been higher for girls than for boys. This girls in school enrolment during the last is again another positive trend towards five decades. In 1950-51 the number of social development in the case of the girls was 39, 18 and 16 for 100 boys in the scheduled castes. primary, upper primary and secondary/ Another index to measure gender higher secondary stages of school equality in schooling is the number of girls education respectively. In 2004-05, the per 100 boys enrolled in school. Data in corresponding figures were 88, 80 and 71 this matter (Table 6) show that, although at the three stages of schooling gender disparity in the schooling of respectively. This again indicates a scheduled caste children still exists, there steady positive trend towards gender has been substantial improvement in equality in the schooling of scheduled narrowing down the gap between boys and castes children.

Table 6 Number of Girls per Hundred Boys Enrolled in School: 1950-51 to 2004-05 Year Primary Upper Primary Secondary/Higher Secondary (Class I – V) (Class VI – VIII) (Class IX – XII) 1950-51 39 18 16 1960-61 48 32 23 1970-71 60 41 35 1980-81 63 49 44 1990-91 71 58 50 2000-01 78 69 63 2004-05* 88 80 71 *Provisional Source: Government of India: 2007

Gender Parity Index (GPI) is yet another shows a value of ONE at a level of measure of gender equality in education. education, opportunities for and access to GPI is the ratio of girls’ GER to boys’ GER education are available equally to both girls at a given level of education. When the GPI and boys at that level of education.

Table 7 Gender Parity Index of Scheduled Castes at School Education In 1991-92 and 2004-05 Year Primary Upper Primary Primary and Upper Primary (Class I – V) (Class VI – VIII) (Class I – VIII) 1990-91 0.69 0.52 0.63 2004-05* 0.86 0.79 0.85 * Provisional Source: Government of India: 2007 School Education of Scheduled Castes... 41

Two observations may be made on Dropout Ratio the data on GPI presented in table 7. A school dropout is a student who leaves First, the GPI is much higher at the school before the completion of the school primary level of school education than stage or at some intermediate or non- at the upper primary level. This is the terminal point of a given stage of school situation in the case of the data in both education (Singh and Raju 2006). Thus 1991-92 and 2004-05. In 1991-92 the the term ‘dropout’ may mean (i) one who GPI was 0.69 and 0.52 at the primary has discontinued education before and upper primary stage respectively, completing the last stage of education for while it was 0.86 and 0.79 at the which he/she was enrolled or (ii) one who respective stages of schooling for these has discontinued education before two periods. This finding probably attaining a specific stage in education indicates a higher rate of drop out (like primary or secondary stage among the girls after the primary stage of schooling). of education compared to the boys. The High dropout rate in school second observation is that there has education is attributed to poor socio- been a definite rise in the GPI from economic situation of the family. This is 1991-92 to 2004-05 at both the levels particularly true in the case of girls as of school education. The increase has poor families with limited resources been from 0.69 to 0.86 at the level of would rather invest money in their sons’ primary school and from 0.52 to 0.79 at education and engage the girls in tasks the upper primary stage of school such as domestic chores. Although education. If both the primary and upper primary education is technically free, primary stages of education are taken there are costs other than fees (such as together the rise in the GPI has been for books and other learning materials, from 0.63 in 1991-92 to 0.85 in and uniform etc.) that impose financial 2004-05. The finding is yet another burden on low income families. Reasons indication of the positive trend towards for dropout from school, other than gender equality in the case of the poverty, include inaccessibility of school, scheduled caste, although inequality inadequate school infrastructure and still persists. low emphasis on education.

Table 8 Dropout Rate of Scheduled Castes Students:1990-91 and 2004-05 Classes I–V Classes I-VIII Classes I-X Year Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

1990-91 46.3 54.0 49.4 64.3 73.2 67.8 74.3 83.4 77.7

2004-05* 32.7 36.1 34.2 55.2 60.0 57.3 69.1 74.2 71.3 *Provisional Source: Government of India: 2007 42 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

The data on dropout among the dropout rate in 1990-91 was 49.4, 67.8 scheduled caste school students (Table 8) and 77.7 at the end of the primary (Class show that majority of them do not V), upper primary (Class VIII) and complete school education. If one takes secondary (Class X) respectively, the Class X as the terminal point of schooling corresponding figures for the year 2004- only a minority of the scheduled castes 05 were 34.2, 57.3 and 71.3. The students complete schooling. When one improvement is applicable equally to boys considers primary education as the and girls. The trend is positive, but in terminal point, 34.2 per cent of the absolute terms the rate of dropout is still students enrolled in Class I dropout by high to be of concern. One may attribute the end of the primary stage (or Class V), this positive trend to the educational and 57.3 per cent by the end of the upper initiatives taken by the government and primary stage (Class VIII). non-government agencies involved in the If one considers Classes V, VIII and education of the scheduled caste, in X as distinct terminal stages of school particular the special government education, the rate of dropout is lowest schemes and programmes, such as at the primary stage, at the end of which scholarships, special grants, mid-day 34.2 per cent of students enrolled in class meal, hostel facilities, etc. I dropout. By the end of Class VIII Conclusion another 57.3 per cent of them dropout and at the third stage (Class X) yet Scheduled castes constitute 16.67 per another 71.3 per cent dropout. cent of the population in India. But in Another observation on the data on terms of absolute number they form a dropout rate of the scheduled castes sizeable section – 166.6 million. By this students is on the gender disparity. As very fact any issue about them would be can be expected, dropout rate on the a social concern of the country as a whole is higher among the girls. But the whole. Although scheduled castes difference is not alarmingly higher. At population has a better record in the the primary stage of schooling it is more matter of sex ratio compared to the or less same as per the data of 2004-05 – general population in India, they remain 32.7 for boys and 36.1 for girls backward in many regards. One of the (marginally lower for girls). At the upper areas of social concern in regard to the primary stage the dropout rate is 55.2 scheduled castes is that of education. and 60.0 for boys and girls respectively. They continue to lag behind the rest of Gender difference in the dropout rate is the population in the matter of access to similar at the secondary stage too – 69.1 education and educational pursuit. for boys and 74.2 for girls. Thus, the data Enrolment of scheduled caste children here indicate that the problem of dropout in primary education has yet to reach is equally serious for both boys and girls. the desired level. There is the additional Comparison between the data of problem of dropout among those who 1990-91 and 2004-05 (i.e. a gap of 15 mange to enter the school. There is also years) shows that the situation is the issue of gender disparity in the changing for the better. While the education of the scheduled castes. School Education of Scheduled Castes... 43

There are several programmes of in school will become a habit among the intervention for the educational scheduled castes population. development of the scheduled caste Notes population. However, the facilities provided under the various schemes do Article 341. (1) The President [may not seem to be adequate to cater to the with respect to any State [or Union special needs of scheduled castes territory], and where it is a State, education. As a result many of the after consultation with the Governor scheduled caste children do not get the thereof,] by public notification, opportunity to attend the school. There specify the castes, races or tribes or have to be different plans, programmes parts of or groups within castes, races and strategies to reach education to every or tribes which shall for the purposes nook and corner of the scheduled castes of this Constitution be deemed to be areas in order to ensure that every Scheduled Castes in relation to that scheduled castes child is enrolled in State [or Union territory, as the case may be] school and regularly attends the classes. The programmes of education have to be (2) Parliament may by law include in expanded to cover every scheduled castes or exclude from the list of Scheduled village with at least a primary school. Castes specified in a notification The school and its infrastructure should issued under clause (1) any caste, be good enough to attract the scheduled race or tribe or part of or group within castes children and activities in the any caste, race or tribe, but save as school should be interesting and suitable aforesaid a notification issued under to the learning capabilities of the the said clause shall not be varied scheduled castes children so as to retain by any subsequent notification them in the school until they complete (Government of India 2008). the schooling. If careful attention and Article 366 (24):”Scheduled Castes” planning are done in the provision of means such castes, races or tribes school infrastructure facilities and the or parts of or groups within such teaching-learning processes within the castes, races or tribes as are deemed school, enrolment, retention and under article 341 to Constitution achievement of scheduled caste children (Government of India 2008).

REFERENCES

CENSUS OF INDIA .2001. India at a Glance – Number of Literates and Literacy Rate, http://www.censusindia.gov.in (sited in December 2008). GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 2007. Selected Education Statistics 2004-2005, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Higher Education, Statistics Division, New Delhi. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 2008. The Constitution of India (As modified up to 1st December, 2007), Ministry of Law and Justice, URL:http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29 july08.pdf (cited in May 2009). 44 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

KAMBLE N.D.1982. The Scheduled Castes, Ashish Publication House, New Delhi, Ch.3, p. 30-31 SANTHAKUMARI, R. 1982, Scheduled Caste and Welfare Measures, Classical Publishing Company, New Delhi, p. 2-3. SINGH, V. P. and B. M. K. R AJU. 2006. Manual on Statistics and Indicators of School Education, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi. YADAV, M., 2007. Empowerment and Upliftment of ST Girls through Action Research, Training Programme Material, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi. Aggression in Children : Reasons and Remedies

RANJANA BHATIA*

Abstract

Children are the creation of God. They are born with all happiness and spread lot of joy all around. Some turn out to be very happy, satisfied, calm and balanced youngsters while others become hostile and problem children. As hostile youngsters, they cause lot of harm to themselves and to those around them. There are definite reasons for their hostile behaviour which is quite often due to the environmental reasons. Parents, teachers and other factors are included in the environment. Studies have shown that environment plays a major role in acquiring the aggressive traits by the children. Awareness about the causes of aggression and the ways to check as well as control will help in preventing, minimising as well as controlling aggression in children. “Children are sick of being called ‘the future’. They want to enjoy their childhoods, free of violence, now”. - Paulo Pinheiro, 2007, UN General Assembly

Aggression in Children What do temper tantrums, teasing, Introduction rage, hate, and revenge have in common? In psychology, as well as in other social All may stem from emotional pain and behavioural sciences, aggression inflicted by parents or others, said Joan (also called combativeness) refers to Arehart-Treichel, a child psychiatrist. behaviour between members of the same Aggression in children and its species that is intended to cause pain causes and effects have always been a or harm. According to Maslow (1962), matter of great concern with the policy aggression is not an essential part of makers of our country. Their concern human nature. It is a reaction to with regard to the protection of the child, circumstances in which essential prevention and prohibition of all such requirements of our nature are activities that may cause mental and unfulfilled. physical harm to the child is evident from

*Professor and Principal, Amity Institute of Education, Saket, New Delhi-110017. 46 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 the fact that they have suggested various they lash out in anger by using coarse steps to ensure the protection of the language, creating commotion, throwing child. In 1999, the Committee on or kicking objects. At times their Economic, Social and Cultural Rights aggression crosses all limits and appears adopted a General Comment on ‘The alarming and out of control. The parents, Right to Education’ which stated that teachers and others around them find it corporal punishment is inconsistent with difficult to understand this behaviour the fundamental guiding principle of and control it. Aggressiveness is a result international human rights. of narcissistic anger, of the desegregation Article 21 of the Constitution of the self, which leads to its protecting the ‘Right to Life’ is the first fragmentation (Kohut, 1996). Children point of reference. The Child Rights who experience a hostile family Charter 2003 of India specifically states environment are afraid, feel isolated, “All children have a right to be protected threatened and unable to defend against neglect, maltreatment, injury, themselves. and trafficking, sexual and physical This extreme frustration leads to abuse of all kinds, corporal punishment, deep emotional scars and these children torture, exploitation, violence and do not develop the ability to contain degrading treatment.” Prohibition and themselves. At the same time the anger elimination of corporal punishment in and pain caused by these scars continue schools is identified as a priority in the to act, and anxiety underlies their 2005 National Plan of Action for Children behaviour. In attempting to adapt to this and the report on child protection in the hostile environment, children may, National Plan for 2007-2012. The National Policy on Education (1986, amongst other strategies, turn to modified 1992) states that ‘corporal aggressive behaviour. A number of punishment will be firmly excluded from studies have been carried out all over the the educational systems.’ world to understand the reasons behind Two out of three school going children the aggressive behaviour of children. It in India are physically abused says the has been established by various research national report on child abuse by the studies that children who are physically Ministry of Women and Child Development disciplined by hitting or any other in 2007. The crime is unchecked in every corporal punishment are more anxious single district of the country. In spite of and aggressive as compared to those who such recommen-dations and precautions are disciplined by other approaches. for the parents, schools, teachers and law In a research finding, it was observed makers, the children especially of the that the mothers of Thailand hardly use present times are subjected to hostile physical methods to discipline their treatment and are very aggressive. With children and this trend was also seen in this aggressive behaviour, they inflict mothers from China, The Philippines, harm upon themselves as well as harm Italy and even in India. The mothers in all those who are around them. Kenya however use physical means to Their aggression is not without any discipline their children. In countries reason. All children have moments when where physical discipline was more Aggression in Children : Reasons and Remedies 47 common and culturally accepted, other fields. This kind of aggression children who were physically disciplined should be cultivated by parents as were less aggressive and less anxious well as teachers. than children who were physically • the second kind of aggression is disciplined in countries where physical related to the urge of obtaining food. discipline was rarely used. In all This type of aggression is also inborn. countries, however, higher use of • the third type of aggression is related physical discipline was associated with to displeasure. The temper tantrum, more child aggression and anxiety. getting into rage etc. falls in this In Thailand, a country where category. peace-promoting Buddhist teachings • the fourth kind of aggression is are predominant, mothers rarely spank pleasure related aggression. Teasing their children or use other forms of and taunting come under this. The physical discipline. In Kenya, on the third and fourth type of aggressions other hand, where use of physical are not inborn. Both are forms of discipline is common and considered hostile aggression and are activated normal, mothers spank or engage in by emotional pain. similar disciplinary tactics. In a study What are the causes of Aggression? conducted in Kenya in 2003, 57 per cent of grandmothers reported Children at times are not able to express caning, pinching, slapping, tying with themselves because of poor language a rope, hitting, beating, and kicking as skills as compared to the adults. This forms of discipline they had used. helplessness and inability of expressing Whether a violent video game or their feelings verbally, at times force a corporal punishment, children learn child to act aggressively. aggressive attitudes and act them out In a study conducted by UNESCO in when they are exposed to violence. 1996-97 of 5000 students of 12 years of They don’t learn peaceful ways of age across 23 nations, it was found that solving conflict when they are exposed the children indulged in more than three to violence. hours of TV viewing. This, it was observed was next only to school Forms of Aggression in Children attendance in terms of time spent on any Children with tendencies of aggressive activity. The study found that children behaviour have a mindset of turn to violence to solve problems as they intentionally hurting others. Aggression watch lot of TV programmes related to in them can manifest in a number of violence. ways including hitting, kicking, spitting, In another study carried by Centre biting, pushing and throwing objects. for Advocacy and Research (CFAR) in Aggression in children is of four types: 2001, the impact of media violence was • non destructive aggression – It is an studied on children between the age aggression which is inborn. This type group of 6 to 12 years. The study was of aggression sets in drive in children carried out in five Indian cities (Delhi, to excel in academics, sports and any Lucknow, Calcutta, Hyderabad and 48 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Ahmedabad). The study reported high 3. There are other causes of aggression aggression in learnt behaviour. too. Some children act aggressively Children in the United States spend because that is what they have three to four hours each day watching TV learnt. They have seen parental which has a great influence on their argument, divorce and work future behaviour. More than 60 per cent schedule of parents. As a result of of these programmes contain some the family environment, they have violence. About 40 per cent of these been treated aggressively. This way programmes have heavy violence (Rowell they learn aggression. Huesmann, 2006). There are other factors 4. In addition, social problems, also that contribute to the problem of separation, limited communication aggression in children. They are: skills, stress, abuse, temperament, 1. Video Games: - Video games have heredity factors, substance abuse, greatly influenced the children these stressful family life, brain damage, days. Children are spending lot of imitation of aggressive behaviour, time playing video games and most unfulfilled needs and desires, envy, of the video games have violence. desperation etc. can be some other Video games were considered to be causes of aggression in children. more harmful in increasing Warning Signs of Aggression in aggression than violent movies or Children: television shows due to their The warning signs of aggression can interactive and engrossing nature of always be seen in children. Higher the time (Karen E. Dill and Craig A. signs of aggression more will be the Anderson, Sept 2007). threat. An aggressive child can cause 2. Corporal Punishment at School.- Child harm to himself and to those around is the father of man. He merely him. Some of these warning signs are: reflects what he has been accorded. • Uncontrollable outbursts of anger at When the teacher at school uses home or outside home. corporal punishment on him for • Taking weapons like knife, scissors etc. small offences, that is more common to school without any requirement. these days, he reciprocates the same. • Suicide attempts or threats of suicide The child, during his adult days, if • History of family in attempting not given something he is duly suicide or violent behaviour entitled to, all that he can actually • Selection of violent movies think of is how he was flogged by the • Always blaming others and destiny teacher and was made to do for misfortune something, and it is religiously • Morbidity in conversation followed by the child. It kindles • Any mental illness violence when he is not given his due. • Bullying, beating or indulging in The attitude of might is right some kind of violence automatically gets impressed on him. • Difficulty in making friends (Charles Karelis, 2009), • Overprotection of parents or family Aggression in Children : Reasons and Remedies 49

How to handle Aggressive Children • avoiding corporal punishment for an According to social psychology, violence aggressive child as it can become is a learned behaviour. Criminals or counter productive. violent children are not born with these • keeping a watchful eye on the traits. They observe aggression around company your child keeps them and imitate it. The media plays a • controlling your own anger so that significant role in assimilation of hostile they don’t imitate you. traits and ideas in children. These • providing them suitable reading factors contribute in aggression. Some material with stories on the ill effects suggestions to handle the children with of anger. aggression are: • encouraging the child to talk about • constant and consistent checking of the problems with you. The more you unwanted behaviour is the basic talk to a child, the easier they will requirement for managing or find it to establish an equation with reducing aggression in children. you. Soon they will use their own • the surroundings should provide vocabulary and be able to calm and peaceful ambience to communicate their frustrations and children. This will help reduce the feelings verbally. stress level in them. • giving them positive vibrations instead of blaming, punishing and • caring and patiently dealing with publicly ridiculing them, them will also help. Giving quality time to children can make them less • be cautious of your own reaction to aggressive. situations. If you are meeting every situation with aggression, you are • removing stimulants that trigger passing it on to the child. violent reactions or behaviour. • praising good behaviour of the child • Providing them with ways means and as that is very important in opportunities like sports, games to correcting the aggressive tendencies utilise excess energy. of the child. • taking note as well as keeping a watchful eye on aggressive Conclusion tendencies of the child. No matter what we do, children do show • firm but gentle approach works best aggression at times. When this happens, with an aggressive child. we need to keep a close eye on children and reach out to them before such a • selection of right type of TV flashpoint may arise. At times like these, programmes for children. children need to be guided as calmly as • introducing them to yoga and possible.The hostile aggression in meditation. children is greatly influenced by the way • letting the child know that you want their parents and teachers treat them. him/her and you care for him/her. Physical, emotional and any other type of • acknowledging their feelings within unpleasant treatment meted out to these limits. children gets reflected in their behaviour. 50 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Emotional scars are left on the mind should not be firm .We have to be role of the child by the parents and teachers models as well as watchful gardeners. at times unknowingly and unintentionally Children should be led into the right which finally leads to hostile aggression. paths, not by harshness, but by To avoid the hostile aggressive influence. Children have never been tendencies in children, it is important very good at listening to their elders, to remember that children also have but they have never failed to emulate feelings. This does not mean that we them.

REFERENCES

DILL, KAREN E. and C.A. ANDERSON. May 2000. “Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior in the Laboratory and in Life”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 78, No. 4. CHARLES KARELIS. 2009. Psychological Effects of Poverty in Children”, Journal of Health and Social Behavior. Colgate University. HUESMANN, L. R. (ed.). 1994. Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives. New York: Springer. KOHUT, H. 1974. The Kohut Seminars on Self Psychology and Psychotherapy with Adolescent and Young Adults. New York: Norton. KOHUT H. 1996. Psychology of Self, Allen M. Siegel :Routledge. MASLOW , ABRAHAM H.1962. “Towards a Psychology of Being”, Van Nostrand: Princeton. AREHART-TREICHEL , JOAN. April 2008. “Aggression Comes in Four Types. Psychoanalysis Explains” Psychiatric News 43(7). URL: http://pn.psychia tryonline.org/content/43/ 7/9.1.full, (Accessed 6 December 2010) ———June 2001. “Psychiatrist Helps Court Define ‘Evil Behaviour”, Psychiatric News, 36(12), Accessed 6 December 2010, URL: http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/36/ 12/9.1.full “Media Violence Research: Learning-based Media Effects Theories”, Accesssed 6 December 2010, URL:http://huesmann.socialpsychology.org/. “Psychological Effects of Poverty in Children”, Accessed 6 December 2010, URL: http: / www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l310-Psychological-Effects-Of-Poverty-In- Children.html “Ereotypes the Effects of Media Stereotypes”, Accessed 6 December 2010 vhttp:// dwtsinfo.com/index. “Aggression, Information about Aggression - FAQS.ORG”, Accessed 6 December 2010, URL: http://www.faqs.org/health/topics/18/Aggression.html HUESMANN, ROWELL L. and LEONARD ERON. D. June 1989. “Individual differences and the trait of aggression”, European Journal of Personality, 3(2):95–106, Accessed 6 December 2010, URL: www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112465830/abstract. SHIN, GRACE. “Video Games: A Cause of Violence and Aggression”, Accessed 6 December 2010, URL:http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l310-Psychological-Effects-Of- Poverty-In-Children.html Cooperative Learning and Social Development in Elementary Classroom

SUNITAH SUSAN JOSE * P.J. POULOSE**

Abstract

Cooperative learning has sufficient scope for accommodating social goals, goals that could enrich the beauty of human solidarity via celebration of multidimensional perspectives. Our society considers the elementary class as a laboratory. Use of cooperative learning in elementary classrooms helps in achieving the overall goals of education because they incorporate intellectual, social and psychological aspects of education and enhance social development. This article is an introduction to cooperative learning and its impact in social development. This also discusses the reason for using cooperative learning strategies in elementary classes.

What is Cooperative Learning? students will emerge and develop Cooperative learning is the instructional (Kagan, 1992). use of small groups so that students In cooperative learning situations, work together to maximise their own learning is considered as a unified, and each others learning. In other words, personal and social experience that it is a teaching strategy, which allows best happens in a web of relationships. students to work together in groups All group members benefit from each with individuals of various talents, other’s efforts, recognising that all group abilities and background to accomplish members sharing the responsibility of a shared goal. It is based on the outcome, knowing that one’s philosophy of education that assumes performance is mutually caused by that the aim of education is to provide oneself and others, and feeling proud conditions in which the natural curiosity, and jointly celebrating the group’s intelligence and expressiveness of achievement.

