Concrete Box-Units for Housing

by Kay Louise Tinq

Bachelorof Architecture Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan June, 1962

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degreeof Masterof Architecture,Advanced Studies, at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, Cambridge,Massachusetts June, 1975

Author Department o Architecture BuildingSystems and Ipdustrialization

Certified by__ Thesis Advisor K \I!

Acceptedby Chairman, Department Commifte for GraduateStudents

JUN 121975) May 9, 1975

Dean Porter Schoolof Architecture MassachusettsInstitute of Technology Cambridge,Massachusetts

Dear Dean Porter:

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture, Advanced Studies, I hereby submit this thesis entitled,

CONCRETEBOX-UNITS FOR HOUSING

Respectfully,

Kay LouiseKuhne Ting Concrete Box-Units for Housing This paper is dedicatedto my family, my husbandSamuel Chao Chung andtwo daughters,Jeanne and Amy, for the tremendoussupport, patience, and understandingthey have givenme. Table of Contents

ABSTRACT...... 5 CHAPTERIV. MATERIALS& METHODS...... 75 INTRODUCTION...... 8 A. SomeCharacteristics of Concrete... ..76 CHAPTERI. INDUSTRIALIZATION...... 13 B. SomeMethods of Manufacture...... 88 C. Examples of Use of Concrete Units.. .. 92 A. Definitions...... 14 B. Advantages& Disadvantages.... 15 FOOTNOTESFOR CHAPTERIV...... 100 C. ManufacturedHousing Trends... 20 .. D. Types of Organizations...... 29 CHAPTERV. TRANSPORTATION& ERECTION...103

CHAPTERII. CONSIDERATIONS A. Transportation...... 105 AND CONSTRAINTS...... 35 B. Cranes...... a...... 110 C. ProjectOrganization...... 134 A. Financing...... 37 B. Codes...... 38 FOOTNOTESFOR CHAPTER V...... 136 C. LaborRelations...... 39 D. Marketingand Marketing...... 40 CHAPTERVI. REVIEWOF BOX-UNIT E. DesignProblems...... 43 STRUCTURES...... 139 F. ChangingRoles...... 45 G. PublicPolicy & RecentActivity. ... .46 CHAPTERVII. PROPOSEDOFFSET H. Public and Private Research...... 49 SYSTEM: STRUCTURE...... 155 FOOTNOTESFOR CHAPTERSVI AND VII...... 182 FOOTNOTESFOR CHAPTERSI AND II...... 52 CHAPTERVIII. SUBSYSTEMS& COMPONENTS..185 CHAPTERIII. DESIGNPARAMETERS OUTLINE..55 A. Subsystems...... 186 A. Basic SystemCategories...... 57 B. Components...... 198 B. Criteriafor SystemSelection...... 59 C. Outline for Performance FOOTNOTESFOR CHAPTERVIII...... 216 Characteristics...... 61 D. PlanningConsiderations...... 62 CHAPTERIX. APARTMENT& BUILDING E. Indicesfor ComparingSystems...... 64 TYPES...... 219 F. Costs...... 65 A. Introduction...... 220 G. CondensedVersion of 1973 FHA B. Box-Units...... 222 MinimumProperty Standards for C. ApartmentTypes...... 224 MultifamilyHousing...... 66 D. BuildingTypes...... 229

Acknowledgements...... 251

3 -0-gS--- -w-. -- -- -w_ Abstract

. This thesishas two main parts: the first The intentis to determinethe apartment is a generalintroduction to industrialization and buildingtypes which are possible and an attemptto discovertrends in housing; when using onlybox-units in combin- the secondis a documentationof the design ation. Each dwellingunit is comprised processand resultsfor CONCRETEBOX-UNITS of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 boxes. The system FOR HOUSING. shown uses two box widthsand fivebox- lengths,not includingoptional corridors Part I presentscurrent views of evolving or balconiesformed by cantilevering. industrializaitonin the housingindustry About 60 apartmenttypes are shown: these and somerecent statistics. Advantages and fall into threemain categories:end- disadvantagesare given,as well as consider- entry, side-entry, and corner-entry types. ations ofinvestment requirements, need for Practicallyall buildingtypes from high- aggregated markets,and the competitionof rise buildingsto single-familyhouses are alternate methodsand products. Existing possibleusing the OFFSETSYSTEM proposed. aspectsof thehousing industrysuch as financing,labor relations, organizational Subsystems,components, etc. are presented. types, codes,and regulationsare discussed. The systemhas severaloptions of use by Also includedare changingpatterns of changingthe type of wall and floor panels management,services, and public policy. from whichthe box is assembled. Many designvariations are possible. Part II detailsthe designdevelopment for a stackingconcrete box-unit systemfor Parkingand shopscan be includedby using housingthat is prefinishedin the factory. cast-in-place substructures or precast Limits of the material, manufacturing coordinatinggirders. Roof terracesand process, transport, and erection are gardensare possible, and with detail presented. One chapter gives load capacity changes,units can be set into hillsides. ratings for various crane types with charts. Additional roof structures can be set back 8'-8" from the buildingedge--or at The design process, including criteria other regularsupport intervals. The for system selection, is documented. OFFSETSYSTEM is shown to be adaptableto a wide rangeof buildingtypes and site conditions.

5 9

6 Scope of the Thesis: Design Section

1 COORDINATINGSTRUCTURE TO ACHIEVEDESIRED PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURALRESULTS. ABLE TO CANTILEVERAND ABLE TO GO CODINATE WITH FOUNDATIONOR CREATE WIDE RANGE OFFSET AT INTERVALS SUBSTRUCTURE AND ROOFTOP OF APARTMENT$AND BUILDINGS

2 DEVELOPINGA 'MODULAR' BOX-UNITWITH AS FEW MAJOR COMPONENTSAS POSSIBLE.

3 PLANNINGAND DETAILING STANDARDCOMPONENTS PLUMBINGAND VENT SPACE FOR BATHROOM, ELECTRICITY FOR HEATING. EXIT STAIRS ELEVATCRSAND VER7ICAL ICHENNDD UNDT NSIDERATMENTS LIGHTING,COOKING, ETC. V$ FLOOR1%) FLOOR SERVICECHUTES ANDSUBSYSTEMS. D L

4 REVIEWINGMETHODS OF MANUFACTURINGCONCRETE MOLDED TOP OR SIDE ELEMENTS ASSEMBLED PANELS SPRAY FORSIDES AND CEILING-INTEROR FORM BOX-UNITSAND PROPOSING A SOLUTION.

5 INVESTIGATINGMETHODS OF TRANSPORTAND ERECTION WITH IMPLICATIONSFOR 0ADAPTTO SLOPES IFTINGSTRESSES TRANSPORTSTRESSES SUPPORTFOR WORKERSON ROOF- CAN GO BELOWGRADE a SUPPORTPOINh$ WEIGHT & SIZE LIMITS WITHSTANDSBAD WEATHER BUILDINGDESIGN AND DURINGERECTION. SHORT TIME REQUIRED FOR FEASIBILITY. JONG BEFORENEXT BOX I8 R.ACED*

7 9

Int rod uct ion

When consideringhousing needs, some of the tion,and easeof maintenance)and in spite most importantquestions are: of its obvious disadvantages of weight and bulk,and difficulty in joiningand making What housingmethods or 'systems'are of closetolerances. 9 optimumbenefit and towhom? Sincesociety is complex,what forcesare interactingto A realisticapproach is taken: thatis, only determinethe actualoutcome? Can we predict productsand techniquesknown to existand or formulate a policy which will fairly deal believedto be feasibleare considered in the 9 with housing and related issues? designof the buildingsystem. Completely 9 self-containeddwelling units such as space- Unfortunately,there are no easy answersto capsulesor bee-hive-likestructural systems these crucial questions which should serve requiring mini-helicopters for its inhabitants as a guidelinein the desi-gnof a building are purposelyavoided. Furthermore, only systemfor housing. In the absenceof clear recent codesand regulations(BOCA, FHA, and 0 policy, one is left to consider trends and HUD)are considered. alternatives. 9 Attention was given to the total process of Historically,an evolvingtrend is towardin- manufacturing, transportation, erection, creasingindustrialization of housingcon- marketing, etc.--but not enoughtime was struction. One of the methods, representing availablefor making cost estimates that 9 a high degreeof industrialization,is the wouldbe reliable.No guaranteesor claims use of box-units. in favorof thissystem can honestlybe made. Onlythe actualtest on the marketplacein After consideringmany alternatetypes of competition with existing or experimental box-unitsystems for housing,including 'systems'would produce any proofin terms mobilehomes, it was decidedto limitthis of cost,performance, and consumeraccept- 9i thesisto the studyand developmentof box- ance. units constructedmainly of concretewith the objectiveof exploringthe feasibility Onlya 'system'for housingis developedhere. of the methodand its implications. An assumption is madethat a market will exist for thisspecialized building type. Concrete was selected as the material for its obvious advantages (resistant to fire, Certaincharacteristics of dwelling units lend f rot, vermin, and rust, economy of produc- themselves to the use of concrete which can be

8 formedinto largepanels or cells that can economies of factory production and cost- simultaneouslyperform the load-bearingand control but the most economical result space-enclosingfunctions. depends on a few versatile components.

These characteristicsare: Therefore, this thesis shows apartment plans and buildingtypes resultingfrom only two 1. Relativelyshort spans required. differentwidths and five differentlengths of boxes,not includingbalconies or corri- 2. Largeamounts of interiorpartitioning dors. Even thoughthe productionprocess required in the space. allowsa wide range of dimensions,and structural detailsare developedto allow the use 3. Comfortableroom dimensionsare known of spanningpanels and kits of parts,the and limitedin range. intentis to documentwhat is possiblewhen using only box-unitsin combination. 4. Need to changepartitions is minimal. In order to facilitatethe combiningof 5. Area servedby each utilitygrouping severalboxes, they had to be plannedso (bathroom,kitchen, stair, etc.) is small. structural supports occur at the same inter- The utility groupings are small and, vals and that provisionis made for linking dispersedthroughqut the structure. lines and pipes from requiredlocations.

6. Extensive"in-floor" 'in-ceiling" ser- The problemof integratingthe structural vices can be avoidedin dwellings. systemwith mechanical(HVAC and DWV) systems was compoundedby a desireto keep a total When consideringlow- and middle-incomehouse- depth of floor constructionbelow 12 inches. holds,the above characteristicsare especially relevant. These familiesconstitute the market A methodof offsettingpipes within the limits segmentwhich would most benefitfrom mass- of the bathroomor kitchencores was devised producedhousing units. to avoida hung ceilingthroughout the box- unit and to avoid embedding utilities within One of the main objectivesin the designof this the structure. 'system'was to find the fewestnumber of componentswhich would yield the largestnumber of buildingtypes apd configurations. Ideally, processescan easilybe changedto accommodate 'custom'design and still maintainthe declared

9 9

The subsystemsincluded are: Some of the largerboxes shown are likelyto be too heavyfor economicaltransport and 1. Foundations erectionwhen built of concrete. The weight 2. Electrical of a typical box-unit 14 feet wide and 36'-10" 3. Water Supply long is about35 tons--probablythe heaviest 4. Waste Disposal feasiblebox. Becausethe weightof the con- 5. Heatina& CoolingSystems crete box-unitis its main disadvantage, 6. Ventilation limitationsof trucksand cranesare investi- 7. Vents for Laundries gated. Concretemixes and varioustechniques to form box-units more economically are Componentsdescribed are: discussed.

1. Roof components The units can be combinedto form many building 2. Balconies typeswhich adapt to a wide rangeof climate, 3. Facades, end walls topography,and seismiczones. The unitsthem- 4. Bathrooms selvescan be set directlyinto the groundwhen 5. Kitchens appropriatethickness and waterproofingis -6. Closets provided. They adjustto the terrainand can 7. Stairs be modifiedto split-levelsand to includetwo- 8. Elevators levelliving areas. 9. Spanningpanels forcorridors, lobbies,laundry rooms, etc. By providinga cast-in-placesubstructure or 10. Windows and doors precastmodular elements to carry loadsfrom - above,parking and shops can be incorporated into the building. I

Obviously,plans shown here are also well suitedfor box-unitsconstructed of other materialsand usingother structuralmethods. The locationof the supportscould be retained Most of the subsystemsare independentof the in a suspensionbuilding, or in a post and structuralsystem. The has user or client a beam framingof lightweightmaterials. I largechoice of subsystems dependingupon requirements.

10 9 9 System Limitations

The proposedOFFSET SYSTEM is explainedin Someof the limitationsor disadvantages ChapterVII. "ProposedOffset System: Structure" of the system are: ChapterVIII."Subsystems & Components" ChapterIX. "Apartment & Building Types". 1. Weightremains the greatestdrawback. 2. Any concretesystem requires advanced The title may be misleadingbecause the system materials and jointing technology and works well for conventionalbuilding types, reliance upon expensive facilities which would comprisethe majorityof applications, and castingor moldingequipment. The as well as for 'offset'types terracedupwards establishedconcrete firms are already into hillsides, pyramids,or A-frameshapes or makingproducts for the urbanresident- as inverted pyramiddesigns. ialmarket with suchsuccess that little incentiveexists to introducea new Withinthe limitsof the plan types shownin productthat would not ne'essarily ChapterIX. "Apartment& Building Types", expandtheir market. the systemworks well. These plan types are 3. Regionswith a vernacularof stucco, compactyet allowgood circulationwithin adobe,and brick(such as the South the dwelling. They are mostlysuited for and the Westernregions of the USA) low and middle-income units, but the 13'-0" willaccept a concrete system first; recommendedwidth would still be suitable otherregions may takesome time. for the urban luxurymarket. The observation The systemworks best for the urban has been made, "Peoplewill stay where they poor and lower middle-income groups are before theywill go into...apartmentsat which can not afford it. $300 unlessthe living roomis thirteenfeet 4. Structurally, rotation of one unit wide and the bedroomtwelve feet wide."[1] uponthe otherat 90 degreesis not possiblewithout custom detailing. The 'product'is flexibleto the extentthat Also, floor-to-ceilingopenings are it adaptsto the widestrange of applications not possibleunless the overallheight that I could anticipate.However, this approach is increasedand a hungceiling used. is partlyabstract, since the manufacturer must also considerother than housinguses, flexibilityof the productionprocess also, and utlimately,profitability.

11 '4 4. 44 I. Industrialization

A. DEFINITIONS...... 14

1. Prefabrication, Modular Building, Rationalization,On-site Mechanization...... 14 2. 'luebookof Major Homebuilders'Definitions...... 15

B. ADVANTAGESAND DISADVANTAGES...... 15

1. Advantages:Shorter ConstructionTime, More Productivityper LaborDollar, Labor Availability, Productand CostControl, Purchasing Discounts, IndirectImplications, Use of Labor Force, Personnel,and ProjectedCost Benefits...... 15 2. Disadvantages:Workers dehumanized on Assembly Line, Transportationand Erection Problems, Threats ofMonopolies and Monotonies, OrganizationalChanges, and Less Choice...... 19

C. MANUFACTUREDHOUSING TRENDS...... 20

1. Causes of Recent Failuresin Modular Firms...... 20 2. CHART: MajorHomebuilders Share ofTotal Marketand Increaseof Industrialization...... 22 3. SurveyResults for Components,and MobileHomes...... 24 4. ConcreteBox-Units vs. Concrete'Systems'...... 27

D. TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS...... 29

1. Basic Types: Vertical,Horizontal, and Mixed...... 29 2. Advantagesand Disadvantagesof EachType...... 31 3. CapitalInvestment Requirements...... 32

13 I. Industrialization 'I

4. on-sitemechanized: low labor intensive equipmentand processesare used on-site, Industrializationof buildingmeans that human sometimesin enclosedshelters or 'fac- laboris replacedby mechanizedequipment to tories'. achievethe efficienciesof mass production: more for less in less time. Capitalexpen- Most buildingsare 'industrialized'to some ditureis the key ingredient,standardization extent. The measureof industrializationis and mechanizationthe main characteristics. oftengiven as the percentageof work done off-sitein the factory. In this case, the Industrializationof buildingcan be defined mobilehome is most highlyindustrialized, in many ways. CarloTesta proposedthe with almostall of the work completedin the definition: factory.

"Industrializationis a process,which by Of dwellingsintended for fixed foundations, means of technologicaldevelopments, organi- MODULARUNITS represent the most developed e1 zationalconcepts and methods,and capital today. investment,tends to increaseproductivity and to upgradeperformance."[2] "An advancedmodular box system should 'in- dustrialize'the major portionsof the and he sets forth four forms of industriali- structural,mechanical, and electricalsystems zation used today: as well as the interior and exterior finishes. Since these activities account for 75-95% of 1. prefabrication:manufactured parts the total construction cost in typical apart- which are assembledto producethe ment projects, the assumption that, on the predesignedbuilding. average of 75%could be industrialized leaves a reasonable allowance for site work, founda- 2. modularbuilding system: interrelated tions,on-site trim out, connectionsand componentswhich are assembledto pro- installations."[33 duce an infinitevariety of buildings. The modularBOX-UNIT, is one of the most 3. rationalization: the applicationof interestingtypes of industrializedbuilding managementtechniques in all possible systems,because of the extentto which it * ways to improveproduction, efficiency, can be finishedin a factoryand transported profits,etc. to its destination, but rationalization of

14 9 buildingand on-site buildingprocesses are on interestand interimfinancing, quicker equallyvalid--industrialization by factory work turnoverof the builder'scapital, and is not by itselfa housinggoal. earlieroccupancy.

"The Bluebook of Major Homebuilders, 1974" places 2. MORE PRODUCTIVITYPER LABORDOLLAR industrializedhome-building into three cate- Factorylabor can be unskilled,i.e., paid gories: low wages. Yet both unskilledand skilled laborbecome more productiveunder con- a A three dimensionalmodular unit shippedto trolledconditions and supervision,and the sitecomplete and installedon a permanent with using mechanized equipment. It is foundation with a minimumof on-site labor. estimatedthat 250 skilledman-hours in More than one "box" may be used to make a the field will be replacedby 150 unskilled complete living unit. man-hours in the factory. [5]

b A componentizedpackaged house shippedcom- 3. LPBOR AVAILABILITY plete to the site, usuallywith major parts Labor is not alwaysavailable when and where (trusses,wall panels,cabinets, mechanical it is wanted. A factory situation, with more core, etc.)fabricated to some degreein steadyand predictableworking conditions can the factory--butnot necessarilythree increasethe numberof personswilling to dimensional.On-site labor is used, but to enter the housingindustry. One location a lesserdegree than conventionalconstruc- of work, requiringless training,less tion. hazardousconditions, is added incentive. Accessor right-to-workis easier,espec- C A pre-cutpackaged house, most of which ially in non-unionsituations. requires some degree of on-site fabrication (trussesand minimumwall panelsmay be 4. PRODUCTCONTROL included,however). On-sitelabor is used Complexand high-qualityproducts can be con- to a greaterextent than in "B" above,but sistentlyproduced and inspected.A single to a lesserdegree than which is considered sourceof responsibilitywith scrviceguar- conventionalconstruction. [4] anteesis possible. Carefuldesign can reduce material consumption. However,the advantagesof using industrialized housingmethods requiring a minimumof on-site 5. PURCHASINGDISCOUNTS labor are: Since purchases 'can be made under annual contractsto avoid volatileprice changes, 1. SHORTERCONSTRUCTION TIME protect against slow delivery, and reduce Due to the pre-finishedproduct, less need for largeinventories against contin- dependencyon weatherconditions, and gencies, "the real economies are in, schedulingcontrol. This means savings purchasing, not in labor savings."[6] This 15 Construction Time Comparisons

PqECONSTRUC 6 CONSrRL CTION 20 i3 16 i E! Il) I 2 4 16 61 II) I2 14 16

...... 1bid. 36|mophth Cbnvintinll Apart rien MothWd A

...... I...... -S.U ------29 rronths ,o Co creteirit Par 4

777-IZW WT~

118_onn ths B0{ Systm 0

Source INDUSTRIAUZEDHOUSING FEASIBIUTY STUDY Herrey,A. E LitieW. MIT Press 1971 Cambridge,Mass, i

Adapted with permission

16 can amountto a discounton materialsof Since so few largeprojects have been built 15-25%since the largeindustrialized housing usingthe more advancedsystems, and because producercan bypassthe materialsretailer and firms do not want to revealcost information-- buy directlyfrom the wholesaleror manufac- only very rough estimatescan be honestlymade. turer.[7] Accordingto P. A. Stone,writing in 'Building 6. INDIRECTIMPLICATIONS Economy',Pergamon Press, 1966, "Thereis no Less materialis lost from theft,vandalism, evidence either from the Continent or from or damage. Thereis less need foron-site Britain that the prices of the system built staff and supervision.Less workmen,fewer houses or flats are any less than those for hazards,and less risk tend to lower insur- traditionally built dwellings. ... There ance and bondingrates. Risk of strikes is also generalagreement that, as buildings, and contractordefaults and delaysis they functionno betterand often not as well lessened. as traditionallyconstructed buildings.Their attractionat the presenttime lies, in fact, 7 USE OF LABOR FORCE in the possibility of using them to increase The housingindustry can employmore people the totaloutput of the industry."[9] in the long-runif the productreaches a largermarket, and may help to lessen David Eacret thinks that 'factory-built hous- seasonalfluctuations in the volumeof ing could retail for 16-17% less than housingproduction. Providing the con- comparableunits constructedin the field'.[10] structionwork over the entireyear raises employmentof the averageconstruction BernardD. Stollman estimatesa savings of 11% workerfrom 1,400 to 2,000 hours annually comparingconventional highrise housing with -- a 43%increase. [8] industrializedhousing under favorablecondi- tions,which is achievedfrom:[ll] 8. PERSONNEL A missing memberof an on-sitecrew of +15% Lower factorywage rates taking specialized workers can disrupt the whole into account increased efficiency. team. This is less likely in a factory situation.Higher priced white-collar + 3.75% Reduced construction cycle personnelare requiredhowever: technicians, well-trained managers,and - 7.5% Extracost of amortizinga materials specialists. factoryover fieldoverhead.

