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Welch Final Submission Right-of-Way: Equal Employment Opportunity on the Trans Alaska Oil Pipeline, 1968-1977 by Georgia Paige Welch Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Sarah Deutsch, Supervisor ___________________________ Edward Balleisen ___________________________ Dirk Bönker ___________________________ Gunther Peck ___________________________ Robyn Wiegman Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2015 i v ABSTRACT Right-of-Way: Equal Employment Opportunity on the Trans Alaska Oil Pipeline, 1968- 1977 by Georgia Paige Welch Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Sarah Deutsch, Supervisor ___________________________ Edward Balleisen ___________________________ Dirk Bönker ___________________________ Gunther Peck ___________________________ Robyn Wiegman An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2015 Copyright by Georgia Paige Welch 2015 i v Abstract This dissertation compares four programs to create equal employment opportunity on the trans Alaska oil pipeline construction project in order to demonstrate the ruptures and continuities between manpower programs to end poverty and affirmative action to eradicate race and sex discrimination. These four programs posited different subjects and strategies for equal employment opportunity, including a statewide affirmative action plan supporting minority men in the construction industry, federal hiring goals for Alaska Natives, a state “Local Hire” law establishing hiring preference for residents of Alaska, and corporate affirmative action plans for women and minorities. I use archival records and original oral histories with pipeline employees to examine the methods government officials and agencies, corporations, trade unions, social movements, and nongovernmental organizations used to fulfill their visions of equality in employment on the 800-mile long, $8 billion pipeline project. I bridge the gender history of welfare with the history of civil rights in order to show how liberal ideals of economic citizenship in the late 1960s that prioritized creating male workers and breadwinners served as the foundational impetus for equal employment opportunity. I challenge the standard historical narrative of equal employment opportunity in the US, which has attributed affirmative action for women to a logical, if hard won, expansion of positive liberal rights first demanded by the black civil rights struggle, then legislated by the state and implemented by state bureaucrats and corporate personnel. What this narrative does not account for is how the gendered dimensions of liberalism underlying affirmative action for male minorities were able to so abruptly accommodate women as workers and iv economic citizens by the mid-1970s. I find that, over the course of construction of the pipeline, women in nontraditional jobs on the “Last Frontier” emerged as symbols of the success of equal employment opportunity and the legitimacy of American exceptionalism. v Contents Abstract..........................................................................................................................................iv List of Figures ...............................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgements .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Introduction: Manpower Meets Affirmative Action................................................................ 1 Breadwinner Liberalism and Civil Rights........................................................................... 9 Welfare and Manpower Programs..................................................................................... 16 Nondiscrimination, Equal Employment Opportunity, and Affirmative Action......... 20 Structure................................................................................................................................. 22 1. The Alaska Plan: From Antidiscrimination to Affirmative Action.................................. 31 Inequality in Alaska ............................................................................................................. 33 Antidiscrimination and the Alaska State Commission for Human Rights.................. 39 Affirmative Action in the late 1960s and early 1970s ...................................................... 46 Creating the Alaska Plan ..................................................................................................... 52 Women Organize in Alaska ................................................................................................ 66 The Alaska Plan and Commission for Human Rights Falter ......................................... 68 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 73 2. Alaska Native Hire: Federal Funds at the Fairbanks Native Community Center......... 75 Political Mobilization of Alaska Natives........................................................................... 76 Creation of the Fairbanks Native Community Center .................................................... 81 Stevens Village Injunction against the Pipeline ............................................................... 86 Native Hire on the Pipeline................................................................................................. 94 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act and Self-Determination.............................. 97 The Comprehensive Employment and Training Act .................................................... 101 CETA Money Arrives in Alaska....................................................................................... 108 vi Employment Services at the FNCC.................................................................................. 110 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 115 3. Local Hire: Defining Economic Citizenship...................................................................... 116 Creating Local Hire ............................................................................................................ 117 Alaska Statue 38.40............................................................................................................. 121 Subjects of Local Hire......................................................................................................... 124 Outsiders Find Jobs on the Pipeline................................................................................. 126 Alaskans First!..................................................................................................................... 130 Enforcement Falls Short..................................................................................................... 136 Local Hire and the Rights of the Working Class............................................................ 139 The Department of Labor Redoubles Its Efforts ............................................................ 141 Local Hire Under Attack.................................................................................................... 145 Local Hire in the Supreme Court ..................................................................................... 152 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 157 4. Affirmative Action: Alyeska Makes Room for Women................................................... 159 Bringing Affirmative Action to the Pipeline................................................................... 160 Sex Discrimination on the Pipeline .................................................................................. 163 Alyeska Responds............................................................................................................... 169 A Second Chance for the Alaska Plan ............................................................................. 174 Expansion of Federal Regulation ..................................................................................... 177 Affirmative Action Goes to Washington......................................................................... 179 Alyeska’s First Plan ............................................................................................................ 183 Alyeska’s Final Affirmative Action Plan......................................................................... 185 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 190 5. Feminists in Hard Hats: Representing National Progress ................................................. 192 vii One of the Guys .................................................................................................................. 194 Women Tend to The Campfollower Family ................................................................... 200 Making the Pipeline a Feminist Frontier........................................................................
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