* Lecturer in Education, St. Joseph’s Training College, Mannanam, Kottayam, Kerala-686 561 **Former Special Officer, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala 52 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Cooperative learning explicitly builds while other emphasises cooperative goals cooperation skills by assigning roles to and minimise team competition. Johnson team members and establishing norms and Johnson have analysed the research for conflict resolution. The proponents of and argue that the evidence favours cooperative learning believe that cooperative goal structure, but Slavin knowledge is constructed and argues that competition between teams continuously reconstructed by benefit learning. individuals and groups. Johnson and Johnson’s model emphasise the development of what they Models of Cooperative Learning call positive interdependence or In recent years there has been a great cooperation where collective action deal of development work on cooperative celebrates individual differences. learning and great progress has been Between 1898–1989, over 575 made in developing strategies that help experimental and 100 correlational students to work effectively together. The studies where conducted by a wide contributions of three teams led variety of researchers in different respectively by Roger and David decades with different age, subject areas Johnson, Robert Slavin and Shlomo and in different settings. One of the Sharan have been particularly notable, issues addressed by this research is the but the entire cooperative learning type of interaction pattern found within community has been active in cooperative, competitive and indi- exchanging information and techniques, vidualistic situations. A meta analysis of and conducting and analysing research. all studies (Johnson and Johnson, 1989) The result is a large number of effective found that the average person means for organising students to work cooperating performed at about 2/3 a together. These range from systems for standard deviation above the average teaching students to carry out simple person learning within a competitive or learning tasks in pairs to complex models individualistic situation. Positive for organising classes and even schools interdependence model was developed by in learning communities that strive to David Johnson and Roger Johnson educate themselves. which is highly versatile and Cooperative learning procedures comprehensive; it blends the goal of facilitate learning across all curriculum academic inquiry, social integration and areas and ages, improving self-esteem, social process learning. social skills and solidarity and academic Because schools socialise children to learning goals ranging from the assume adult roles and because acquisition of information and skill cooperation is so much a part of adult through the modes of inquiry of the life, one might expect that cooperative academic discipline. activity would be emphasised. However Cooperative learning models are this is far from true. Among the based on two principles, competition and prominent institutions of our society, the cooperation. Some developers organise schools are least characterised by teams to compete against one another cooperative activity. Students have long Cooperative Learning and Social Development... 53 experienced cooperative activity in Student Teams-Achievement- laboratory groups and project group, but Divisions is another popular method of these activities occupy a small portion cooperative learning which was of a student’s schooling. Most of the time developed by Slavin (1978). Like students work independently and they Jigsaw II, in STAD, individuals are are continually in competition with one evaluated based on their improvements another for grades, praise and over their own past performance. recognition (Slavin 1985). Individuals’ points are also combined to recognise teams. That is team Methods of Cooperative Learning recognition is based upon individuals Cooperative learning methods are improvement. Teams- Games- structured, systematic instructional Tournaments is another method, strategies capable of being used at any developed by Slavin (1991). Although it grade level and in most school subjects. considers positive interdependence, Some of the well-known methods of TGT’s evaluation system is more focused cooperative learning such as Cooperative upon posing individual accountability. Integrated Reading and Composition Cooperative learning is an (CIRC), Jigsaw II, Student- Teams- innovation, where it is easy to organise Achievement Divisions (STAD) and students into pairs and triads. And it gets Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT) are effects immediately. The combination of developed by Robert Slavin. Steven, social support and the increase in Madden, Slavin and Farnish (1987) have cognitive complexity caused by the social developed CIRC which is a interaction have mild but rapid effects comprehensive programme for teaching, on the learning of content and skills. In reading and writing language arts. In addition, partnership in learning this method, to enhance both positive provides a pleasant laboratory in which interdependence and individual to develop social skills and empathy for accountability, the evaluation of others. Off-task and disruptive students is based on improvements in behaviour diminish substantially. individual achievements that are Students feel good in cooperative settings calculated as a team score. Jigsaw II, and positive feelings toward self and developed by Slavin (1980b) is similar others are enhanced (Joyce and Weil to original Jigsaw in the sense that it 2005). too strongly advocates students to learn from one another. In addition to Constructivism and Cooperative group work evaluation as it is in the Learning original Jigsaw, Jigsaw II stresses on The National Curriculum Framework – individuals’ improvement evaluation. 2005, has talked in a great length about Even though its activities aim at bringing constructivist paradigm. It advocates the positive interdependence, the evaluation need to recognise the child as a natural system of this method mostly focuses and active learner, and knowledge as the upon individual accountability outcome of the child’s own activity. Thus, of students. the learning plans need to nurture and 54 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 build on his active and creative theory of Vygotsky (1978), the major capabilities. It suggests that the frame of theoretical frame work is that curriculum must enable children to find social interaction plays a fundamental their voices, nurture their talents and role in the development cognition. satisfy their curiosity to do things, to ask Significance of Cooperative questions and to pursue investigations, Learning in Elementary Classes sharing and integrating their experiences. Children learn from their total Constructivism views all of our experiences. In the classroom too, knowledge as ‘constructed’ because it learning is more than simply gathering does not reflect any external and memorising facts, and the child has transcendent realities, it is contingent many learning experiences which are on conventions human perception, and indirect and informal. The teacher is social experience. Constructivist model responsible for providing experiences of learning emphasises meaning- that will contribute to pupil growth. He making through active participation in assists the child to acquire the pattern socially, culturally, historically and of behaviour necessary for successful politically situated contexts. A crucial living in his society. element of active participation is Social contact is necessary for normal dialogue in shared experiences through development. The child develops through which situated cooperative activities are the stimulation which he receives from necessary to support the negotiation and other people. Peer groups are really the creation of meaning and understanding. distinct society of the child. This is the Jonassen (1990) supports collaborative area in which the child is able to make construction of knowledge through social the transition from his family role to the negotiation while summarising what he status of an adult. Belongingness is a refers to as the implementation of basic need which once more asserts itself constructivism for instructional design. within the peer relationship. Being in a One of the general principles of learning group, the child gains: that is derived from constructivism is; A more realistic concept of self. One learning is a social activity: our learning of the most significant values for the child is intimately associated with our in being a member of a group of equals connection with other human beings, lies in the fact that he has a chance to teachers, peers, family as well as casual find out more about what kind of person acquaintances. he really is through this experience. He Social constructivists view learning has an opportunity to build a more as a social process. It does not take place realistic concept of himself as a person only within an individual, nor it is a apart from his membership in a family. passive development of behaviour that Self confidence. Besides seeing are shaped by external forces. himself in a more realistic light, the child Meaningful learning occurs when can gain self-confidence from membership individuals are engaged in social in a group of his own age. The child feels activities. In the Social Development himself like others in the pre-primary Cooperative Learning and Social Development... 55 school. He can identify with them with tradition that is beginning to fade in less strain than when he tries to identify favour of students working together in with adults. He finds strength and safety groups (Johnson, Johnson and Holubec, through group membership. This feeling 1993). It is true that a revision of of belongingness in a group has special curriculum and pedagogy learning value for the less confident child. towards cooperative ways of learning is When a child first comes to a on the top priority agenda for structured educational setting, one of the implementation at all levels. teacher’s goals is to help the child move Cooperative Learning and Social from being aware only of himself or Development herself to becoming aware of other children. At this stage of learning, Cooperative learning has social benefits teachers are concerned that children as well as academic. One of the elements learn to share, take turns and show of cooperative learning is the caring behaviours for others. Structured development of social skills. Children activities which promote cooperation can learn to take risk and to contribute for a help to bring about these outcomes. One common good. They are able to see points of the most consistent research findings of view of others than their own. Such is that cooperative learning activities benefits contribute to the overall improve children’s relationships with satisfaction of learning and schooling. peers, especially those of different social Students work with classmates who have and ethnic groups. different learning skills, cultural When children begin to work on background, attitudes and personalities. readiness tasks, cooperation can provide Social interaction improves commu- opportunities for sharing ideas, learning nication skills that become a necessity how others think and react to problems to function in society. and practicing oral language skills in Young children are curious about small groups. Cooperative learning in each other. The child’s first response to early childhood can promote positive other children is to look them over, as feelings toward school, teachers, and though he is examining animate objects peers. These feelings build an important in his environment. Children’s base for further success in school. motivation to work in elementary school Cooperation is working together to depend on the extent to which their basic accomplish shared goals. Within psychological needs are met. For a cooperative activities individuals seek healthy physical intellectual, emotional outcomes that are beneficial to and social development the child needs themselves and beneficial to all other opportunities for various types of group members. In cooperative learning interaction. Cooperative learning each member of a team is responsible not increases student motivation by only for learning what is taught but also providing peer support. One of the for helping teammates learn, thus elements of cooperative learning is creating an atmosphere of achievement. positive interdependence. In such Working alone is a long standing learning strategy, each group member 56 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 has a unique contribution to make to the cooperative learning group were more joint effort because of his/her recourses likely to attribute success to hard work and role and task responsibilities. and ability than to luck (Slavin, 1995). To work successfully in a cooperative Cooperative learning as a learning team, however, students must constructivist teaching method is also master interpersonal skills needed recognised as a valuable component of for the group to accomplish its task. classroom learning. The social Through cooperative learning strategies environment provided by cooperative students can develop the skills of learning offers strategies for students to leadership, decision-making, trust interact with their peer. The investigator building, communication and skills of is indented to develop a model based on conflict management which are cooperative learning principles and conducive to social development. The constructivist ideas to enhance the social cooperative learning students were more development of elementary school likely than other students to use the children. cooperative behaviours they were taught Conclusion when they worked with new classmates (Johnson, 1995; Slavin, 1995). Cooperative learning is sufficiently flexible The essential components of that it can be used at all levels of cooperative learning are positive education. Research strongly supports interdependence, face-to-face promotive that advantages of cooperative learning interaction, individual and group are higher group and individual accountability, interpersonal and small achievement, higher quality reasoning group skills and group processing. strategies, more meta cognition, more (Johnson, Johnson and Holubec, 1993). new ideas and solutions to problems. In Systematically structuring those basic addition students working in cooperative elements into group learning situations groups tend to be more intrinsically help to ensure cooperative efforts and motivated, intellectually curious, caring enables the disciplined implementation of others and psychologically healthy. of cooperative learning for long-term Effective cooperative learning experiences success. increase the probability of children’s One of the best services that can be success throughout their school years. done to children is to help them As teachers attempt to implement the understand that they cannot live to reforms of the new economy, the needs of themselves alone. In a world so a literate democratic culture and the complicated that each of us is dependent expectations of an adequate social on the cooperation of other persons. It structure, many have turned to stands to reasons that happiness and innovative instructional approaches for social adjustment are inseparable. help. Cooperative learning principles are Cooperative learning strategies are such an approach that loom large in the capable to impart such an incredible professional literature and are beginning idea among children. Students in to appear in practice. Cooperative Learning and Social Development... 57

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, F. 1947. Child Care and Training, Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. JHA , K. A. 2009. Constructivist epistemology and pedagogy: Insight into teaching learning and knowing. UP: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors (p) ltd. JOHNSON, D. W., and R. JOHNSON, 1989. Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina, MN: International Book Company. JOHNSON, D. W. and JOHNSON, R.T. 1999. Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive and individualistic learning, Boston: Allyn & Bacon. JOHNSON, D. W., JOHNSON, R.T. and HOLUBEC, E.J. 1993. Cooperation in the classroom, Edina, M.N: Interaction Book Company. JONASSEN, D. H. 1990. “Thinking technology: Towards a constructivist view of instructional design”. Educational Technology, 30(9), 32-34. JOYCE , B. and WEIL, M. 2004. Models of teaching, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India. KAGAN, S. 1992. Co-operative Learning. San Juan Capistrano, California: Resources for Teachers. PRAKASH, S. 2005. “Effect of cooperative learning on achievement motivation and achievement in biology”, Journal of All India Association for Educational Research. (17). RASEY, M. I. 1947. ‘Toward Maturity’, New York: Barnes& Noble, INC. SAHOO, S. 2005. “Cooperative learning: An instructional strategy for learning centered education”, Journal of All India Association for Educational Research. (17). SHARMA, L.H. and SHARMA, S. 2008. “Effect of cooperative learning on interpersonal relationship of elementary school students”, Edutracks, 7(9), 41-43. SLAVIN, R. E. 1995. Cooperative learning: Theory research, and practice (2nd ed.) Boston: Allyn & Bacon. ———1978. Student teams and achievement divisions. Journal of Research and Development in Education. 12, 39-49. ———1980.Using student team learning, Baltimore: The John’s Hopkins University. ———1985. An introduction to cooperative learning research, Learning to Cooperate, Cooperating to Learn. New York: Plenum Press. ———1991. “Group rewards make groupwork work”, Educational Leadership, 5, 89-91. STEVENS, R., Madden, N. and et. al. 1987. “Cooperative integrated reading and composition: Two field experiments” Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 433-454. VYGOTSKY, L. S. 1978. Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Hardward University Press. 58 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Relation between School Environment Variables and Mathematics Achievement among School Students in Bongaigaon District

KUNTALA PATRA* ARUNDHATI MECH**

Abstract

This article focuses on differences in mathematics achievement among school students in Bongaigaon district of Assam. The researchers conducted a comparative study between the groups of students divided on basis of different school environment variables in order to study the variation of achievement in mathematics. Data came from the test scores of 580 secondary school children in Bongaigaon district. An analysis of data indicates that the school environment does have an impact on mathematics achievement. This indicates the important responsibility of schools towards providing equitable education to all sections of children especially in developing countries.

Introduction school environment and the Mathematics has always been an mathematics achievement of students. integral part of any school curriculum. Schools provide students coming The importance of mathematics as a tool from different backgrounds with similar in various subjects and an instrument opportunities for learning. Traub (1972) for developing discipline of thought and was of the opinion that if children are to logical reasoning cannot be undermined. develop their intellectual potential they The purpose of this study was to examine must be provided with an intellectually the possible associations between the stimulating environment. Lack of proper

* Department of Mathematics, Birjhora Mahavidyalaya, Bongaigaon, Assam **Department of Mathematics, Guwahati University, Assam Relation between School Environment... 59 infrastructure has been a major concern study area, a stratified random sampling area for many years. For effective of schools has been taken from the list teaching to take place, a good method of schools in the district. The total must be adopted by a teacher. The number of schools surveyed was 30. For teacher today has to face the difficult the purposes of this study, students task of arranging suitable learning from Classes VII and IX were chosen. experiences by utilising suitable and Using simple random sampling and interesting learning techniques (Taori S, lottery method ten students each from 2001). The impact of the teacher-student Classes VII and IX from each school were ratio on student performance is another selected. The total number of samples factor that has been explored in this in Class VII was 290 and Class IX was paper. When the classrooms are crowded, 290. The gender division among the they present a particular burden to students was 155 boys, 135 girls in teachers who are not able to relate to Class VII and 163 boys and 127 girls in individual pupils. Research into Class IX. homework and its effect on mathematics Tools is examined as part of this study on the school environment. As a general rule, To test the mathematics achievement of textbooks remain the principal students a single mathematics score was instructional material in the classroom. devised from two sources. i) Mathematics School students face problems due to marks of previous year’s annual non-availability of textbooks in the examination collected from school market in the beginning of the session. records and scores achieved by students In a paper Heyneman (1978) reviewed in a test ii) Investigator prepared on studies from twelve less-industrialised mathematics knowledge which included countries on the relationship between knowledge of the basic concepts, pattern textbook availability and academic recognition, spatial skills, and logical achievement. He concluded that the reasoning. availability of books was the most The scores were combined into a consistent school factor in predicting single score as a weighted mean of academic achievement. the variables which represented In the light of the above conside- mathematics achievement of the student. ration, this study was conducted to A pilot test of the study was conducted investigate the school factors related to before administration of the final test. mathematics achievement among the The tests administered to the students school students of Bongaigaon district were checked for internal consistency where such is not available. through reliability analysis. Cronbach alpha (á =.948) for Class IX and Method Cronbach alpha (á =.931) for Class VII Sample showed high reliability co-efficient. Bongaigaon district of Assam was the For purposes of this study, the field area for the study. In order to cover attributes for school environment have the different strata of population in the been taken as: 60 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

(a) School management (b) School area analysis.The mean and standard (c) Physical facilities like infra- deviation of the combined scores were structure and text book availibility (d) calculated, t-test has been used to test Teacher-student ratio (e) Teaching the variance in the mean of the combined methods used (f) Daily homework (g) score for the different classes based on Specific training for teachers. different groupings. Values having different superscripts (a,b) differ Analysis significantly (P<0.05) between groups/ A comparative study between the groups levels in a class. of students divided on the basis of their school management, school area, School Management physical facilities, teacher – student ratio, The grouping under school management teaching methods, daily homework and was made on the basis of government specific training for teachers was schools and private schools. Government conducted. The data was entered into a schools are those which are funded and SPSS spreadsheet and was analysed managed by the state government while accordingly. The tests administered to the private schools were those set up by the students were checked for internal a society or group of individuals with no consistency through reliability government funding. Table 1 Mean Scores of Students divided on basis of School Management School Management Group Class Government Private t Mean+SD 25.31 ± 11.58 a 41.07 ± 13.37 b -9.078 ** VII N 230 60 IX Mean+SD 26.23 ± 13.50 a 48.31 ± 14.19 b -11.165 ** N 230 60

In case of school management the In India, the schooling offered by the results of both classes VII and IX were of a state government has minimal fees. The similar nature. For both cases the t value other categories of schools are those run was less than the critical value of t (-1.96) and partly funded by private individuals, at 5 per cent level of confidence. This private organisations and religious implied that the null hypothesis should groups, especially by the Christian be rejected in both the cases and there missionaries. Given that public schools were significant differences in the means are free of cost and private schools charge of the two groups for both Class VII and fees we would expect that the students Class IX. This leads to the implication that attending private schools come from the school management did affect the more socio-economically privileged combined score of the students for the backgrounds. While 94 per cent of the sample under investigation. private schools reported that they got Relation between School Environment... 61 adequate support from parents and 1994, 1997; Govinda and Varghese 1993; guardians, it was reverse in case of Kingdon 1994, 1996b; Tooley and Dixon government schools. Parents whose 2003). The conclusions in these studies children studied in government schools were of similar nature and show that especially in rural areas were unaware children in private schools have higher of their roles and responsibilities in test scores and higher attendance rates. improving the school environment. Recently, Muralidharan and Kremer (2006) corroborate the findings in earlier Very few government schools can studies with nationally representative show that their children’s learning is data on rural primary schools where it commensurate with their age or grade. is shown that students from private These schools may guarantee schooling schools do better than their government by increasing student attendance school counterparts. substantially, especially as a result of India needs proper government mid-day meals. However, the quality of intervention in the area of education education received in these schools is because education driven by profit also of vital importance. Facilities in motive cannot benefit the masses. The private schools are better and teachers children in these schools come from the have greater access to them than in poorest of families — those who cannot afford to send their kids to private schools government schools. Effective utilisation elsewhere. of teaching-learning resources, however, remains limited to a small number School Area of schools. Here the schools were divided as to Related studies along this line have whether they were located in an urban reported analogous findings (Bashir or rural area. Table 2 Mean Scores of Students divided on basis of School Area School Area Group Class Urban Rural t Mean+SD 32.50 ± 13.60 a 23 ± 11.41 b 6.44 ** VII N 170 120 Mean+SD 37.02 ± 16.24 a 23.14 ± 12.76 b 8.14 ** IX N 160 130

There were significant differences in Education in rural areas are the means of the two groups for both characterised by low income levels and Classes VII and IX. This leads to the poor quality of life with regard to implication that the school area did infrastructure, transportation facilities, affect the combined score of the students health care , school accessibility and also for the sample under investigation. a low level of parental education. Rural 62 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 family incomes are lower than urban of mathematics as a subject requirement family incomes and rural youth are more was felt by the students residing in the likely to leave school than their urban urban areas. Other factors as seen were counterparts and find work to make up lack of qualified and committed teachers for shortfalls in their family budgets. and irregular attendance of teachers. During the survey, it was found that The teachers in rural areas (63 per cent) the level of school attendance in urban resided in the nearest town and areas was higher (above 75 per cent) as commuted to their place of work resulting compared to rural areas (50 per cent-75 in a negative effect on school per cent). Low attendance was recorded mathematics education in rural areas. in rural areas particularly during Studies on rural education (Roberts, harvest and festival season .The lowest 2005; Vinson, 2002) have identified level of parental education in rural areas several areas like effects of teacher is not conducive to education in general shortages, a lack of opportunity to and mathematics education in access professional development, and particular. Specifically with regard to difficulties in providing resources for mathematics education it was seen that their students similar to the above result 69.3 per cent of school students from accounts for the geographical divide. urban areas indicated engineering, bio- Physical Facility technology and other career choices which required the study of mathematics Infrastructure facilities as against only 25.3 per cent of children Here the study took into consideration the from rural areas. Thus the importance overall condition of the school buildings.