There has been much speculationabout the actualcost benefitof 'industrialization.'

17 "If presenttrends continue, a greaterper- b. Higher first costs may indicate higher centageof the total housingpackage will quality or reduced life (operating and be made in the factory,especially if maintenance) costs. "fieldlabor is continuallygoing to in- creaseat 10% and shop labor at 5%."[12] c. Housingdemand and supplyis not directly proportionalto lower costs--variations No claimsfor successfor any systemcan in mortgageavailability and rates and be made withoutconsidering HOW it is used. availableland are more important. Eco- A systemis only one of the toolsused to nomic contractionsor expansionsare achieve housing objectives and only one of initiated outside the residential sector the means used by managementto make a by corporationsor government.[14] profit. In this country, profitability is the ultimate yardstick to measure a d. Low cost units are not always the most system's success. profitable,and certainlynot the most easily marketable. Economy--especially,total low life cost-- is the key ingredientfor a successful e. Personstend to want an improvedproduct system,assuming all othercriteria are at the same price as the old product-- met. In addition, for every construction ratherthan the same productat a lower dollarsaved, there may be addedsavings price. in reducedoverhead and profit,interest on loans,tax assessments,architectural f. Industrializedhousing will notcost less and engineeringfees, and otherdependent in the futuresince all costs are rising-- cost items. it can only help contain costs!

Yet, the following considerations should g. Reductionof costsdoes not necessarily be kept in mind: mean a corresponding reduction in price to the consumer--especially if the market area a. Construction costs account for only a cannotaccommodate sevcral competitors. small proportion of all housing costs. "The cost of money, management,and taxes accountfor approximately5/12, while 3/12 is the cost of the land. So 8/12 or 2/3 of the total cost to the consumerdoesn't really come from the physicalthing called "houseit- self." [13]

18 WalterMeyer-Bohe believes that the deep- Some other disadvantagesof changing seateddevelopmental causes favoring the to the mass productionof housingare: advance of prefabrication are: 1. The threat of monotony. 1. Socialchanges tending toward abol- "Housingis a dominantaspect of ition of class differences and our environment.Its capacityto equalityof living habits.Rising dehumanizeis evidentin the end- expectationsabout one's housing. less tractsof monotonoussuburban 2. Loss of individualityin society. homes. As teams are organizedto 3. Conceptof total planning. produceshouses in quantity,therefore, it is essential that those His list of negative aspects includes: which are concerned with social and environmentalvalues participate."[17] 1. Specializedwork on anassembly line is inhuman and stunts manual skills. 2. Organizational changes. 2. Separation of production and "As governmental and corporate assemblygive rise to transportation agenciesmove into thehome-building problemsand costs. industry,the oldarchitect/client/ 3. An industrialmonopoly can arise; buildertrio becomesobsolete. In its becoming a public charge during place are managementteams, economists, a depression. marketanalysts, system analysts, eff- 4. Structuralsystems have not pro- iciencyexperts, production specialists, gressed. [15] manufacturers,transporters, and computer programmers'.'[18] The potential of Ada Louise Huxtablepresents a more monopolies, extinction of "little" criticalviewpoint on industrialization: entrepeneurs,and inefficiencyand inertia of bureaucracy can result. "The gospelof industrializedhousing demandsrevolution. It cannotwork with- 3. Less freedomof choice. in the establishedsystem. It takeson A few large companies,once established, existingpractice, labor unions, custom could lower pricesto eliminatethe and evenlife stylewith missionaryzeal. smaller competitingfirms. When the It would requirethe total reorganization competitionis removed,prices couldgo of the building industryinto a coordin- up--andthe consumerwould have no ated, vertical,production-shipping- choicebut to acceptthe productsoffered. assembly format. "[16]

19 The causeof recentfailures in the modular Information is not readily available housing industry are given by Alan King and which gives detailed reasons why firms James McMillan as: manufacturinghousing fail.

1. Emphasison productiontechniques rather Generalizedconclusions have limited than on marketingand consumerneeds and valuesince the "industrializedhousing' preferences. industry is a fragmented group with 2. A plant too large for the market. In all types of productsand stylesof 1971, only one-fifth of the industry organizations. capacitywas beingused; in 1972, only one-third. For example, the modular firms described 3. Undercapitalization:Most former by A. King and J. McMillan belonged to a producers who failed were over- categoryof producersrepresenting only optimisticabout sales volumeand about 16%of the total 3,578 firms went bankrupt trying to finance currentlymanufacturing housing. Systems unsoldfinished units. buildersrepresent 11%, Packagedor 4. Inefficiencyin the on-siteportion Componentsuppliers about 45%, and Mobile of the buildingprocess. Foundations Home producersabout 28% of the total must be built,dreiveways paved, and numberof firms listedin the DIRECTORY utilitiesinstalled. Aside from CENSUS,and shown on the chartopposite. controllingsite-preparation timing and quality,the producermust schedule the erection crew to arrive at the same timeas the expensive moduleand erectionequipment. Transportationuncertainties cause this to be a weak link in the process. 5. Declinein governmentsupport for low- cost housingsince 1972. Many modular producers entered the industry to producelow-cost housing under FHA 235, 236, and Farmers'Housing Administrat- ion programs. As thesegovernment funds becamescarce or unavailable, producers were unable to find buyers. [19]

20 NUMBEROF FIRMSCURRENTLY MANUFACTURING HOUSING

Change 1974 Change July-Dec. 1971-1974

67 Modular/Packaged -4 -15 104 Modular/Mobile 14 -48 386 ModularOnly 15 -71 388 SystemsBuilder* 31 287 659 PackagedOnly 29 39 960 Components 175 NA 1,014Mobile Homes Only 31 371

3,578 CurrentManufactured Housing Firms Listed in Manufactured HousingNewsletter's DIRECTORYCENSUS**

*Precast,prestressed, and metal buildings

**Source: IndustrializedBuilding, Professional Builder, Magazine, March, 1975, p. 117.

21 e

- MAJORHOMEBUILDERS SHARE OF THE TOTAL MARKET 1965-1974

P080,000 2)50. 24)O04)0-

,7000000

1,546P00

1,5004)00- l,46700

1,96.00

IpoopoO--

37% 28%

24% 2% FACTORYBUILT 23% 2% MODULARUNITS USEOF BASIC 20% COMPONENTS 500,000- 18% UNITS OFFSITE FABRICATED 20% MAJOR PARTS 11% 12% -- 2 % 7% 10%/ --% CONVENTIONAL 1% 63% ON SITE CONSTRUCTION 13% H I Q.1 175FIRMS 225 FIRMS 275 FIRMS 300 FIRMS 400 FIRMS 460 FIRMS 475 FIRMS 500 FIRMS 600 FIRMS (PROJECTED) 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

DEGREE OFINDUSTRIALIZATION BY MAJORHOMEBUILDERS 1969-1974

(RESPONDINGBUILDERS WITH VOLUME OF 200 UNITS OR MORE) SOURCE- 1974 BLUEBOOKOF MAJOR HOMEBUILDERS

Adapted with permission

22 The gradualchange in both the shareof "The insurance and financial institutions no the totalmarket claimed by major home- longer want just a mortgage,they want owner- builders and their increasing use of ship and participation. They want to control prefabricated methodsis shown on the theirmoney for the long rangeinvestment and chartopposite. see that it is properly managed."

Most advancesin prefabricatedmethods "Generalcontractors find that more and more occurwhen establishedconventional work is beingnegotiated and not bid. Such firmschange to new productsand pro- changesare significantand will have tremend- cedures. New firmsalso continually ous impact. The customerwants single-point appear, acquire others, develop capital responsibility.Because of this, the contract- depth,improve, management and build ors are having a great deal more say with ref- up marketingand distributionmechanisms. erence to specifications and utilization of products. So, unless the customer and contract- Many authorsand tradespeopleemphasize or can be made a part of the team.for developing the continual evolutionary-process to- standards and acceptance, we can anticipate wards increasing industrialization of problems in marketing." housing. Ups and downsin the economy, shakeupsand bankruptcieswill be part "Everyone is playing with building systems-- of the process. even governmentagencies which controllarge buildingsegments. Mobilehomes and section- James R. Hyde extendsa parallelfrom, alizedhomes are the vogue. Low-costhousing the auto industry and points out "... is constantlytalked about, but littleaction few rememberthat, in 1921, there were is takenbecause production and technologyis 522 automobile manufacturers". not enoughto beat the battleof inflation and the many profit centers now constituting He states"Our fragmentedindustry seems the industry." to be becomingless and less fragmented. Architectsare hiringengineers, and en "Finally, as far as trends are concerned, the engineers are hiring architects. Both average builder is just tired of keeping up are becomingbuilders. Buildingfirms with this presentactivity because our technol- are hiring all three. We have major ogicaldevelopments are acceleratingvery capitalcoming into the industry. Ra rapidly. The essentialquestion each fragmented Realtors and land developers are div- groupmust answeris, 'Wheredo we want to go?'"[20] ersifying."

23 COMPONENTSAND PANELS MOBILEHOMES

Accordingto a recentsurvey of 503 builders Accordingto theJan. 10, 1974 issue conductedby PROFESSIONALBUILDER Magazine's of EngineeringNews Record,one out researchaffiliate, the Bureauof Building of every three single-familyhouses MarketingResearch (BBMR), use of components sold in the U.S. had wheelsbeneath it. is way up. Since an averagemobile home costs just Of all builders, over $7,000including furniture,appliances,and carpeting,producers claim they 80.5% use roof trusses are not in directcompetition withthe 32.0% use exteriorwall panels home-builderstypical single-family 31.4% use interiorwall panels house averaging$33,000 but includingland 83.3% use manufacturedkitchen cabinets and excludingfurniture. A conventional 78.5% use prehunginterior doors housecosts $16 per sq. ft.without land-- 48.5% use prefabsteps or stairs a mobilehome costs$9 per sq. ft. 0 The survey alsogives otherdetailed uses and Banks are anxiousto loan money for mobile 9 yearly increasesof componentuse from 1969. [21] homesclassified as chattel with annual A trend for smaller builders to drop their own interest rates of about 13%over 10 years. componentshops and buy from othersmay be one According MHMA mobile homes of the reasonswhy the totalnumber of units to figures, accountedfor 97%of the single-family 9 producedby housingmanufacturing firms rose market under $15,000 19% from the 1st to 2nd quarterof 1974 while in 1972---excluding 9 housing built by owner-builders and housing the numberof housingstarts remained un- builtfor rent. They had 80% of themarket changedat an annualrate of 1.5 Million.[22] under$20,000 and 67% of the market under $25,000.[24] old 28 Accordingto BBMR estimates,panelized/packaged buildingproduction hit a levelof 375,000units About half of the double-widemobile home in 1973,went to 400,000in 1974 and shouldbe productionconforms to conventional 450,000units in 1975. They predictone out of housingcodes, is placedon foundationsas four new housingunits next year will be a real property,and is financedwith mort- panelized/packagedhome. [23] gages. About 100,000double-wide homes were builtin 1974. [25]

24 MODULAROR VOLUMETRICHOMES

Mobilehome shipmentsdropped 12.7% from Historically,modular housing has lacked the 1973 level of 567,000units to 495,000 flexibilityin the marketplace.Currently units. The estimatedshare of the market 88% of the firms producing-modular or 3-D for 1975 will be below 50% for the first volumetrichomes build residentialsingle- time in the decade. Predictionsfor the familyor multi-familyunits. Another21% shortterm trend are shown on page 26. [26] offer vacationhomes, and 31% market commercialmodular units. Thepime areas order to improvesales and gain In of modularhome successare stillin the acceptancein municipalitiesother than rural areas--remote labor-poorareas where rural areas where land is cheap, manu- scattered building prevails. facturersare stressingthe need for lot [27] improvedperformance and appearance. Like other forms of factory-builts,modular Therefore,it is no surprisethat productionis concentratedin the East- mobilehomes are approachingthe North-Central and South Atlantic Regions. appearanceof conventionalhomes 40% of all producers of modular housing are with 'double-wide'units andthat located in these regions, accountingfor the producers of modular or volumetric 48%of all modular production.[281 homes try to emulatethe abilityof the mobile homeindustry to keep Accordingto the estimatesby Professional controlof costs throughmore BuilderMagazine shown on page 26, their efficientproduction in the factory. share of the total manufacturedhousing market is expectedto decreasesignificantly.

25 1973 1,057,000 UNITS 1974 975,000UNITS 1975 1,000,000UNITS

53.6% 50.8% 47.5% MobileHomes & MobileHomes & MobileHomes & Double Wides Double Wides Double Wides

10.9% 8.2% 7.5% Mod lar Modula ar 35.5% Panels 41.0% 45% Panels Panels

SHORT RANGETRENDS ESTIMATED FOR PRODUCTIONOF MANUFACTUREDHOUSING, 1973 to 1975

Source:"Manufactured Housing Potentialsand Projectionsfor 1975" PROFESSIONALBUILDER MAGAZINE, November, 1974, p. 102

26 9,4 'Modular'production of concretebox-units is Accordingto BuildingDesign and Construction insignificantwhen comparedto productionof Magazine,the "wholedevelopment has come mobilehomes or double-wides.The box-units alongquietly until very lately. But it has which are producedare beingused for hotels, alreadycaused a considerablechange in the motels,hospitals, and only a few single- thinkingof architects,engineers, and family homes.(See Pages 94-99 for details of owners. And it is bringinga new kind of firmsusing concrete box-units.) 'contractor'into the picture: the concrete prestressersand precastersthemselves find However,most of 'systems'*building is it easierto guaranteetheir productsif concrete--precast/prestressed firms are they also have responsibilityfor erection emerging as a big force in the construction with their own crew and supervisors.What's industry--morethan $2 billionworth of work happeningis that for nearlythe firsttime annually. Much of this marketfor townhouses, in the long historyof construction,a apartmentsand condominiums,resort-type singlefirm is able to 'manufacture'a constructionas well as officeand commercial' buildingfrom groundlevel to top and stand structures. behind the product." [29)

*Systemsbuilding is looselydefined as a procedureunder which all parts of a building are manufacturedunder factory-controlled ccnditionsin such a way as to form a whole structureassembled either at the site outof parts or out of completeunits. The building is consideredas a seriesof packages: the structuralframe, the mechanical-electrical system,the outer skin, etc., each of which must fit with the other 'packages'and which may or may not be bid separately.Most concrete firmscan supplyall sub-systemsexcept the mechanical-electrical system. 27 0<

28 9 TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS

Modularhousing unit producerstend to be one of the nation'slargest building com- organizedin the followingways: panies with 1971 volume of about $77 million.[30] 1. As land-developersand builders.[Vertical] (The moauiarproducer integrates forward 2. Aq sellersto independentagents. [Horizontal] into land developmentand building,or rroaucersfollowing this strategyhave the land developer-builderintegrates generallyconcentrated upon two dissimilar backwardinto modularproduction.) markets: the single-familymarket in rural and semi-urbanareas; and the multi- Only a few largecompanies have the familypublic housing and governmen-al abilityand financialresources to do market. this successfully, because it requires large amountsof capitalin additionto There are severaladvantages to this skill in judgingmarkets, timing of land strategy: sales are generally in areas purchasesand in tailoringproducts with which offerminimal resistance through appropriatefinancing packages for local localbuilding and zoningcodes; skilled markets. There is no guaranteethat constructionlabor is oftenscarce or the developerwill be able to securethe unavailable,giving an edge to construc- localapprovals which must precedethe tion whichminimizes on-site labor; physicalsite preparationand placement foundation preparation can thus be of factory-built modules. generallystaged to permita plan to reachefficient production levels; DELTONACORP., is an example. It has erectionof a unit at the site is sim- locatedone of its two plantsat one of plified because cranes are not required its large retirement communities in in many instancesand complexstaging of Floridawith expectationsof selling many modulesis eliminated."t3l1 both houseand lot to retireesfrom Northern states.

NATIONALHOMES, too, followsthis Many independentbuilder-developers in strategyto an extent,selling some these areas do not have even a minimum of its modulesto in-houseNational ready cash (5%-10%)to place firm orders HomesConstruction, which in itself is to modular producers; sometimes the

29 9

builder-developerdoes not have resources buildinga high-pricedcondominium proJect to pay for a unit even when delivered. in the plannedcommunity of Reston,Va. Three othercompanies also build apart- By far the largestnumber of successful ments with their systems and sell to modular producers are in this market. others. They are all concrete-based systemsoperating in tho highrise market: 9 "Publichousing production is not the answer DEVELOPMENTINTERNATIONAL CORP., FOREST to the site controlrequirement, as the CITY ENTERPRISES,and BUILDINGSYSTEMS. [33] experienceof STIRLINGHOMEX illustrates. StirlingHomex accepteda numberof con- tractsfrom publichousing agencies, many Accordingto the callingfor no progresspayments but NAHB publication,"Profile of paymentonly when units were finally the Builderand his Industry,"of the home- erected,and found aftermanufacturing buildersproducing more than 200 units in 1973, the unitsthat erectionon foundations could not be completedfor a varietyof 83% are also activein land development reasons." 48% are engagedin commercialand industrial construction "Localpublic housing agencies and other 43% are active as real estate brokers. agenciesmust obtainthe same local or managers approvalsas any privateon-site builder 12%are with mobile homeparks and in addition follow a host of bureau- 8% produce component parts cratic regulations. Many times the 11%are subcontractors 8% are mortgage publicvisibility of a publicagency bankers 9 makes it more vulnerableto delays 4% are homemanufacturers and publicpressures than a private developer. "[32] Otheractivities include remodeling, lumber and materialsales, and so forth. Because 2. As combinationsof the above.[Mixed] one firm may be engagedin a varietyof MODULARHOUSING SYSTEMS illustrates the additionalactivities, the total does not implicationsof this strategybest. add up to 100%-[34] Early in 1971,the companyabandoned its effortsto sell to publichousing in favor of sponsoringprojects on itsown. This companyalso builds several apartment complexesfor sale to limited 09 partnerships of investors, as well as

30 Types of Organizations [35]

Vertical Horizontal Mixed

Advantages 1. More efficient 1. Can switch from year 1. Sells to both out- production capacity to year to different side firms or de- means higherprofits. materials,solutions. velopersor owns and operatesor 2. Low investments leasesits own buildings.

Disadvantages1. Enormousinvestment 1. Controlof suppliers. for plant,staff and. Relianceon othermanu- training,equipment and facturersfor components personnelto assemble and on time delivery. the components.

2. Lack of flexibility. Must stick to product originally chosen.

3. Often bankrupt.

Ratio of 0.35 If capitalinvest- 0.025 If capitalinvestment CapitalIn- ment is $100,000 is $100,000yearly, vestment/Yearly yearly,production productionis in the Production is in the order of order of $4,000,000. $285,000. Use is made of the investmentof other companies.

Approximate 170 sq. meters/person 1,850sq. meters/person production area/ person employed. (includes president down to janitor)

31 9

The large capital investment needed for plant could match the successof the mass-produced and equipment;research, development, and testing;automobile,but I think theyforgot that Henry financingof productionand inventories;and Ford startedas a one-manoperation in a controlof sites,etc., is often given as the Michiganbarn," states Fritz Stucky, designer major-reason why house-buildingis not more and developerof the VARIELsystem in Switzer- industrialized. land who startedwith threewood modules producedduring a winterin a Swiss carpenter's Naturally,the higherdegree of mechanization workshop in 1956. [36]His Variel system has and themore efficientthe manufacturingtech- grown to six factoriesin four Europeancoun- nique,the largerwill be the investment tries thatproduced 6,948 modulesfor a sales required. volumeof $52 millionin 1972.

In order to minimizethis cost, a manufacturer In sharp contrastto the aboveapproach, are could consider: opinions that a profitable venture can result only from completecontrol ofthe entirehouse- a. AN ECONOMICALPROCESS.- The simplesttype buildingand developingcycle. of equipmentshould be used initially. Obviously, the type of product and Advocatesof verticalorganization that control assemblymethod will determinethe proof buildingsites must be maintainedif the cess. ventureis going to make any sense at all. It is importantthat productionbe kept continuous, b. A LEASINGARRANGEMENT. Some companies and sincestoring large number of unitsis im- try to lease,rather than build,the practical,the best placeto put them is in fArtnrv. place. After all, this is what average 9 developersdo--present a completelyfinished c. AN ASSEMBLYOPERATION The "Indiana" product to the consumer on its site. plan of the mobile homeindustry can be followed: componentsproduced by others If the industrializedhousing manufacturer does are assembledby the many supplierswho not controlthe sites directly,he hasto rely shouldbe nearby. (Advocatesof this on many smallbuilders, or a few large ones. 9 type of organizationfavor the industrywide modular coordination of parts re- Obviously,an organizationthat seeks to control ferredto as the "open"system.) land acquisitionmust have an entirelydifferent organizationalstructure and vastlydifferent d. STARTINGSMALL "The industrial giants capital.needs. seemedto think factory-builthousing

32 9 An establishedfirm outsidethe UnitedStates projectedan investmentfor 1971 "which called for six plants with a total of $15 million investmentplus $100 millioninvest- ment in subdivisionland, model homes,and marketing organization". [37]

The MIT Study [38] suggeststhat the total investmentfor only the production facility of a concretebox system wouldbe at least$5,500,000. The experienceof the Russiansis that a box-unit facilitycosts about 15% more than thatrequired for productionof concretepanels. [39]

Accordingto the MIT Study,"Most of the companiesin the manufacturedbox business probablyhave investmentsof less than $2 million. If they can maintainsales volumesof about250,000 to 500,000sq.ft. of floor area peryear, they shouldbe able to competeprofitably with conventional construction.A companyplanning to invest from $3 to $6 million mustsell in the orderof 500,000to 1,000,000sq.ft. per year to remainprofitably competitive. Finally, any companyplanning to invest more than $10 million...should have solid plans for achievinga marketgreater than 1,000,000sq. ft.per year."[40]

33 9

Large-scalemanufacturing corporations with 6. Largecorporations soon realizethat the necessaryskills and capitalare cautious real profits in house-building are not aboutentering the box-unitfield because in the house or structure itself. better profits with less risk and effort Large firms can acquire land at whole- can be made elsewhere. sale prices,develop it, and retailthe lots. The type of constructionmethod 1. Start-upcosts and investmentsare high; or systemused is of only minor relative To assuresuccess in the venture,control importance.For large firms, land of the marketis necessary.This be- development and new commercial development comesdifficult in termsof capital is more profitable than systems development. requirementsand in termsof management versatility.Most large firmshave not 7. Large corporations can invest in existing built up the type of expertiseor organ- production facilities and firms indirectly. izationto deal with this.

Large 2. buildingmaterials producers tend The necessaryconditions to supportlarge to create 'competitive'situations with capitalinvestment and largescale production existingmarkets. of identical parts are:

3. Time lag betweeninvestment and return 1. A significant price advantage over is too long for the dividend-oriented substitutes. manufacturing industry. 2. Inability of current production to meet 4. As a nativecommodity, use of cheap existing demandat current prices.. foreign labor characterizing so much 9 of our consumerproducts is not made. 3. A non-differentiated market where some price advantages are possible over 5. Competition is fierce from small, current production methods. numerousand flexibledevelopers with experience. 4. The clear superiority of the new product in the eyes of the customer or consumer.

34 11. Considerations & Constraints

A. FINANCING...... 37

B. CODES...... 38

C. LABOR RELATIONS...... 39

D. MARKETINGAND MANAGEMENT...... 40

E. DESIGNPROBLEMS...... 43

F. CHANGINGROLES...... 45

G. PUBLICPOLICY AND RECENTACTIVITY...... 46

H. PUBLICAND PRIVATERESEARCH...... 49

SOURCESUSED IN CHAPTERSI AND II:...... 52

FOOTNOTESFOR CHAPTERSI AND II...... 54

35 t

36 9 FINANCING

The conditionof the industrializedhousing method,by replacingthe presentfixed rate industryat this point can be no betterthan of interest and periodic payment with a that of the housingindustry as a whole. This "price-leveladjusted mortgage" which would is especiallytrue with regardto financing. carry an inflation-fee interest rate at the outset--currentlyabout 3% comparedwith the Financingis crucialto both producerand con- averagegoing rate of about 10%. The monthly sumer--whenloans or mortgagesare difficult payment would increase over the life of the to obtainor when interestrates are high, mortgageas the cost of livingincreased. salesare few. (Thiswould bring home ownershipwithin reach of householdswho have been pricedout of the Accordiigto Eacret,over half of all families marketby inflation,and might pave the way are ineligiblefor mortgagefinancing, using for the removalof ceilingson deposit the credit rule applied by most private interest rates-[ 42 ] mortgagelending institutions. This rule is that a familycan afforda residencecosting Most modular producers could not collect about 2.5 X its annualincome before taxes, constructiondraws untilthe box is physi- which translatesto about25% of personal cally placedon a foundation--atwhich point incomebeing spent for loan principle, a draw of 90% of sellingprice is generally interest,insurance, taxes, and maintenance allowable.The additional10% is paid when on a residence.1[41) constructionand site work have been com- pletedand accepted. The depressingimpact of the presenteconomic crisis,coupled with the inadequacyof the Thus, the typicalcash flow for a modular presentsystem of housingfinance, has driven builderis exactlyopposite for the on-site nousingstarts below an annualrate of one builderwho can collectmaterials advances million,less than half the rate of more than and as constructionmaterials and laborare two millionstarts reached 18 monthsago. placedon the site. The net resultis that In addition,unemployment in the construc- any major order to a modularbuilder that tion industryhas soaredto 15%, more than does not providesome supplementalinven- twice the current national figure for the tory financingarrangement or somesystem entire work force. of paymentfor constructionwork in the factory can literally bankrupt the modular A recentstudy at MIT'sSchool of Management producer. [43] urgesreform of the presenthome financing

37 CODES

In 1969,California enacted Buildingcodes are a seriesof standardsand a factory-built housing specificationsdesigned to establishminimum lawwhich permitted manufacturers to safeguardsin the constructionof buildings, regardthe stateas a singlemarket for a to protect persons in them from fire and modelseries, instead of havingto tailor other hazards,and to furtherprotect the unitsto locallaws. In 1970,Washington healthand safetyof the public. enacteda similarlaw which is reprintedin MIT's "Housing Feasibility Study."'[46] The problemis not that they exist,but that there are so many of them and they are not The BOCABasic Building Code used in 1500 consistent.Some codes act to protectlocal jurisdictionshas justbeen updated for manu- tradesmen,producers, suppliers, or even local facturedhousing. A new "BasicIndustrialized inspectors and officials. DwellingCode" or "BIDC"was formallyadopted by the BuildingOfficials and CodeAdminis- Any manufactureroperates under at least one, trators International, Inc., on January 1, and probablytwo of the three regional 1975and will probably be adoptedfor use in codes: ICBO, BOCA, or SBCC.* Localgovern- Virginia,Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, ments (8,344),states (50) and federal Maryland,Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Rhode agencies(35) includingFHA, PUD, etc., are Island.[47] also concernedwith regulationsand standards.[44] As withother BOCA codes, the localbuilding officialwill enforce its administration.He Codes can add $1.00 to $3.00 per squarefoot willreceive applications, issue permits, and to housingcosts becausethe systemproducer otherorders. BOCA'sown inspectionagents must meet all the differentcode require- will visitplants, evaluate samples, and issue ments.[45j labelsfor approval.The estimatedcharge for these services is $15 to $20 per unit. The BOCAcode label serves as a logical basis for reciprocityof acceptancefrom one stateto another.[48]

*ICBO = InternationalConference of Building Officials,BOCA = BuildingOfficials and Code Administrators,and SBCC = SouthernBuilding Code Conference.

38 9 LABOR RELATIONS

The worker is confrontedwith hazardousand Traditionally,most single-familyconstruc- piece-mealwork and uncertaintyof emplay- tion is non-union.The wage rate of non- ment. His life'sworkspan is shorterthan union factoriesis about $1.00/man-hourless the white-collarcounterpart since it is than in a unionized plant.[50] dependentupon his physicalcondition. His high hourlywage shouldreflect these factors A manufacturer for the high-rise market may --and oftendoes if he is representedby a have to accept a union shop and negotiate the union. arrangement of work. Several different types of contracts have been tried: Nevertheless,unionized labor (accountingfor 80% of all constructionworkers) is usually 1. In 1969, Stirling Homexsigned a labor blamedfor high housingcosts out of propor- agreementcalling for theUnited Brother- tion to the other factors such as price-fix- hood of Joinersand Carpentersto ing by suppliers and carriers, use of furnish competent journeymen nationwide inferior materials, inflated insurance and for the site erectionof the company's interestrates, rising speculative land housingmodules.[51] costs,and increasingtaxes. 2. With industrial unions such as Wickes Advocatesof union reformwant to abolish Corp.by the UnitedAuto Workers,Inte- the hiringhall, reform the apprenticeship gratedModular Systems by the Steelworkers, program,create efficient arbitrating bodies, and San Vel by the Teamsters.[52] imposesanctions against violence and de- struction, and eliminate the Davis-Bacon 3. With a mergerof trades,such as the Tri- Law. UnionCarpenters, Plumbers, and Electri- cians. Accordingto the MITStudy[49] unions have littleinterest in haltingintroduction of buildingsystems. Their interest is in controllingthe work to be done by union membersunder conditionsestablished by collective bargaining contracts. Unionized on-site workers, especially in urban areas, are able to reject products from non-union shops.

39 9

MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT

"For systemsand precoordinationto work had, amongother attributes,the right industrywide,it is essentialthat we start pricetag.) with the customer."[53] 2. Will the consumeraccept wall and ceiling Insteadof focusingon the needsof the that do not meet at a rightangle? (As marketplaceand the developmentof marketing appearson some cast concretesystems capabilities,most managementteams have direc- such as HABSystem.) ted theirefforts toward the firm'sproduction capabilities.Instead of asking,"What type 3. Will they acceptvisible joint in the of house does the prospectivehomeowner walls and ceiling? (As the Diskinsystem want? and Can I profitablymanufacture and mar- of ring-cells.) ket this unit?most firms concentrateon decidingwhat they can produceusing their 4. Will they acceptthe minimumallowed 7'-8" existingplants and productionskills. The ceilingor be willingto pay more for .result has all too frequently been a modular 8'-0"or 8'-6"? unit with no advantage over the conventional 0 homeand one which is perceived to be inferior 5. Will they acceptrooms with no ceiling by homeownersand prospective buyers." [54] lightingfixtures? (As is commonwith most concretepanel constructionin Consumersurveys indicate that the public low-incomeprojects.) thinksof modularsas standardizedboxes and associates them with public or low-cost Marketingencompasses many sales techniques, housing. As a result,they are designedto including: look as much like the conventionalhome as possible, and the builder prefers not to 1. Use of local buildersas distributors. advertise the fact that they are prefabri- catedor modularhomes. 2. Home warrantiesor guarantees.

Consumerpreference testing is not easily 3. Helping Builder obtain permits. done, unless a great deal of time and specific questions are available: 4. Advertising.

1. What price level will consumers accept 5. Aggregationof marketsto assurecon- unfamiliar design? (The mobile home, a tinuous sales: strange shelter, was accepted because it

40 a. Seekinggovernment support. ECHO supportingservices include:

b. Seekingsupport of other funded 1. Consultationwith the architectsand groups: engineerson the most advantageoususes of the system. (1) Churches (2) Unions and Service or Trade 2. Obtainingpreliminary estimates and build- Organizations ing schedulesfrom licensesECHO manufac- turersin the projectarea. c. Allianceswith land developers and contractors. 3. Coordinatingall schedulesfor subsystems to the projectfrom manufacturersof ECHO d. Attemptingto collectlarge components in the project area. quantitiesof small customersso as to be able to assureorders 4. Obtainingfinal pricingand manufacturing for housingbefore production schedulesfor start of theproject. begins. [55] 5. Coordinatingthe issuanceand approvalof shop drawingsfor subsystemmanufacturers.

Buildingsystems producers stress their manage- 6. Performinginitial quality control inspec- ment skillsalmost as much as theirproduct: tions for the architect on receipt of subsystemsfrom the manufacturers. For example,a brochurefrom DESCON/CONCORDIA states"The knowledgeand talentof a team 7. Performing final quality inspection prior possessing a wide range of disciplines are to substantial completion. implicitin the creationof a management systemfor the constructionindustry," and 8. Performinggeneral architectural type "the systemapplies available technology to supervision for that portion of a build- organizethe processof analyzingproblems and ing projectthat is manufacturedby ECHO evolvingsolution designed to achievemaximum DEVELOPEDINDUSTRIALIZED CONSTRUCTION results. " [56] METHODSfrom licensedmanufacturers.

Administration,Design, and Productionare "Ownersand developersdesiring to use the broughttogether under Projectcontrol. Echo ModuleSystem enter into-acontractural

41 9

agreement withthe regionalECHO entity. If the systemis simple,and has nothingthat This agreementgrants the use of the system qualifiesit as a proprietarysystem, the com- and the aforementionedsupporting services pany that wants to sponsorit would be wise to of an ECHO representativeon a per project ally itselfwith a qualifiedreputable concrete basis." manufacturer.Continued availability, depend- ability,and a good managementwill be the "Ownersand developersusing the ECHO Module essential ingredients for a profitable Systementer into purchasingcontracts ex- business. clusivelybetween them and the Qualified Manufacturers,as shown on the graphs,for that portionof a projectusing industria- lizedconstruction methods licensed by ECHO." 9

The ECHO GROUP, INC. uses a proprietorycom- puter aided designsystem--claimed to be the only one ofits kind availableanywhere on a time-sharingbasis. ECHOPLANis a seriesof 9 computerprograms which automatically producemuch of thedetailed drawings and cost data requiredto plan a buildingusing the ECHOBuilding System. These programs are availableon a time-sharingbasis through computercenters. As an alternative, national 9 participatingarchitects can leasea tele- typewriter with plotting capabilities for use in their own office for a nominal monthly fee.

The totaltime-in-process is about 8-10 hours for the averagebuilding.. As a result,all the data requiredto assemble detailed drawings,specifications, and quantity surveys for the buildingis fullydocumented.

The owner,in effect,buys a completely erected structureat a predetermined occupancydate and cost."[57J

42 DESIGN PROBLEMS

The choiceof the propersystem is one of The appealof the industrializedproduct the most, if not the most, importantdeci- must be coupledwith the appealof home sion the promotercan make. This choicewill ownership and the desire for a small piece have been made under all aspectsof invest- of land or garden. The industrialized unit need not be ment required,market acceptability, code stereotyped. Although and standard compliance, price range of final this thesisexplores one approachto product,market demand, etc. designby havingas few as possible componentsused in combinationto producea wide varietyof structures, Choosingthe properdegree of technologybest it is also possibleto designthe suitedto the country'seconomic situation productionfacility to adapt to a wide and utilizationof the labor forceis beyond rangeof shapesand sizes. For example, the scope of this thesis. There are arguments stair cores,balconies, flower boxes, againstmethods which requireextensive specialforms foron-site columns, and capitalinvestment, concentration of production substructuresrequire special consider- in a few large companies, and fewer workers ationthat only a flexiblefacility can required. On the other hand,the highlyin- handle. Moreover,one facilityneed dustrializedmobile home industry has succeed- not produce the entire range of products ed in producinga low cost dwelling within needed--subcontractscan be let for the budgetof the averageworking man. appliances,kitchens, bathroom cores, whenever it is more economical to do so.

43 0

The industrializationof buildingconstruction The probleminvolved a detailof vertical createsa new situation: the designmust be seals at the corners of the structures. studied as an integral part of the manufac- There is a triangular groove that runs and assembly processes. For example, turing along the interior of the corner, and * must be and all inserts detailed all working thismust be continuousfor the full drawingscompleted before construction of heightof the buildingso thatany water molds can begin. Subsequentchanges are thatpenetrates the sealwill be caught costlyand mistakeshave largerimplicationc. in the triangulargroove and dra n to the bottom.When the edgeswere chipped away, the grooveceased to be continuous,and 9 there was a build-up of water. [59] The GreaterLondon Council (GLC) has abandoned use of the Balencyconcrete panel system for Thamesmead,a new town 9 miles from London. The pace of all constructionin the town has Thisproblem may not occurwith concrete slowedto such an extentthat conventional box-units,but it is an exampleof constructionhas becomemore economical.[58] attentionthat must be paidto careful detailing of any methodof building The architect,Alan ComrieSmith, and the withlarge components. Often, these Hannenand prime contractor,Holland & problemsdo not become.apparentuntil Cubitts,agree that the systemhad other actualstructures have been built and , drawbacks,too. The systemrequired in use for several years. workerswho are trainedin that part- iculartype of construction.Panels were damagedwhen lifted into place, but poorly repaired, causing uneven joiningwhich in turn allowedrain to enter.

44 CHANGING ROLES

The complexitiesof "industrialization," Of 36 firmsproducing manufactured housing of the growing realization of the value and all typeswhich answeredmy questionnaire,26 need for "environmental"planning through or 72.2% use architectsas consultants,18 or propersite utilization,etc., only can 50% had architectsas clients,and 12 or 33.3% open up new opportunities. Tedious work had architect-employees.Only 5 of the 22 and repititious work may give way to more producersof 3-D modularunits did not use conceptualdesign and area-functionstudies, architects as consultants. with much emphasis on site planning. In the longrun, waste of effortfrom design- ing each buildingfrom "scratch"is reduced. "One problemhas been the inabilityof The activitiesof each participantmust De architectsand engineersto relatethe process coordinatedby one designatedas responsible of industrializationto buildingdesign. for final decisions.Designers, structural Their principalfailure is theirreluctance engineers, electrical and acoustical con- to stay withinthe designdisciplines re- sultants,manufacturers, contractors, etc., quiredto obtainmaximum cost-savings through systems must be brought into the design at the buildings. For example,one UDC Buildingconstructed very earliest stages. Although each must with a precastbuilding panelwas so designed have skill in his particulardiscipline, that each wall panel at the gableends had to be treated each must be able to defineand present. as a the informationupon which otherscan make custom-madeelement. In anotherbuilding a decision. Needs of the entire design there were 188 different types of floor components, and productioncycle will evolvefrom each type requiring a different size configuration. regularsessions and reports. Of that unusuallylarge number,78 types requiredonly one to three individual castings." [60] Crucialto the successof the project will be a systemof handlinginformation and decision-makingand control. (Thisis also true in non-industrialsystems, but especially critical in large projects characteristicof industrializedsystems.) The sponsorof the systemwill find that skilledpersonnel, computer operators, con- structionor projectmanagers, etc. are not only hard to find--theyare expensive--so overhead may be high. PUBLIC POLICY AND RECENT ACTIVITY f

The industrialized housingmanufacturer has In the final analysis, those groups which can to take carefulaccount of all aspectsof the exert the most influence through lobbying, housingindustry affected by local,state, campaigncontributions, and shapingpublic and federal governments. This is a lengthy opinion to formvoter blocs are goingto and involvedprocess, especially since poli- prevail. cies and legislationare constantlychanging. One such group is the newly formed(January 9 Basically,there are twomain types of 21, 1975)National Construction Industry opinion: Council(NCIC) to be composedof national associations representing architects and 1. Thosewho believegovernment shouldtake engineers, contractors, suppliers and educa- a more activerole in providinglow-cost tors which has intentions"to work with the housing,and Federal Government in the public interest." 9 One of the issuesthe NCIC will consideris 2. Thosewho believean un-fetteredmarket the need for establishmentof an Officeof (withopen competition) shouldprevail. Construction (OOC)in the executive branch of the Federal Government.[61] The presentsituation lies somewherein between. The Councilnow has 31 membergroups, including 9 the AmericanInstitute of Architectsand the Traditionalbuilders (and mobilehome pro- American Society of Civil Engineers. It plans ducers) have reason to complain if subsidies to meet the thirdThursday of eachthird month are grantedto a selectfew who couldqualify and to reportperiodically to the Presidentand for a certaintype or amountof aidto advance Congressand reportannually on publicfunds or "industrializationof housing." jobs. Althoughthe main objectiveis to present 9 a unifiedfront when dealingwith the federal It is difficult,if not impossible,to try government, there are internal conflicts over to make recommendationswithout knowing the labor exact contentand consequenceof each piece related issues. [62] of proposed legislation.