Table 3 Mean Scores of Students divided on basis of School Infrastructure Infrastructure Class Infrastructure No Infrastructure t Problem Problem Mean+SD 25.30 ± 11.97 a 38.86 ± 13.17 b -7.65 ** VII N 220 70 Mean+SD 28.02 ± 13.63 a 39.52 ± 20.52 b -5.37 ** IXN N 220 70

Note: ** Significant at 95 per cent Significant differences existed (as seen where infrastructural problems were in Table 3) in the means of the combined present. scores for schools with and without Quality standards of schools in terms infrastructural problems. Poorer of infrastructure, often do not meet the performance was recorded in schools parameters laid down in the Education Relation between School Environment... 63

Bill of the government. Proper facilities infrastructure of schools is positively were available mostly in private schools linked to improved achievement. located in urban areas. Government A vital component for teaching schools especially in rural areas were mathematics is the mathematics found to be shabby and not repaired for laboratory. This is a place where the years. Overcrowded classrooms, with a student can learn and explore different thin bamboo partition between different mathematics concept by doing a variety classes made up for a noisy atmosphere of activities. The Central Board of that impeded mathematics teaching. Secondary Education( CBSE) has made Other infrastructural problems that were it compulsory for all schools to have listed were inadequate classrooms, their own mathematics laboratory for all classrooms not furnished properly, classes up to secondary level. This inadequate ventilation and lack of laboratory should be introduced for teaching materials. all schools. The study revealed 73 per cent of Availability of Textbooks schools had insufficient number of classrooms; 57.5 per cent schools did Textbooks play a vital role in school not have ceiling; 54 per cent schools education in developing countries. They used flimsy bamboo partition to divide are one of the fundamental factors in the classroom into two sections; 62 per quality education at school level. The cent did not have proper ventilation; 76 importance of textbook availability is per cent schools had insufficient number highlighted by the fact that they are often of benches. No government school had the only teaching resource available a well stocked separate library room. particularly in rural areas. Also there are The schools where teachers and no school libraries in these areas from students interact in individual which a pupil may use a book which classrooms constitute the core of the contains the subject matter necessary education system. Studies conducted in his curriculum. Additionally, the along these lines. (Earthman 1998, school mathematics textbook is Phillips, R. 1997) record that the particularly important for children who

Table 4 Mean Scores of Students divided on basis of Textbook Availability Availibility of textbooks Class Availability of Non-availability textbooks in beginning of textbooks in t of session beginning session Mean+SD 35.04 ± 20.61 a 20.61 ± 9.85 b 10.61 ** VII N 160 130 Mean+SD 38.90 ± 15.66 a 22.24 ± 12.06 b 10.10 ** IX N 150 140 64 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 come from weak socio-economic Studies by Hanushek EA (1996), background. Heneyman SP (1984) Jamison et al (1981) The factor studied here was whether have reported similar findings. the prescribed mathematics textbook was readily available in the beginning of the Teacher-Student Ratio session. Teacher-Student ratio refers to the Table 4 shows the variation in number of teachers in a school with performance among the two groups. respect to the number of students who Table 5 Mean Scores of Students divided on basis of Teacher Student Ratio Teacher Student Ratio Class 1.40 Greater than 1.40 t 13.8 12.7 * VII Mean+SD 31.46 ± 2 a 25.88 ± 8 b 3.57 * N 160 130 16.3 14.6 * IX Mean+SD 36.08 ± 5 a 25.86 ± 7 b 5.61 * N 140 150 attend the institution. Here the Variation in mean was seen in comparison was made between groups groups divided along teacher student divided on the basis of whether the ratio. The mean was higher where the teacher-student ratio was below or above ratio was smaller. The premise is greater than 1:40. that the teaching was more effective The class size in 54 per cent of the when the teacher could spend time with schools surveyed was larger than the each student. Adequate attention recommended ratio of 1.40. Significant received by the student is important in differences were seen along groups understanding mathematics. In a large divided on the basis of teacher-student classroom with a high teacher student ratio. Groups which had a high teacher ratio there is obvious high variance in student ratio showed poorer students’ learning abilities and performance. This is because of imbalance in the teaching offered. When difference in the interaction level the classrooms are crowded, they between student and teachers. A class become a burden to teachers who are with too many students proves to be unable to relate to individual pupils. disruptive. The teacher has to spend time However, in countries with a high controlling the large classes, also there population there continues to be large in a diverse field of students with varying classroom sizes. This was seen especially degrees of learning ability and in rural areas where there is an information uptake which also slows insufficient number of teachers. In down the learning process. course of the survey, 58 per cent of the Relation between School Environment... 65

Table 6 Mean Scores of Students divided on basis of Teaching Methods Training Methods Additional methods to Blackboard and Class blackboard and chalk, t chalk, lecture lecture

Mean+SD 23.19 ± 10.74 a 37.39 ± 13.08 b –9.57 **

VII N 180 110

Mean+SD 27.34 ± 13.05 a 36.46 ± 19.30 b –7.71 ** IX N 180 110 schools in rural areas reported The common teaching method inadequate number of teachers. To solve observed was lecture and use of this difficulty two sections were combined blackboard. Thirty seven per cent of the with the result that the teacher had to schools surveyed used other methods spend a majority of his time controlling like quiz, group discussion, use of audio- the students, instead of teaching and visual aids additionally. There were provide opportunities. significant differences in the means of Research has shown that effective the combined scores for the two groups. teacher-student ratio should be between Simply lecturing the students 1:25 to 1:35. The current average ratio in resulted in passive listeners. They display an unquestioning reverence of India is 1:42. The high teacher-student the teacher without any objective ratio has a negative impact on the quality analysis on their teaching methods. They of education in India. In the present study are not able to acquire an in-depth the teacher student ratio is found to have understanding of the subject. There is a significant effect on the combined scores long history of research, going back to in mathematics of the students. the work of Brownell (1945, 1947), on the Teaching Method Used effects of teaching for meaning and understanding, where the teaching Teaching methods refer to the various methods positively influence student ways in which the teacher teaches learning of mathematics. mathematics. The most common methods that are used are the lecture Daily Homework method supplemented by blackboard The combined scores of the students were and chalk. Only 24 per cent of the examined for the two sets of students who teachers reported that they use methods reported that daily homework was allotted like group discussion, quiz, audio-visual and corrected in their schools and those aids and mathematics laboratory for who do not have the practice of regular teaching mathematics. homework assignments. 66 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Table 7 Mean Scores of Students divided on basis of Assignment of Daily Homework Daily Homework Class Daily homework Daily homework t given not given Mean+SD 36.28 ± 12.70 a 22.31 ± 9.85 b 10.14 ** VII N 130 160 Mean+SD 35.32 ± 18.34 a 27.12 ± 13.40 b 4.39 ** IX N 130 160

Variations in means were seen homework the home environment plays among the children who were given daily a role. Thus factors like school homework and those who were not. management, school area, parental Though there are critics who do not education, family income are support the assigning of daily interrelated to homework. compulsory homework, in this case Specific Training for Teachers mathematics achievement favoured the group that was assigned daily home All teachers included in the survey had work. Mathematics as a subject is at least a graduate degree. Apart from improved by repetition of tasks. This is this, however, training of teachers is an because mastery of some essential component of mathematics basics is required for competent education and consists of both pre- performance of more demanding tasks. service and in-service programmes. Additionally, practice in working out Specific training in mathematics mathematics problems leads to teaching refers to the knowledge that a mastering the underlying algorithm as mathematics teacher has to acquire in well as the student gaining speed in his order to teach mathematics effectively. work eventually leading to increase in Mathematics teachers need to promote conceptual knowledge also. an active interest in learning among the However, homework as a factor pupils rather than rote learning and cannot be studied in isolation. An memorisation. They need to analyse examination into the schools which students solutions, provide explanations assigned and checked homework for errors and also to solutions of a revealed that 100 per cent private problem and make use of pictures, paper schools in urban areas, 64 per cent cutting activities, diagrams and perform government schools in urban areas and mathematical experiments for the no government schools in rural areas purpose of discovering some reported the assigning and correcting of mathematical principle, pattern, daily homework. Also in case of or process. Relation between School Environment... 67

Table 8 Mean Scores of Students divided on the basis of Training received by their Teachers Teaching in Mathematics Specific training in teaching mathematics Class Training received Training not received t Mean+SD 31.94 ± 12.85 a 24.97 ± 13.40 b 4.52 ** VII N 150 140 Mean+SD 32.23 ± 15.74 a 29.26 ± 16.79 b 1.55 ** IX N 150 140

Statistical analysis revealed that the academically significant effect on either results of classes IX and VII were of reading or mathematics achievement. dissimilar nature. The t value for Class IX However Wiley and Yoon (1995), Cohen was less than the critical value of t (1.96) and Hill(2000) are others who find at 5 per cent level of confidence and teacher training programmes to have at hence there were no statistically least small impacts on student significant differences between the two performance. Again researchers like groups in Class IX. However in case of Angrist and Lavy (2001) have found Class VII the result indicated significant strong effects of teacher training on variations in the means of the two groups. student achievement. The explanation may be that the Though the results of different effects of training are not translated into studies are varied, teacher training effective teaching during the teaching- remains a vital factor in improving learning experience of the classrooms in mathematics education. Researchers certain cases. The duration, intensity like Dove (1986) and Raj Rani (2005) have and nature of the training as well as advocated the need for professional teacher motivation are factors that have development on a continuous basis can also to be considered. improve teaching skills. This is The outcome of this linking of the especially true in mathematics education training of teachers to the achievement where the syllabi have considerably of the students they teach, are in line changed over the years and systematic with other similar studies which have and continuing education programmes demonstrated a mixed effect. The results for teachers is necessary for acquiring of the NCERT report 1995 indicate that fundamentals in many concept areas. the association of in-service teachers Additionally teachers need to be training to student achievement across well-versed in using computers and states is unstable and does not provide technology which greatly facilitate the a definite trend. Researchers like learning and understanding of Kennedy (1998), Brian A. Jacob (2002) mathematics. To address this problem, have found that in-service teacher quality in-service programmes are training has no statistically or required on a continuous basis that 68 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 engage teachers deeply with the achievements of students. However, from mathematics they are teaching, upgrade the tests conducted on various their skills and give them new insights influencing factors related with school into their students’ understanding of environment it has been seen that all the mathematics. the values are highly significant. This Discussion and Conclusion indicates that there is evidence to reject the null hypothesis and conclude that Heyneman and Loxley (1983) had stated there is a high degree of influence of the that in low income countries, school-level factors like school management, area, factors could account for a greater infrastructure, availability of textbooks, proportion of variance in student teaching methods, teacher student ratio achievement as compared to student- etc. on the performance of the students level characteristics. The phenomenon in mathematics. has come to be known as the ‘HL effect’ The results of this paper are and indicates the important consistent with previous research responsibility of schools towards showing that although student providing equitable education in background variables influence developing countries. differences in achievement in The present study shows that school mathematics, classroom and school factors have an influence on variables also contribute substantially achievement of the students. Studies by (Fullarton and Lamb, 2000).School Kulkarni (1970), Aggarwal (1995), effectiveness research undertaken by Kingdon (2008) have shown that school Bosker and Witziers (1996), that school influence is important to students effects account for approximately eight achievement in India. to ten per cent of the variation in student This paper which deals with the achievement inspite of great diversity in influence of school environment the background of children demonstrates its relation with the This has important implications for mathematics achievement of the student. government policy regarding the It is seen that in addition to socio- improvement of mathematics achievement. economic factors which influence The Right to Education has been mathematics learning of students, school enshrined as a Fundamental Right by factors comprising of school the Constitution of India. The education management, area, infrastructure, sector has been of vital importance to the availability of textbooks, teaching Indian Government. However, there is a methods, teacher student ratio also play vast gap between policies and the reality a part in determining the mathematics at grass root level. It is a fact that children achievement of the students. These from poor families are faced with inferior factors, however, cannot be studied in quality school education. Children of the isolation and are interrelated. rich and the urban middle class are The null hypothesis assumes that enrolled in private schools. Such schools there is no difference in the influence of will exacerbate inequalities by providing school environment on mathematical better opportunities to youngsters who Relation between School Environment... 69 can afford to attend and consigning provide equal opportunity for higher children from the poorest families to studies and the employment to all whatever the government offers. deserving students irrespective of family To bridge the social, regional and background. Thus it is imperative that gender gap, the school environment is a there should be improvement in facilities vital factor. By imparting quality and infrastructure, teaching methods, education uniformly in all schools this training for teachers and other factors gap can be addressed. This will also which influence school environment.

REFERENCES

AGGARWAL, YASH. 1995. Quality concerns in the primary education, Where is the problem, NIEPA, New Delhi. ANGRIST , JOSHUA , D. and VICTOR LAVY. 2001. “Does Teacher Training Affect Pupil Learning? Evidence from Matched Comparisons in Jerusalem Public Schools.” Journal of Labor Economics 19(2) ,pp 343-369. BASHIR, SAJITHA. 1994. Public versus private in primary education: Comparisons of school effectiveness and costs in Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. Thesis, London School of Economics. BOSKER, R. J., WITZIERS, B. 1996. The magnitude of school effects or Does it really matter which school a student attends? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. BROWNELL, W.A. 1945. “When is arithmetic meaningful?” Journal of Education Research, 38, pp 481-498. ———1947. “The place of meaning in the teaching of arithmetic”, Elementary School Journal, 47, pp 256-65. DOVE, L. A. 1986. Teachers and Teaching in Developing Countries: Issues in planning, management and training, Croom Helm, Kent. FULLARTON, S. and LAMB, S. 2000. “Factors affecting mathematics achievement in primary and secondary schools: Results from TIMSS”, In J. Malone, J. Bana & A. Chapman (Eds.), Mathematics education beyond 2000 (Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, 2000). Perth, WA. GOVINDA, R. and V ARGHESE. N. V. 1993. Quality of Primary Schooling in India: A Case Study of Madhya Pradesh. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning, and New Delhi: National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA). HEYNEMAN S. P. 1984. “Textbooks in Philippines: Evaluation of the pedagogical impact of nationwide investment”, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 6(2) pp. 139-150. ED179004. HEYNEMAN and LOXLEY. 1983.“The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement Across Twenty-nine High-and Low-Income Countries”, American Journal of Sociology. 88( 6), pp. 1162-1194. JAMISON, DEAN, BARBARA SEARLE, and et.al.1981. “Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement”. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73(4), pp. 556-67. 70 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

KENNEDY, MARY M.1998. “Form and Substance in In-service Teacher Education”, Research Report from the National Institute for Science Education, Madison, WH University of Wisconsin. KINGDON GEETA C. 2008. “School Sector Effects on Student Achievement in India”, Chapter 6 in Chakravarti R and P Peterson (Eds) School choice International- exploring Public- Private partnerships. MIT Press KINGDON, GEETA G. 1994. An economic evaluation of school management-types in India: A Case Study of Uttar Pradesh. Unpublished D.Phil. thesis, Economics Department, Oxford University ———1996. “The Quality and Effciency of Public and Private Schools: A Case Study of Urban India”. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 58, (1), pp 55–80. KULKARNI , S. S., Mohanlal C.A.S. and Naida.1970. All India Survey of Achievement in Mathematics (primary, middle and high school), NCERT, New Delhi, 1970-71 MURALIDHARAN, K., KREMER, M. 2006. Public and Private Schools in Rural India, Harvard University Cambridge, MA. “Teacher policy, training needs and perceived status of teachers”. Indian Educational Review, special number 1995 RAJ, RANI. 2005. “Professional Development of Teachers”, Journal of Indian Education, 30(4),pp 61-71 ROBERTS, P. 2005. Staffing an Empty Schoolhouse: Attracting and Retaining Teachers in Rural, Remote and Isolated Communities, Sydney: NSW Teachers Federation. TAORI S , 2001. Communication in schools. Regency publications. New Delhi. pp 72. TOOLEY , JAMES, and PAULINE D IXON.2003. Private schools for the poor: A Case Study from India. Reading, U.K.: CFBT. TRAUB R.E., WEISS J., FISHER , C. W., MUESELLA, G.1972. “Closure on Openness, Describing and Quantifying Open Education.” Interchange, l 3 , pp 69-84 VINSON, A. 2002. Inquiry into public education in New South Wales: Second Report. Retrieved 18th August 2005, from www.pub-edinquiry.org/reports/final_reports/03/ Williams, J.H. 2005. “Cross-national Variations in Rural Mathematics Achievement: A Descriptive Overview”,Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20(5) Achievement and Personality Pattern... 71

Achievement and Personality Pattern of Secondary Level Scheduled Tribe Students in Relation to Gender and Type of Institutions

B.N.PANDA* LAXMIDHAR BEHERA**

Abstract

Scheduled Tribes (STs) are one of the recognised disadvantaged groups of the country. The present paper is an outcome of a research conducted with an objective to study the achievement and personality pattern of Scheduled Tribe students of six tribal concentrated districts of Odisha. The study reveals that (1) the residential secondary school students score better than non residential students in aggregate achievement (2) the non government secondary school students perform better than government school students. The non government secondary school students are found to have higher level of mean academic achievement than government secondary school students. The study also reports that achievement doesn’t have significant relationship with the personality pattern as a whole. But achievement of total sample students has significant positive relationship with only two of the fourteen HSPQ (R.B.Cattel) factors, i.e. ‘less intelligent vs. more intelligent’ and ‘phlegmatic vs. excitable’. Based on the findings the study suggests some realistic measures for education of Scheduled Tribe Students of the country.

Rationale of the Study states: “the new policy will lay emphasis The National Policy on Education as on the removal of disparities and to revised in 1992 has asserted the quality equalise educational opportunities by in education which has been reiterated attending the specific needs of those who in the section-4.1 of the document. It have been denied equality so far”. Since,

*Associate Professor, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneswar, Odisha-751 022. **Assistant Professor, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneswar, Odisha-751 022. 72 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Scheduled tribe groups are one of the across the states. However, Panda (1992) recognised disadvantaged groups of the did not find any significant differences society, special planning and efforts have in achievement between male and male been made after independence to achieve tribal adolescents. Diwedy (2005), the equality in education for them. Lawrence (2005) and Michel (2005) Various committees and commissions, revealed the significance of management working groups and study teams were and school environment on academic constituted to formulate policies, achievement of high school students. programmes and promotion of education Patel (1984) studied the personality of tribal communities. As a result the pattern of tribal and non-tribal programmes such as establishment of secondary school students and found ashram schools, preparation of text significant differences in personality books in tribal languages, free supply of pattern of both the groups. Similarly, uniform, residential facilities were taken Panda (1991), Patel (1987) and Patel up. As per the 2001 census 47.1 per cent (2001) found significant differences in of the ST population above the age seven personality pattern of tribal and non- is found to be literate, the literacy rate tribal students. However, Chobey (1991), being 59.17 for males and 34.76 for Patel (2001), Rogers (2005) did not find females. More than 22 per cent of any differences in personality and populations of Odisha are tribals. In academic achievement of ST students Odisha the literacy rate of tribals is (disadvantaged in foreign context) within lagging behind the literacy of tribal at the the group. national level (37.37 per cent against Secondary education is a link national tribal literacy of 47.10 per cent). between the elementary education in The country is moving towards one hand and tertiary education on the universalisation of secondary education. other. Improved enrolment at the The Selected Educational Statistics of elementary stage has led to increase MHRD (2005) reveal low achievement of access to secondary schools. Most of the ST students at secondary stage. studies cited above on achievement and The quality of education is also personality pattern have predominantly dependent upon the academic been conducted at the elementary level achievement. Studies conducted by in view especially of the constitutional NCERT (Ambasth and Rath-1995; and commitment to the universalisation of Shukla-1995) reported low achievement elementary education. As there are amongst tribal primary school students different type of secondary schools i.e., in Mathematics and languages. residential/non residential, government Moreover, studies by Chobey (1990), and non government and tribal and Beckford (1993), Taylor (1994) and general schools having different levels NCERT (2005) report low achievement of facilities, it is pertinent to study the of tribal students than their non tribal differences if any in the achievement counter parts. Even Shukla (1995) and personality pattern of students reported large differences of studying in these schools of Odisha.The achievement of tribal boys and girls study of achievement of ashram schools, Achievement and Personality Pattern... 73 schools run by SC/ST Welfare of scheduled tribe students studying Department, and government and non in residential and non residential government schools will help the state secondary schools. and central government to plan 7. To find out the relationship between interventions to increase the enrolment achievement and personality pattern and achievement of ST students. More of scheduled tribe students studying ever, findings of David (2005) and Peter in government and non government (2006) that socioeconomic status, secondary schools. parental background as contributory Hypotheses of the Study factors towards academic achievement needs further exploration and 1. There exist no significant differences verification in the conditions of Odisha in the achievement of scheduled tribe is inevitable. As there is no research students in relation to their gender. evidence of studying the relationship 2. There exist no significant differences between achievement and personality in the achievement of scheduled tribe pattern of scheduled tribe students students studying in different type of studying in secondary schools of secondary schools. Odisha, study on achievement and 3. There exist no significant differences personality pattern of scheduled tribe in the personality pattern of students studying in secondary schools scheduled tribe students studying in was conducted. different type of secondary schools 4. There exist no significant differences Objectives of the Study in the personality pattern of 1. To study the achievement of scheduled tribe boys and scheduled secondary school scheduled tribe tribe girls of secondary schools. students in relation to their gender. 5. There exist no significant 2. To study the achievement of relationship between achievement secondary school scheduled tribe and personality pattern of the students in relation to their types of scheduled tribe students studying school. in residential secondary schools 3. To compare the personality pattern and the scheduled tribe students of scheduled tribe students studying studying in non residential schools. in different types of secondary school. 6. There exist no significant 4. To study the personality pattern of relationship between achievement scheduled tribe boys and scheduled and personality pattern of the tribe girls of secondary schools. scheduled tribe students studying in 5. To find out the relationship between government secondary schools and achievement and personality pattern the scheduled tribe students of scheduled tribe boys and studying in non government scheduled tribe girls studying in secondary schools. secondary schools. 7. There exist no significant relationship 6. To find out the relationship between between achievement and personality achievement and personality pattern pattern of the scheduled tribe boys 74 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

and scheduled tribe girls studying in Population and Sample secondary schools. On the basis of serious considerations Method and Procedure of facilities, situation and criticisms of The present research is a descriptive various techniques and purpose of the survey type of study which includes the study the cluster cum purposive enrolment, achievement and personality sampling techniques has been adopted pattern of the scheduled tribe and non in the present investigation. A sample of scheduled tribe secondary school 900 secondary school students (IX students. Here enrolment, achievement Graders) was selected for the study from and personality pattern are dependent six tribal concentrated districts i.e., variables where as gender and school Baragarh, Sundargarh, Kandhamal, type i.e., residential and non-residential Baudh, Kalahandi and Mayurbhanj of and the nature of management of schools Odisha. School Type and gender- wise i.e., government and non-government are distribution of the sample is presented independent variables. in the table-1.