46 &1 OPERATIONBREAKTHROUGH, begun in 1965,wasan With regardto buildingresearch, the bill also attemptto encouragetechnology that would pro- establishesthe NationalInstitute of Build- duce housing fasterand cheaper--butit became ing Sciences witha $5 millionannual authori- boggeddown in poor organization,red-tape, no zation. The Law requires thatthe NIBS be set marketinginput, no follow-throughplan, and no up with the help of the National Academyof continuingbudget. In the end it cost $137 Engineering,the NationalAcademy of Sciences, million with dubious results, including making and the NationalResearch Council. A charter many personsextremely cynical about "indus- has yet to be draftedand an executivecouncil trialization of housing." [63] of 15-21members chosen by the White House from a list preparedat HUD. As a quasi- In August,1974, theOMNIBUS HOUSING BILL governmental agencywith limitedfunding and becamePublic Law 93-383. A seriesof eight power,it may not be able to achievethe long- major HUD programs,including urban renewal soughtmomentum toward a nationalbuilding and open spaceacquisition and development, code.[64] will be eliminated.Some of the major items: The National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control wasalso establishedby Congressin 1. $8.3 billionof the $11.1budget will go 1974. [65] as "block grants" to urban areas over a 3-year period. It joins the FederalTrade Commission(which exposedthe plasticsindustry and independent 2. AuthorizesHUD to conductsolar energy testinglabs as misrepresentingburning projects. characteristicsof plastics)and the CONSUMER PRODUCTSAFETY COIMISSION (whichsets standards 3. PermitsHUD to set nationalstandards on architectural glass, aluminum wiring, and for mobilehome constructionand other productsfor the home) in influencing materials. housing materials.

4. Raisesmortgage interest rates and Technical criteria for conservation of energy lowersdown-payment requirements for developedby the NATIONALBUREAU OF STANDARDS FHA-guaranteed housing. has been referredto the AMERICAN SOCIETYOF HEATING,REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING 5. Makes specialprovisions for housing ENGINEERS. for the elderly.

47 The ASHRAEis expectedto producea revised largelyto lessroad and utilitypipe links standardfor state and localbuilding codes and reducedgas and electricconsumption.) embracing everythingfrom wall thicknessand Publicoperating costs may be reduced73%. windowarea to heatingand lighting systems. These criteriaare to be developedfrom guide- "The high-densityplanned development model lines published by the FEDERALENERGY ADMIN- was composedof 70% apartments,20% attached ISTRATION(FEA) and the COMMERCEDEPARTMENT.[66] townhouses,and 10% detachedhomes. Reduced auto travelin the high-densityplanned Althoughfederal land use planninglegislation communitycould reduceair pollution from20% was defeatedin the 93rd Congress--bya narrow to 30% and the relatedenergy expenditure margin--HUDofficials may preferto allocate by 8% to 14%, the researchersconcluded. [68] communitydevelopment program funds in the 0 directionof carefullyplanned high density cluster development. [67] In June, 1974, the U.S. signeda joint agreement withthe U.S.S.R.for increased This view is reinforcedby a recentstudy by joint efforts in energy research, housing the Real Estate ResearchCorporation, constructiontechnology, new towns de- Chicago,for HUD; The Councilon Environ- velopmentand earthquakescience. In the mental and The Environmental Quality; housingarea, new methods,and materials Protection Agency. Resultsof the study will be evaluated,criteria will be de- show that: velopedfor water,waste, and heating services,and studieswill be made of "Totalconstruction costs for a high density constructionin extremeclimates and (multi-family)community are 56% of those soil conditions.A group of U.S. housing for the conventionallow-density (detached expertswas sent to examineRussian de- house)sprawl development, resulting in a velopmentof new towns savingof $227.5million for a communityof in July, 1974.[691 33,000people with10,000 dwelling units. Savingsin land cost amountto 43%with savingsof 40% for streetsand 63% for utilities."

"Operatingand maintenancecosts in the high-density communityare estimatedto be approximately$2 million(11% less per year than the low-densitysprawl development, due

I 48 h PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RESEARCH

Someof the governmental agencies Many trade organizationssuch as the involvedwith research NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONOF HOMEBUILDERS(NAHB) withregard to housingand other and the MOBILEHOMES MANUFACTURERS construction are: ASSOCIATION(MHMA) provide statistics, surveys,and other valuableinformation Departmentof Housingand Urban as well as servingtheir members. Development(HUD)

NationalInstitute of Building Accordingto the "IndustrialResearch Sciences(NIBS) Laboratoriesof the UnitedStates, 13th Edition, 1970", there are 5,237 non- U.S. Departmentof Commerce governmentallabs devotedto fundamental and appliedresearch, representing 3,115 National Commissionon Fire organizations.The labs,concerned with Prevention and Control researchrelated to the scope of this paper, are: [70] FederalTrade Commission Constructionproducts and materials 54 NationalBureau of Standards Systemsengineering 27 Structures 17 Energy Federal Administration Urbanstudies 12 Generalconstruction 5 on Environmental Quality Council Concrete 23 The Environmental Protection Agency As is well known,many architectsand engineers Federal Housing Administration are developing'systems' and patentingfeatures of construction.

One exampleis Germanarchitect Rudolf Doernach, who "spentmore than $4 millionon his 'space unit' project--fundsfrom private industry, governmentsources, and his pwnpocket". [71]

49 9

There are otherexamples too numerous Officialshope to have 100 owner-user to be mentioned,including work done memberswith a annualfee of $5,000. in universities. At thepresent time, the Construction ResearchCouncil has eightmembers. The CONSTRUCTIONRESEARCH COUNCIL (CRC) has just been establishedas a research Firms or entities represented are: corporationto assistprivate and public building owners in fostering wide-spread use of pre-engineered and pre-coordinated General Motors Corporation, buildingcomponents. [72] ArgonautRealty Division (Ivan E. Packard, Chief Engineer Initialefforts will bein the devel- and chairman of CRC) opment of standardsub-system performance specificationsfor suchcompon- Sears, Roebuck& Co. ents as wall, ceiling, floor, and mechanical systems, so that longer City of Boston, PFD productionruns can be startedand competition amongsuppliers created. AmericanTelephone & Telegraph The research corporationwill attempt to promotethe use of subsystemsfor GeneralServices Administration commercial,industrial, and multi- unit residentialstructures. Office of Construction, Veterans' Administration The organizationbegan after a study preparedby the FederalConstruction IBM,Real Estate and Construction Council,a BRAB division. BRAB and Division the parentNATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES--NATIONALACADEMY OF ENGIN- PortAuthority of New Yorkand EERINGare offering assistance for New Jersey the establishmentof CRC.

50 51 9

SOURCES FOR CHAPTERS I & 11

#1 CarloTesta #10 James R. Hyde, "The Missing Five Percent" THE INDUSTRIALIZATIONOF BUILDING PRECOORDINATION--BASISFOR INDUSTRIALIZED 1972,Van NostrandReinhold Co. BUILDING,Building Science Series 32 U. S. Dept. of Commerce - #2 A. Herreyand W. Litle INDUSTRIALIZEDHOUSING FEASIBILITY STUDY #11 PROFESSIONALBUILDER Magazine M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass. CahnersPublishing Co., Chicago,Ill. 1971, Limited circulation #12 APARTMENTCONSTRUCTION NEWS Magazine #3 DonaldSpear, Editor and Publisher GrallaPublications, New York,N.Y. THE BLUEBOOKOF MAJORHOMEBUILDERS, 1974 1559 EatonWay, Crofton,Maryland #13 ENGINEERINGNEWS RECORD Magazine McGraw-HillPublishers, Albany, N.Y. #4 David Eacret THE ECONOMICSOF INDUSTRIALIZEDHOUSING #14 INTERNATIONALSYMPOSIUM ON BOX-UNIT U.MichiganThesis (Rotch TH 1000 E116) CONSTRUCTION:CIB PROCEEDINGS# 26 1973 Balatonfured, Hungary #5 KennethCampbell, Editor PROFITSAND THE FACTORY-BUILTHOUSE: #15 TECH TALK M.I.T.Newspaper 1972 UPDATE Audit InvestmentResearch, Inc. #16 DESCON/CONCORDIASYSTEMS, LTD. Brochure 230 Park Ave., New York,N.Y. Pl. Bonaventure,Montreal 114, Canada

#6 SYSTEMSBUILDING CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS #17 ECHO GROUP,INC., Brochure 1972 Gaithersburg, Maryland Fort Lauderdale, Florida KennethReinschmidt, Editor #18 CONSTRUCTIONMETHODS Magazine #7 BOSTONARCHITECTURAL CENTER CONFERENCEPROCEEDINGS 1971 #19 PROGRESSIVEARCHITECTURE Magazine (article by Michael Brill) ReinholdPublication, Stamford, Conn.

#8 Alan King and Jame McMillan #20 BUILDINGDESIGN & CONSTRUCTIONMagazine WHY MODULAR HOUSINGFLOPPED CahnersPublishing Co. ,Chicago, Ill. Real EstateReview, Fall 1974 Vol.4,#3 #21 THE BUILDERAND HIS INDUSTRY #9 ARCHITECTUREPLUS MAGAZINE,July, 1974 NAHB Publication "Systems: Myth or Reality" #22 INDUSTRIALRESEARCH LABORATORIES IN THE USA 13th Edition, 1970 52 #23 Thomas Schmidand CarloTesta SYSTEMSBUILDING: An Inter- nationalSurvey of Methods FrederickA. Praeger, Publishers New York,N.Y. 1969

#24 JosephCarreiro and StevenMensch BUILDINGBLOCKS: Design Potentialsand Constraints Officeof RegionalResources and Development Centerfor UrbanDevelopment Research, Cornell University, Ithaca,New York 1971

53 FOOTNOTES

1 Source#6 p. 330 28 Source#13 p. 16 54 Source# 8 p. 79 2 Source#1 p. 9 January10, 1974 55 Source#11 p. 203 3 Source#2 p. 335 29 Source#20 p. 65 56 Source#16 4 Source#3 November,1974 57 Source#17 5 Source#4 p. 47 30 Source# 5 p. 10 58 Source#13 p. 14 6 Source#5 p. 8 31 Source# 5 p. 11 April 3, 1975 Source 7 #4 p. 73 32 Source# 5 p. 12 59 Ibid. 8 Source#4 p. 38 33 Ibid. 60 Source# 9 p. 73 9 Source#2. p. 423 34 Source#21 July, 1974 Source iv 35 Source# 7 p. 54 10 Source#4 p. DavidPellish, Planner 11 Source#6 p. 19 CarloTesta & Architect for NYSDC 12 Source#5 p. 16 36 Source#13 p. 23 61 Source#13 p. 56' 13 Source#7 p. 161 July19, 1973 Jan.30, 1975 14 #4 p. 21 37 Source#55 p. 7 62 Source#20 p. 29 15 Source#23 p. 10 38 Source# 2 p. 366 March,1975 16 Source#9 p. 71 39 Source#14 p. 4 63 Source#13 p. 9 Ada L. Huxtable Paper IV-1 April 4, 1974 17 Source#24 p. 6 64 Source#20 p. 19 18 Ibid. 40 Source # 2 p. 365 Jan., 1975 Source 19 #8 p. 78 41 Source# 4 p. 8 65 Source#11 p. 26 20 Source#10 p. 51 42 Source#15 p. 1 Jan,, 1975 43 Source# 5 66 Ibid. 44 Source# 6 p. 344 67 Ibid. 0I J. NeilsThompson, 68 Source#12 p. 3 21 Source#11 p. 51 "Building Codes" December, 1974 November, 1974 45 Source# 5 from: "The Cost of 22 Source#12 p. 66 46 Source# :2 p. 191+ Sprawl", U. S. Gov't. 23 Source#11 p. 103 47 Source#11 p. 88 Printing Office November, 1974 Ind. Bldg. Section 69 Source#13 p. 9 24 Source#13 p. 16 48 Ibid. July 4, 1974 January 10, 1974 49 Source# 2 p. 151 70 Source#22 25 Source#11 p. 111 50 Source # 2 p. 159 71 Source #18 p. 133 December, 1974 51 Source# 5 July, 1970 26 Source#11 p. 103 52 Source# 2 p. 155 72 Source#19 p. 14 November, 1974 53 Source#10 p. -55 March 13, 1975 27 Source#11 p. 111 December, 1974

54 l1l. Design Parameters Outline

A. BASIC SYSTEMCATEGORIES...... 57

B. CRITERIAFOR SYSTEMSELECTION...... 59

C. OUTLINEFOR PERFORMANCECHARACTERISTICS...... 61

D. PLANNINGCONSIDERATIONS...... 62

E. TABLESAND INDICES FOR COMPARING SYSTEMS...... 64

F. COSTS...... 65

G. CONDENSEDVERSION OF FHA MINIMUMPROPERTY STANDARDSFOR MULTIFAMILYHOUSING, 1973...... 66

1. Room SizesBased on Furnishings or MinimumAreas, and StorageRequirements...... 66 2. Elevators;Clear Ceiling Heights...... 68 3. Exits,Halls and Corridors, Circulation...... 69 4. FlameSpread Rating for InteriorFinishes ExtinguishingSystems, Standpipes, BuildingDistance Separation, and Penthouses.....70 5. Natural& MechanicalVentilation Requirements, SoundTransmission Limitations...... 71 6. Interior Fire Protection, Fire Resistance Ratingsby Types of Construction, MaxiumumHeight and Area Limitations,and Numberof Exits...... 72

55 9

56 BASIC SYSTEM CATEGORIES

ON-$ITEOR PROCESSMETHODS 7. Permanentshuttering; use of prefabouter forms intowhich structuralconcrete is 1. "Lift-slab". poured.

2. Push-upconstruction. 8. Entirebuilding designedto act as struc- turalentity: 3. Spray Applications: a. Building conceived as "tube." a. Concretesprayed on formworkor inflatedforms. b. Buildingexterior walls as trusses (also= a). b. Plastics. c. Staggered truss design 4. Automaticlaying and weldingof poly- styreneblocks (Dow ChemicalShell House). d. Partialload-bearing (L-shaped columns form cornersof building) 5. Slidingor RollingForms: Continuous 24-hourforming (in-concrete)--no joints. e. Space frames. Also "slip-form." f. Interstitialtrusses form mechanical 6. Conventionalon-site construction with floors. prefaband re-useableformwork; or pre- cut pieces.. g. Tensionstructures, suspension structures. a. Moveablescaffolding and forms for "flatplate." h. Shell structures.

b. Waffleslabs with pans,hollow tile, i. Foldedplate. fillers,etc. j. Hinged arches. c. Cast-in-place beams,ribs, tees, etc. 9. Post-tensioning.

10. Undergroundapplication.

57 9

3-D VOLUMETRICUNITS (MODULES) b. T-panels: a. Completeunit in one unit, such as a mobile 1. Stable elements don'tneed shoring, home, such as "LaCrete," b. Sectionals:two or more boxes fit to- 2. Floorsare slabsor flat panels. getherto form unit,or clusteredaround patios,etc. c. U-panels: c. Coretypes: Centralcore contains mechani- 1. Shapedstable elements containing fur- cal and utilityfunctions; serves as nishings;can be combinedto form attachment for panels, etc. columns, wall corners, etc.

All have possibilityto be stackedfor multi- Flat panels have possibility to be pre-joined level dewellings,or be supportedby into 3-D Modules. independentskeleton structures.

PARTIAL3-0 SLICES PANELSYSTEMS a. Geometricshapes from partial3-D modules , a. Flat panels: Can have services integral used for roofs, etc., contain moment 9 with the panel connectionsfor easy combinations.

1. Welded jointscovered with grout such b. Large unitscan be stackedin alternate as "Igeco." "checkerboard" sequence, such as the "Shelley"system. 2. Tilt-uppanels joined at site.

3. Categorizeby materialsand methods. COMPONENTS

4. Sub-categorizeby erectiontype, i.e., a. Made-to-ordercomponents joint types. b. In-stockcomponents (typical 2 x 4 wood studs,standard lengths ofhollow-core plank,etc.).

58 CRITERIA FOR SYSTEM SELECTION

1. COST d. Flexibility--adaptabilityto change can be achievedby changingdwellings, provi- a. First Costs sion of enoughrooms or space within unit for re-grouping or changing use of b. Operatingand MaintenanceCosts rooms,easily moved partitions(assumes enough space reserves, space to store c. Funding(government subsidies, tax partitions easily obtained, acoustical write-offs,etc.), i.e., costs to and fastening problems can be overcome all partiesinvolves vs. benefitsand value. e. Desirability--type of system user would 2. PERFORMANCE choose if unlimited alternates were available in same price range. a. Aesthetic--includesclient and communityacceptance. 3. TIME REQUIREDFOR PROJECT

b. Functional--meetsuser requirements Depends upon financial and market condi- for space,comfort, safety, security, tions, some operations are time-critical; privacy,convenience, health, and othersare not. Look into: other biologicaland psychological needs. That is, the system must be a. SystemAvailability. capable of manipulation towards these ends. b. Labor Time Required; Labor Availabi- lity. c. Adaptability--to different regional and cultural differences including c. Transportation Feasibility and climate, site, landscape, "life-styles" Schedu.ling. influenced by political and other tra- ditions. That is, ability to suit a wide category of users and conditions -- perhaps with use of interchangeable components.

59 d. Total Time Spectrumas Comparedwith Other Systems:

1. Zoning Approval Time 2. Financing Approval Time 3. Planningand DesignPhase 4. Implications for Site or Fast-Track Work 5. Urderingand WarehousingImplica- tions 6. Preparationof Bids 7. "Red-Tape"--Government Agencies 8. Construction 9. Marketing 10. Other

4. RISK

What are the incentivesfor chosingone system over another? Whatare risks vs. benefitsand how are thesedistributed to the architect,client, builder, tax- payers,users, manufacturers, workers, contractors,and other partiesinvolved?

60 a OUTLINE FOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

STRUCTURE 3. Air temperature 4. Humidity 1. Wall compression 5. Air purity: pollen, smoke, odors, etc. 2. Wall/floorjoint compression 6. Amountof fresh air changes 3. Floor bending strength & deflection 4. Roof/ceilingstrength & deflection 5. Floor creep ENERGYUSE STANDARDS - 6. Floor damping 7. Fatigue 1. Energyconsumption per sq. ft. 8. Eccentricity of joints 2. Material consumption 9. Tolerances 3. Labor consumption

ACOUSTICAL SPECIALCODE REQUIREMENTS

1. Sound transmission WeatheringCharacteristics 2. Impact SurfaceDurability 3. Joints (doors, windows, w.c.,etc.) Maintenance Resistanceto Deterioration Abilityto Alter FIRESAFETY Support for Hanging Equipment

1. Rating (time to failure) 2. Walls--Ceiling--Floor 3. Flame spread 4. Smoke

THERMALAND VENTILATING STANDARDS

1. Solidwalls: surfacetemp. on inside walls 2. Windowassemblies: surface temp. on glass

61 9

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

UNIT FLEXIBILITY UNIT CHARACTERISTICS

a. Ease with which differentplans can be a. Minimumfloor-to-floor height. 9 achievedfor each apartmenttype with a relativelylow numberof basiccom- b. Minimumfloor-to-floor height with ponents. openings floorto ceiling.

0-bedroom c. Frequencyof columns: freestandingor 1-bedroom interruptionson wall surfaces. 2-bedroom 3-bedroom d. Wall-opening size restrictions. 4-bedroom 5-bedroom e. Ratio of area of envelope to area of dwellingunit. .b. Numberof basicapartment types possible. f. Visibility of joints; frequency of c. Are two-storyapartments possible? joints.

d. Are split-levelapartments possible? g. Conditionof intersectionof walls and ceilingand walls and floor. e. Can partitionsbe moved aftercomple- 9 tion? (Demountability) h. Ceiling fixtures possible?

f. Is good proportionalityof livingspaces 1. Ease of accessto utilitiesfor repair to bedroomarea possible? or replacement.

g. Suitablefor uses other than housings? j. Sound (or impact)reduction between units. h. Provisionfor expansionof unit?

i. Relationshipof unit to exteriorspaces, e.g., balconies,sun control.

62 ASSEMBLYCHARACTERISTICS c. Ease of incorporatingmechanical, and service subsystems. a. Weather-proofand soil-resistant. d. Flexibility to offset facade. b. Supportfor workmenduring assembly. e. Flexibilityto offsetfor terracing. c. Safety of erection for workers. f. Cantilever possibilities. d. Time for completion of building types. g. Abilityto rotateunits on top 900. e. Ease of'connectionservices between modules: horizontallyand vertically. ADAPTABILITYTO VARIOUSSITE CONDITIONS f. Ease of fireproofingand finishingjoints betweenmodules. a. Adaptabilityto differenttopographical conditions. (Units can vary in eleva- g. Ease of applyingroofing materials. tion.)

h. Ease of scheduling work activities. b. Adaptabilityto siteshaving difficult dimensional constraints. i. Abilityto betransported and erected withoutdamage. Ease of repair. c. Unit orcomponent used below grade? d. Exterior cladding (for different BUILDINGTYPES FLEXIBILITY climatic conditions).

a. Maximumnumber of floors/degree of in- e. DwellingUnit DensityRange. dependentsupport structure necessary. f. H eight/Width/LengthLimitations (in b. Ease of incorporatingancillary func- quantumsof modulesize). tions, (parking, commercial, laundry, etc.).

63 #I

INDICES FOR COMPARING SYSTEMS

INDICESFOR COMPARING SYSTEMS TABLES

1. Dimensions Amountof totalproject time: 2. Weight/Unitor Component proportionon-site and off-site. 3. Type Wall, Thicknessand U-Factor 4. Type Roof,Thickness and U-Factor Weight/sq.ft. or sq.meter of dwelling 5. Erectionor Joint Method area. 6. FoundationType 7. FrameworkRequired Laborinput/sq. ft. or sq. meterof 8. Crane or Special Machinery Required dwellingarea (man-hoursand' costs). 9. Size of Preparationor ErectionArea 10. ReinforcementTypes Monetarycost/sq. ft. or sq. meterof 11. On-site Labor 9 dwellingarea (or cubic volume). 12. Integrationwith HVAC 13. Integrationwith Electrical Breakdownof materials input per sq. ft. or 14. Integration with Water in Waste sq. meter (amountsand costs). 15. Door on Window Openings 16. PrefinishingOptions Percentagesof totalbuilding cost alloca- 17. Safetyof ErectionProcess ted to: 18. Type of InteriorFinish Possible 19. Type of ExteriorFinish Possible Erection 20. Range of TransportEconomical Transportation 21. Labor Requirements Factorycost of components On-sitelabor costs On-sitematerials costs Foundation costs

Detailedbreakdown of costs Operatingand maintenance expenses.

Technicalperformance characteristics

64 COSTS

A manufacturermust undertakeelaborate Main featuresincluencing construction and lengthycost-estimates to determine costs of an apartmentbuilding are: what his product will cost. If the 'systems'building is comprisedof several 1. Foundation and site (location of packagessuch as structure,mechanical, project access, etc.) electrical,etc., the problemis compounded by the great varietyof choicesavailable. 2. Type of structuralsystem Each alternativesituation must be reviewed in order to determinethe most profitable 3. Architecturaltreatment combination of packages. 4. Mechanicalsystems To the manufacturers' basic cost must be addednumerous variable expenses such as 5. Electrical transportation,erection, profit, overhead-- all of which are increasing at different 6. Heightof building/No.of floors rates. 7. Floor area on each level The developer musttake into accountfi- (building dimensions) nancingcosts, professional fees, cash flow, land costs,taxes, etc. 8. Amount of special partitions, finishes,and detailing= quality The consumeris interestedin the monthly of construction(special user rent or mortgagepayment, operating requirements or extras) (fuel,electricity, water, etc.) costs, taxes, and maintenance. 9. Time

10. Degreeof competitivebidding (Market conditions at the time of bids) Moreover,real costs of constructionare 11. Builder familiarity with the system neverknown, sincethe overheadand profit (Risk) of the contractorsincluded in the contract sum are generally not divulged. 12. Prevailinglabor rates

65 FHA MINIMUM PROPERTY STANDARDS

0 FOR MULTIFAMILY HOUSING, 1973 (CONDENSED)

ROOM AREAS Bedrooms

a. Each dwelling unit shall have space(s) allocated to sleeping,dressing and personal care.

b. Each bedroom shall accommodateat least the following LIVING, DINING, BEDROOMS,OTHER HABITABLE ROOMS furnitureor its equivalentwith comfortableuse and circulation Living Area space: (1) Primary Bedroom: (required in each non-elderly a. Each dwelling unit shall contain space that is conducive to general family living and group activities such as living unit except efficiency) 2 - twin beds, 3'-3" x V'-10" entertaining, reading, writing, to music, watching listening 1 - dresser, l'-6" x 41-4" television,relaxing and frequently children's play. 1 - chair, l'-6" x l'-6" 1 - crib, 2'-6" x 4'-6" (may be located in another room b. Space shall be provided in.the living area to accommodate in addition to the required the following furniture or its equivalent with comfortable furnishings) use and circulation space: (2) Double Occupancy Bedroom 1 - couch, 3'-0" x 6'-10" 2 - easy chairs, 2'-6" x 3-0" 1 - double bed, 4'-6" x 6'-10" (1 - for efficiency apt.) 1 - dresser, l'-6" x 3'-6" (3 - for 4 more or bedroom units) 1 - chair, l'-6" x l-6" 1 - desk, l'-8" x 3'-6" 1 - desk chair, l'-6" x 1-1 (3) Single Occupancy Bedroom: (not permitted in public 1 - television set, x 6-8"x housing except housing 1 - table, l'-6" x 2'-6" for the elderly) Dining Area 1 - twin bed, 3'-3" x 6'-10" 1 - dresser, l'-6" x36" a. Each dwelling unit shall contain space for dining. This 1 - chair, l'-6" x V6 area may be combined with the room living or kitchan, or 1 - dosk, l'-8" x 3'-6" for housing the it may be a separate room. for elderly o. In housing for the elderly, beds shall be accessible from b. Space for accommodating the following size table and two sides and one end. chairs with proper circulation space in the dining area shall be provided for the intended number of occupants d. In housing for the elderly, a convenience outlet for as shown: receiving a night light shall be provided between the bed location and the bathroom. (Efficiency or 1 bedroom) 2 persons, 2'-6" x 2'-6 (2 bedrooms) 4 persons, 2'-6" x 3'-2"1 Other HabitableRoom, (OHR) (3 bedrooms) 6 persons, 3'-4" x 4'-0" or 4'-O" round (4 or more bedrooms) 8 persons, 3-4" x 6'-0" or 1 An OHR may be provided for use as a den, familyroom, etc. 4'-0" x 4 -0" Where provided, the room shall accommodate the required Dining chairs, l'-6" x l'-6" furniture for a single occupancy bedroom.

66 Minimum Room Sq. 401-3.6 Optional Sizes Based on Ft. Area TABLE 4-1.4

Table 4-1.1 may be used in lieu of furnishability requirements GENERAL STORAGE REQUIREMENTS in 401-3.1 through 401-3.5. When the table in used for any room, it shall be used throughout the project for all rooms of Cubic Feet of units. Strage living Column 1 (1) Column 2

TABLE 4-1.1 0 BR 100 140

MINIMUMROOM SIZES 1 BR 150 200

A. Minimum Room Sizes for Separate Rooms 2 BR 200 275

Minimum (Sq (7) Area Ft) Least 3 BR 275 350 Name of Space(1) LU with LU with LU with LU with LU with Dimen- 0-BR 1-BR 2-BR 3-BR 4-BR sion 4 BR or more 350 425

LR NA 160 160 170 180 11'-0, DR NA 100 100 110 120 81-4" Notes BR (primary) (2) NA 120 120 120 120 '-4"' BR (secondary) NA NA 80 80 80 8'-01r, (1) This storage shallbe located entirely within the Total area, BR's NA 120 200 280 380 ----- living unit. OHR NA 80 80 80 80 81-0 (2) At least onehalf of this storage shall be located B. Minimum Room Sizes for Combined Spaces within the living mit.

Minimum Area (Sq Ft) (7) _____Least b. Each living unit having one or morebedrooms shall haveat Combined Space LU with i LU with LU with LU with LU wit Dimen- least one separate closet for generalstorage or utility (1) (4) 0-BR 1-BR 2-BR 3-BR 4-BR sion(3) purposes located in a convenientlyaccessible place within the unit. This closet shall be at least6 sq ft in area LR-DA NA 210 210 230 250 and full room height. The remainderof the general storage LR-DA-SL 250 NA NA NA NA may be located in bedroom and coat closets provi4ed this LR-DA-K (5) NA 270 270 300 330 space is in addition to the required closet space. LR-SL 210 NA NA NA NA K-DA (6) 100 120 120 140 160 c. Common storage shall be in a dry area with space divided into lockable compartments or closets for each living unit. Notes d. Where exterior project maintenance is performed by tenants, (1) tibreviations: provide at least 50 cu ft additionol storage space per living unit, conveniently located to the outside. LU - Living Unit K - Kitchen LR - Living Room NA - Not Applicable a. Where the project is designed for families with children, pro- DR - Dining Room BR - Bedroom vide at least 50 cu ft of storage space per living unit DA Dining Area OHR - Other Habitable Room - conveniently located to the exterior for bicycles, prams, 0-BR - LU with no separate Bedroom SL - SleepingArea etc. (2) Primary Bedroomsshall have at least one uninterruptedwall space of at least 10 ft.

67 ELEVATORS CLEAR HEIGHTS

TABLE 4-1.3 Service Required MINIMUMCLEAR CEILINGHEIGHTS Elevators shall be providedin buildings of:

a. Five ormore stories; b. Four storieswhere deemed necessaryby the HUD field office to satisfy market considerations;

o. Three or monre stories in housing for the elderly;

d. Two story housing for the elderly where oentral dining fai lities are located on a floor level other than the floor level of liting u:its which do not have cookingand dining 9 facilities.

Service Elevator

At least one service elevator shall be provided in elevator- type buildings for theloading of furnitureand equipment.

Install at least one elevator in each of the fire compartments 9 required by 405-5.2. As an alternative where elevators are grouped together off a lobby, the lobby may be separated from each fire compartmentby a one-hour fire-ratedwall and a 3/4 hr fire door.

68 EXITS & CIRCULATION

Exit doorsother than from individualliving units shall swing e. The width of corridors at elevators shall be greater than in the directionof exit travel; exit doors giving accessto the width of the corridor at other locations, except where public stairwaysshall not overlap the requiredeffective width the elevator is serving six living units or less per floor. of the landing more than 6 in. The increase in width shall be at least 20 percent for corridors or hallways less than 5 ft wide, and at least Screens shall be provided at exterior apartment doors and at all 12 percent for corridors from 5 ft to 7 ft wide. windows below the ninth floor except where not customary in the locality. Projections, except handrails, and obstructions such as columns and door swings shall not reduce the required width. Screen Door and window openings shall be planned to take advantage of and storm doors may swing into exterior access corridors but adjacent exterior conditions and to avoid violationof interior drinking fountains, exterior awnings or casement window swings, privacy. etc. shall not reduce the required width.

An access opening of 18 in. x 24 in. minimum shallbe provided All exits shall providea continuousand unobstructedmeans of to each crawl space and an access opening of 14 in. x 22 in. travel from any point in a building to a public way. minimum shallbe provided to each atticspace. SeeTable 6-1.1. Maximum Lengths When the attic or crawl space containsmechanical equipment, the accessopening and any accompanyingareaway shall be of a. In corridors affording access to a stairway or horizontal sufficientsize and shape to permit replacementof the exit in two directions, the distance between a living unit equipment. entrance and a stairway or horizontal exit shall not exceed 100 ft measuring from the center lines of the doorways. Attic and crawl space access openingsshall not be located This distancemay be increased to 150 ft where buildingis within living units. protectedby automatic sprinklers.

HALLSAND CORRIDORS b. In dead-end corridors affordingaccess in only one direction to a requiredexit, the distancebetween a living unit Halls and corridors shall provide convenient, safe, and entrance and the exit shall not exceed 35 ft measuring unobstructed circulation within living units, and between from the center lines of the doorways. living units and other spaces to various means of exit. c. The distance of travel within a living unit between the Minimum clearwidths of halls and corridors shall be: door of the most remote room and a doorway to an exit corridor shallnot exceed 50 ft. a. Public halls: d. The distance of travel to an exit stairway or exterior Length Width door from any point within a boiler room or other area of high fire hazard shall not exceed 50 ft. Less than 10 ft 3'-6" 10 ft to 30 ft 4'-0"' CIRCULATION 30 ft to 100 ft 4'-6" More than 100 ft 5'-0"# Each bedroom shall have access to a bathroom without an Sousing for ederly 6'-000 intervening bedroom, kitchen, or principal living or dining area. Bedrooms shallnot afford the only access to a required b. Exterioraccess corridors:5 ft bathroom, except in one bedroom units. Neither a bedroom nor a bathroom shall afford the only access to a habitable room. c. Halls within living units: 3 ft

d. Hal, within living utite for wheetohair 4coss: 3 ft - 4 in.

69 FLAME SPREAD RATINGS MISC.

TABLE 4-5.4

FLAMESPREAD .RATING AND SMOKEGENERATED LIMITATIONS OF INTERIOR FINISHES FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM (1) (4) (5) a. For all buildings four storiec or more in height, an automatic sprinkler protectionsystem shall be provided in all Surface Flame Maximum Optical corridors,public spaces, service areas and utility areas. Logation Within Building Spread Rating- Smoke Density Maximum Rage b. Sprinkler systemsshall be equipped with an automatic Walls & Ceil. Floors Walls Ceil. Floors alarm initiation device that will activate the general Enclosed Stairwas,'sand Other 0-75 alarm system forthe building. Vertical Openings 0-25 [4] Corridorsor Hallways and 0-200 Installation of fire alarm and extinguishing systems shall be in accordance NFPA No. 72A Other Exits 0-75 [8] Reserved- pending with for fire alarm systems and NFPA No. 13 for sprinkler Within Living Unit except for evaluation of test systems. Spacing of sprinkler heads in be 15 on maximum Kitchen (3) 0-200 procedures. corridors shall positioned feet Kitchen Space within Living centers. Unit (2) 0-75 Public Rooms and Entrance STANDPIPES Spaces 0-75 0-200 Lobbies and Corridors between [8] All buildings 5 stories or 55 ft or greater in height shall be Exit Stairwayand Exterior 0-25 equipped withwet standpipesof number, size and construction Service Rooms, enclosingHeat in accordancewith NFPA No. 14 "Standpipe-andHose Systems" Producingor other Mechanical 0-75 for Class I services. Equipment,and all other Fire [4] Hazardous Areas 0-25

Notes BUILDING DISTANCE SEPARATION

Abbreviations: Ceil. - Ceiling The minimum distance of a building from a lot-line is determined I ] - Index number for UL Standard No. 992 by 304-2 for planning purposes. See also Table 4-5.1 for fire protection requirements. The following additional provisions total area of not (1) Single or double doors and windows having a relate to the distance of a building to a lot-line or another 1 greater than 34 sq ft, trim around openings, baseboards, moldings, building: chair rails, bathroom wainscot and plumbing fixture may be excluded in the calculation of flame spread limitations for rooms or other Where there are openings in an exterior wall less than 10 ft spaces. from a parallel wall having an exterior finish with a flame spread rating greater than 25, provide protected openings having (2) The flame spread rating of kitchen cabinets and counter tops shall a 3/4 hr fire endurance in accordance with ASTME 163. not exceed 200. Unprotected openings shall not be more than 20 percent of the (3) FZane spread rating of walls and ceiling in housing for the total wall area when distance separation is 10 to 20 ft and elderly - 0-75. 30 percent when distance separation is 20 to 30 ft.

(4) Draperies when provided shall be flameproof in accordance with NFPA Standard No. 701 "Flameproof Textiles." FENTHOUSES (5) Where automaticsprinkler protectionis provided, the flame spread a penthousenot over 15 ft above ratings maybe increasedin the followingamounts; 0-25 to 0-75 and the . roof and set back from the edge 0-75 to 0-200. of the roof more than 8 ft is not requiredto have a designatedfire resistancerating.

70 LIGHT & VENTILATION STC

TABLE 4-3.1 TABLE 4-4.1 MINIMUMREQUIREMENTS FOR ARTIFICIAL ANDNATURAL LIGHT NATURALAND MECHANICAL VENTILATION SOUND TRANSMISSIONLIMITATIONS

Location Artificial Nat. Light Natural Mechanical LOCATIONOF PARTITION STC Light Glazed Area Ventilation,Ventilation Footcandles As % of OpeningAs Air Changes (11) Floor Area % of Hor. Per Hour (1) Living unit to living unit, corridor (1) Projection or public space (average noise) (2) 45

PublicAreas Living unit to public space and service lobby (general) 20 -- 5 or 4 supply(10) areas (high noise) (3) (5) 50 dining 30 10 -- 6 supply corriqors 20 -- --(2) 4 supply(10) stairs 20 -- 5 or 4 supply(10) LOCATIONOF FLOOR-CEILING CTC IIC general storage 10 - 2 or 2 laundries 30 -- 5 or 6 exhaust garages (general) 10 -- see 615 recreationalareas (3) Floor-ceiling separating living units arts and crafts 70 15 5 or 6 supply from other living units, public space (4) game rooms 20-30 -- 5 or 6 supply or service areas (2) 45 45

ExteriorAreas Floor-ceilingseparating living units self-parking areas 1 ------from public space and service areas (high walk-ways 1 ------noise) (3) including corridor floors over building entrances 4 ------living units. 50 50 steps 4 ------

Living Units Notes

living rooms -- 10 5 10(4) (1) These values assume floors in corridors are carpeted; dining rooms -- 10 5 10(4) otherwise increase STC by 5. bedrooms -- 10 5 10(4) other habitable -- 10 5 10(4) (2) Public space of average noise includes lobbies, storage rooms rooms, stairways, etc. kitchens -- -5 or 8 exhaust(8) baths -- -- 5 or 5 exhaust (9) (3) Areas of high noise include boiler rooms, mechanical laundry ------(5) equipment rooms, elevator shafts, laundries, incinerator shafts, garages and most commercialuses. Structural Spaces (4) Does not apply to floor abovestorage rooms where noise attics & spaces -- -- 1/150(6) - from living units would not be objectionable. basementless spaces -- -- 1/800(7) - (5) Increase STCby 5 when over or undermechanical equipment which operatesat high note levels.