Table 1 Distribution of Sample Type of School Government Non Government Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Residential 236 250 486 0 0 0 486 Non residential 100 144 244 114 56 170 414 Total 336 394 730 114 56 170 900

Tools Used Statistical Techniques Used The investigators selected the following In order to analyse the data with suitable tools for the present study. statistical techniques, the following 1. The gender, category of students, and statistical procedures have been used in achievement in school subjects were the present study. collected through a school 1. The statistical technique of‘ t’ is information schedule developed by the applied to find out significant investigators (Annual examination differences in achievement and scores of students are collected as an index of academic achievement) personality of students from different 2. High School Personality Questi- types of secondary schools. onnaire (HSPQ) of R.B. Cattel (14PF) 2. Correlational analysis has been used was translated to Oriya version and to find out the relationship between standardised by investigators. different sets of variables. Achievement and Personality Pattern... 75

Delimitations of the Study school students of Odisha in relation to The data have been collected from six their gender and type of schools. The ‘t’ tribal concentrated districts i.e. values are calculated and the results Sudargarh, Baragarh, Kalahandi, Kandhamal, Boudh and Mayurbhanj of with reference to aggregate marks have Odisha. Achievement is judged by the been calculated and shown in Table-2. previous class final examination scores It is found from the Table-2 that “t” readily available in the school. value of residential vs. non residential Major Findings of the Study (25.24), government vs. non government One of the objectives of the study is to (11.46), government residential vs. find out the achievement of secondary government non residential (22.37),

Table 2 “t” ratio for Achievement of ST Students Sl. Group N M SD t value Relati- No onship 1 Residential 486 235.68 18.42 25.24** S Non-residential 414 203.99 19.06 2 Govern ment 730 201.38 17.56 11.46** S Non-government 170 220.66 20.23 3 Govt-residential 486 235.68 18.42 22.37** S Non-government residential 244 201.90 19.65 4 Govt-non-residential 244 201.9 18.24 3.48** S Non-govt. Non-residential 170 220.66 20.23 5 Boys 450 209.5‘ 16.68 2.58* S Girls 450 212.69 20.12 6 Residential boys 236 217.84 19.64 0.29 NS Residential girls 250 218.34 18.00 7 Non-residential boys 214 207.12 19.86 3.25 ** S Non-residential girls 200 200.86 19.24 8 Govt. boys 336 198.86 16.08 3.94** S Govt girls 394 203.90 18.46 9 Non-government boys 114 220.06 14.82 0.55 NS Non-government girls 56 221.26 12.48 ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS=Not Significant 76 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 government non residential versus non students are presented in Table-3. It is government non residential (3.48), and observed from Table 3 that achievement non residential boys vs. non residential doesn’t have significant relationship girls (3.25 ) are significant at 0.01 level with the personality pattern as a whole. in the mean achievement of ST Achievement of total sample students students. The ‘t’ value of boys vs. girls has significant positive relationship with (2.58) is significant at 0.05 levels. The only two of the fourteen factors i.e. B ‘less ‘t’ value for residential boys versus intelligent versus more intelligent’ residential girls (0.29) and non (r = 0.1077) and D ‘phlegmatic vs. excitable’ (r = 0.1021). However, government boys vs. non government achievement of total students is girls (0.55) are insignificant. positively related with all the 14 The comparison of mean achieve- personality factors. ment of ST students in aggregate scores of various groups reveal that the Discussion residential students (235.68) score the The present study reveals that the highest and the government boys residential secondary school students (198.86) score the lowest. When the mean score better than non-residential aggregate score of students in relation students in aggregate. While the to the type of secondary schools are government has been spending a lot on compared, it is found that residential education of residential students, this students (235.68) score better than non shows a positive sign. Further the non- residential (203.99) and the non government secondary school students government students (220.66) score more perform better than government school than government students (201.38). students. The non-government schools When the mean aggregate scores of boys are either partially run by state fund or and girls are compared, it is found that fully run by private fund. The ST girls girls perform better (212.69) than boys. performed better than the ST boys in Thus, it can be concluded that there is a aggregate. The better academic significant effect of type of institutions achievements of residential school and gender in achievement of scheduled students have been supported by studies tribe students studying in secondary of Orr (2003) and Kozol (2006) in foreign context and studies of Diwedy (2005). schools of Odisha. The differences in the academic Personality Pattern of Scheduled achievement of ST girls and ST boys Tribe Students Studying in Different have been supported by studies of Types of Secondary Schools NCERT (2005). The results given earlier on One of the objectives of the study was to differentials between the achievement of compare the personality pattern of residential—non-residential and scheduled tribe students studying in government—non-government different type of secondary schools of secondary school students reveal Odisha.The ‘t’ value of different group of significant differences in both the groups. Achievement and Personality Pattern... 77

Table 3 Coefficient of Correlation(r) between Achievement and Personality Pattern of ST Students (N=900)

Sl. Personality factors Coefficient of Relationship No. Correlation(r) 1 Personality pattern 0.044 NS 2 A Reserved vs. outgoing 0.0129 NS 3 B Less intelligent vs. more intelligent 0.1077* S (0.05 level) 4 C Affected by feeling vs. emotionally 0.0227 NS stable 5 D Phlegmatic vs. excitable 0.1021* S (0.05 level) 6 E Obedient vs. assertive 0.0093 NS 7 F Serious vs. happy go lucky 0.0229 NS 8 G Expedient vs. assertive 0.063 NS 9 H Shy vs. venturesome 0.034 NS 10 I Tough Minded vs. tender Minded 0.058 NS 11 J Vigorous vs. doubting 0.0126 NS 12 Q1 Placid vs. apprehensive 0.051 NS 13 Q2 Group dependent vs. self sufficient 0.018 NS 14 Q3 Undisciplined vs. controlled 0.027 NS 15 Q4 Relaxed vs. tense .0127 NS * Significant at 0.05 level ** Significant at 0.01 level NS not significant

The non residential students are personality factors there exist positive found to have lower academic correlation. Only in some factors it is achievement in aggregate. The non- significant. The findings of the present government secondary school students study seems to be in the direction of are found to have higher level of mean results obtained in some similar studies academic achievement than government by Chobey (1990), Mavi and Patel (1997) secondary school students of Odisha. and Patel (2001) in Indian context and This has been supported by the studies studies by David (2005) in foreign of Diwedy (2005), and Kozol (2006). context. The results presented earlier on The results presented earlier on the relationship of academic personality pattern of ST students of achievement and personality pattern different schools reveal that in all reveal a positive but insignificant 78 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 relationship between academic profitably be applied to teach tribal achievement and personality pattern. children. Besides the self esteem, self This finding is also been supported by discovery, introspection and self identity the studies of Sutradhar (1982), Mavi may also be effective for ST children. and Patel (1997) and Patel (2001). A general orientation of teachers in having an insight in to the problems of Education Implications ST children and their specific difficulties, Proper study atmosphere, recruitment of and the ways to take them may also serve dedicated teachers may be done in both useful purpose. The orientation of residential and non residential secondary teachers with regard to developing an schools. Schools run by SC, ST Welfare awareness of enrolment status, relation department, and School and Mass ship of achievement and personality Education Department of Government of pattern achievement of different group Odisha need to take steps for recruitment of students are very important. The heart and training/orientation of teachers. of the educational process is the The home and the early environment interaction between the teacher and of the tribal children make them students. It is through this interaction deficient in cognitive abilities. So by the that school makes the positive impact time they reach the school, they lag upon the child. So teacher should provide behind there non-tribal counterparts affirming attitude and positive and the gap unless checked early goes expectations from the ST children. on widening in what is known as As ST at the primary lack test taking cumulative deficits. Thus, preschools skills, it has a cumulative effect on should cater to the improvement of the performance at secondary stage. The child’s physical and mental health, instructions for test/evaluation at emotional and social development, primary stage should be made clear and conceptual and verbal skills and content should not create cultural motivation to learn. problems for them. More practice in Language and text books should be taking tests should be given to them. written in bilingual mode at least at Adequate infrastructure facilities viz. elementary stage. In the local school school building, hostels, electricity, (primary) local tribal people should be portable water supply, girls’ toilet and appointed as teachers. It will reduce the road communication should be provided gap between the school and the home in secondary schools in tribal environment of tribal learners as it will concentrated districts. The non be based on the tribal cultures. residential schools should be taken care Multilingualism should be encouraged. of in terms of adequate provision of In devising and selecting methods of infrastructure. teaching for tribal children, there The role of the state and the central learning styles viz. learning by doing, government seems to be crucial in learning by memory, story telling, oral helping ST children to get equal benefits reading, recitation, repetition, group from the educational provisions. The first method and role playing may be requirement of such an educational Achievement and Personality Pattern... 79 strategy for education of ST students is Only on such a sound survey the a proper survey of needs and problems educational facilities and status can of these children and their community. be judged.

REFERENCES

AMBAST, N.K and RATH. K.B. 1995.Effect of household, community and school factors on the enrolment, retention and achievement of Scheduled Tribe students at primary level. In School effectiveness and learning achievement at primary stage: International perspective, New Delhi, NCERT BECKFORD, I. 1993. “Variation in achievement between blacks and whites in Pennsylvania elementary school”, Dissertation Abstract International, Vol-54, No-9, p-3320A. CHOBEY, M.1990. A comparative study of personality factors, academic adjustment and scholastic achievement of socially high and low deprived tribal youths in Rajsthan. Unpublished PhD Thesis University of Rajasthan. DAVID , E. 2005. “An investigation into the relation between the five factor model of personality and academic achievement among children”, Dissertation Abstract International, Vol-66, No-3, p-89A. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 2001. Union Primary Census abstract of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, New Delhi GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 2002. Report of the Working group on Education of Socially disadvantaged sections, Planning Commission, New Delhi Kozol, J. 2006. The shame of the nation: The restoration of apartheid in schooling in America, Random house, New York LAWRENCE . 2005. “Academic achievement of Hispanic students in Orange country public high school”, Dissertation Abstract International, Vol-66, No-8, p-2883A MAVI, N.S and P ATEL, I. 1997. “A study of the academic achievement in relation to selected personality variables of tribal adolescents”, Indian Educational Abstract, Issue-4, p. 73-81 MHRD. 2005. Selected Educational Statistics 2005-06, Department of Higher Education, New Delhi MICHELLE , A. 2005. “The connection between social skills and academic achievement among Latino and Caucasian elementary school children”, Dissertation Abstract International, Vol-66, No-5, p-2639A. NCERT.1995. “School effectiveness and learning achievement at primary stage”, International Seminar Compendium, New Delhi. NCERT. 2005.National Curriculum Framework, New Delhi. ORR, A.J. 2006. “Black white differences in achievement, the importance of wealth”, Sociology of Education, Vol-76(4), pp.281-304. PANDA, B.N. 1991. “Self concept and academic achievement of tribal adolescents”, New frontiers in education, Vol-xxi No-3, pp-404-407. PANDA, B.N. 1992. Study habit of disadvantaged and non disadvantaged adolescents in relation to sex and academic performance, Indian journal of psychometric and education, Patna. PATEL, D. 2001. Effects of acculturation and sex on cognitive and non cognitive structures of the scholastic achievement of Kharia and Munda tribe adolescents of Orissa, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar 80 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

PETER, R. 2006. “Effects of rural high school size and socio-economic status on achievement of tenth graders”, Dissertation Abstract International, Vol-67, No-3, p-1689A REDDY, P.K. 1989. A comparative study of some social facets of personality of Khari children between the age of four and ten years in families of working and non working mothers, Unpublished PhD Thesis, NEHU University SHUKLA, N.1995. Effectiveness of various interventions for improving tribal education, In-School effectiveness and learning achievement at primary stage; International perspective, NCERT, New Delhi SUTRADHAR , P.K. 1982. Socially disadvantaged and advantaged children: Psychological study of their relative academic achievement, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Calcutta University TAYLOR, J. 1994. “A study of selected factors affecting drop out status among students in grade eighth through tenth”, Dissertation Abstract International,Vol-55,No-5,p-1236A A Comparative Assessment of the Creativity in Adolescents Across Two Categories of Schools in Pithoragarh, Central Himalaya

ANIL KUMAR NAUTIYAL* PRABHA NEGI**

Abstract

The present study, conducted among the adolescent students of Class XII attempts a comparative assessment of creativity (i) in girls versus boys, (ii) in students enrolled in government run schools versus those enrolled in private schools, and (iii) across different economic groups of students. Adolescents, in the age group between 15 and 18 years, and studying in the 12 th standard were selected across six different schools: Private run-3 and government funded-3, located within the township of Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand. Altogether 178 adolescents, represented by 103 boys and 75 girls were selected randomly. Measurement of potential creativity was done through Passi tests of creativity. In an overall appraisal of difference between sexes in ability, achievement, and readiness, the differences were very slight, and certainly not sufficient to warrant the fact that creativity differs across the sex. However, a sharp difference is conspicuous in the functioning of creativity of the adolescents, enrolled in private run with those enrolled in government run schools, with creativity level being significantly more in adolescents enrolled in the former. Creativity shows a positive correlation with the socio- economic status of the family, irrespective of the sex of the student. It is strongly felt that if the potential of creativity is to be harnessed, a requisite motivating environment, which boosts up their self -concept and achievement motivation, remains obligatory.

* Associate Professor, Department of Education, H.N.B Garhwal University (A Central University) Srinagar (Garhwal) - 246 172. **Bora Bhawan, Padampur Colony (Pande Gaon), G I C Rd., Pithoragarh- 262 501. Uttarakhand. 82 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Introduction the survival process, in turn leading to Social work, as a discipline and a the prosperity and sustainable professional method, is the process of development of the society. It is very often helping people to help themselves to pointed out that the potential capacity become integral, independent, to be creative is not a characteristic of a productive and authentic human beings. selected few, but rather a process that In the wider sense, it also aims at the is inherently present in one and all. It is restructuring of the preset defective infact, a dynamic process in person, social systems and practices for the which helps him/her to achieve dignity construction of a better world through and meaning in life. Hence, more creative widening the horizons of human a person, more independent he/her existence and achievements. If this is to would be, and thus more contributing to be effected, i.e., if tomorrow is to be a the society, since he/she would better and brighter one, today’s children accomplish much more, at much less and adolescents are to be made more expense, than other less creative people. focused. For this, the urgent attention of In the present, socio-cultural context of both theoretical and practical social institutionalised values, where the work is required with the creativity of the potential creative abilities are very often neglected and rather condemned and adolescents, since it is their creativity, disparaged, this natural abundant grace which is going to design and determine is very often in danger of institutio- the future, for as per Erickson (1963), nalisation and convergence. Adolescence is the most decisive period in the formation of an adult personality. Creativity: The Definition Adolescence remains the most As per Dehaan and Havighurst (1961), energetic period of development, ruled by potential creativity is defined as the the inquiring mind, roving curiosity, capacity, which leads to the production intellectual robustness and creative of something new and desirable. This energy. It is the period when the new product may be new to the society instinctual creativity of the childhood is or merely new for the individual, who replaced by rational creativity, out of the creates it. According to Rogers (1970), development of operational and formal creative potential is the capacity for the thinking. The convergent style of emergence in the action of a novel childhood will be challenged and the rational product growing out of the divergent options will start to rule and uniqueness of the individual, on the one guide them. This immense productive hand, and the materials, events, people force in them is of vital importance, not or circumstances of his life on the other. just for the individual, but society at While, Flanagan (1963), defines creativity large. And hence, the same needs to be as a broad concept of being potent to nurtured, guided, so that the individual’s bring forth almost anything new in a way creativity becomes an invariable cog in of an idea, a formulation, a model, or a the overall development of the society. theory of an aesthetic or practical Needless to emphasise, creative product. Hence, the term creativity may insights form an essential component of be defined as the potential capacity of A Comparative Assessment of the Creativity... 83 human being to be multi-dimensional in development. Invariably, for all the thinking and the creation of something causes enumerated above, as well as unique and new. This potential capacity myriad others, this period remains the is functionalised or expressed through most difficult period of transition, very the divergent thinking and creative often described by phrases such as ‘storm productions, but is clearly observable or and stress’, identity crisis, the generation otherwise represented through certain gap, the turmoil period (Hall 1943). characteristics and behavioural traits. In the case of the adolescents, the This potential creativity, remains an significance of development and inner call to deviate from the traditional utilisation of divergent thinking is very single-headed convergence to the multi- high, since it is during this time that they faceted new flexible way of inquiry and bloom out with their cognitive field creation, and is a basic instinct to be through the development of their different and unique through directed, operational thinking. Importantly, while rational and divergent thinking in the creativity during childhood is process of living and making the instinctual, the creativity in case of the existence successful and productive. adolescents is more rational and Adolescence: The Concept and the productive, and this becomes more and Creativity more obvious and conspicuous with age. What is more important is the fact that Derived from the Latin adolescere, the this creativity and its evolvement can or literal meaning of ‘adolescence’ is rather should be treated as yet another apparent- ‘to grow’ or ‘to grow to maturity’. cognitive capacity like intellect, to be The adolescence, as conceived presently, harnessed, moulded, directed and focused has more profound, broader meaning, through continuous interventions, leading and not just confined to the biological to novel contribution. According to Getzels aspect-the attainment of the and Jackson (1962), creative thinking reproductive potency, and thus is (the functionalised elaboration of the inclusive of the process of mental, potential creative capacity) is the highest emotional and social maturation! of mental functions and creative However, adolescence is do marked by the production, the highest peak of human attainment of puberty, and thus marked achievement; and hence, if appropriate by appearance of secondary sex measures are not taken to nurture this characteristics, and ends with potentiality, the achievements and psychosocial markers, such as adult success in life will be badly affected and responsibilities. And hence, this whole if so, they not just become problematic process involves profound intellectual to themselves, but to the society, at large. changes and transformations, typical of And henceforth, it becomes all the more the adolescence thinking, all of which pertinent to understand and appreciate enables him/her to integrate into the the creativity in adolescents, that social relationships of the adults, which appropriate training and care be remain, in fact the most conspicuous provided, so that the person attains characteristics of this period of optimum achievement. 84 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Why the need of the present study observations are so very conspicuous, Even though, there are numerous however, very little or no serious scientific studies and theoretical formulations inquiry or research has been made to about creativity in general, they all verify their veracity, and hence the generally focus on children’s creativity. present study, conducted among the There are some studies pertaining to adolescent students of Class XII attempts the creativity of artists, literary writers a comparative assessment of creativity and other similarly classically accepted (i) in girls versus boys, (ii) in students creative groups, however, no studies, or enrolled in government run schools rather any study has been done on versus those enrolled in private schools creativity in adolescents. Lest to and (iii) across different socio-economical emphasise, adolescence remains the class of students. most important period in life, more so as concerns the development and utilisation Methodology of creativity. Infact, the researchers have Adolescents, in the age group between not yet made any ample attempts to 15 and 18 years and studying in the 12th study the specific reality of this unique standard were selected across six period scientifically. Another important different schools-privately run-3 and aspect of creativity remains the fact that government funded-3, located within the many a creative talent go into disuse township of Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand. between the age group 16 to 19. Again, The selection of the schools was done on whatever studies pertaining to creativity two basic criteria-(i) the location of the in adolescents have been mostly carried schools (rural versus urban), and (ii) out in the Western or European privately run versus government funded. countries, wherein the culture is significantly different from our own and Altogether 178 adolescents, represented thus the need to undertake the same in by 103 boys and 75 girls were selected the prevalent socio-cultural milieu as well randomly. Measurement of potential as economic conditions, at home. It is all creativity was done through Passi tests the more important, that creative abilities of creativity (Passi 2001). The collected are identified early in life and creative data were coded according to the answer individuals provided with viable keys, and the score of each item of each environment sustaining and tool of each individual respondent were encouraging their innate urge to abstracted and summated accordingly. contribute. The scores were then transferred to the There is a general perception among master sheet, tabulated and edited for the populace that girls are more creative appropriate statistical treatment. The than boys; that the pattern of study in entire process of data analyses and the private schools is more conducive for interpretation was organised on the basis creativity than that of government run of the objectives and the hypotheses. The schools, and that economically well off statistical techniques used for data students score relatively better as analyses include the percentage compared to the less fortunate ones. analyses, Pearson’s correlation test, Even though, these perceptions and t-test for equality of means and multiple A Comparative Assessment of the Creativity... 85 regressions. Eventually, the results Creativity scores were measured in derived from the statistical treatment of terms of three categories- below 40 as low, the data were interpreted on the basis of between 40-70 average, and more than the available theories and other 70, as high level of creativity. The relative established findings of the research distribution of the adolescents across studies. The study delved into the more these three different levels of creativity commonly perceived hypothesis about are depicted across the two divides (i) creativity, i.e. (i) Creativity potential is Boys versus girls (table 1), and (ii) significantly determined by the sex of an individual, (ii) There is a significant Government versus privately run difference in creativity between (table 2). A comparative assessment of adolescents studying in private and the two groups of adolescents, boys and government run schools, and lastly, (iii) girls, brings forth the fact that creativity Creativity potential is significantly level is not determined by the sex (figure 1), determined by the economic condition of and hence the above hypothesis remains an adolescent. a null hypothesis. Again, irrespective of Results and Discussion the sex of adolescents, the creativity is Hypothesis 1: Creativity potential is high among the adolescents, with the significantly determined by the sex of an average score (approx. 76) in totality individual. (table 1). Table 1 Average Test Scores by the Adolescents across the Gender Divide CLASS AVERAGE TEST SCORE Problem Unusual Conseque- Inquisitive- Square Total test uses test nces test ness test puzzles Marks test Girls 14.5 25.6 16.1 7.7 12.9 76.80 Boys 12.5 25.3 17.8 7.2 13.3 75.06 Average 13.5 25.45 16.95 7.45 13.1 75.93 However, creativity levels across the in table 1) are do found, when problem different tests do differ across the sex solving, creativity, analytical skill, and divide, as exemplified by the Table 1, cognitive styles are examined. Boys are where the girls have fared slightly better found to possess greater ability to break than the boys. It is however, generally ‘sets’ or to try new approaches in problem observed that gender differences in verbal, solving, as exemplified by the relative visual-spatial and mathematical higher score earned by them in square performances are not only very small but puzzle test (table 1). They are generally also shrinking in recent years that boys more field independent, i.e. free from the and girls are increasingly becoming more effects of the context in which the problem similar in academic performance (Hyde is placed, as verified by the relative higher and Linn 1988). Mixed results (as depicted score in consequences test (table 1). 86 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Figure 1: Distribution of low, average and high groups of creativity across the sex groups

Hypothesis 2: There is a significant private schools was not studied, the difference in creativity between figure 2 does bring forth the fact that adolescents studying in private and motivation factor is relatively lower in government run schools. case of government schools. One of the When the adolescents are segregated factors could be (as observed during the in terms of the schools they were enrolled fieldwork) the absence of teachers and in, an entirely different picture emerges thus lack of resource, which could satisfy out- that the creativity level is significantly the urge and enquiries of adolescents in more in adolescents enrolled in the government schools; and concomitantly privately run schools, as compared to the the very presence of the same in private adolescents enrolled in government run schools. schools. While the average score of Yet another feature related with the creativity for government schools is below private-government school divide 70, the figure for private schools is notch remains the relative proportion of rural ahead, more than 80 (Figure 2). This students enrolled in these two categories brings forth yet another facet of creativity, of schools, with the disproportionately that it is synonymous with the kind of large section of rural (and more or less motivating environment, available to the belonging to lower socio-economic status- adolescents, and thus, even though the SES) getting themselves in government kind of factors responsible for this schools, in contrast to proportionately significant high score of creativity in large section of higher SES wards opting A Comparative Assessment of the Creativity... 87 for private run schools. The results are in adolescence remains the most creative conformity with the fact that mean IQ (as period in life, since the findings that the correlated with the creativity level) is adolescents are potentially highly consistently lower in rural children as creative than low or average creative compared to that of urban children (Asher (Figure 2), lends credence or rather 1935, Chapanis and Williams 1945, consolidates the results of Eysenck Wheeler 1942). However, overall the (1972), Guilford (1966), and Anderson et results strengthen the fact that the al. (1981). Table 2 Distribution of Low, Average and High Groups of Creativity across the Two Hypotheses-Girls versus Boys, and Govt. School versus Private Schools, Measured Hypotheses Low Average High Total Tested A. Boys vs. Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls

Frequency 5 1 42 32 56 42 103 75 Percentage 83.33 16.66 56.76 43.24 57.14 42.86 57.86 42.14 B. Govt. vs. Private Govt. Private Govt. Private Govt. Private Govt. Private School Frequency 5 Nil 53 23 35 62 93 85

Percentage 100 - 69.74 30.26 36.08 63.92 52.25 47.75

Figure 2: Distribution of low, average and high groups of creativity of the government based and private run schools 88 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Hypothesis 3: Creativity potential is significantly determined by the economic % age 68.96 42.31 63.69 57.14 condition of an adolescent. 66.66 Boys The levels of creativity (low, average 20 22 23 16 22 and high) were studied across the Freq. economic divide, across five categories of Total % age 31.03 57.69 36.11 42.86 monthly income of the parents (Table 3). 33.33

The results were astonishing: creativity Girls 9 30 12 showed a positive correlation with the Freq. economic condition of the family, irrespective of the sex of the student 70 11 % age 71.43 42.11 70.59 (Figure 3), which could be correlated Boys 8 7 15 with the fact that as the economic profile 12 of the family improves, so does the ability Freq. to enroll their wards to a better school High 30 45 11 55 13 % age 28.57 57.89 (mostly in the private run schools). 29.41 Statistically, it is inferred that there is Girls 6 3 9 5 no significant difference between the 11 Freq. male and female adolescents, with respect to their creativity, since the % age 62.50 37.93 calculated ‘t’ value stands at 0.54, 61.90 75.00 36.36 CREATIVITY LEVEL which is less than the table value of 1.96 Boys 5 4 11 13 12 at .05 level. At the same time, the Freq. calculated t value-5.19, is far greater

than the table value of 1.96 at 0.05 level, Average 37.50 % age 62.07 and thus is significant for the creativity 38.09 25.00 63.64

as measured for the students enrolled Girls 3 8 4 7 in government versus private run school Freq. adolescents, signifying that there exists - - - a significant difference in the creativity 75 18 100 level of adolescents of the private run % age Boys

schools, as compared to those 2 3 Nil Nil Nil adolescents, enrolled in government Freq. schools (Table 4). Low - - - - The above two facts-(i) creativity score 25 % age being higher in adolescents enrolled in Girls 1 Nil Nil Nil Nil

private run schools, as well as (ii) the Freq. economically well off adolescents, and their greater percentage in private : Distribution of Low, Average and High Groups Creativity Across the Economic Divide schools, should be an eye opener for the policy makers, as regards the status of secondary education in the state Table 3 >20,000 income) < 5,000 5,000-10,000 10,000-15,000 15,000-20,000 government schools, where the staff is Economic Divide (monthly A Comparative Assessment of the Creativity... 89

Figure 3: Distribution of low, average and high groups of creativity across the economic divide more qualified, more highly paid, as explained thus- the parents in many compared to the private run schools, lower SES households had little where the opposite exists. The answer education, which in turns affects the lies in the fact that in the privately run quality of their children’s education in schools, the staff is made to work, in variable ways, for example, parents with contrast to the government schools, little education very often cannot help where the staff is more or less- their children with schoolwork. Also, conspicuous by their complete researches indicate that children’s early absence. experiences are definitely related to later Socio-economic status (SES) school success (Laosa 1982). The encompasses a number of variables, differences in creativity, thus are found including family income, parents’ in children belonging to different social occupations, and formal education. classes, and the influence of Invariably, student’s performance is environmental stimulation on correlated with the socio-economic development of intelligence (a corollary condition or status of his or her parents. of creativity) is well established-upper Infact, wards of the average SES parents SES groups contribute a disproportio- tend to be higher academic achievers in nately large number of intellectually contrast to the lower SES parents’ wards, gifted and disproportionately small who are at greater risk of dropping out numbers of mentally retarded children from the school (Frazer and Wilkinson to the total population (McGhee and 1990). This phenomenon could be Lewis 1942, Bayley and Jones 1937). 90 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Table 4 Details of Equality of Means between the Creativity of Government vs Private School Students, and between Boys and Girls Adolescents Group Sample Number Mean Standard t-Value Difference Error at .05 Difference Level 1. Boys and Boys 103 1.74 3.21 0.54 girls Girls 75 2. Govt. vs. Govt. School 93 15.94 3.07 5.19 Private Private School 85

Conclusion are right for an appropriate interaction In an overall appraisal of difference to take place between the individual and between sexes in ability, achievement, the environment. Close attention thus and readiness, one may conclude that must be paid to school climate, if student differences are very slight, and certainly motivation, creativity, and special talents not sufficient to warrant grouping them are to be developed. Infact, motivation is into separate classes. There is a one of the biggest ways to enhance considerable difference in the functioning creativity. The development of creativity of creativity of the adolescents, enrolled could be accomplished through teaching in private run and government run creatively and teaching for creativity. schools. It is strongly felt that if the Schools may offer a flexible learning potential of creativity is to be developed to atmosphere, where children can express appropriate fruits, there should be a themselves freely and positively. A good purposeful effort and attempts in a very teacher should be an expert in creativity, encouraging atmosphere, which boosts facilitator of creativity and a practitioner up their self concept and achievement of creative curriculum. The students motivation (Getzels and Jackson 1962, ought to be given opportunities to Busse 1981, Torrance 1966), which exercise their brain, their curiosity and unfortunately, is at present lacking in imagination has to be stimulated and the government run schools. unusual ideas and responses reinforced. Creativity does not come about in a Some of the steps, which could be vacuum. Empirical work carried out by implemented at the level of the school (as investigators trained in social psychology per our experience), are the following: tells us that there is a direct link between • towards realisation of the creative the motivational orientation brought by potential, particular attention must a student to a task and the likelihood of be paid to the promotion and his or her being creative at that task, and maintenance of intrinsic motivation it is the environment that in large part in the classroom. shapes that motivational orientation. • there is a direct link between the Giftedness can be nurtured, if conditions motivational orientation brought by A Comparative Assessment of the Creativity... 91

a student to a task and the likelihood be specifically impacted by the of his or her being creative at that negative effects of extrinsic task, and it is the environment that constraints, which threaten their in large part shapes that motivational perceptions of self-determination. orientation. • teachers must work diligently to • particular attention must be paid to create an interpersonal atmosphere, the impact of extrinsic constraints on which allows students to feel in the motivation and performance of control of their learning process. gifted children coming from linguistically and culturally diverse Acknowledgement backgrounds. The authors extend their deep sense of • when children experience the appreciation to Dr (Mrs.) S K Pandey, interpersonal context of the Head of the Education Department, H N classroom as supporting of self- B Garhwal University (a Central determination, they are more University), Srinagar (Garhwal) for intrinsically motivated. extending the administrative help, • gifted and talented students, who without which the present work could not consistently approach their class have been possible and to their colleagues work with high levels of skills, may for helping out in the field work.

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, C.W., NAGLE, R.J., ROBERTS, W.A. AND SMITH J.W. 1981. Attachment to substitute caregivers as a function of centre quality and caregiver involvement. Child Development, 52: 53-61. ASHER, E.J. 1935. The inadequacy of current intelligence test for testing Kentucky mountain children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 46: 23-32. BAYLEY, N. AND JONES, H.E. 1987. Environmental correlates of mental and motor development: A cumulative study from infancy to six years. Child Development, 4: 34-38. BUSSE, A.H. 1981. Temperament: Early Developing Personality Traits, Hillsdale, New York. CHAPANIS, A. AND WILLIAMS, W.C. 1945. Results of a mental survey with Kuhlmann-Anderson Intelligence test in Williamson County, Tennessee. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 67: 45-54. DEHAAN, R.E. AND HAVIGHURST, R.J. 1961. Educating Gifted Children, University of Chicago, Chicago. ERICKSON, E. 1963. Childhood and Society, 2nd Edition, Norton, New York. EYSENCK, H.J. 1972. Psychotism as a Dimension of Personality, Hodder & Stoughton, London. FLANAGAN, J. 1963. Functional education for the seventies. Phi Delta Kappan, Sept. issue: 27-33. FRAZER, L.H. AND WILKINSON, L.D. 1990. At-risk students: Do we know which ones will dropout? Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, Boston. 92 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

GETZELS, J.W. AND JACKSON , P.W. 1962. Creativity and Intelligence: Exploration with Gifted students, John William, New York. GUILFORD, G.F. 1966. The Nature of Human Intelligence, McGraw-Hill, New York. HALL, C.N. 1943. Principles of Behaviour, Appleton Century Crofts, New York. HYDE, J.S. AND LINN, M.C. 1988. Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 104: 53-69. LAOSA, L.M. 1982. School, occupation culture, and family: The impact of parent schooling on the parent-child relationship. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74: 791- 827. MCGHEE, W. AND LEWIS, W.D. 1942. The socio-economic status of the homes of mentally superior and retarded children and the occupational rank of their parents. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 60: 73-87. PASSI, B.K. 2001. Passi Test of Creativity. National Psychological Corporation, Agra, India ROGERS , C.R. 1970. Towards a Theory of Creativity, Harper and Row, New York. TORRANCE, E.P. 1966. Education and the Creative Potential, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. WHEELER, L.R. 1942. A comparative study of the intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain children, Journal of Educational Psychology, 33: 13-23. Media Studies in School Curriculum... 93

Media Studies in School Curriculum : Obstacles, Challenges and Possibilities

ANUBHUTI YADAV *

Abstract

Media studies as a subject has at last entered the boundaries of schools though little late. Disregarding media from the school curriculum has always bothered many experts who are working in the field of media studies. Many initiatives were undertaken to introduce children, parents and teachers to the concepts of media studies but all happened out of the schools. One of the key point made by the NCF, 2005, i.e., connecting knowledge to the life outside the school, has actually opened the door for media studies, a subject which has never in the past was given its due importance in school curriculum. It was realised that students’ media experiences are as important as their experience with their parents, peers and teachers, and by allowing them to bring their media experiences in classroom, a creative environment can be created where they could get a chance to discuss issues which are very integral to their life. This paper focuses on why media should be a part of school curriculum, how it can be introduced, the present scenario, challenges it can face and some strategies to overcome those challenges.

INTRODUCTION heart and rule their mind. Students are Media is a very important part of also learning a lot from media. Mass students’ lives. They spend great deal of media actually teaches whether media time watching TV, listening to radio, makers intend to do so or not, and surfing net, reading magazines and students learn from it whether they are newspapers and also take pride in aware of it or not. Students are learning owning a sophisticated toy called mobile so much intentionally or unintentionally phone which gives them an opportunity that it can be termed as omnipresent non- to do all these activities when they are school textbook. In fact children learn in on move. These mediums bombard them a variety of ways – through experience, with images, words and sound. These making and doing things, media messages are designed to win their experimentation, reading, discussion,

*Assistant Professor, CIET, NCERT, New Delhi-16 94 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 asking, listening, thinking and reflecting lines and to be an active citizen of the and expressing themselves in speech world’s largest democracy. The vision of writing. They require opportunities of all democracy articulated by the Secondary these kind in the course of their Education Commission (1952) is worth development. The sources through recalling here and how media which they learn are innumerable, it is understanding fits into the vision is necessary for the educators to explore motivating enough for those who would and understand all those sources be interested in taking this initiative through which children learn. Media is forward. one of them. “Citizenship in a democracy involves Yes, it is a non-formal textbook or we many intellectual, social and moral can say another school away from qualities… a democratic citizen should school. But what role does these non– have the understanding and the formal textbooks have in school. Can intellectual integrity to sift truth from schools afford to ignore these textbooks falsehood, facts from propaganda and to which are very important part of their reject the dangerous appeal of fanaticism lives? This raises unavoidable challenges and prejudice…” This is what media for schools and teachers. Can school literacy initiatives world over propagates. teachers join hand with informal The strategies to implement them may teachers and teach. As part of their vary in different countries but the idea mission to help young people to become is to make students reflect critically on better informed and analytical thinkers, media issues. It entails the acceptance educators should seriously consider of multiple views on social issues and media studies as essential part of school commitment to democratic forms of system. interaction, and helps children to see issues from different perspectives, and Why Media Studies Should be a Part understand how such issues are of the School System connected to their lives. The content and Keeping in view the importance of media language of media products provide ways in society and students’ continuous of looking at the world. The media is a engagement with media, it is important hidden curriculum for students which that the students start understanding should be explored. media rather than just being passive This has been explored in many viewer or reader. The way we help countries and is called by various names children to understand language, social in different parts of the world like science, science and mathematics, television literacy, critical viewership similarly, the time has come that we have skills and critical viewing skills. These to make them understand media. It is projects were started with the initiative contemporary, it is multidisciplinary, it of an individual or small group and later can be easily assimilated into classroom, on it attracted like– minded people and and it can promote critical thinking became a success. In New Zealand over skills. It will enable the students to see 100 schools offer media studies as behind the screen and read between the standalone subject. In Britain media Media Studies in School Curriculum... 95 studies has been a subject for over 30 course in media education. The years and is also well established in objectives of such organisations are to Canada. In fact media studies is one of train prospective media person. the fastest growing subjects, which needs Media socialisation has been dealt to be introduced not only at college or with seriously in NCERT social science university level but also at school level. text book for Class VII titled Social and Political Life. There is a chapter in the What is Media Education? book on mass media and communication The big question is what is media which includes how media sets agenda studies? What does it include? World over and how market has become central to various media education initiatives are its functioning. The chapter has covered defined differently and are interpreted in all forms of mass communication different ways, so it is important to make including television, radio, films and a distinction between these different newspaper and the Internet. Besides, ways of interpreting the concept of media areas like market, technology and pedagogy. Media and education have media’s role in society has been been combined differently by different discussed in the chapter. The section on people and this has been referred to by how media sets agenda also contains many names like media education, media case studies to help students literacy, educational media, television understand the concepts and exercises study, critical viewing skills, etc. Let us to critically analyse reporting by have a look at three ways in which media newspapers. In the same book, there is and education can be combined: also a chapter on advertising which 1. Media Education: This is education explains the concept of advertising along in the subject of mass media. This with various forms of advertising, and includes teaching students how to how it manipulates us into buying things use media, especially in order to we don’t need. Similarly many textbooks prepare them for taking up a job in have integrated media to explain the the media industry. subject specific concepts. 2. Media Socialisation: Students know In majority of the cases the media is the world through media and they used as tool to explain concept, but the are experienced and competent idea of understanding media need to be media users. The objective of such further explored. There has to be a projects is to develop more systematic and methodical media input discriminating audiences. at every stage from primary to upper 3. Educational Media: Education by primary to secondary and higher means of media which include using secondary. There is a need to develop various media forms in and for critical media pedagogy. teaching. As far as educational media is In India all these three combinations concerned, a lot has been done in this have been explored. There are many field. There are many organisations government and non-government involved in making educational audio organisations and universities offering and video programmes, multimedia 96 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 packages and learning objects which is integrated in school curriculum from used in teaching-learning process. lower grades then logical sequencing Central Institute of Educational and connection between the grades is a Technology, a constituent of NCERT, great task which needs to be taken up promotes utilisation of educational with the help of teachers, media technologies especially mass media, viz. educators and media professionals. radio, TV satellite communications and Option II cyber media, either separately or in combinations, to widen educational Media studies can be a standalone opportunities and improving quality of subject. educational processes at school level. If it is introduced as a standalone subject then it will definitely increase the How to Introduce Media Education in curriculum load. But it can be offered as Schools one of the four elective subjects and also an Media studies at school level can be additional elective in combination with any offered in the following two ways: of the academic electives already available at senior secondary level. Introducing Option I media studies at senior secondary level has Integration with already existing its own advantages. The students in Class subjects. XI and XII will get exposed to various career By integrating it with the subject that opportunities this subject offers. Also, already exists in school curriculum. adolescents, who have lot of questions NCF-2005 says that the need for subject which are being answered by media, will addressing contemporary concerns of get a chance to understand, question, society is important. But there has been appreciate media. It will also provide them misplaced tendency to address these an understanding on how they can express concerns in the school curriculum by themselves through media. The idea is to creating new subjects, producing related provide students with an opportunity to textbooks and devising methods for develop life skills which will enable them to evaluation for them. These concerns may analyse these potent forms of modern be far better addressed if they are communication and help students to incorporated in curriculum through become wise consumers of media. existing subjects and ongoing activities. Whichever option we choose from the Needless to say adding new areas as above-mentioned ones, the course on subjects only increases the curriculum media studies should focus on the load and perpetuates undesirable following very important aspects: compartmentalisation of knowledge. • to develop an understanding of Another concern with the subject media in students and enable them like media studies is development to appreciate potential and limitation appropriateness, logical sequencing and of various media forms. connection between grades. Till now the • to encourage students to participate subject is introduced only at graduation in contemporary social processes as and post-graduation level. If it has to be active citizens, through their Media Studies in School Curriculum... 97

awareness of the political, social, curriculum of media studies. At CIET economic, historical and technological curriculum was developed in implications of the media. consultation with the experts in media • to develop skills in students and and media education. Based on the encourage them to produce creative curriculum, textbook was also developed media message. along with the manual which includes a • to introduce students to various number of activities that would help career opportunities in mass media. teachers and students to understand The course should be based on media. critical pedagogy as it will provide Textbook is designed in such a students an opportunity to see issues manner that it not only introduces from different perspectives and students to the many facets of media but understand how such issues are also make the subject relevant to their connected to their lives. The subject age group. The aim is to familiarise must provide them with means and students with a variety of important opportunities to enhance their creative questions about media as well as expression and the capacity for aesthetic introducing them to the various problems appreciation. that can be solved through media intervention. Each chapter is written as The Present Situation self-contained unit but the textbook Across the world media education always follows a deliberate organisational started outside the school and later it sequence. Each chapter contains case entered the formal education system. studies, class and individual exercise, India is no exception to this. Institutes boxes and further discussions of key like Xavier Institute of Mumbai, Culture concepts and questions for and Communication, Chennai and Media consideration. Centre of Banglore introduced short Challenges Ahead courses in media education but it could be introduced formally at school level Training Programmes: As mentioned the only in year 2010. biggest challenge while introducing this Now when the subject has entered subject at school level will be the lack of the school boundaries and positioned trained teachers in this subject at the itself in school curriculum, teachers school level. CIET, NCERT recognised the should be the first one to understand the need and organised formal professional concept. Biggest challenge in the development training programmes for introduction of this subject which can in-service teachers. Various teachers’ transform curriculum and teaching is training programmes are organised for training of teachers. teachers to teach this new subject. In the wake of introduction of the new The teachers from various schools subject, Central Institute of Educational participated in the training programme Technology, NCERT recognised the need and got motivated to take up this subject for formal professional development of in- at school level. Teachers not only got a service teachers and development of chance to learn how to analyse media 98 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 messages but they also got chance to the important subjects in the coming know what happens behind the screen. years. The challenges and the problems Teachers explored the areas like script will be there as in the case of any new writing, camera handling and anchoring. initiatives but to minimise the hurdles The experience was wonderful and the continuous teacher training programmes following paragraphs summarise the kind should be organised. This new subjects of experience teachers had during the should be introduced in such a manner training programme. that minimum infrastructure is required “The workshop, ‘Media in school or schools should be able to run the curriculum’ workshop was very course with the existing infrastructure enlightening for all the teachers. It has at place and the most important shown us a new way of looking at various initiatives schools can take is to establish aspects of media. I would surely like to media clubs in schools to begin with. The take up this subject in my school.. There activities of media club will definitely lay is so much to explore, discuss, foundation for this new subject. experiment while teaching this subject.” Simultaneously efforts should also Ms Shweta Malik, DPS Rohini, be made to introduce it at the lower level Participant, Media Studies Training and the systematic and organised Programme, August 25-27, 2010 curriculum needs to be worked out to “The three-day training programme avoid repetitions and overlapping at gave us a lot of information on various different levels. types of influence media today has on students. Teachers through this Conclusion programme were given lots of information Media has always been the part of as to how they can start media clubs to student’s life and it will always be. create enthusiasm about this subject Through the mass media come plethora among students.” of information in the form of moving Ms Sapna Verma, St. George’s images, still images, sound, multimedia School, Alaknanda. Participant, Media and online material that can be valid or Studies Training Programme, invalid, positive or negative. Students' September 7-9, 2010. interaction with media can affect the way Infrastructure Requirements: Few they eat, study, work and relax. They are schools have resources set aside for like the air we breathe, omnipresent but teaching media, video productions, etc. rarely considered. Students are so Since the subject demands the facilities immersed in these messages that they like computers, editing software, video hardly notice how they shape their cameras, screening rooms, etc., there perceptions, belief and actions. The can be apprehension amongst schools to course in media studies will encourage start this subject. students to seriously consider the mass media and the role it plays in their lives. Overcoming Challenges: A Roadmap The mass media was there in schools too Challenges are many but if the subject as teaching aid but as a subject it has is handled properly then it can be one of just entered the school boundaries. The Media Studies in School Curriculum... 99 teething problem will be there in the have to nurture it so that it blossoms into beginning but teachers and educators a successful media literacy programmme.

REFERENCES

NCERT, 2005. National Curriculum Framework 2005, New Delhi. GRETCHEN SCHWARZ and PAMELA BROWN. 2005. Media Literacy Transforming Curriculum and Teaching, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing Malden, Massachusetts. SINGLETON-TUNER, ROGER . 1994. Television and Children, BBC Television Training AGGARWAL VINOD C, KARNIK KIRAN AND V ISHWANATH, K. 1999. Children’s Television in India- A Situational Analysis. Concept Publishing Company. FIROZ M. 2005. Television in India Values and Concerns, Saad Publications. TUCKER RICHARD, N. 1986. The Integration of Media into the Curriculum, London, Kogan Page. BROWN JAMES, A. 1991.Television Critical Viewing Skills Education: Major Media Literacy Projects in the United States and Selected Countries, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. Inc. POTTER, W. JAMES. 2005. Media Literacy London: Sage Publication. PERSE ELIZABETH , M. 2001. Media Effects and Society, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. Inc. HOBBS, R. 1998.“The Seven Great Debates in Media Literacy”, Journal of Communication, 48(2):9-29 BERRY, G ORDON L. AND J OY ASAMEN. 1993. Children and Television: Images in a Changing Sociocultural World, London: Sage Publication. LIEBERT , ROBERT AND JOYCE SPARFKIN. 1998. The Early Window: Effects of Television on Children and Youth, London: Elsevier Science. An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme in Puducherry

P. A DINARAYANA REDDY * D. UMA DEVI** E. MAHADEVA REDDY***

Abstract

The Continuing Education Programme was launched in Puducherry under the aegis of National Literacy Mission to create facilities for retention of literacy and application of functional literacy for improving living standards, to disseminate the developmental information, to create awareness on national concerns, to promote employable skills and to create learning environment through establishing libraries and reading rooms, cultural and recreational activities. The present paper deals with assessment of the performance of the Continuing Education Programme in terms of physical and infrastructural components created and quality of delivery of programme components. The findings provide an insight to the programme administrators about the status of the programme and steps to be taken to improve its quality of delivery mechanism and also provides suggestions.