71 0

FIRE PAOTECTION

TABLE 4-5.1

FIRE PROTECTIONREQUIREMENTS INTERIOR FIRE PROTECTION MINIMUM FIRE RESISTANCERATINGS 1N HOURS BY TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION(1)

Firewalls,and Lot-Line Walls ELEMENTSOF CONSTRUCTION TYPE 1 TYPE 2 TYPE 3 TYPE 4 2a 2b 3a(2) 3b(6) a. Firewalls,and lot-linewalls shall form a continuousfire EXTERIOR WALLS and smoke barrier between fire divisionsfrom foundation Bearing to the roof and be so constructedas to assurestructural Under 30 ft separation 2 2 1 2 2 1 stabilityin the event the constructionon one side is 30 ft and over separation 2 2 3/4 2 1 3/4 removed or destroyedby fire. Non-bearing 9 Under 10 ft separation 2 1 1 2 2 1 b. For firewalls,and lot-linewalls where the roof framing, 10 ft to 30 ft separation 1 1 3/4 1 1 3/4 sheathing and covering are combustible,the fire division Over 30 ft separation 0 0 0 0 0 0 wall shall extend at least 18 in. above the top of the roof. INTERIORWALLS AND PARTITIONS Fire, andlot-line walls 2 2 2 2 2 2 c. Fire and lot-linewalls may be carriedup to theunderside Bearing 2 1 1 2 1 1 of the roofsheathing and sealed tightly in the following Non-bearing NC(5) NC(5) NC(5) C C C conditions: Exit enclosure of stairways, elevator shafts, et-. (3) 2 2 1 2 1 1 (1) Where constructionis Type 1 or Type 2. Partitions separating living units and enclosing public corridors 1 1 1 1 1 1 (2) Where the roof constructionprovides one hour protec- tection against sheathing burnthrough with a Class A COLUMNS, BEAMS, GIRDERS, TRUSSES 2 2 1 2 1 1 brand (tested in accordance with Method C Burning FLOOR CONSTRUCTION (10) 2 1 1 1 1 1 Brand Test ASTM E108) for a width of 6 ft on each ROOF CONSTRUCTION (4) 1 1 3/4 1 1 3/4 side of Lae wall and roof covering material throughout is at least Class C classification (ASTM E108). WALLS, FLOORS AND CEILINGS 1. Of lobbies and corridors between 9 d. Metal conduit-protected wiring and outlets may be installed exit stairways and oxterior 2 2 1 2 1 1 in fire rated partitions, lot-line walls, and firewalls 2. Separatingcommercial from except that outlets shall not be installed back-to-back. residential 2 2 2 2NC 2NC 2 Heating ducts and plumbing may be placed in firewalls only 3. Enclosingservice spaces (9) 2 2 2 2 2 2 where the wall construction provides a minimum of 2 hr fire 4. Enclosing tenant general resistance rating on each side of the ducts or plumbing. storage area 1 1 1 1 1 1 Recessed cabinets shallnot be placed in firewalls. 5. Separating garage from residential Firestopping For 1 to 4 cars 1 1 1 1 1 1 For more than 4 cars 2 2 2 2 2 2 a. Firestopping shall be provided in all walls and partitions, floors, stairs, attic or cornice construction, around PUBLIC STAIRWAYS NC NC NC NC C(7) C(7) chimneys, pipe and duct openings, to cut off all coacealed EXTERIOR STAIRWAYSAND CORRIDORS NC NC NC NC NC(8) NC(8) draft openings, horizontal and vertical, so as toform an effectual fire and smoke barrier between stories and between SHAFT ENCLOSURES 2 2 1 1 1 1 the upper story and the roof. CONSTRUCTION ENCLOSING BOILER, HEATER OR INCINERATOR ROOMS, FUEL STORAGE AND TRASH CHUTES(11) 2 2 2 . 2 2 2

72 Notes for Table 4-5.1

(1) Abbreviations: Where a building is equipped throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system, the maximum allowable areas given Table 4-5.2 0 designatesthat nospecific fire resistancerating is required. may be increased by 50 percent. L.U. - Living Unit NC designatesnoncombustible construction, but no specific EXITS fire resistancerating is required. C designates that the structural merbers of the construction General may be of combustiblematerials, but no specificfire resistancerating is required. a. Exit systems shall be of the number, size, arrangementand capacity (nur'erof persons) to permit prompt escapeof (2) In type 3a constructionthe corridorwalls, floorsand ceil- occupantsin the event of fire or other hazardousconditions. ings, partitionsenclosing verticalopenings, stairways, columns and bears shall be 2-hr. noncombustible for structures b. All means of egress shall providea continuousand of 3 or more stories, and1-hr. noncombustiblefor one or 2 unobstructedpath of travel from any point in the building stories. to a public way.

(3) In buildingsof types 1, 2a and 3a construction,not more than c. For additionalegress requirements, see 402. 3 storiesin height, and having not more than 12 living units within a fire division,exit enclosures mayhave a fire resistive Number of Exits rating of one hour. Every livingunit shallhave access to at least 2 separate (4) Roof constructionwith ventilatedattic need only have ceiling exits which are remote fromeach other and are reachedby assemblies witha finish ratingof at least 20 minutes. travel in different directions, except that a common path of travel is permitted under certainconditions see 402-4.5 and 405-6.3. MAXIMUMHEIGHT AND AREA LIMITATIONS Conditions Where a Single Exit is Acceptable (Exceptfor item below, Floor area, per floor, in sq ft, according to type of construction (a) a single exit to not acceptable tn housing for the (1) (2) (3) ~- Maximum Type I Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Height a. A living unit having direct exit to a street or yard at ground by way of an outsidestairway serving Stories Feet 2a 2b 3a 3b level, or the living unit only.

8 or more U U NP NP NP NP NP b. A one story building containinga maximum of 8 living 7 80 U 12,000 NP NP NP NP units. 6 70 U 15,000 NP 7,500 NP AP 5 60 U 20,000 NP 10,000 NP NP c. A 2 story building containing a maximum of 8 living 4 50 U 24,000 6,000 12,000 9,000 NP units and not more than 4 units per floor with one hr 3 40 U 27,000 9,000 15,000 12,000 9,000 fire resistive enclosed stairway inmediately accessible 2 30 U 30,000 12,000 18,000 15,000 12,000 to all living units. 1 15 U 33,000 15,000 21,000 18,000 15,000 d. A 3 or 4 story building havingnot more than4 living Notes units per floor with a smokeprooftower, or 2 hr fire resistive enclosed stairway ianediately accessible to (1) Abbreviations: U - Unlimited: NP - Not Permitted all living units.

73 &

74 IV. Materials & Methods

A. CHARACTERISTICSOF THE MATERIAL...... 76

1. Chartof ConcreteTypes and Weights...... 76 2. Definitions;Coverage Requirements...... 77 3. LightweightConcrete...... 78 4. ExperimentalMixes...... 80 5. StructuralConnections, Mix Caution,Shrinkage...... 81 6. FinishingOperations and Problems...... 82 7. MoldingBoxes and Proposals...... 83 8. Weightand Other SpecialProblems...... 85

B. METHODSOF MANUFACTURE...... 88

1. Chartof Methodsof ProducingConcrete Panels...... 87 2. Chartof Molds for CastingConcrete Box-Units...... 89 3. The CONSPRAYMethod for On-siteCasting, and Proposalfor Applicationin the Factory...... 90

C. EXAMPLESOF USE OF CONCRETEBOX-UNITS...... 92

1. HistoricalBackground...... 92 2. Some EuropeanExamples...... 93 3. American Firms...... 94

FOOTNOTESFOR THIS CHAPTER...... 100

75 I MetricTon a 1,000kilograms = 2,O5 lb. I tonAn 62.44 th/cu. ft.

76 CONCRETE: Some Characteristics

Concrete is defined as: In order to reducethe weightof a concrete box-unit,thinner but strongerwalls could "Amixture composed of a pastebinding to- be usdd,or lighter-weightconcrete could getheran inertfiller, or aggregate. The be used. paste is formedby the chemicalreaction betweencement and water. Accordingto Diamant,Russian concrete box-unitshave a thicknessof only 1 5/8" The paste or cementingmedium is the funda- betweenribs on the side walls and ceil- mentalbasis of strengthdevelopment of ing, using fine grainconcrete. [2] concrete. The inherentstrength of the paste is a functionof the ratioof its two com- ACI codes require structural membersto be ponentsexpressed in gallonsof water per at least 4" thick,[3] and for panels 8 cm. sack of cement. or 3.2 in. is required to prevent buckling. [4]

There is, of course, a practical limit to the weight and thickness of concrete box-units usually determined by transport and handling In a concretemixture, the maximumamount of stresses. aggregate shouldbe used to producean eco- nomicalmix with low shrinkage.The amountof While for fireproofing,minimum steel cover aggregateused dependson itseffect on the is 3/4"[5]', ease in filling molds and re- workability or consistency of a mix. The moval from molds limits non-bearing panels limitingamount, then, is the maximumamount to 6 cm. or 2.4inches.[6]) The type of mold that can be used andstill attain full compac- or processwill determinethe lowest limitfor tion of the concrete. Consistencyis determined each application. by 'slump'tests, which measurethe numberof inchesa mass of concretewill settleafter The minimumpanel to accommodatea post-ten- the slump cone has been removedfrom the sioning sleeve is 5" [7] . If electrical concrete." [1] -- conduitand outlets,or if heatingcables are imbeddedin the concrete,allowance must be made. It is necessaryto use a very high slump concreteso that it will communicate around these requiredinserts. This necessi-

77 tatesa mix which has more water than would practically prohibits their use, unless be required for the concrete process itself. some very goodmoments of inertiacan be Therefore, in order to maintain the proper achievedby the developmentof deep cross water-cementratio, cement must be added and beams,waffle-type slab arrangements,or this adds cost. [8] the addition of reinforcing steel. [10]

The Zachrysystem used a 5" wall of lightweight expandedshale aggregateand silica sand,an LIGHTWEIGHTCONCRETE--CELLULAR CONCRETE air- entraining agent, and a workability agent. The net weightof this wall was 95 poundsper Lighter-weight concrete is being developed. cubic foot. . "The resultsfrom this wall Thisis accomplishedby: have been very good insofaras heat transmission is concerned.The economics insofaras 1. Using lighter aggregates. materialsare concernedis good, but other problems of labor and temperature cracking 2. Usingadditives to entraingas bubbles still need work before the wall can be con- to producea cellular concrete. sidered an unqualified success."[9] Cellularconcrete is usuallynon-structural, "Up to a point strengthcan be maintained with densitiesfrom 25 to 50 poundsper cubic while reducing the weight of a concrete. foot (0.4-0.8metric tons per cubicmeter).?, However, weight reductions achieved at a s constant strengthare not sufficientto One of the leading producers of cellular contribute significantly to either the concrete in Europe is the HEBELGasbetonwerk handlingproblem or the heattransmission in Emmering,Germany. Their productis problem. In order to make an important con- availablein many forms of panelsand blocks tributionto the weight problem, air for all purposes, but most interesting for entrainment, foam, insulating aggregates or use in box-unitconstruction would be large some esotericstructural shape is required. panels. [11] When significantreductions in weightare achievedby loweringthe densityof con- Bearing panels are available in standard crete,the strengthis reducedand the sizes: 600 cm x 60 cm x 7.5-25cm. durability of the surface of the walls 19'-4"x 2'-0"x 3" to 10" is decreased. Non-bearingpanels are available in standard sizes: 600 cm x 150 cm x 12.5-25cm., In the case of horizontal concrete sections 19'-4"x 4'-11"x 5" to 10" such as the roof, the much lower modulus of It is possiblethat largersize panelscould 9 elasticityof the low densityconcretes be produced in the future, given sufficient

& demand. (A panel for box-unit walls should Btu/hr./sq.ft./*F. At a density of 65-67 be obtainedin one piece,about 9 ft. x 30 pcf, a compressivestrength of 5,000 psi is achievable.[151 This concreteis being used ft. or 2.74 m x 9. 14 m in a panel faced with a 1-3/4" split brick unit for a total thickness of 4", by the Royal Development Division of Metropolitan Industries in Canton, Ohio. A 4' x 9' brick or 100 pcf. LIGHTWEIGHTCELLULAR CONCRETE faced panel weiqhs1,200 pounds,

Anotherproduct is SIPOREX,a chemicalmixture with lime and cement that rises in its mold, CONCRETEWITH PLASTICAGGREGATES much the same as a cake would rise, forming a cellularstructure weighing 31 poundsper RudolfDoernach, a Germanarchitect and cubic foot. It can be shaped,sawed, drilled, formerassistant to R. BuckminsterPuller sandedor routedsimilar to wood, permitting demonstrateda "spaceunit" at Constructa close tolerances and good construction '70,the big Germanconstruction show held joints. [12] in Hanover. Doernachholds the patenton his space-unit system, and the specific additives and their mixing ratios as well as the mixing machinery are protected by CONCRETEWITH LIGHTWEIGHTAGGREGATES BASFheld patents. A prediction is for pyroprocessed shales and clays to increasein use wherethe supplyof The material used consists of a mixture of good, naturalaggregates dwindles. From these small STYROPORplastic balls (0.978-0.1575 materials will come concrete with a specific inc. in diameter)with PortlandCement, epoxy gravityof 0.8 and strengthover 3,500 psi.[13] resinsfor adhesionand small doses of some 20 polyvinyladditives. The plasticballs, Additivesmay be fly ash, blast-furnaceslag, or pellets are hollow, providing insulation, manufacturedaggregates such as brick,iron low weight, and easy workability. concentrates, activated carbon, alumina, and other minerals. [14] The plastic-to-concrete ratio is about 22 to 33 lb. of pellets to a cubic foot of MapletonDevelopment, Inc. has developed'SCR concrete. By volume,the STYROPORaccounts veri-lite',a bubble-likeexpanded clay pro- for about 90% of the total. duct with a densityof 28 pcf with excellent insulating properties. Whenmixed with Doernachvaries the additiveproportions for appropriatecement ratios, it resultsin a specific material characteristics, such as concrete4" panelwith a U-factorof 0.30 fire rating, thermal and sound insulation, 79 9

stability,steam permeability,etc. Additivesfor reinforcingmetal, mineral, glass, or plastic fibers are being experi- Each 11-1/2ft. x 26-1/2ft. x 9 ft. space mentallyused to reinforceconcrete. consistsof a shellof 3.15 in.-thick plastic- concretepanels covered on exteriorsurfaces An experimentalhouse beingdemonstrated with another10.16 in. of STYROPORfor added in January 1975 by the National Association thermal insulation. of HomeBuilders (NAHB)in Dallas, Texas featuresa 3,300sq. ft. glass-fiberrein- Up to now, the prototypeunits have been forcedconcrete floor slab.According to boltedtogether from panelsmolded in hori- ErnestL. Buckley,director of the Construc- zontalforms. Panelscan be removedfrom tion ResearchCenter in Dallas(CRC), the 1" the forms in one day, but they needto harden long glassfibers in a mixtureof 1.5-2%by for another8 to 14 days beforethey can be volumein the 4-in.slab providea flexural assembled.Like conventionalconcrete, they strengthequal to steelfibers, but unlike achievemaximum strength in 28 days. steel,the alkali-resistantglass fibersdo not ball up and are safe to handle. "The Work is also underwayon a similar system, glass fiber reinforced concrete is seven but with water insteadof airinside pellets. timesmore resistantto fracturethan con- 9 ventionallyreinforced concrete using No. 3 Doernachso far has spentmore than $4 steel bars on 16-in.centers, Buckley claims. millionon this project--fundsfrom private Concrete reinforced with glass fiber is not industry, government sources, and his own yet commerciallyavailable, and the Dallas pocket. Plans, notyet disclosed,are in project may be its first residential test, the works for a cooperative arrangement he says." [17] betweenDoernach's groupof 10 members (architects, city planners, material Reinforcementwill also becomemore mechanized breeders,construction men, and adminis- with rebarring and welded wire handled by trators)and a similargroup in Tokyo.[16] machines. On contractorreplaces rebars with expandedwire mesh in flat panelswhen strength in only one direction is required.[18]

Precastingand prestressingmethods will be improvedfor lightersections, although the campherresulting from pre-stressingrequires a toppinglayer.

80 STRUCTURALCONNECTIONS

Structuralconnections and detailingbecome known as conversionalters HAC's crystalline increasinglyimportant as the size of the structure,causing a loss of strength. The structuralelements being used increases. investigationwas orderedafter HAC was found to be a contributingcause of the collapseof The advantagesof on-siteconnections which three school roofs lastyear. strengthenthe structurethrough continuity of shell reinforcingmay be over-riddenby savings in time and laborwhen the buildingis designed SHRINKAGE for simpleconnections (non-moment transferring joints)with relianceon bulk,shear walls, cores, A monolithicallycas concrete housewill in- ring-beams, or cables for rigidity. variablydevelop cracks from shrinkageof the concrete. A concretehouse assembledfrom Some predictthat concreteprecast buildings panelswill not have sucha seriousproblem. will dependto a largeextent on glued joints Cracksalso developaround window and door for resistanceto thermaland seismicforces.[19] openings. Developmentof specialconcrete adhesives Since parallelsthe developmentof glues for wood cracksin the walls are not acceptable construction. by the occupant,further development to solve the problemmust be made or the wallsmust be coveredwith a vinylwall coveringor nylon CONCRETEMIX CAUTION base paints which will stretch and bridge cracks up to 1/16". [21] To enableconcrete to cure faster,use of high- aluminacement (HAC) had beenpopular in Great "Practiceshows that many of the box-units Britain. (HAC is not used in the UnitedStates get crackswhich damagefinishing, deteriorate or in Europeanstructures.) soundinsulation, and reduce theload-bearing capacity of the box-units. Therefore measures Unfortunately,this cementhas now been found aimed to prevent cracking of the box-units to be unsafe. As many as 50,000 buildings in deserve special attention." GreatBritain are a potentialhazard because they were constructedwith HAC, accordingto The followingmeans for reducingcracking the country'sDepartment of the Environment..[20)seem possible. An ensuing investigation by Britain's Building ResearchEstablishment found that in high 1. The applicationof more harsh concrete temperaturesand humidity,a chemicalprocess mixtures and 'soft' regimes of curing

81 9

(heat treatment). 5. Whitewashing of ceiling,papering of walls, oil-painting and the drying of 2. The use of specialcements including wall-panels, windows, doors, tubes and expanding and fast-setting ones floors. (eliminating the heat treatment). 6. Installationof the sanitaryand service 3. Prestressing of reinforcement. [22] equipment,gas-stoves and filaments, final finishingwith paintsand hot-air Some ofthe above-mentionedmethods are dryingof wall-panelsand floors. being developed-inthis country. 7. Hot air dryingof internalsurfaces of a box-unit. FINISHINGOPERATIONS 8. Technical control and storage. [24] The sequenceof finishingoperations, time, and laborconsumption depend upon the future functionof a box-unit. The finishingtime FINISHINGPROBLEMS .fora box-unitcomprising a kitchen,a bathroom and w.c. is twice as long as that for New productsmust be developedto increasethe a box-unit comprising flights of stairs or efficiencyof factoryfinishing operations. rooms of a dwelling. [23] Finishingcompounds should be weather-proof, The Russiansemploy the followingsequence sufficientlyadhesivable with regardto of operationsat the finishingconveyor: concretesurfaces which are from 10 to 18% humid, and be air-dryable at 15-18 C = F. 1. Assembly of tubes for hot and cold The use of oil and other long-dryingpaints water supply,sewage, gas, central makes it necessary to air-dry the products heating. as long as for 50-60%of the whole manufacturing period. [25] 2. Fixing doors and window frames. t

3. Finishingfloors, installing built-in MOLDINGBOX-UNITS cupboards,ventilation-grills, finishing seamsbetween the walls and details. Moldingthe box-unitswithin a wide-rangeof sizes may be accomplished by either 4. Assemblyof electricwiring, finishing w.c. floorswith ceramictile and the 1. havingreserve capacity or preliminary hot-air drying of internal 2. using flexiblemolding equipment. surfaces of the box-unit. 82 Flexibleequipment developed in Russia tions beingmore economicallyconstructed "separatesthe formswhich determinethe di- of drywall later. [30] mensionsand configuration ofthe box-units from the service mechanisms. It allowsto Anotheraspect of the formingsystem that construct rathersimple universal machinery causesproblems is the fact that all materials and unified forms."[26]A change of a single used in formingconcrete are elastic,and mold taken 407 man-hoursand has to be carried under load they are going to deform. No out at a specializedpost ofthe technological matterhow strongthe forms are made, some line; an additional form should be provided to deformationwill take place. This is if the keep up the productive capacityof the line."[27]formsmust be vibratedin order for the concreteto fill all the voids. Built-in "In the formingsystems required for monolithic tolerancesmust be designedto the form or modules,flexibility of designis minimumif it the completedmodules will not fit together existsat all. This is becauseof the impracti- properly. cability-ofbuilding a largenumber of molds in orderto achieveflexibility, or becauseof the In the pouringof the modulesome external expenseof manufactureand high labor costs vibrationwill be requiredin order to get relativeto the operationof a uniformtype that even extremely high slump concretes to can producemany differentplans."[28] communicateproperly. This vibrationwill be deleteriousto the form itselfeven if it "If a manufacturerdecides to produce monolithicis of steel construction.Strengthening the modulesin concrete,he must be contentwith form is not alwaysthe answerto this damage three or four different floor plans with per- since the stronger form will require more haps four variations of the front elevation vibration energyto get thesame effect. A of ends. These front facades can be varied balancemust be reachedin the designto by changing the front trim of the house." [29] minimize its deformation under load and allowa moderateamount of vibration without requiringfrequent form repair. Even with MOLDINCBOX-UNITS this balance, assumingit can beachieved, formswill have to be repairedfrom timeto The single most difficult problem encountered time.[31] in the mass productionof modularconcrete homes is the developmentof the formingsystem for casting. AUTOMATION

Zachry'sexperience showed that only the ex- In designingthe forms,consideration should teriorshell should be cast; interiorparti- be given to making their operation as auto-

83 matic as is economicallyfeasible. Basedon this approach worksbest when box-units estimates of converting Zachry's forms to containthe entiredwelling unit within the fully automatic, the additional cost would shell. The size of the building shouldbe probably be about one-third the original such that time for concretingis allowed cost of the forms. This is not excessive aftermodules are placed,so the concrete since the steelform's original high cost can harden overnight before the next layer means that a largenumber of housesmust be of work commences. producedby their use in order to amortize them. The additionalcost of automation A proposal by F. D. Rich, Jr. for the "HAB- then would probablybe paid forby labor System"modules shows boxes as beams,spanning savingsto beachieved by the automationin the width of a building. [32] Supporting this largenumber of houses. columnsare locatedin rows,front and back, so standardboxes can be utilizedin high Whether the forms are completely automated rise construction of various heights by or not, serious consideration should be given appropriatecolumn sizes. (-seeExample 2, to makingall strippableparts ofthe form page 142) For purposesof self-aligningand self-locking,since in a reducing the weight of the box-unit, ribbed form that is this complicated,the labor floors, walls, and ceiling are used. The required to align the various parts and wall sections are only one inch, the ceiling lock them in place can get to bea sizable 1-3/4", and the floor about 2".[33] percentage of the total labor required in casting. An interesting approach to try would be to constructbox-units of largepanels of The type ofconcrete used will dependon lightweight cellular concrete such as whetherthe box-unitis designedto be "Siporex" or "Hebel Gasbeton." The box-units only self-supportingor designedto would only be strong enough to support their transmit loads from other units. own weight and for stresses during transport and handling. To constructa building,con- If the box-unitis only self-supporting, cretewould be pouredbetween the walls, it must be dcsigncdto take loadsof forminga monolithicstructure. transport and handling, as well as gravity loads. Each box-unit can be An alternativemethod of producingconcrete conceivedas form-work;after the boxes box-unitswould be touse the Conspray are placed,grout or concretecan be technique described on page 90 . Using a poured between the modules to form previously precast floor, an interiorsteel rigidcontinuous supports. Obviously, form wouldbe linedwith a interiorfinish

84 (perhapswood paneling)bonded to an depend on other people's know-how," said insulating foam-like material (such as Paul Koch who turned to conventional construc- styrofoam).The attachmentsfor the rein- tion only after he was unableto get the forcing"cage" could be stuck into the foam necessaryconcrete engineering assistance.[35] much as pins in a pin cushionand would be permanently "placed" after the unit was JamesShilstone of GeneralPortland, Inc. in given a spray coat of 3" of concrete. a paper for the American Concrete Institute Conferenceheld in Dallas,Texas in Septem- ber, 1973 states: WEIGHTOF THEUNIT "One reason is that most builders consider The weightof the unit determinesthe concretean ugly duckling suitablefor pri- capacities required for equipment used in sons or sewage project plants, but unsuitable moving the units about the precasting for residentialbuildings. Cool and Grey are facilityand alsothrough the final two words used to describe a grim rainy day assemblyplant. and these are usually associated with the look of concrete,an associationthat has led one The crane capacityrequired for erecting Colorado concretebuilder wary of consumer the units as the job site is dictatedby acceptanceto remark,'We are not goingto the weight of the moduleas well as by the advertisethe fact thatwe are makingcon- buildingheight. crete houses." [36]

There is a need for industry-wide standards for dimension, connection,and materialwhich FIRE LESS CRITICALIN CONCRETEBOX-UNITS must be evolved and accepted locally.