Introduction are in the productive age group of 15 to Puducherry is one of the tiny states of 39 years and19.29 per cent of them are India having four districts scattered in in the age group of 40 to 49 years. The different localities of the southern region proportion of elderly age group of 50 and of the country. It has a population of 9, above years constitutes 15.45 per cent. 74,345 as per 2001 census. Among them Contrary to the above, only 26.96 49.99 per cent are men and 4, 87,384 are per cent of population are in the age women. Further, 38.29 per cent of them group of 0 to 14 years. Among them

* Director, Department of Adult and Continuing Education and Principal, IASE, S.V University, Tirupati-517502 **Assistant Director, Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy, S.K University, Anantapur ***Project Fellow, UGC-SAP(DRS-I), Department of Adult and Continuing Education, S.V University, Tirupati-517502 An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 101

44.60 per cent are in the age group of 0 23.39 per cent. Further, 18.08 per cent to 6 years and rest of them are in the of the respondents have matriculation or age group of 7 to 14 years. The secondary education background. The distribution of the population clearly representation of graduates constitutes shows that there are more number of 9.82 per cent. aged people and less number of District-wise Literacy status youngsters in the state. In terms of gender-wise distribution of the The state of Puducherry has 4 districts population there are more number of viz. Puducherry, Yanam, Mahe and females in the age group of 16-39 and Karaikal. Puducherry is the capital and above 50 years. Among the other groups the biggest district. The population in the females are low in number. In terms of age group of 15-35 in Puducherry district literacy, majority of the men are literates is 2, 83,825. Out of them, 2, 52,664 are and literacy rate among women are low. literate and 31,161 of them are The area-wise distribution of illiteracy illiterates. In case of rural areas, there shows that 66.57 per cent of illiterates are 72,855 literates and 14,715 are were found in the urban areas and 43.43 illiterates. In case of urban areas there per cent of them were in rural areas. are 1, 79,809 literates and 16,446 are Further, the gender-wise distribution of illiterates. In case of Yanam, there is a illiterates among the rural and urban population of 12,119 and all of them are areas also showed the similar trend. It in urban area. The district Mahe has a was also found that more illiterates were population of 13,607 and majority of them found in urban area and more female are literates, i.e., 13,423. Only 184 of were illiterates in comparison with men them are illiterates. Karaikal which is in rural and urban areas. In terms of located in Tamil Nadu has a population literacy, majority of the literates were of 63,567 in the age group of 15-35. found in urban areas and more men were Among them 58,373 are literates and literate compared to the women. Among 5,197 of them are illiterates. The the literates 1.53 per cent, i.e., 10,668 of illiterates are more in rural areas (2,371). them were literates from formal Among the literates, more men are educational background. Out of them, literate than the women. In case of 7640 are in urban areas and 3028 are illiterates, more women are illiterate than in rural areas. Among these groups, men men. Among the 4 districts, Mahe has outnumbered women. The educational more literacy rate followed by Karaikal background of the population with below and Puducherry. In case of rural literacy, primary education constitutes 9.6 per Karaikal stood first followed by cent to the total literates and 26.23 per Puducherry. In case of urban literacy, cent population with primary level. Karaikal and Puducherry have highest Among them, female representation was literacy rate. The distribution of the more than men. Similar trend prevails population in the age group of 15 to 35 in urban areas. However, it is vice versa in terms of literacy, gender and area in in rural areas. The respondents with the four districts of the state shows that middle level of education constitute the literacy percentage among the urban 102 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 areas are found to be more than the rural population. Further among the men and areas. However, in case of Karaikal the women, there were more men at all literacy percentage among the rural levels except in the primary level where areas is more than urban areas. The there are more girls than the boys. It is gender-wise distribution of literacy a clear indication that the parents have shows that there is a wide variation realised the importance of education for among the men and women. However, their girls and started enroling them in the variation is very low in case of Mahe the schools. Hence in future, the district. The literacy rate among the age participation of the girls will be on par group of 15-35 years is more in case of with boys and the gender difference will Mahe district followed by Karaikal and be decreased. Puducherry. Yanam has 70.93 per cent. Literacy Promotion Programmes Similar trend prevails in case of the both the gender groups. The literacy promotion programmes in Puducherry have been taken up Level of Education Among the Literates seriously from 1978 under the aegis of in Terms of Area and Gender National Adult Education Programme by The data (Reddy, 2009) shows that there adopting centre based approach and are 10,668 literates in the state without continued till 1989. During this period, any educational levels and among them the state has implemented Farmers 7640 are from urban area and 3,028 of Functional Literacy Project, Rural them are from rural areas. Among Functional Literacy Project and State literates, there are 1,41,966 persons in Adult Education Programme. The second the middle level of education followed by phase of the literacy efforts has been matriculation/secondary education, i.e., initiated during 1988 under the aegis of 1, 25,899. The pupil studying in higher National Literacy Mission by launching secondary / pre-university is 54,479. In the Total Literacy Campaign. All these case of primary education 1, 82,684 efforts have culminated into the phase children are enroled and studying in the III in terms of launching post-literacy schools. There are 96,631 literates with campaign for the benefit of neo-literates. below primary level of education in the Later in order to strengthen the state. Further, there are 68,364 movement of literacy and for creating students pursuing at graduate level in learning society, the Continuing the state. The trend shows that there Education Programme was launched. are more males at all levels of education except in primary level were more girls 1. Total Literacy Campaign (TLC) are enroled than the boys. There are Under the aegies of National Literacy more population in the urban area with Mission, Puducherry has launched Total literacy with out any educational level literacy campaign under the title than in the rural area. It is also same ‘Operation Arivoli’ which was launched in case of other levels of education. This on 21-07-1989 to cover the illiterates in is due to the fact that the urban the age group of 15-40 years. The initial population is more than the rural survey has identified 99,958 illiterates. An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 103

During the environmental building, the The grant that has been released programme identified 10,000 committed towards Jan Shikshana Nilayam has literacy volunteers who were willing to been rescheduled for providing non- spare their time and service for the cause recurring and recurring items for ‘Arivoli of literacy. In order to impart training to Thodarbymaiyamo’ (ATM). Each ATM field functionaries, three-tire training has engaged one to three volunteers to system was evolved and trained 100 key perform its functions. Each ATM has resource persons, 1,000 master trainers enrolled 75 to 100 neo-literates and and 10,000 volunteers. Further, in order conducted classes and library activities to impart literacy, the literacy primers in the evening from 6.P.M to 8.P.M, three with three parts have been designed with days in a week, i.e. on every alternative inbuilt evaluation facility. The day in the week. The centres have to programme was successfully organised ensure total enrolment of the school and external evaluation was conducted going children, organise literacy and by Bharatiyar University, Coimbatore on post-literacy classes, and disseminate behalf of the Government of India. The information on development programmes evaluation has revealed that the State and self-employment. While using the has attained 89 per cent of literacy facilities that have been provided to the among the participants of the centres viz., newspapers roll up boards, programme as per the literacy norm. posters and printers. Before launching Recognising its efforts in promotion of the programme, the volunteers were literacy, the state has been awarded with given training to equip themselves to prestigious ‘King Sezong’ award by discharge their functions as incharge UNESCO during the year 1991. of post-literacy centres. During the 2. Post-Literacy Campaign course of organising the centres, the After successful implementation of the volunteers have arranged literacy total literacy campaign, the post-literacy teaching for the illiterates, provided phase of the programme was initiated opportunities for the neo-literates for during the year 1991 and it has extended retaining their literacy skills. Further, till up to 1995. During this period the in order to disseminate information programme apart from neo-literates of among the community about the TLC has also covered non-literate school development programmes, they have dropouts, frazil literates of formal arranged guest lectures by inviting education. The state government has functionaries of various development utilised the grant that has released prior programmes, arranged study tours for to the PLC period towards starting the the benefit of the neo-literates to acquire post-literacy programmes under Jan knowledge on developmental progr- Shikshan Nilayams for the benefit of the ammes, constituted various committees neo-literates of RFLP and State Adult such as women committees, village Literacy Programme. Out of this grant committees, academic committees, to 2.64 lakhs has been incurred towards discuss the problems coming in the way the items like furniture, cycle and library of implementation of the programmes books and sports material. and to find ways and means to solve 104 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 them. All the centres have taken up a Literacy Campaign and Post-Literacy new activity viz., mapping out the Programme and to strengthen it by resources available in their villages and creating opportunities to use and plan themselves to explore them to meet practice it for their furtherance. their needs. In order to promote the Objectives of the Continuing reading culture among the neo-literates, Education Programme a library was established in the centre with adequate books along with daily 1. Provision of facilities for retention of newspapers and magazines. Further to literacy skills and continuing strengthen it and make the community education to enable the learners to as partners in it, they organised book continue their learning beyond basic collection drives and collected a good literacy. number of books. In order to develop the 2. Creating scope for application of functional literacy for improvement scientific temperament among the of living conditions and quality of life. community they organised slide shows 3. Dissemination of information on on scientific advancements and the developmental programmes and importance of the literacy in making use widening and improving of it. participation of traditionally deprived 3. Continuing Education Programme sections of the society. The successful implementation of the 4. Creation of awareness about Total Literacy Campaign and the Post- national concerns such as national Literacy Programmes has improved the integration, conservation and literacy percentages significantly. In improvement of environment, order to help the neo-literates to practice women’s equality, observance of the literacy activities in their day-to-day small family norm etc. and sharing of common problems of the community. life and to create educational 5. Improvement of economic conditions environment for helping them for their and general well being as well as furtherance of education, a broad based improvement of productivity by Continuing Education Programme to organising short-duration training cover all the segments of the society (i.e., programmes, orientation courses for the neo-literates who completed the providing vocational skills and by functional literacy/post-literacy taking up linkage activities for programmes under TLC/PLP or other establishing direct linkage between programme, school dropouts, pass-outs continuing education and of non-formal stream and all other development activities. members of the community interested in 6. Provision of facilities for library and availing opportunities for lifelong reading rooms for creating conducive learning) and to nurture the fragile environment for literacy efforts and literacy learned by the participants, the a learning society. TLC and PLP were launched. The major 7. Organisation of cultural and aim of the programme is to retain the recreational activities with effective fragile literacy learned during the Total community participation. An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 105

In order to operationalise the adequate financial assistance was also objectives of the programme, a provided. Initially, the Central Continuing Education Centre (CEE) was Government had provided financial established in the communities assistance for establishment and wherever, there are 500 neo-literates and running of CECs. In the long run, it is 2500 population. These centres are expected that all such CECs should be manned by a functionary known as self sustained. The Central Government prerak who is a volunteer opted to work provides 100 per cent finance to a district for the programme. The centre is for the first three years of the project and expected to promote literacy and post- thereafter, the cost is to be shared on a literacy programme, functions as a 50:50 basis by the central and state library and reading room, conducts governments for the next two-three sports and games, cultural and years. From the sixth project year adventurous activities, recreational onwards, the states are expected to bear programmes, vocational training the entire expenditure. In other words, programmes, extension lectures, the programme should become self discussion group, dissemination of sustained either by itself or with the developmental information and acts as support of the respective state a communication centre. Keeping in view government after five years. of the above functions, it is expected that In the case of Puducherry, in the programme will be successful, only continuation of the Post Literacy if the community owns it and participate Programme, the Continuing Education effectively in all its activities, extends Programme was launched in the state to support to mobilise the financial and institutionalise the post literacy and material resources for running the centre follow up programmes. Before launching on a self sustained manner by the the programme, the programme has community itself. Further, it was identified 1,00,000 neo-literates spread visualised as a mechanism for promoting over in four districts of the state i.e., integrated human resource development, Puducherry (77,5 40), Karaikal (18,624), and provided required physical Mahe (1,506) and Yanam (2,320). The infrastructure to organise all the neo-literates identified for the programme programmes leading to the lifelong includes school dropouts, passouts of learning and to create a learning society. primary schools, passouts of the NFE In addition to the regular activities, the Programme and all other community programme has also initiated the members interested to avail the facilities Equivalency Programme, Quality of Life in the Continuing Education Centres. In Improvement Programme and Individual order to operationalise the programme, Interest Promotion Programme, Skill 172 CE centres and 28 Nodal CE Centres Development and Income Generating were sanctioned. The Continuing Programme, Future Oriented Programme. Education Programme of Puducherry In order to organise the CE centres, was approved and sanctioned in 1997 by 106 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 the Government of India. The programme for employability, elicit peoples’ was launched formally on 12th June participation in the developmental 1998. While sanctioning the proposal the programmes, role in promotion of Government of India has accorded democratisation in functioning of the concurrence for establishing 172 institutions etc., there is a need to provide Continuing Education Centres and 28 feedback to the programme implementers Nodal Continuing Education Centres and administrators to identify the with an initial grant of ` 50,16,000 and strengths for replication and to rectify the released `18,24,000 as first installment. weaknesses of the programme. Further, As a first step in launching the the prerak who is incharge of the programme a door-to-door survey has Continuing Education Programme is also been taken up for identifying the neo- responsible for attaining the above. In literates. During the survey 99,990 neo- order to understand the performance of literates were identified as target of the the programme, the Government of India programme. The programme was has designed evaluation of the programme operationalised in 1998. at different stages of implementation of In order to attain the objectives of the the programme i.e., first external Continuing Education Programme, the evaluation at the completion of the two programme was launched in two phases. years of the programmme, appraisal On the whole 172 Continuing Education report by SLMA /State Directorate of centres and 28 Nodal Continuing Adult Education after 3 years of its Education Centres have been existence. The second external evaluation sanctioned. Out of which 173 Continuing will be undertaken after four years of its Education Centres and 19 Nodal implementation. Again, the appraisal Continuing Education Centres have been report of the SLMA/ SDAE and third functioning and rest of them could not external evaluation will be taken up after be organised. Each CEC caters to the 5th and 7th year of programme. It was needs of 1,000 to 1,500 neo-literates and envisaged that while undertaking the 2,000 to 2,500 neo-literates through the above, special attention should be given activities of Nodal Continuing Education to the quality of the infrastructure, Centre. All the Centres are located in quality of the preraks, whether the Government Schools, Madhar Sangham programmes are need based, whether and youth clubs. The centres are there is community participation, functioning between 6 to 8 P.M except convergence with the developmental Sunday. programmes implemented in the district, Keeping in view of the important role sustainability of the programme etc. played by the Continuing Education As a part of the evaluation of the Programme in nurturing and promoting Continuing Education Programme, the the literacy, creating opportunities for National Literacy Mission has provided further education, usage of literacy in a list of three empanelled evaluation their day-to-day life, promotion of skills agencies to the state of Puducherry for An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 107 assigning the evaluation task to one of 2. To study the sustainability of the the agencies. The State Government of programme after cessation of the Puducherry has chosen the Department Government of India assistance. of Adult and Continuing Education, Sri 3. To identify the measures initiated by Venkateswara University to evaluate its the districts in promoting the Continuing Education Programme. As convergence of the literacy this is the first external evaluation of the programme with other developmental Continuing Education Programme, the programmes. evaluation was aimed to identify the 4. To study the efforts made in physical and personal infrastructural implementing the mopping up component-the programme and quality programme to reach the uncovered of the delivery of the programme target. components. Under physical / personal 5. To identify the performance of the infrastructural components, an attempt target-oriented programmes has been made to study the aspects viz., implemented in the State. location and accessibility of the centre, Keeping in view of the above furniture, availability of items, books and objectives, an effort has been made to reading materials provided to the gather the information both from centres, seating arrangements made, primary and secondary sources. The availability of the facilities such as information relating to the preliminary lighting, drinking water, toilets etc., and arrangements made for launching the sports and recreational facilities. In case Continuing Education Programme, of quality of delivery of programme establishment of the centres, selection components, stress was laid on and training of the functionaries, sustainability / community involvement, monitoring system evolved, coverage of prerak quality, ability, training and the target, efforts made for promotion of performance, planning and convergence convergence of the literacy with the other with other ongoing programme, mopping developmental programme etc., were up activities, quality of books, quality of collected from the secondary sources. services rendered in running the library The primary information about the and programme-wise delivery of the four functioning of the programme was target specific programmes viz., collected through personal observations equivalency programme, quality of life of the evaluation team and by eliciting improvement programme, income the information from the stakeholders of generating programme and individual the programme. The methodology adopted interest promotion programme. Keeping by the evaluating agency is as follows: the above in view, the evaluation was Methodology taken up with the following objectives: The state of Puducherry is having 4 Objectives of the Evaluation districts viz., Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahi 1. To study the infrastructural and and Yanam. Among the four, Puducherry physical facilities available in the CE is the biggest district and capital of the centres. state followed by Karaikal. Mahe and 108 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

Yanam are the smallest in terms of Target specific programmes 50 geography and located far away from the Equivalency Programme 50 state headquarters. The Continuing Education Programme though, it was Quality of Life Improvement launched in all the districts, but in due Programme 50 course of time, it has limited to Karaikal and Puducherry. Puducherry has seven Individual Interest Promotion 50 communes, Karaikal four communes. The Programme Continuing Education Programme was Income Generating Programme 50 launched in all the blocks, with 172 Continuing Education Centres and 28 Perspective participants 50 Nodal Continuing Education Centres. Self help group members 50 Out of this, 151 Continuing Education Centres are functioning in Puducherry Learners of mopping up 50 and 35 in Karaikal. The norm of External programme Evaluation of Continuing Education Community representatives 50 Programme as stipulated by National Total 850 Literacy Mission is to select a sample of 50 Continuing Education Centres and 5 Nodal Continuing Education Centres or Tools Used for the Study 10 per cent of the total Continuing In order to elicit the data from different Education Centres. Keeping in view of the sources of the programme, the limited geography of the district, 50 Continuing Education Centres were investigator has devised different tools selected for comprehensive evaluation of by giving priority to the physical the programme which includes five Nodal infrastructure and quality of delivery of Continuing Education Centres. Out of the programme components as this is the this, 30 centres in Puducherry and 20 in first evaluation of the programme. The Karaikal were selected as sample of the quality of delivery of programme study randomly. From each centre, five component viz., sustainability and participants, two participants each from community involvement, prerak’s quality, target specific programmes, one ability, training and performance, community representative, one convergence with other developmental committee member and oneself help programmes done by the ZSS and group member was also selected mopping up programmes, quality of the randomly from each centre. books and services rendered by the The sample frame is as follows: library, performance of the target specific Number of Continuing 50 programmes were also assessed by Education Centres collecting the information directly from Preraks 50 the beneficiaries and also from the VEC/CEC Committee members 50 records maintained at different levels. In order to elicit the above information from Participants of Continuing 250 primary sources, different tools were Education Programme designed keeping in view of the An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 109 guidelines supplied by the NLM. The and the ways and means of getting tools thus designed were as follows: primary data both qualitative and 1. a schedule for the prerak. quantitative from the selected sample. In 2. a schedule for the CEC participant. the third stage, information was pooled 3. a schedule for the VEC/CEC together, analysed and tabulated. committee members. Wherever, the shortfall of information, the 4. a schedule for the community investigator again visited the district and representatives. collected information from the sources 5. a schedule for the participants of and finally the report was finalised. mopping up programme. Findings 6. schedules for the target-oriented programmes. The findings of the study are arranged a. equivalency programmes. in two sections. Section I presents the b. income generating programme. administrative efforts in terms of c. individual interest promotion training, monitoring, convergence, best programme. practices finance etc. Section II presents d. quality of life improvement the findings relating to the programme programme. components viz., physical and 7. schedule for the self-help group infrastructural components and quality members. of the delivery of the programme 8. literacy test for learners under components. The details of the findings mopping up programme. are as follows: 9. investigators observations. Section – I Data Collection and Analysis Administrative Efforts 1. The investigator has conducted the Human Resource Development: evaluation in four stages. In stage I, the In order to equip the functionaries to investigator has made a preliminary meet the needs of the programme, the survey of the district to discuss with functionaries working at various levels officials of the ZSS and evolved a strategy have been trained. The Deputy Director for evaluation. Further, information and Project Officer have attended a relating to the secondary data was also training programme conducted by NIRD, collected and a workshop with Hyderabad, from 6 to 11 March 2000. The academicians, field functionaries, other functionaries, viz. Key Resource administrators etc. was organised for Persons, Resource Persons, have been designing the tools. Based on the trained by the State Resource Centre, information collected during the field visits Chennai, to equip them with the skills and the workshop conducted, has yielded and competencies so as to train the nodal the required tools. In the second stage, preraks, preraks and volunteers. The the investigator has selected the field training for the filed functionaries has investigators for data collection. Further, organised in collaboration with the State he also organised a one-day orientation Resource Centre and Non-formal, Adult programme to expose them to the tools and Continuing Education, Tamil Nadu. 110 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

2. Monitoring education committees have been meeting For effective monitoring and feedback, once in a month to review the centres eight commune coordinators were drafted performance. Further all the preraks have from among the secondary school been meeting once in a month at the teachers on temporary basis to visit and central office and review of the monitor the centres in the commune. Out performance of the centres and of them five commune coordinators were programme. allocated to Puducherry, two to Karaikal 3. Convergence with Developmental and one to Yanam. Further, the Deputy Programmes: Director, (AE) and project officer is (a) The State Resource Centre, Chennai, expected to supervise all the centres in has adopted the Oulgarate commune Puducherry, Karaikal and Yanam. The of Puducherry for one year for setting programme was regularly reviewed at up of the self-help group. state level by the State Director of School (b) The State Resource Centre has Education with the programme organised short term trainings in preraks functionaries. The nodal meet phenyl making, chalk piece making twice in a month in the central office and and cleaning powder making to the the Deputy Director, Project Officer and members of the self-help groups. commune co-ordinators will also (c) The State Resource Centre has participate in these meetings. In addition, organised a one-day workshop with the Deputy Director reviews the progress the development department officials of the programme by convening a weekly to promote better coordination. meeting with commune coordinator and (d) The state government has convened project officer. Each commune is a meeting with the voluntary supervised by one commune coordinator, organisations and NGOs for co- preraks two nodal on an average each ordination for better functioning of centre is monitored by the above atleast the CE Centres. once in a week. In order to submit the (e) The Directorate of School Education monitoring returns the district has has arranged a meeting with heads devised an initial report, monthly report of all the offices to achieve 100 per cent prerak prerak form for and nodal , literacy through participation of 1 consolidated monthly report will go from lakh students. commune coordinator to the state (f) Awareness programmes and guest government for onward transmission to lectures have been organised in co- the Government of India. In addition, at ordination with the other the grassroot level, village education development departments. committees have been constituted with the head master of the local school as its 4. Mopping up programme: president and the member were drawn The programme has identified 16,920 from Madhar Sangham volunteers and non-literates and enrolled them in the youth clubs. In order to ensure the continuing education centres so as to community participation, the village promote the literacy among them. An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 111

5. Financial assistance received the expenditure for the programme The state has received a grant of is ` 1,20,99,304 /- The details of the ` 1,20,99,304/- in five installments grants received from various sources are from the NLM. In other words, as follows.

Table 1 Grant-in-Aid received from Government of India S.No Year Source Amount Date of receipt Installments 1 1997 NLM 18,24,000 25/07/1997 Ist year Ist installment 2 2001 NLM 31,92,000 13/03/2001 Ist Year IInd installment 3 2001 NLM 32,13,000 18/11/2003 IInd Year Ist installment 4 2007 NLM 30,58,000 31/08/2007 IIIrd Year Ist installment 5 2007 NLM 8,12,304 27/09/2007 IIIrd Year IInd installment Total 1,20,99,304

6. Best practices adopted by the (c) Book collection drive programme To enrich the libraries of CECs and (a) Literacy wall to satisfy the reading interests of the In order to create conducive neo-literates, the community has environment, all the Continuing taken up book collection drive Education Centres have maintained wherein the used reading materials a literacy wall to sensitise the of all the standards were collected community on vital issues of the and placed in the CEC library for development in the community at wider use of the community. In large. These walls act as information addition to the above, all the centres were supplied with daily newspapers, window in the community. Puduvai Seithigil a monthly bulletin (b) Self-help groups published by Information and In order to improve the participation Publicity Department, Puducherry. and efficiency of the centres, self- Yetram a monthly magazine of State help groups were formed at the Resource Centre Tamil Nadu, 3 central level to ensure women's weekly magazines (Kumudam participation and also for the Ananda Vikadan, Kalkanda) and 3 empowerment of the women. It was monthly magazines (Kokulam, reported that there were 173 self-help Kathiar, Ambudlima, Marthuvar) groups attached to the continuing were supplied to all the centres. In education centres. These groups addition to the above periodicals a were instrumental in organising the set of 74 neo-literate books published women and have become means for by the State Resource Centre were their empowerment. also provided. Further, slates have 112 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

been issued to the neo-literates of empowerment themselves to Continuing Education Centres. participate effectively in the (d) Sports and play materials production and service sector to In order to promote the games and enhance their income. sports, all the centres were provided (h) The programmes functionaries in with carom board, volley ball and net, collaboration with other skipping row and Tennikoit and developmental departments have rings. organised polio drops awareness (e) Supply of radio, tape recorder and programmes, leprosy awareness sewing machine camp, national integration week, The materials i.e., radio, tape human rights day, flag day, eye and recorder and sewing machine that blood donation camps. were purchased during 1980 under The pattern of release of the grant- Centre Based Adult Education in-aid for implementation of the Programme have been supplied to the programme clearly shows that there was selective nodal Continuing an enormous delay in release of the Education Centres for enriching grants. This delay has its impact on the their activities. morale of the functionaries and in quality (f) Supply of bi-cycles of delivery of the programme inputs. All the preraks were provided with bicycles to improve their performance Section II and maneuverability. Evaluation of Programme Components Vocational training programmes (g) The present evaluation has made The state has organised short-term emphasis on the physical arrangement, vocational training courses in location of the centre, accessibility, selected communes for the benefit of acceptability, seating arrangements, the women groups of continuing facilities like lighting, drinking water, education centres with the state toilets, furniture, books and reading funds provided under multi-purpose materials, sports and recreational training institute. The institute has facilities made available to the centres. organised the programmes on Further, the quality of delivery of the embroidery, handicrafts, mat programme components in terms of weaving, candle making, chalk piece prerak qualities, ability, training, making, tailoring and embroidery, performance, relevance and suitability of agarbatti making, phenyl, washing the reading materials, newspapers and and detergent powder making, magazines supplied, community machine embroider, wire knitting, participation in sustaining the woolen embroidery, screen printing, programme, convergence of the centre terracotta dolls making, pickle and activities with other ongoing appalam making, soft toys making programmes, performance of the centre etc. These programmes have in terms of dissemination of the facilitated the women to information, mopping up activities and An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 113 performance, evaluation of target specific these, the location of the centres is programmes, organisation of cultural acceptable and accessible for the and games and sports activities etc. In target group. The space that is order to assess the above, the provided to the centres is sufficient information was generated from the for the beneficiaries enrolled in the stakeholders of the programme viz., the centres. participants, community, functionaries 2. Furniture: In view of the location of and administrators, committee members, the centres at the schools, all the SHG members etc., The information thus centres have adequate furniture collected was consolidated and presented such as tables, chairs, almirahs, under following broad headings. books racks etc. Further, the seating arrangement made available for the I. Physical and Infrastructural teachers and students were also Components utilised by the prerak and learners. 1. Location, acceptability, accessibility 3. Quality and quantity of the reading and adequacy: The location, materials: Maintenance of the library acceptability, adequacy of the centre and reading room is one of the suitable to the beneficiaries play a important functions of the greater role not only in attracting the Continuing Education Centre. The target, but also in retaining them for purpose of the creation of this is to longer hours and longer duration in create an educative environment the centres. Keeping in view of the wherein, the community can practice geographical conditions of the state, their skills and acquire the the Government of Puducherry has knowledge to satisfy their learning taken decision to locate the needs and to recreate themselves. Continuing Education Centres and Keeping its important role, the CE nodal CECs in the Government Centre is expected to keep a large Primary / Middle / High Schools, number of reading materials Madhar Sangam (voluntary catering to the needs of different organisations) and youth clubs. The sections of the community and also observation and opinion of the to maintain newspapers for participants about the location of the disseminating the latest information. centres revealed that majority of Further, it should also maintain a them expressed their satisfaction reading room where the community about the accessibility and adequacy can sit together and make use of in terms of space and seating their literacy to satisfy their lust for arrangements. At the same time, a learning. Keeping the above section of the people and the backdrop, an assessment was made observations of the investigators about the functioning of the libraries reveal that regarding the and reading rooms of the selected accessibility of the centres for women CECs. Though, it is a very important during night, they expressed their function of the CEC, the selected reservation about timings. Inspite of centres have 70 to 120 titles of the 114 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

books in the stock register. In reality, been supplied to the centres about all of them have become old and a decade back was not useable. appears not attractive to the Hence, the preraks have organised participants. However, all the centres the sports which do not require any have been supplied newspapers. In equipment and also by borrowing other words, the CE Centres are some of the items from the failure in terms of functioning of the community. The centres have library and reading room. organised the activities like caroms, 4. Sitting arrangements: The ring ball, kabaddi, musical chairs, comfortable seating arrangements lemon and spoon etc., where the are one of the pre-condition for participation of women was found to attracting and retaining the be more. On the whole, the centres participants in the Continuing were not able to discharge their Education Centres. The personal function in conducting the sports observation and information and games to promote integration collected shows that all the centres among the community due to lack have adequate and comfortable of sufficient, suitable and adequate seating arrangements in the form of games and sports equipment. In benches, wooden planks and clean case of recreational activities, the flooring where the participants can centres have conducted the spend their time comfortably. activities like singing competition, However, in two cases, the rangoli, drama etc. participants were made to sit in the verandah of the schools, where the II. Quality of Delivery of the school headmasters have not Programme Components allowed the CE to function inside the 1. Sustainability and community classroom. This was due to the participation: The Continuing reason that the some of equipment Education Programme was kept in the school has been missing. sanctioned initially for a period of five 5. Facilities : The personal observation years and it is expected that the of the team shows that only one centres should be maintained by the fourth of the centres have separate community themselves after reading room facility and rest of them cessation of the assistance from the are functioning in the single room. government. Further, in order to Further, there is no separate toilet enrich the activities of the centres, facility in the centres. The centres it is envisaged that the community are equipped with electricity, well should be involved and elicit their ventilated. And there is no drinking participation in formulation and water facility in all the centres. implementation of various activities 6. Sports and recreational facilities: In of the centres. In order to sustain case of organisation of sports and the programme, there is a need to recreational activities, it was found raise the corpus fund or supplement that whatever the material that has the facilities by the community to An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 115

enrich the learning environment in CECs effectively, inspite of the the centres. The interaction with the inadequacies in terms of books, community participants, committee sports materials etc., No doubt, the members, learners shows that the credit for the performance of the community participation is sporadic centres largely goes to the preraks. and limited to donation of books, Probably, the training imparted to participation in the meetings, them might have equipped them to facilitating the programmes in function effectively. arranging them, etc., In other words, 3. Planning and convergence with other the programme is being viewed as a ongoing programmes: Puducherry is government sponsored programme largely urban based and scattered in and the community is not owning the different parts of the southern states. programme. It was observed by the investigating 2. Prerak quality, ability, training and team through the interaction with performance: Prerak is the actual the stakeholders of the programme doer of the programme both inside and functionaries that there is a lack and outside the centre. All the of convergence with other functions envisaged for the programmes conducted by the Continuing Education Centres have developmental agencies. In other to be performed by prerak only. The words, the administration has failed quality of the Continuing Education to collaborate with other agencies for activities like the literacy promotion the furtherance of the programme. activities, library and reading Further, multi-purpose training materials, organising discussion institute which is directly under the groups, games and sports, cultural control of the deputy director, adult and recreational activities, education, which is expected to train dissemination of information and to the neo-literates in the selected act as an information window trades along with the functional depends on the ability and literacy was also found that it is not competency of the prerak. The profile catering to the needs of the neo- of the prerak shows that majority of literates, but, majority of the enrolled them are women, middle aged, are found to be educated. It is a clear belonging to backward castes with indication that the administration moderate income and less than HSC has failed to converge with ongoing qualification, married, self-employed programmes in the state. and experienced in literacy 4. Mopping up activities: The programme promotion activities. The profile of the authorities have reviewed the literacy preraks collaborates with the norms situation instructed the preraks and prescribed by the NLM for the nodal preraks to enroll the illiterates, selection of the prerak. All of them new entrants in the Continuing have been trained, acceptable to the Education centre to provide literacy community and found that they were on regular basis. In order to study able to discharge the functions of the literacy performance among the 116 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

participants enrolled in the shows that the centres do not have Continuing Education Centres, the adequate and relevant reading investigation team has designed a materials to attract the neo-literates literacy test and administered it to and to create learning environment 250 participants. The background wherein the neo-literates can characteristics of the sample shows practice. It is also observed from that majority of them were women some of the centres that the preraks (68 per cent) 20-30 years (52 per have handed over the old books to cent), backward castes (56 per cent), the programme administration as nuclear families (62 per cent) and they are not useful to the community. married (64 per cent). Majority of This is the clear indication about the them belong to lower income groups. quality and relevance of the books to The literacy achievement as per the the community. Further, in the NLM norm shows that 82 out of 250 absence of the learning environment, has attained the literacy norm i.e., it is doubtful that the neo-literates 32.80 per cent. In the case of reading, who have acquired fragile literacy 62 per cent have attained the during TLC and promoted in PLC minimum requirement. The period have been retained. performance in writing is 58 per cent 6. Target-specific programme: The and mathematics 52 per cent. Inspite continuing education programme of of this, majority of them could not Puducherry has organised all the attain the minimum aggregate target-specific programmes viz., score of 70 marks. This clearly equivalency programmes, individual indicates that the performance of the interest promotion programmes, mopping up learners is inadequate quality of life improvement and hence, the programme programme, income generating administration should take programme and future-oriented immediate steps to cover dropouts programmes. All these programmes and new entrants. have been organised as an integral 5. Quality and quantity of books and part of the activities of the quality of service rendered in running Continuing Education Centres. The library: All the centres have a library details of the programmes are as for name sake and supplied about 70 follows. titles of the books produced by the A. Equivalency programmes: state resource centre during early The equivalency programmes was period of the programme. After that, organised by the selected preraks by the library has not been supplied with encouraging the participants of their any additional books. However, in centres to enroll NIOS. Further, they some parts of the state, the preraks have also guided the participants to have taken up a book collection drive take the examinations for III, IV and for strengthening the CEC libraries. VIII standards. The information The personal observation and provided by the preraks and nodal opinion of the stakeholders clearly preraks selected for the study shows An Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme... 117

that 36 participants have been information provided by the selected identified and enrolled for the NIOS centres shows that 38 participants and they were helped to appear for have benefited from these the examinations. However, the programmes. The participants of the programme administration does not scheduled castes were found to be low. have the consolidated information Majority of the above participants about the participants appeared for have revealed that the programmes the examinations under the were need based and helped them to Equivalency Programmes. acquire the information relevant to B. Individual Interest Promotion their day-to-day life. Programmes (IIPS) D. Income Generating Programmes (IGPS) The preraks who are regularly The Continuing Education interacting with the participants Programme has organised income were able to identify the interests of Generating Programmes on regular the participants and have made basis in majority of the centres. The efforts to nurture the interests as sewing machines procured by the habits. In order to promote the directorate in the earlier programme interests, the preraks have organised have been distributed to the centres different activities such as painting, and learners were able to learn the knitting, drawing, sewing, dance, vocational skills. In addition, the singing of songs etc., The interaction multipurpose training centre of the preraks and learners and the sanctioned to the Directorate of Adult information available in the selected Education also organised the centres shows that nearly 42 vocational training programmes on participants have been benefited. regular basis. The trainees of the C. Quality of Life Improvement vocational training programmes were Programmes (QLIPS) found to be educated and majority of One of the important objectives of the them belonged to middle income CEC is to improve the quality of life of groups. The sewing machines that the participants of the programme and have been distributed to the centres the community as a whole. The during initial period of the activities of the centres were designed programmes, thorough servicing and to equip the learners with the skills, now majority of them are not knowledge, information and abilities functioning. Under income generating in communication so as to help the programme, 100 women have claimed learners use them in their day-to-day that they have been trained in dress life. In this regard the centre has making, pickle making, nutritious organised health awareness, drinks making, toy making etc. On the nutrition awareness, sanitation, whole, the participants claim that the drinking water, consumer awareness, quality of the programmes are found small family norm, in collaboration to be low (15 per cent), moderate (20 with the concerned development per cent) average (38 per cent), above programme functionaries. The average (20 per cent) and very good 118 Journal of Indian Education February 2011

(7 per cent). Among the beneficiaries co-ordinators to strengthen the only 15 per cent of them are using the monitoring and supervision. skills for enhancing their income and 5. The administration should focus on rest of them is using for self. the target oriented programmes and Suggestions the project officer of the Department 1. All the centres should be equipped should be given task to rejuvenate with a good number of reading the activities with adequate funds materials and magazines so as to and materials. attract the readers. Further, the 6. The programme administration centres should be provided with should visit the centres on regular televisions so as to receive the latest basis not only to monitor the progress information. of the centres regularly, but also to 2. All the centres should be supplied motivate the field functionaries to with games and sports and discharge their functions effectively recreational materials so as to by solving their problems there and promote the above activities. then itself. 3. The prerak should be re-oriented to 7. The Government of India and also the discharge his functions effectively State Government should take and they may be provided with new adequate steps to release the funds cycles in the place of old one. in time so as to stabilise the 4. The administration should take continuity of the programme without adequate steps to appoint commune any hindrances.

REFERENCES

REDDY ADINARAYANA, P. 2009. External Evaluation of Continuing education Programme of Puducherry, Unpublished report, Department of Adult and Continuing education, Tirupati. ——— 2009. External Evaluation of Continuing Education Programme of Pudukkottai of Tamil Nadu, Unpublished report, Department of Adult and Continuing education, Tirupati. REDDY, ADINARAYANA , P. and UMADEVI, D. 2005. Continuing education Programme, New Delhi: Aravali Books International (P) Ltd. MINISTRY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, National Literacy Mission, New Delhi: Department of Education, Government of India,1986 NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION, Continuing education for Development: Appeal Approach, New Delhi: Directorate of Adult education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, 1996 NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION , Scheme of Continuing education, New Delhi: Directorate of Adult education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India,1986 NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION, Towards a Literate, New Delhi: Directorate of Adult education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, 1998 Teaching through Stress Management... 119

Teaching Through Stress Management and Stress Proofing

A. SUDHARMA* LEKSHMI V**

Abstract

Reaching stress-free situation demands a balancing between the schematic prioritisation of the contextuality of phenomenological confrontations and dimensionalities of instructional decisions. The shadowing of the designed modalities of stress symptoms and modes of stressors in teaching scenario lead towards the centrality of ineffective teaching syndrome. In order to equip the teachers with the proximal curriculum transaction skills, it is necessary to downsize the stressful situations through stress proofing tactics.

Introduction negative physiological, psychological, Stress is currently an insidious cognitive and behavioural consequences phenomenon that must be recognised may result. Pressure due to curriculum and addressed in various professions, laod, inadequate administrative support, because of the complexity of present day poor working conditions, lack of society. Teaching profession is more resources and work overload have all prone to escalating levels of stress. The been identified as stressors among daily interaction with students and classroom practitioners and it results in coworkers, and the incessant and a grossful negligence towards reflective fragmented demands of teaching often pedagogic practices. lead to overwhelming pressures and Even though a negligible proportion challenges, which may lead to stress. of shadowing of stress is necessary, Where, work stress is unrelenting, some creation of extensive stressful

*Dean and Director, School of Pedagogical Sciences, M. G. University, Kottayam, Kerala. **Lecturer, Buddha College of Teacher Education, Muthukulam, Alappuzha, Kerala. 120 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 environment produces not only Stress is a substantial imbalance psychological disturbances but also between environmental demand and several harmful effects on the bio system the response capability of the focal of the individual. The physical and organism. psychological status of the teacher, who Modes of Stressors in Teaching is the ‘king – pin’ of educational scenario Scenario influences teaching-learning process and the moulding up of the future generation. Demands on teachers are increasing, The intensive stress declines the more work, more students and less time professional enthusiasm, affect the (Easthope and Easthope, 2000). Even quality of classroom teaching and results more demanding than the complexity of in complete breakdown, if proper stress teaching is the fact that teaching can also management techniques are not adopted. generate a high level of stress fatigue and A number of individual and lead to burn out. The external and organisational strategies like exercise, internal obstacles that block the progress relaxation, behavioural self-control of the individual towards a desired goal, techniques and cognitive therapy conflicts and pressures are major sources techniques have been developed for stress of stress. Contributing factors to stress management. These coping strategies will in the educational scenario include develop the individual to combat existing curriculum rectification, curriculum stress and burnout. But, developing an transaction, classroom management, immune system to prevent diseases in eligibility determinants, teacher advance is better than to struggle to effectiveness, professional development, overcome them. Hence, an effective policy pupil assessment, inappropriate facilities, framework which is plugged in with unclear expectations, demands from sufficient constructs for stress proofing administrative duties, increasing should be developed and practised. diversification of expertise, time pressures and deadlines, continual overload of work, Schematic Prioritisation of the learning difficulties of students, lack of Terminology peer cooperation, dealing with inequities Teacher stress is a phenomenon which and pupil stress, teacher pupil ratio and emerges due to the stressors. This lack of discipline. causes potential threat to the rationality These stressors are impinge upon in repertoire of teaching, resulting in a today’s teachers at every level and in general feeling of not being able to cope every type of organisation. The effects of with the academic and non-academic such stress can create physical endeavours. It leads to the contextuality problems (cancer, heart diseases, ulcers of emergence of stressful phenomenological etc), psychological problems (emotional confrontations or dimensionalities. outbursts, lowered self-esteem, Stress is an automatic, immediate resentment of supervision, inability to response of the body to any threat, make decision etc. and behavioural challenge or any kind of change which problems (tardiness, absenteeism, requires the body to adapt. turnover etc). Teaching through Stress Management... 121

The external and internal obstacles chest, nausea or abdominal distress, that block the progress of an individual feeling numb or experiencing a dry towards a desired goal, conflicts and mouth and urge to swallow repeatedly, pressures to achieve specific goals or to asthma, feeling dizzy, unsteady, behave in particular ways are major headaches, constipation, shoulder and source of stress. In the present back pains, sleep disturbances, educational context classroom decreased appetite, voice loss, weight management, curriculum transaction, loss etc. eligibility determinants, enterprenurial b. Emotional Symptoms skill development, teacher effectiveness, The emotional symptoms indicating professional development, assessment, stress are: feeling dispersed and down decision making, inappropriate facilities hearted, feeling detached from oneself, etc. are the major stressors. fear of losing control, intense Designed Modalities of Stress Symp- apprehension, fearfulness, increased toms irritability, tearfulness etc. Awareness about symptoms of stress will c. Cognitive Symptoms help teachers to assess themselves and The cognitive symptoms of stress are: to determine how they relate to stress reduced interest, decreased and burnout for them personally. concentration, defective linking of Symptoms of stress generally fall into four content and pedagogic practices, categories. bellowed level of competency, increased a. Physical Symptoms distractibility, difficulty in decision making etc. The physical symptoms of stress are d. Behavioural Symptoms caused by the hormones secreted by the body in a challenging situation. The Restlessness, withdrawal from inter- hormones namely, cortisone and personal interaction, extensive smoking, adrenaline raise blood pressure and the sleeping or drinking, loss of hunger, body prepare to react to the situation. If losing touch with friends, feeling isolated the problem is not overcome or when we in class, procrastination, obsessions, fail to overcome the stressful situation, indifferent behavioural patterns, these hormones and chemicals remain moodiness and grudges, etc. unreleased into the blood stream for a Integrated Model Depicting long period and results in psychosomatic Causative Dimensions of Stress illness and weaker immune system of Stages and Suggestive Strategies for the body. Stress Management An individual experiencing stress This model explains how an individual experiences physical symptoms like passes through different stages and muscle tension, heart palpitations, how he copes with it. Individual sweating or hot flushes, shallow or teachers are responsible for identifying erratic breathing, a feeling of being potential stressors, reducing or choked or a sensation with pain in the eliminating risks, and taking steps to 122 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 reduce stress when it occurs by reducing mechanisms. The scheme of developing a wide range of stress the model is shown below. Teaching through Stress Management... 123

Stress Management Tactics for stepping the obstacles in advance Conducive Learning Process instead of ploughing through them or Individuals and organisations cannot scrambling over them. remain in a continuous state of stress. Stress proofing the workplace is a Stress management tactics are aimed at process that works best where it is fully diminishing the physical, emotional, supported by both management and staff cognitive and behavioural burden that as a means of delivering improvements is linked to stressful situations in daily in individual and organisational life. Following are examples for stress wellbeing and excellence. Personal management tactics that can be wellbeing and teaching excellence should practiced by classroom practitioners: go hand in hand. ¨ understanding oneself The aims of stress proofing are: ¨ self-talk ¨ to achieve physical and mental ¨ skillful methodological orientation fitness ¨ resort to comfort tricks ¨ to relinquish unhealthy habits ¨ developing positive attitude and ¨ to be optimistic and positive action ¨ to achieve self-forgiveness ¨ optimistic thoughts ¨ to have a purposeful life ¨ forming effective resource groups ¨ to enjoy life and people ¨ work sharing ¨ to be alert and dynamic ¨ professional development ¨ to create positive imaging programmes ¨ to have energy and vitality ¨ introspective analysis ¨ to be confident ¨ personal organisation and The major areas which require stress responsibility of action proofing to acquire teaching excellence ¨ communication skills and listening are skills 1. Communication Systems ¨ interpersonal skills Communication is about talking and ¨ judgement of threat listening, passing and receiving ¨ stress monitoring information, and developing channels ¨ time management through which people feel free to express ¨ self-rewarding their opinions and ideas, and hence Teachers need training in conflict develop themselves. The formal and resolution skills as well as knowledge of informal systems of communication many stress reducing mechanisms they should be improved. The communication can employ to counteract the stress. system in school should enable to feel Stress Proofing that they are valued. Stress proofing is a process through 2. Time Management and Work Load which one can make himself stronger, Time pressures and work overload are fitter and more able to cope with the always very high on the casual factors effects of stress. Developing an immune of stress for any teacher. An organised, system proceed with a context of side efficient and effective approach to time 124 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 management is essential for all teachers. • practicing yoga and breathing Prioritisation of work helps to organise exercises time effectively. The workload should be • realistic self-assessment divided accordingly to the efficiency of Ideal frame of Action for Stress the teachers. Check 3. Staff Welfare In order to manage the stress There is a great link between working experienced by an individual, the first condition and worker performance. The step is to check the stress level and to head of the institution, management, identify the factors, which contribute. government and local authorities This section enable the readers for it. should take the necessary steps like • Well-defined objectives good remuneration, infrastructural • Appropriate communicative facilities, staff wellness programme etc. competency for staff welfare. • A sensible approach to time and workload 4. Team Formation • A pleasant working environment Teamwork links people each other and • Little ill health and low absenteeism through this, we can encourage • High levels of moral and motivation creativity in teaching, work sharing, etc. • A good image in the community The school must build group dynamic • Consistent and effective team work strategies to improve the teamwork. • Feeling of membership and loyalty in Stress Proofing through Life Style staff and pupils • Less conflicts between pupils Developing a healthy life style is as good • Designing content with a view to as an additional immune system. You develop desirable life skills can make yourself more immune to the • A positive sense of self as an active stress, and hence, less prone to the learner problem they generate. Prevention is • Skills of self-assessment better than cure and it is more effective to avoid stress than to treat it. In order Conclusion to achieve stress proofing, the lifestyle The physical and psychological status of should be changed. Following are some teacher influence and facilitate active stress proofing tips: construction and decontextualisation of • Internalising relaxation techniques knowledge, mediated by discourse of • effective stress checking pedagogical task of teaching to • taking long brisk walks regularly disseminate innovative ideas and • developing humour sense concepts for devising an appropriate • self-forgiveness teaching-learning paradigm. The long- • setting realistic and practicable term effects of stress not only affects the goals physical health but also results in a • timely and desired reactions decline of mental abilities and in • maintaining good social relationships appropriate behavioural patterns. The • developing assertiveness problem of stress is, therefore, needed to Teaching through Stress Management... 125 be tackled effectively by cooperation at conducted, and dynamic and pragmatic every level. Appropriate techniques for policies for their carreer development stress monitoring should be adopted should be adopted. In addition to formal based on the stress analysis. Stress- reward system, non-monitory rewards coping skills should be included in the and appreciation for better performance curriculum of pre-service and in-service should be introduced. Appropriate training programmes. Implementation of orientational and professional co-operative teaching and pre- development programmes should be assessment can make drastic changes included in the teacher education with respect to stress reduction in the scenario for stress proofing the teaching educational scenario. The curriculum community. Only through a well-knit rectification projects should be mechanism of stress proofing, teaching discussed in advance with teachers. excellence for conducive teaching- Periodic evaluation of teachers should be learning environment can be empowered.