The tunnel-affectbetween box-unitsis Methodsof inspectingand certifyingwork more severe in steel and woodunits. transportedacross local and stateboundaries Details of firestopping become critical.[343 must be developed. New equipmentfor making, transportingand placing precastcomponents must be found,and a new laborcategory-- SPECIALPROBLEMS the concrete erector--must develop.

Technical Background. The average contractor or developer prefers to continue with methodsfamiliar to him. "The risk was too greatto go with a systemwhere we totally

85 0

MANUFACTURE

The manufactureand designof box modules metricstability to producedimensionally are closelyrelated. Early consultation accurateunits, are re-useable,have with contractorsand concretefirms is littleadhesion, are easy to clean,are essential;in fact, the moduleproducer suitable forchanges in mold dimensions, would do well to acquire or merge with and can be vibrated. existingconcrete manufacturers with establishedequipment and experience. Although battery molds could be used, casting on horizontal beds or slip-forming would The followingare considerationsin the be less expensive alternatives, especially choice of design: when only one side of the wall or floor need be finishedto a smoothsurface - 1. Unitswhich require little timeto manufacturebecause of -simpleshape In addition, fittings for electrical equip- and cross-sectionare oftencheaper ment, doors,connections, and placementof to mass-producethan cleverlycontrived reinforcementis most economicallyachieved weightsaving sections. in flat moldsand fillingof concretearound openingsis more compact. It will be neces- 2. The structureshould be composedof a sary to use artificialhardening (curing) to small numberof differenttypes of enabledemolding at an early age (e.g., structural components in order to tiltingmolds). Flat panelsfill all the minimizethe numberof different requirementsof easy manufacture.Moreover, molds needed;to speed up the manu- equipmentto produceflat panelsis readily facture of equal units and the available;existing plant and equipmentcan lower costs. be used when a change-overto productionof modulesis introduced.Flat panelscan be 3. The units shouldbe so designedthat surfacedto resemblewood or brickor any variants of basic types can be pro- othertreatment simply by using an appropriate 9 duced in the same mold. form liner;color additives,or ceramictile or plastic coatings are easily applied, and 4. Units shouldbe designedfor mechan- sandwichpanels are easilyintegrated with the ized manufacture.[37] system.

My project envisionsthe useof steel With reinforced(as distinctfrom prestressed) molds which have the qualities of volu- concrete,it is generallysufficient to

86 Some Methods of Producing Panels

flfoor wall

ceiling wall

POURa8 LEVEL CURE TILT REMOVE MINIMUMINVESTMENT

f loor wall

ceiling wall

POUR 8 LEVEL CURE WITH HEAT (Hot a~r, VACUUMLIFT ACCELERATEDCURING VIBRATE bifored red, heatedmold, etc.) TRANSPORTER

__ll$ loorand ceiling

POUR M VIBRATE CURE IN HEATED MOLD OVERHEAD CRANE LIFT BATTERY MOLDS

POUR a LEVEL HYDRAULICPRESS SIDES RETRACT CURINGOUTSIDE MOLD GO-CON PRESS LFTS MOLDTO PLATEN PC(EAtrS handling)

SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM GO-CON CHART "COMPARISONOF PRECASTINGTECHNiGUES*

87 attainbetween 25-60% of the finalstrength The chart on the oppositepage shows to enablethem to be demoldedand removed different types of molds; with the from the casting bed. With artificial treat- exceptionof the HingedMold described ments to acceleratehardening of the concrete, by A. Komendant,the examplesare from the requiredstrength for demoldingcan be Russiaas describedin the CIB Pro- attainedin as littleas 2 to 4 hoursdepend- ceedings #26 just mentioned. ing on the type of cementand processused. Tiltingtables or suction-liftersare used These machinesseem cumbersomeand to facilitate removalfrom the forms.[38] expensivewhen comparedwith the spray-techniquewhich follows.

The readerwishing more detailedinformation concerningcasting of concretebox-units shouldrefer to

MANUALOF PRECASTCONCRETE CONSTRUCTION by T. Koncz,Volumes I, II, and III

CONTEMPORARYCONCRETE STRUCTURES by AugustKomendant (pp. 524+)

INTERNATIONALSYMPOSIUM ON BOX- UNIT CONSTRUCTION,1973 CIB Proceedings#26 Balatonfured,Hungary

In addition, a brief survey of American firms is given on pages 94-99 of this paper. One firm, Allied General, Inc., has developeda new techniqueof injection molding with a rich cement mix of concrete.

88 Some Methods of Molding Units

CASETTE MOLDS

HINGED MOLD

U OR CUP MOLD

MOVABLE CORE

LF 1

89 THE CONSPRAY METHOD

The Conspraymachine system, invented by Figure2 showsa workmanextrusion-spraying John Richards,was used in Brazilin 1973 to near-zeroslump concrete to a thicknessof producelow cost on-sitedwelling units at a 3" on the walls and roof. The concreteis rate of 4-6 dwellingsper day with a single troweledto the desiredfinish. After quick 9 crew. It is now being used for low and curingfor 4-13 hours,the steelforms and high rise constructionin the UnitedStates, supportsare then retractedand rolledto a includinga 20-storycondominium in Ocean new positionwhere the sameprocedure is re- City,Maryland. [39] peated.

.9 The examplebelow shows the housingtype A prototypehouse has been cast using developedfor use in Brazil. Figure1 shows 1/2" waterproof gypsumboard as stay- a retractablesteel form and centersupport in-placeforms with three-dimensional placedon a previouslypoured floor slab. mesh attachedon 12" centers. Concrete Welded wire reinforcing mesh is stretched was sprayedto a thicknessof 2-1/2"over over the steel form and attachedto steeldowels the board.[40] extendingupward at the edges of the slab.

* I2

90 One wonders if this new technique (similar to 2. When usedfor box-units,the sprayed gunitespraying) could over-ridethe predicted surfaceneeds no additionaltroweling economies offactory-produced concrete housing; or finishing. (Theredundant stacking or if this method could be introducedinto the boxes require onlyone smooth surface.) factoryfor box-unit production,for even greatercost savingsand control. 3. Ready-mixconcrete can be appliedat the rate of 20 cubicyards per hour with a materialloss of about 2-3%. This is a significantadvance over guniteequipment rates.

Some of the advantagesof the systemwhich 4. Cold jointsare eliminatedbecause the could be appliedto factory-productionof force of the new material assuresfull concretebox-units are: bondage to the old concrete. Delaysand work stoppageswould not create concreting problems. Work is not limitedto a 1. There is no need for expensiveforms specific number of wall sections which exceptfor castingthe floor slab. One- can be completedin one day. sidedforms are adequateand need not be becausethere is no heavilyconstructed 5. Both in strengthand appearance,the wall them as there is hydrostaticloading on is indistinguishablefrom one cast conven- form ties are on two-sidedforms. No tionally,but it has no pocketsor pits marks and labor needed,eliminating tie since the concreteis compactedagainst of consolida- required. Also, insertion Variousform linerscan be thicker the form. ting vibrators, often requiring attached for a wide variety of smooth or walls, can be avoided. textured surfaces.[41]

91 *

HISTORICAL NOTES t

Accordingto W. D. Tiner,P. E. "Mankindhas exactlywhat H. B. Zachryis proposingand been attemptingto build low cost concrete has very nearlysucceeded in doingeconomi- houses formany years. In 1907,Thomas Alva cally. [47] Edisonannounced a 'new mEthodof building 0 dwellingsof smallcost.'[42] Edisonsaid, The firstRussian ideas.about box-units were 'Thereis nothingparticularly novel about expressed in 1901. my plan: it amountsto the same thingas makinga very complicatedcasting in iron, "In 1930, Prof. N. A. Ladovsky and architect except that the mediumis not so fluid. E. V. Karaulov developed -a new type of Someonewas bound to do it, and I thoughtI buildingwith lightweightbox-units to be * might as well be the man, that'sall.' insertedinto the cellsof the bearingframe. Edison's announcementstirred up quite a In the years which followed,a numberof controversy." [43] Soviet experts madesuggestions about the application of ready-made three-dimensional "Overthe next14 years,more systemswere elementsof differenttypes for housingcon- -proposedfor the buildingof concretehouses. struction."[48] In 1921,H. A. Mount claimedthat Simon Lake, of torpedoboat fame, 'has found and "In 1950,Le Corbusierdeveloped the first removedthe flawsin Edison'splan.'[44] multi-familystructure in Marseille,France, He, along with Robert C. Lafferty, a New usingprefabricated boxes. His plan employed York architect,developed an elaboratemodu- a huge ferro-concreteframe with rectangular lar systemthat is very similarin many slots into which 23 different types of respectsto that presentlybeing used by apartmentscould be accommodated.Each of H. B. ZachryCo. of San Antonio,Texas. the 337 modules was prefabricated in the Lake'shouse module was 12-1/2ft. x 28 usingdry constructionmethods. The overall ft." [45] cost of $3 millionin 1954 was compatible with conventional techniques.',[49] "Lake's planas statedwas "...insteadof buildingthe house on the lot, necessitating In 1955,three-dimensional monolith rein- a vast amountof labor for puttingup and forced concrete sanitary units were tearingdown expensiveforms, he will build manufactured in Russia for the first time. monolithic concrete units from standardized forms in well-equippedfactories, and de- The first experimental buildings using load- liverthe finishedhouse, ready for bearingconcrete box-units were erectedin t occupancy, to the lot."[46] This is seven Russian cities in 1958-1960. [501 i 92 At first, Russian box-units were assembled from individualpanels with welding of in- DieterMeyer-Keller of the Institutfur serteddetails. This was found to be IndustrielleBauproduktion published a costlydue to high laborconsumption and catalog of Box-unit types in 1972, en- difficultyof concretingthe joints. titled"RAUMZELLENBAUWEISEN--ENTWICKLUNGS- Experimentswith frame-boxsystems using STAND UND TENDENZEN". It includeslists reinforcedconcrete showed buildings could and descriptionsof steel,wood, plastic, attainonly 9 storieshigh and found only and concretebox-units.[53] small production in Russia. Twenty-oneexamples are describedfor box- HABITAT'67, the firstlarge box- units of reinforcedconcrete construction. systemof its kind,was built for EXPO in Montreal,Canada by associated architectsMoshe Safdie and David, From Sweden: Skanska Barott,& Boulva.Its storyis well Switzerland: Variel(Elcon)* told in Moshe Safdie'sbook "Beyond Flex-bau Habitat",and in the engineerscomments W. Germany: Fels "Post-mortemon Habitat"in Progressive Ohl Ringzellensystem Architecture,March, 1968. Canada: Habitat Denmark: Conbox Holland: Bouwvliet In 1969, planswere made by the Russian Rumania: Montaj governmentfor threenew factoriesfor Inst.of ConcreteConst. constructionin 1970;and soon after25 Spain: specialized box-unit factories in varied SIC Belgos regions. By 1973,17,000 apartments USSR: Giprograshdanpromstroi (=800,000sq. meters)using the reinforced #6 Moscow * concretebox=unit system.[51] USA: Diskin Uniment Zachry In 1971,the firstbuilding using the AUSA Puerto Rico systemwas completedin Finland. According Habitat I.I.T.R.I. to Mr. AnteroSalonen, two new factories Florida Prestressed are under construction. The systemis patentedin 10 countriesand in the USA. Foldcrete Casting is done by placing interior and exterior forms on -top of a previously cast In addition,the BOSTADSBOLAGETBUILDING BLOCKS floor slab. One unit weighs 40 tons and systemof Swedenis interestingbecause it com- is liftedby a pair of 60-ton cranes.[52] bines box-unitscontaining kitchens and baths with concretepanel construction.[54]

93 *See page 148 and 149 of this paper for description 9

AMERICAN FIRMS

9 It shouldbe noted that SHELLEYSYSTEMS, 1. H. B. Zachry Company INC. of 400 Park Ave. New York, N.Y. has ModularConstruction Division ceasedproduction building of multi- Designand ProjectDevelopment family housingand is concentratingon 300 Tower Life Building licensingits modularconstruction system San Antonio,Texas 78205 to developers.The most recentlicensee is the HOUSINGDEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION The ZachryCompany is well-knownfor the of New YorkCity. All told, accordingto constructionof the-SanAntonio, Texas Shelley,builders representing2,000 Hilton Hotel, "Palacio del Rio" designed, apartmentunits are consideringthe completed,and occupiedin an unpreceded system.[55]Shelley Systems was well period of 202 working days in 1968. Of the known for its OperationBreakthrough hotel'sstories, the first four were built participation and its checkerboard of conventional,reinforced concrete for stacking pattern. supportfacilities; at the same time, an elevator and utility core were slip-formed to a full heightof 230 feet. From the Only five firms in the USAwhich were 5th floor to the twentieth,modules were makingeither box-units or box-and- stackedand connectedby weldingof steel panelsystems recently have been located. embedments.The 496 room modules--each fullydecorated and equippedat a plant Only two seem. to be successful eightmiles from the site--wereplaced by and in production.The othersare hoping cranein 46 days. A 350 h.p. craneequipped for improvementin the economy and are with a special 36 ft. diameter ring base concentratingefforts on overseasmarkets and a 270 ft. boom maneuveredthem into and licensingpossibilities. Each firm place. So that they could be literally is describedbriefly in the following 'flown' into place without turning or section. danglingin mid-air,a Sikorskyhelicopter stabilizingtail sectionwas attachedt6 The firmsare: each room at job site. A maximumworkina #I tolerance of 3/4" was maintained." [56]

Since the hotel's 1. H. B. Zachry Company completionH. B. Zachrey, a world-wide 2. Delcrete Corporation constructionenterprise has 3. BuildingBlock Construction completed the following projects in its modular 4. Echo Group,Inc. constructiondivision created in 1970, 5. Allied General, Inc. entitled "Construction Modules, Inc."

94 A generaloffice building--a fully equipped The H. B. Zachry Companyis comprised of 9 (4,000sq. ft.) buildingdesigned for specific subsidiarycompanies and 6 affiliatedcom- ownersin San Antonio,Texas. paniesincluding 3 generalcontractors, 2 real estatedevelopers, 3 materialssuppliers, The 250-bedMetropolitan General Hospital in hotel and country-clubadministrators, an oil San Antonio,Texas--planned to reducethe re- and gas company,an insurancecompany, a quiredperiod of time for conventionalmethods parkinggarage, and a railroadcompany. 12-18months; to obtaina 50% reductionin the interimfinancing, and amongother assetsto assurethe capacityfor rapidexpansion with minimum of patient care. interruption Weight: 32-35tons Length: 29-32 ft. A seven-story addition to a hotel in Winter Width: 13' overall Park, Florida--orderedin mid-September,1971 Height: 9' floor-to-floor Tolerances: 70 modular units were cast and finished by 3/4" for creep November5, 1951 and shippedvia rail to Florida. Four days later,after 1,500miles of rigorous journey, the Zachry, modules arrived A chasefor utilitiescan occur between safelyat their final site,which was a hotel modules,internal to unit if 30" wide minimum. locatednear DisneyWorld, Flordia. The (Limitedto 2 stories),or betweenunits end- actualerection of the modulesrequired six to end. days. Total time for the operation: less than sixty days. It is possibleto stack up 22-modulesmaximum withoutany externalstructural members. For Five housingsubdivisions, with more than 200 designpurposes, the modulescan cantilevera all-concrete homes, located in the City of maximumof six feet,without any structural San Antonioand in a Hill Countryresort facing distress. A pre-castribbed slab systemcan the LBJ Lake, convenientto Kingsland,Texas. be used to span areasbetween modules in in-, For singlefamily housing, the basicZachry crementsof two feet to a maximumof twenty moduledesign was modified--withoutany al- feet. terationin its structuralcomposition--to achievethe traditionalAmerican gable look. With a desiredlead time of 60-90 days for designand productionscheduling, 8 modules A 278-unitcomplex in Dallas,Texas, with a per day are finishedunder normalconditions. club, swimmingpool, and maintenancefacili- A maximumof 12 modulesper day can be com- ties. pletedunder special conditions with present Currentannual production was not notedon facilities. a recent questionnaire returned to me in November, 1974.