REFERENCES

COLE,M. AND WALKER, S. 1989. Teaching and Stress.Philadelphia: Open University Press. COOPER,C.L. AND MARSHALL, J. 1978. Understanding Stress. London. Chapman Hall. COOPER,C.L. AND PAYNE, R. (Ed.). 1978. Stress at Work.,New York: John Wiley and sons LAZARUS, R.S. 1966. Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. Philadelphia: Open University Press. PESTORJEE, D.M.1992. Stress and Coping, New Delhi: Sage Publication. VARMA, R. 1998. Psychology of Teachers. New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. MILLS, SANDRA H. 2002. Stress Management for Teachers, Heinemann Educational Publishers: Jordan Hill. EASTHOPE, CHRIS AND EASTHOPE, GARY. 2000. “Intensification,extension and complexity of Teachers’ workload”, British Journal of Sociology of Education, Oxford: 21(1) pp. 43-58. BOOK REVIEW

Tricia Hedge. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom PUBLISHER: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW YORK , YEAR: 2008. PAGES: XVI + 447

Teaching and Learning in the Part I of the book titled ‘A Framework Language Classroom deals with the most for Teaching and Learning’, comprises basic question: ‘How are languages three units. Unit 1 titled ‘Learners and learned?’ There are 11 units in the book Learning, Classroom and Contexts, which have been grouped into four parts. raises issues that are basic to language Each unit begins with reflective teaching and learning, for example – the questions which set the tone about the tasks/activities should reflect the real issues that are discussed in detail. It also would outside the classroom. It also offers readers the scope to critically enlists interactive methodologies and examine these as the unit unfolds. appropriate materials. Quoting Krashen, Reflective questions are followed by a Chomsky, Capser et al Hedge asserts case study or a classroom situation that that for second language acquisition also provides further insight into the theme meaningful learning situations are of the chapter. The beauty of the book is important like in first language learning. that it does begin with theories. Concepts This implies a need for a range of are introduced with practical examples authentic materials for classrooms and and through real-life situations that encourages interaction in the classroom. teachers face. The text then explores and Errors, that are bound to take place puts together the insights based on because language learning is a creative research studies. These research classroom process, are seen as steps to studies are action researches and learning. classroom observations. Each unit In this process a positive attitude, concludes with topics and projects for aptitude and motivation are a must both discussion as well as activities that can on the part of the learners and the be taken up with the students. A list of teacher. The authoritarian role of the books with synopses is also given for teachers needs to undergo a change into further reading. The book has a complete that of a facilitator and a friend. The role glossary and bibliography at the end for of the learner and the design of the further reference. materials need to change accordingly. Book Review 127

This calls for teacher and learner certain activities will help learners reflect autonomy. Good teachers have always on their learning. This allows the teacher taken a positive critical approach to to plan, proceed and shape the learning appraising and developing their work process. Activities should thus be based on their experiences. planned in such a manner that the Unit 2 presents a brief review of the learners remain active throughout and syllabii and course books to demonstrate are also able to check their own progress. the extent to which communicative The role of self assessment is crucial part practice should become a part of every of language learning process because it classroom procedure. The importance of develops the capacity among the communication in case of language learners to carry on learning learning cannot be denied. Hedge quotes independently throughout life. Chomsky and Hymes to elaborate the Part II of the book focuses on point. As the goals for ELT are to enable ‘Teaching the Language System.’ In this learners to interact confidently, the section the author covers vocabulary and explanations of applied linguistics into grammar. Unit 4 deals with vocabulary. the components of communicative ability Recent years have seen a greater become more relevant for teachers and awareness by researchers, materials material designers. On the basis of these, designers, and teachers about issues different types of activities can be that need to be addressed with regard to designed such as information -gap vocabulary learning. In this chapter activity, opinion-gap activity, reasoning- Hedge also focuses on English language gap activity. and acquisition studies that tell us how A communicative class-room puts vocabulary is learned along with the teacher in a wider range of roles strategies and activities for vocabulary beyond teaching and learning. Group learning, and factors affecting works, pair work etc. require class vocabulary acquisition. Many factors management skills with communicative appear to play a role in vocabulary language teaching. The pressure to use development. If learners are to be authentic materials increases as exposed to a wide range of word contrived situations and language items meanings and associations, then it will do not work especially for listening and be important for them to encounter speaking skills. The tasks have to be words in a variety of contexts through chosen as per the interest, age and extensive reading and listening. One of cognitive level of the learners. the most severe criticisms of the Unit 3 is about ‘Learner Autonomy traditional practice of teaching and Learner Training’. Ideas about vocabulary that the author upholds is learner autonomy and learner training that of presenting words in isolation. have come to the ELT profession through However, she does advocate the use of two major sources of influence: research dictionary as an important classroom studies about second language and personal resource. acquisition and educational thinking of Unit 5 which focusses on ‘Grammar’ the last two decades. Hedge believes that begins with a pertinent question ‘how 128 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 authentically do you think grammatical the language but the most vital element structures are contextualised?’ The in listening is the confidence. The role of author quotes Krashen to underscore the teacher is to provide practice as that grammar can be acquired naturally much as possible in the classroom. The from meaningful inputs and author has provided a number of opportunities to interact in the activities that can be taken up in the classroom. She further discusses class both for ‘Bottom-up’ and ‘Top-down’ various approaches for teaching processes. Further, pre-listening, while- grammar along with their pros and cons. listening and past-listening activities will The main focus of the discussion is on be of great use to both teachers and different modes of presentation and the learners. importance of practice. Unit 8 is on Speaking. Developing Part III of the book is on ‘Developing speaking skills cannot be compared to the Language skills’ and they have been ‘conversation classes’. This notion which presented in the order of Reading, most people carry is not right. A holistic Listening, Speaking and Writing. Unit 6 approach to developing speaking skills is on Reading. The author begins needs to be taken into consideration and discussing reading as an interactive this includes pronunciation, the ability process. For example, in a news item the to speak fluently and accurately for a place and name enables the reader to variety of purposes. Various activities can predict the content of the news item be designed to develop fluency. Some using his/her knowledge of the world examples are, role-play, describing the around, and then language knowledge picture, finding the difference, enables the reader to read the text. It is discussions etc. Speaking activities are understood that second language the most demanding for students and readers will face difficulty but at least teachers, and class management is the they begin. In this chapter, a range of key issue. As Hedge points out - even reading styles and their usefulness for simple ‘pair-work’ needs planning, students have also been discussed. The monitoring etc. author makes the point that texts should Unit 9 is on Writing. It acknowledges be chosen to build the learners’ ability that there has been a departure from to engage in purposeful reading. traditional approaches. Writing is not Unit 7 is about listening and Tricia something that begins and ends as it is Hedge puts on record that in English put down on the page for the first time. language teaching, listening is the most Writing as a process requires planning, neglected/overlooked skill. It is assumed drafting, reading, revising and editing for that learners will automatically pick the accuracy. The process approach to language through exposure not realising writing will develop a sense of audience that exposure itself is too limited. An in the students. The very first step is audiolingual approach perceives encouraging students to discuss. The listening as the primary skill. According teacher should help them plan in a to this approach, presenting and flexible manner. Revisiting is an practising language forms will help learn important step to improve upon one’s Book Review 129 own written task. Though the product process approach and experiential approach enables learners learn to learning. But the author hopes that produce features accurately, such as use curricula should be designed on of passive in description of processes, the evaluative research studies. ‘Classroom use of relative clauses in descriptions of Assessment’ talks about integrating people, places, and systems etc. with assessment with the teaching and young learners, a process approach learning process. The involvement of the might be most appropriate. A product students in assessing themselves would approach would be more suitable for go a long way because it would lend an students who are good in writing but opportunity to the learners to reflect upon need to produce specific type of text, for their efforts and thus improve. example scientific report in English. Continuous and Comprehensive Therefore, identifying the writing needs Assessment provides a wealth of of the students is of utmost importance. information to the teacher to guide and Part IV is about ‘Planning and help the learners. Assessing Learning’ to deal with Course The book presents a comprehensive Design and Classroom Assessment. Unit overview of English Language Teaching X is on Course Design. The Role of the in classroom. It raises pertinent issues teacher in course design demands about teaching language and honing the greater teacher autonomy in transacting learners’ skills. It provides an insight the units/lessons. Mostly teachers use into classroom procedures for effective the Present, Produce and Practice model. development of language skills. Other formats, such as skill-based Pedagogical aspects of teaching and planning with basic ‘pre-reading’, while- learning have also been kept in mind reading, post-reading sequences can while discussing all the aspects of involve integrated skill-work. Topic-based English Language Teaching. Another materials are useful and these need to feature of the book is that it provides be chosen carefully. Materials should be sample activities which teachers can evaluated periodically. In this regard choose from for their learners. Thus, students’ feedback, teachers’ opinion, there is harmony between theory and observation are important. Teacher’s practice in the book. The book can be autonomy should ensure that the texts used as a reference book or as a source are chosen from the learner’s culture book by teachers and teacher educators and environment and are supplemented as it is by no means prescriptive; it with activities such as extensive reading, reflects on various practices and would drama, role-play, communication games certainly help in professional and debates etc. Classrooms tasks development of teachers and enable should reflect real life situations. Projects them to build a critical perspective on form a significant place within the English Language Teaching.

Kirti Kapoor DOL, NCERT, New Delhi-16 Reportage

Should We Teach Economics in Schools?*

R.SRINIVASAN**

Why Economics is not included in school quality for expanding quantity of curriculum? Why Law and Human teaching and learning. As a result, rote Rights are not included in school memory is preferred to learning to think, curriculum? Why Environmental apply and create ideas. Studies, as a separate branch of enquiry, With declining standards in apart from pure sciences like Physics, teaching and learning of all other Chemistry and Biology, is not included essential subjects, claim to include in school curriculum? Often these economics as a subject in school questions come from the subject experts curriculum needs a broad-based and not from those connected to school discussion without extra hours of education such as parents and teachers. teaching and learning. Nevertheless, This could be either an effort to find new assuming that economics should be employment opportunities for their taught in schools, an important question students or out of true concern that the that we need to answer is, ‘should domain knowledge in these disciplines economics be taught as a discipline or is essential for a school-educated citizen as a description of economy without in the modern world. references to theories?’ This article tries There is no second opinion as to the to find an answer to this question after relevance of teaching language, a slightly jaundiced survey of contents literature, mathematics, sciences, of economics courses in schools in UK, history, geography and civics in schools. the USA, Australia and India. Doubts are often raised as to the quantum and quality of teaching and United Kingdom learning in these disciplines in schools. Economics has been one of elective There are well founded criticisms that subjects for examinations at the ‘school many school boards in India compromise leaving level’ in United Kingdom since

*Paper Presented in National Conference on Teaching of Economics in Schools conducted by NCERT, Delhi on 4-6 March 2010. **Associate Professor, Department of Econometrics, University of Madras, Chennai. Should We Teach Economics in Schools? 131 early 1990. Usually the universities teach economics, not as a discipline of conducted matriculation examinations, enquiry, but more as a stylised and faculty members in economics explanation of everyday life, to make it departments were evaluating the answer more comprehensible and relevant to scripts. One of the earliest and major school children. reflections on teaching of economics in Obviously, Lionnel Robbins does not schools came from Lionnel Robbins in presume knowledge of economics as a 1955 (Robbings 1955). He was quite pre-requisite for the study of economics uncomfortable with teaching of at the university level. He even argues, economics as a discipline in schools. that knowledge of language and a little After evaluating the answers scripts of of algebra and geometry than economics school children, he found ‘a greater sense gained in school enhance learning of of immaturity of touch, of unreality of economics at the university level. He contents of cases.’ He traces a series of narrates that students who have not causes for this result. First he opted for Latin and Mathematics in emphasises that economics ‘is schools enrolled for economics in the essentially a subject for grown-ups at any universities, whereas his peers preferred rate if it is taught as anything like a students with such specialisations. His theoretical system.’ (Ibid.,580). To learn contention was that basics of economics economics as a theoretical system, one as a discipline could be taught in needs to have maturity to understand universities, whereas it would be enough whole system of complex assumptions to enable school students to intelligently and the reality of the world, which they read the newspaper. try to reflect. Another important issue is In 1973, the Report of the Joint that there is no unified theoretical Committee of the Royal Economic Society framework in economics. Every theory is (The Royal Economic society 1973), dwelt based on a particular ideology, hence into the question of teaching of value-judgements are inevitable, unlike economics in schools in Britain. Firstly, in pure sciences. As school children are without discussion, the committee not matured enough to learn these decided that economics should be complexities, often the textbooks taught in schools. Secondly, the inculcate bad intellectual habits of side- committee identified there objectives of tracking more relevant and difficult teaching of economics and examination economic propositions and indulge in at A level, namely (i) for students who awkward generalisations. Hence Robbins stop with school education, it should be argues ‘…(if) the economic instruction useful in future walk of life, (ii) for confined to a more or less descriptive students who take up other courses in explanation of everyday events and the universities and end up working in institutions with a certain amount of economic institutions, commerce and relevant history thrown in, I can believe banking sectors, it should be useful to that many of the objections I have set economic reasoning and enable further forth would largely cease to study of the subject for professional apply’.(Ibid.,502). Thus it is sufficient to advancement, and (iii) for students who 132 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 intend to proceed to its further study as income; (ii) working of banks, central an academic discipline in the bank, capital and money markets, labour universities, it should provide a solid market, government and public utilities, base. market economy and imperfections, Practically while there are three sets government to correct imperfections; and of students with distinct objectives, it is (iii) characteristics of economic data, difficult to segregate them as discussion measurement of change, distribution, about future course of action is not interpret causal relations and presentation taken till the completion of the A level of data and statistics. Since 1973, the examination. Further, the teachers in basic framework of economics syllabus the committee felt there was no difference for A level examination has not in the pedagogy for these different sets substantially changed. of students. Hence, the committee decided to give one economics syllabus The United States of America for the A level examination. In the USA, economics has been taught The committee opined that A level in schools since early 1900. The prime course in economics should be taught objective of teaching economics in school with the following objectives: (i) a capacity in the USA has been to impart economic to understand both in theory and in literacy, which refers to ability to apply application the principles upon which an basic economic concepts years later in economy such as that of the United situations relevant to their lives and Kingdom works; (ii) a general different from those encountered in the understanding of the more important classroom. economic institutions within which the In 1950, the American Economic national economy operates; and (iii) a Association’s report on introductory capacity to handle, interpret and present economics courses recommended that: the statistical evidence on which (a) economics course content should be economic decisions are reached. reduced; (b) economics should be taught The committee recommended that as a part of liberal art; (c) it should train teaching of mathematics and statistics students to use analytical tools to deal and their application in economics are with current economics standards; (d) it essential, but if taught in the economics should train students to follow current course, it would make the syllabus too news to enhance their interest in the large to be taught and learnt in a single applicability of economics, and the course. Hence, the committee quality of class room teaching should recommended a separate course of improve (Hansen and et. al. 2001). ‘mathematics and statistics for social In 1980s, the National Council for sciences’. Hence the syllabus for Economic Education (NCEE) developed 20 economics course for A level would standards that provide benchmarks for include: (i) opportunity cost, marginal economic learning from grade IV to grade principle, comparative advantage and XII in the US schools. These benchmarks trade, partial equilibrium of demand and reflect the graded understanding market supply, factor pricing, and national economy in the USA. Every state in the Should We Teach Economics in Schools? 133

USA has developed the economics syllabi being taught with the following expected for the grades IV to XII, based on NCEE learning outcomes: (i) able to collect, standards. The syllabi for high school arrange and interpret economic data; (ii) economies, include only those concepts able to understand and analyse the relevant to understand the market functioning of national and international economy and the minimum role that the economies and the forces at play; and government plays in facilitating such an (iii) able to understand the need for public economy. Thus in both UK and the USA policy to manage the economy and the the high school economics courses train impact of such public policies. the students in understanding the Thus, the content of economics system of their respective economics and courses in Australian schools is no gives little exposure to the theoretical different from those being taught in the frameworks in economics. This approach USA and the UK. The countries with is similar to what Lionnel Robbins predominantly developed market suggested in 1955 with regard to economies find it essential to train the teaching of economics in schools. students in uncritical understanding of market system. Australia The rationale for teaching economics The schools in Australia started teaching from Class VI in Indian schools emanates economics since the second half of 1900. from the National Curriculum The rationale for teaching economics in Framework 2005 (NCF 2005). The NCF Australian schools emanates from how 2005 states, “Social Science content economics as a discipline tries to needs to focus on conceptual enhance exploring and understanding understanding and should equip the cobweb of relationships between children with the ability to think economic institutions and problem. independently and reflect critically on ‘Economics investigates the choices social issues.” (Government of India 2005). which all people, groups and societies The NCF 2005 further states that the face as they confront the ongoing curriculum practices should be based on problem of satisfying their unlimited the values enshrined in the Constitution, wants with limited resources. Economics such as social justice and secularism in aims to analyse and understand the a pluralistic society. As such there is a allocation, utilisation and distribution of need to impart critical thinking skills science resources that determine our with a multi-paradigm approach to wealth and well-being. Economics teaching of economics in schools. develops the knowledge, reasoning and Understanding the multi-paradigm interpretation skills that form an approach to economic issues require a important component of understanding fairly higher level of maturity to personal, business and government understand abstract theoretical behaviour at the local, national and constructs as well as advanced global levels’. quantitative techniques to analyse The economics syllabi from level III economic data. As Lionnel Robbins had to level VIII have been developed and are said, this would be too difficult to teach 134 Journal of Indian Education February 2011 to school children even at the higher designed and graded in such a way that secondary level. there is a logical sequencing of topics The economics textbooks for Classes as the students move from Classes VI to X by the National Council for XI to XII. Educational Research and Training, New The Answer Delhi, give stylised facts and analysis of Indian economy. Thus the actual content The analysis of contents of economics of economic courses in Indian high courses in schools in the UK, the schools also, like those in the USA, UK USA, Australia and India leaves a and Australia, give an exposition to the sequence of questions for the national economy. But, unlike in those educationists to seek answers, if any economies, Indian economy being a meaningful economics teaching has to mixed one, the role of market is often take place in schools. changing in the different sectors and Economic theories evolve out of regions in the economy. There is a reactions to contemporary issues and dilemma as to the relative importance to economic theories have strong be given to market and the state as ideological bases. Thus, when no single economic agents, and giving a critical theory has universal acceptance, exposition to these economic issues to choosing a particular conceptual school children is rather difficult. Hence, framework will not impart critical we find a stylised exposition to Indian thinking, which is essential to economy is rather incomplete in the understand the social issues. In this economics syllabi for Classes VI to X. context, can we teach economic facts Even at the higher secondary level, and institutions without referring to any the syllabus is not designed to provide conceptual framework? If we have to gradual improvement in learning teach the Indian economy as a set of facts economics as a discipline when the and institutions, we will be giving an students move from Classes XI to XII. The uncritical account of Indian economy, syllabus for XI standard is totally without raising important questions, disconnected with the syllabus for Class say, about inequality and regional XII. Generally in Class XI, facts and imbalance. Is this not contrary to the NCF issues in Indian Economy are taught and 2005 objective of strengthening a system in Class XII standard principles of of education in a pluralistic society? The economics course are given with selected analysis of the economics courses in topics from microeconomics, schools in the four countries points out macroeconomics, monetary theory and that it is unwise to teach economics as a public finance. Often both the school discipline to high school children, authorities and students find it whereas we need to provide a discipline- convenient to start the principles course based approach, which is, teaching after a cursory look at the Indian economics as a discipline at the higher Economy text in Class XI itself. But is a secondary level. It will be quite good mixture of concepts and economic challenging to teach the facts and issues facts and issues are given can be in Indian economy to high school Should We Teach Economics in Schools? 135 children as there is a strong interplay of started experimenting with teaching of market forces and state control in India. economics in high schools; there should Drawing lessons from teaching of history be documentation of state-level as a social studies paper would be quite experiments in designing syllabi, instructive for designing economics creating textbooks, teaching methods courses for high schools. We have just and evaluation.

REFERENCES

GOVERNMENT OF I NDIA. 2005. National Curriculum Framework 2005, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi. HANSEN , W. LEE, MICHAEL K. SALEMI AND JOHN. J. SEGIFRIED. 2001. Creating a Standard-Based Economics Principles Course, WP no: 01-W05, March 2001, Department of Economics, Vanderbilt University. ROBBINGS, LIONNEL. 1955. “The Teaching of Economics in Schools and Universities”, The Economic Journal, Vol.65, No.260 (Dec.), pp 579-93 The Royal Economic Society 1973, The Teaching of Economics in Schools – The Report of a Joint Committee of The Royal Economic Society, The Association of University Teachers of Economics, AND The Economics Association, Macmillan, London.