95. 2. Delcrete Corporation shaftbetween paired rooms. Removableprecast ErnestJ. Delmonte,President panelsare placed overthe chasesbefore ship- 909 LindenAvenue ment to the site. Dependingon design require- Rochester,New York ments,closures for spacesbetween modules and at the roof are also provided. The 25-tonboxes Althoughthere has been no reply to my ques- may be stackedto 20stories. The boxesrequire tionnaire,some informationabout this firm foundationsupports at each end and in the has been obtainedfrom the March,1975 issue middle. of PB "IndustrializedBuilding," p. 114. The first Delcreteproject using the precastbox- The Delcrete Corporationwas organizedin unitswas finishedin 1973. The three-story 1971 after a two-yearperiod oftechnical 101 Room DepotMotel in Pittsford,New York investigationwhich led to the conclusion featureda mansardroof concealingmechanical that concretewas the desirablematerial installationand brick columnsto cover air with a relativelylow cost scale,that spacesbetween units. factorymachine procedures shbuld replace hand labor,that a union shopwould provide Three motel projectsfor the Marriottchain acceptanceamong site builders,and thatthe have beencompleted, and other projectsare systemwould be applicablefor hotels,hos- being planned. pitals, nursing homes, college dorms and apartments. Furtheranalysis showed the need The latestproject in Bloomington,Minnesota to provide more than a structural shell to resultedin a savingsof about$2000/room, justify the capital expense of a production accordingto Marriottofficials, not including- plant and transportingsystem; so mechanicals, the time savedand the fact that therewas fixtures and furnishings are provided. only minimaldisruption of the existinginn's operations. (The greatest savings per room The roomunits are comprised of separate is claimedto be $5000or more.) Of special floor and ceiling slabs flat-cast in special interestwas the use of a rail transportsystem beds with internalvibrating networks. For (not described)which made the 1,245mile trip room walls, a reinforcinggrid cage is assem- from the Rochester,New York plant feasible. bled over the floor slab and plumbing-electrical runs are put in place along with interior A one-timemanufacturer of aircraft-missile door frames. The wall-castingmachine is generators,Delmonte is now ownerof over 20 placedover the cage. After initialhardening, major industrial buildings in the Rochester the machineis retractedand moved to the next area includingthe Rochester Marriott Inn, station. A precastceiling is placedand completed via the Delcrete system in 1974. connected, arid the room unit is moved to another location for fixtures and finishing. Waste, vent, and supply piping plus electrical conduitruns are pre-installedin the corridor 96 Accordingto Mr. Mitchell,an investorin of the Delcrete Mr. Delmonte,President the BuildingBlock ConstructionGroup, at the December Corporation,was speaker the firm began in 1968 startingfrom a 10, 1974 INBEXConference in Chicago, backgroundin aluminumproducts and mobile the topic"Using Precast Boxes Illinoison homes. In 1969,a 14-storyapartment build- MotelConstruction." in Quality ing was erectedusing theirsystem for the Oakland, CaliforniaRedevelopment Agency. The firmis in a positionto own and A secondproject in MountainView, featured or to sellunits to operate,own and lease, 3-story townhouses.Another 6-unit, two other companiesand developers.The annual story project was completed in 12 working volumeof the firm is said to exceed dollar hours,according to Mr. Mitchell. $8 million,in the fiscalyear ending August31, 1974. Each 10-12 ton element is cast in a patented form. A rockingdevice turns the U-shapedmold over to form wallsand ceiling. The 12' x 12' x 8' unit contains1-1/2 tons of steel. Dimensionswere chosento coordinatewith most 4' or 8' buildingmaterials. The 3. Building Block Construction electricalconduit is cast into 4" thick 3400 EdisonWay walls. Blckoutsfor doorsand windowscan Fremont,California be located where desired.

This firm manufactured500 multi-family The firm purchasesand installsits own units in 1973 and planned750 unitsin bathroomcomponents, kitchen cabinets and 1974. equipment. CalfironiaFire Codesdictate wall thicknessabove all other considera- "The privately held corporation had an tions, including structural requirements. estimatedsales volume of $5 millionin Therefore,at the heightwhen post-tension- 1973. The companymanufactures a rein- ing might be utilized,the walls are also forcedconcrete module that measures12 ft. requiredto be 6" thick for fire/code wide, 12 ft. long,and 8 ft. high. The compliance. systemcan beused up to 40stories high. In additionto residentialunits, the Althoughthe companyis presentlynot pro- companyfabricates units for motels and ducingthe units,it has one licenseein commercial buildings. H. M. Hanson is Japan and other firms of countries are president." [573, reportedly interested in the system.

97 p 4. ECHO GROUP, INC. The systemis a hybridone--combining both 2455 E. Sunrise Blvd. box modules andspanning planks as illustrated International Building on page 142 . Althoughnot a true box-unit Ft. Lauderdale, Fla. 33304 system,this systemis of interestfor its designflexibility. The Echo Modulesystem was developedby 0 ArchitectEdgar H. Wood* afterthree The horizontalorganization of the company years of research and development. Ori- and the designservices offered have been ginallylocated in Quincy,Massachusetts, mentionedearlier in this paper. the main office is now in Florida. Basically,Echo is an assemblyof precast The firstapplication of the systemis in concreteplates, beams and three-dimensional Weymouth,Massachusetts, 12 miles south. concretefacade modules complete with window of Boston. The 'Weymouthport'project, or door frames,which are liftedinto place completedin early 1974,consists of 261 and secured to form corridors, walls, and apartmentsin six-mid-and,14story high- ceilings,and floors.The modulesand plates rise buildings. combineinto a structuralunit. The plates vary in thicknessfrom 4" to 8", and are The ArtCement Products Company in North classifiedas floor plates,plate column,or Wilbraham,Massachusetts, was licensedto shearwall plate. The heaviestmodule weighed produceall the concretecomponents for 26 tons. 'Weymouthport.'Their factory is 100 miles from the jobsite. (Transportation Buildings up to five stories, because of their costsamounted to 24t per contactfoot weight,do not requirepost-tensioning, while of concrete.) tallerstructures are post-tensioned.

Westinghousewas licensedto manufacture On September3, 1974,ECHO INTERNATIONAL,LTD. the three-dimensionalkitchen, bathroom, was formed,and sincethat time has entered mechanical,and elevatormodules designed into licensesin six countries.Their areas by Echo. (Westinghousehas since stopped of interestfor systemstechnology are all producingthese modules, for which it paid the Central American countries Spain,Africa, a royaltyto Echo.) Portugal, and the Mid-East with the first project assured in Dubai on the Arabian *Mr. Woodoffered a great deal of personal Gulf.[58] assistanceby supplyingdetailed information about the ECHO systemsand discussing implications of systems building.

98 5. AlliedGeneral, Inc. Princeton, Florida

Accordingto EngineeringNews Record The floor is 6" thick, including 4" of Magazine, the Allied General Company, foamedplastic insulation panel installed Inc. has a contract to supply 100 in the machine prior to injection of the of its newly developedconcrete box- concrete. The walls and roof are 4" thick, units to Southern Ventures of Miami including 2" of insulating panels, which in for use on scattered sites in low- the moldingprocess become encased in the incomeareas of greaterMiami. concrete. The modulesare reinforcedwith No. 3 reinforcing bars. Panels, rebars and The companyutilizes a new technique chases are installed in the machine manually, of injection molding: incorporating a prior to the injectionmolding operation. $2 millionmachinery package including the molding unit and subsidiary equip- The modules are formed with openings for wind- ment and a special 'rich cement mix' ows, exterior and interior doors and closets. with patentspending. The smoothly After molding,the modulesare moved on rails flowingconcrete makes possiblethe to another section of the plant where the use of the injectionmolding process. windows, doors, bath and kitchen fixtures, plumbing, electrical services and interior One machine and its ancillary equipment partitions are installed. can producesix modules,or three houses per 24-hourcycle, usinga regulatedset At the site, two modules are placed on courses cement. The concrete,containing 13 of concrete blocks. Tie rods are run throuah bags of cementper cu. yd. of concrete, channels formed in the molding process: six as well as fine silicasand, chemical in the floor and one in each endwall. Nuts additivesand binders, attainsstrength at the ends of thethreaded tie rods are in 3 hours equal to that of a mix using tightenedto pull the modulestogether. Then ordinary portlandcement after 12 hours. grout is hand-troweledat jointsover a mesh One machinecan produce500-700 complete placed in a 4" wide indentationcast into the houses per year. units.

Each module is 48 ft. long, 11.6 in. wide, A disputeby Dade Countyofficials who want the and 11 ft. high and weighs45,000 pounds unitscertified under local codesand by state or 22.5 tons. Two modulescost $14,000at officials who administer the state-wide -code on the factory,$400 for loading,and about factory-built housing is holding up unit delivery.[59] $1 per mile for transport.individually on a low bed trailerto the site. Each 3-bedroomhouse is formedfrom 2 units; both kitchenand bath are in one-unit. 99 SOURCES FOR CHAPTER IV

#1 John H. Callender TIME SAVERSTANDARDS FOR ARCHITECTURAL #13 INTERNATIONALSYMPOSIUM ON BOX-UNIT CONSTRUCTION: DESIGNDATA, 1973,McGraw Hill, N. Y. CIB PROCEEDINGS# 26 1973,Balatonfured, Hungary #2 R.M.E.Diamant, "Russian Monolithic Box-Units", p. 45 #14 DIGESTOF SEMINARS:INDUSTRIALIZED INDUSTRIALIZEDBUILDING VOL. II, 1965 BUILDINGEXPOSITION AND CONGRESS#2 November, 1971 Louisville, Ky. CahnersPublications, Chicaqo, Ill. #3 STRUCTURALDESIGN GUIDE TO THE ACI BUILDINGCODE #15 APARTMENTCONSTRUCTION NEWS Magazine #4 T. Koncz Gralla Publications, NewYork, N.Y. MANUALOF PRECASTCONCRETE CONSTRUCTION VOL.III, Bauverlag GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany #16 CONSULTANTSNETWORK, INC. Brochure

#5 PCI POST-TENSIONINGMANUAL,'1972 #17 SCIENTIFICAMERICAN MAGAZINE 20 North WackerDrive, Chicago, Ill. #18 Terry AshtonLouderbach #6 Uray Oktay, Editor COST ESTIMATINGIN INDUSTRIALIZEDBUILDING PROCEEDINGSOF THE 2nd INTERNATIONAL MIT C.E. Thesis 1971 Masterof Science SYSPOSIUMON LOWER-COSTHOUSING PROBLEMS, 197 #19 Dieter Meyer Keller #7 HEBEL GASBETONWERK,Emmerling, W. Germany RAUMZELLENBAUWEIZEN--ENTWICKLUNGSSTANDUND TENDENZEN,1972, Bauverlag GmbH #8 DEUTSCHESIPOREX GmbH, Essen,W. Germany Wiesbaden& Berlin,Germany

#9 PROBINGTHE FUTURE,Engineering News Record #20 BOSTADSBOLAGETBUILDING BLOCKS Box 5044 402 21 Goteborg,Sweden #10 MODERNMASONRY PANEL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS 1972,Brick & Clay Record,Cahners, Boston #21 H.B. ZACHRYCO. Brochure J. J. Svec and P.E. Jeffers,Editors #22 ECHO GROUP,INC. Brochure #11 CONSTRUCTIONMETHODS Magazine, July, 1970 #23 KennethReinschmidt, Editor #12 ENGINEERINGNEWS RECORDMagazine 1972 SYSTEMSBUILDING CONFERENCE McGrawHill, Albany,N.Y. Gaithersburg, Maryland

100 FOOTNOTES

1 Source#1 p. 226 36 Ibid. p. Ibid. 2 Source#2 p. 45 37 Source#4 3 Source#3 p. 316 38 Ibid. 4 Source#4 39 Source#16 5 Source#3 40 Ibid. 6 Source#4 41 Ibid. 7 Source#5 42 Source#6 8 Source#6 orig. #17 9 Ibid. Nov. 16, 1907,p. 356 10 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 11 Source#7 44 Source#17 12 Source#8 May 28, 1971 13 Source#9 p. 363 45 Source#6 p. 203 14 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 15 Source #10 p. 26 47 Ibid. 16 Source #11 p. 133+ 48 Source#13 p. 2 17 Source # 2 p. 12 N.A. Nickolaev January16, 1975 Paper IV-1 18 Source #12 p. 17+ 49 Source#18 Feb. 14, 1974 50 Source#13 p. 2 19 Source # 9 p. 363 Paper IV-1 20 Source #12 p. 13 51 Ibid.,p. 4 Jan. 2, 1975 52 Source#13 p. 2 21 Source #6 Paper 11-12 22 Source #13 53 Source#19 CIB Paper III-1, p.8 54 Source#20 23-29 55 Source#15 Ibid. 56 Source#21 30 Source##6 p. 205 57 Source#15 p. 67 31 Ibid. December, 1974 32 Source #14 p. 213 also telephone interview 33 Ibid. with Mr. Mitchell 34 Source #23 p. 159 59 Source#22 Source 35 Source #15 p. 35 59 #12 p. 14 November, 1973 May 1, 1975

101 .Wo

102

a V. Transportation & Erection

A. TRANSPORTATION...... 105

1. Rail and TruckTransport...... 105 2. OversizeLoads...... 106 3. Height Restrictions,In-House Transportation...... 107 4. TransportationCosts;...... 108

B. CRANES...... 110

1. Classificationand RatedLoads...... 110 2. CraneSelection, Attachments...... 112 3. Example: DecreasingLoad Capacity with IncreasingRadius...... 114 4. Example: Load Table...... 115 5. Crawler-mountedCranes...... 116 6. Truck Cranes...... 117 7. Tower Cranes...... 118 8. MobileSelf-Erecting HydraulicCrane...... 120 9. GantryCranes...... 122 10. AMERICANSkyhorse Crawler Crane 1100...... 124 11. AMERICANGuy Derrick,Assembly and Travel...... 126 12. Load Chart for AmericanSkyhorse...... 128 13. Load Chart for AmericanGuy Derrick...... 129 14. Examplesof CraneApplications...... 131

C. PROJECTORGANIZATION...... 134

1. Scheduling...... 2. CriticalPath Schedulefor ModularBox-Unit Project...135

103 9

104 TRANSPORTATION

RAIL TRANSPORT

Rail transportdefinitely limits a box-unitto 12 ft. wide;with carefulrouting necessary over 11 ft. to avoid narrowbridges and commu- ter trains. [1] If a load is 12 ft. wide, a load heightof even 8 ft. compoundsthe routing - - difficulty.Flat car lengthsmust not exceed do 1a!- 89'-6"in length;the maximumload per car is wrthWpfs homewidthossumed 35 tons.[2]

Obviously,handling (loading and unloading from trucks)becomes costly when using rail-transport. l 7 lb. F

TRUCKTRANSPORT SPECIAL HEAVY BOX-UNIT TRANSPORTER

Road transportmust conformto the legalre- quirements regarding vehicles and their loads as set forth by the differentstates.

"The IndustrializedHousing Feasibility Study"'states the nine Northeaststates limit no-permit loads to: TYPICAL MOBILE HOME OR LIGHTWEIGHTBOX CARRIER

8' - 6" wide 55' -70' long (including cab) 13'6" high (from road bed) 36-40 tons gross weight

Statesallowing movement of 14 ft. modules 2 on a lowboy are: Maine, Delaware, New .- , e- Jersey,Maryland, North Carolina, Massachu- setts and Georgia. [3]

105 As of March 1, 1973,34 statespermit OVERSIZELOADS movementof 14 ft. wide mobilehomes. Texas and Wisconsinallow movement of In Massachusetts,loads over 55 ft. long 16 ft. wide mobilehomes. [4]. or over 36.5 tons, or over 8 ft. wide require a permit, flag car(s) and/or This projectassumes that 14 ft.wide policeescort. The Statedoes not charge transportof modules(box-units) will for issuingthe permit,but the carrier be nationallyaccepted in the near may charge$10.00 for use of its telex future. If exteriorwalls are attach- machinewhich facilitatesthe release ed to the box-unit,allowance must be of the permitwithin 10 minutesof appli- made for the extrawall thickness. cation.[7] 0 The M.I.T.Study, "Industrialized A permitis valid for two weeks. Accord- HousingFeasibility Study" of 1971 ing to the MassachusettsState Department states"...a manufacturerwould be of PublicWorks, the largestloads to very unwise to base his production date in 1973 have been. on box-units more than 12 ft. wide. Althoughat the presenttime permits Longest: 170 feet to move such loadsare obtainable,it Widest: 25 feet may not be possibleto do so under Heaviest: 60 tons gross mass productionconditions should such loadsprove detrimental to Loadsmay be restrictedto 9:30 a.m. to traffic movement". [5] 3:30 p.m. with no hauls Fridaysor Holidays. Secondaryroads and city roadspresent Nevertheless,shipments of 14-ft. additionalproblems. The Chiefof Police wide mobilehomes now accountfor withina municipalitymust approvepassage 30% of the homes shippedby manufact- of oversizedloads. urersto retailersduring July, 1974.[6] "Intrastatelimitations are often placedon secondary The AutomobileAssociation of America roads. This has the effectof C (AAA)uses some of its fundsfrom the creating non-service pockets within a membershipdues to lobbyagainst general market area. A solutionis national large-loads permission. guidelines for modular transport, as set forth by the Federal Highway Administration".[8]

106 HEIGHT IN-HOUSETRANSPORT

If the carrierassures the State Depart- Although"rolling stock can constitute ment of PublicWorks that the obstacles 15% or moreof the capitalinvestment alongthe routehave been measuredfor required"[10] for a sectional-modular clearancesor that bypassroutes have plant, there are definite advantagesto been found, there are no limits on in-house vehicles. height in Massachusetts. Unfortunately, the officedoes not havea recordof In the caseof mobilehomes, the drivers clearanceunder bridgesor overpasses.[9] (usuallytwo) becomethe erectioncrew As is well known,some underpassesin for settingthe unitupon its foundation. the area of Cambridgeare only ll'-O" In-housetransport allows for optimization clear. of schedulingor deliveries, withone sourceof responsibilityin case ofdamage. A standard lowbed trailer has a platform Costsmay be bettercontrolled. only 26" from theroadbed. This allows In 1973,three ofthe largestmobile- a box-unitll'-4" high with a total homecarriers, accounting for 85% of the height of13'-6". business,were charged with price-fixing.[ll] Standardall-purpose truck trailers are usually3'-3 1/4" to 3'-8 1/2" H.B.Zachry Co. of San Antonio,Texas, uses from platform to roadbed, allowing only a highway 'transporter' specially designed 10'-2 1/2" for the unit. to carry35-ton concrete units. Conventional heavytruck trailers can alsobe used, The averageconcrete box-unitfor multi- especiallyto areasclose to the production familyapartments is usually9'-0" high, plantat a maximumof 100miles.[12] but unitswith gabledor pitchedroofs Various trailers are available for trans- for single-familydwellings are some- porting precast components,mobile home timesdesired, and aredesigned to max- and concreteboxes. imumheight allowed. Accordingto a pollI conductedof about 125 firms in 1974, 36 firms replied. Of these, 24 firms or 66.7% provide in- housetransport vehicles and drivers.[13]

107 9

TRANSPORTATIONCOSTS The surveyalso showed that volume producers, who tryto stayprice competitive in distant The cost of transportis difficult markets,don't pass on all shippingcosts. [16] to determinewithout first-hand For concretepanel systems, SAN-VEL CONCRETE experience.Moreover, costs are CORP.made comparative cost studiesof shipping dependentupon distance,road and panelsand slabsfrom their Littleton, Mass. traffic conditions, wage rates, fuel plant to NewYork City, a distance of rates,and costs of equipment. 200 miles.They concludedthat trucktrans- Accordingto one source,"...trans- portwas cheaperand morereliable than portationis over-ratedas a deterrent either rail or water transport.[17] house-building" and that to factory Accordingto the M.I.T..1971"Industrialized "...thedelivery charge to the fringes HousingFeasibility Study", European transport of a 300 mile radiusfrom the central costsreached 3 to 3 1/2%of totalcon- would approximate only 1.5% of factory structioncosts with an economicradius of price, and quite likely would retail 25-60miles. [18] average somewherein the 1.0% range".[14] However,Fritz Stuckey, developer of the 3-D Using data from the MOBILEHOUSING Variel (ELCON)System in Switzerland, CARRIERSCONFERENCE, the M.I.T. Study operatesin a 250 mileradius in Europe 0 of 1971 concluded that heavy-weight ...thatcovers a biggermarket potential concreteboxes could be transportedat thanit wouldin the UnitedStates." [19] a cost of 50 cents per squarefoot, Tables compiledby his firmare shownon whereaslightweight steel or wood box the oppositepage comparing the VarielSystem systemscould be transportedat 29 with largepanel concrete systems in Europe. cents per square foot; for the first 9 100 miles.[15] The differencein cost between U.S. and Accordingto a recentsurvey by the NAHB, Europeantransport maybe due to "slower, morecongested conditions of Europeanroads, The averagemodular producer ships an the highercost of gasolineand oil,and the average of 170 miles at a cost of $1.41 per factthat the costof rollingequipment is mile. Thisamounts to 6.7%of net sales. 9 a higherproportion total of capital invest- The averagepanel manufacturer ships 115 ment....."[20] miles with costs of $1.26a mile,'amounting to 5.5% of net sales for delivery transport.

108 Accordingto Mr. Stuckey,"The economical radius from the factorydoes not depend solelyupon weight. More importantis the valueof the load.In otherwords, the transportcost, expressed in percentage of the buildingcosts, are much lower if a unit including25 m2 of factory- finishedbuilding is shipped,rather than the same weightin two or three panels-- as in large panel construction." [21]

VARIELSYSTEM COMPUTATIONSFOR TRANSPORTCOSTS AS A PERCENTAGEOF BUILDINGCOSTS:

Distancefrom VARIEL- LARGEPANEL Factory SYSTEM SYSTEMS

50 km 1.2 % 5 % 100 km 2.4 % 110 % 150 km 3.6 % 15 % 200 km 4.8 % 20 % 250 km 6.0 % 25 % 300 km 7.2 % 30 %

109 CRANES

7.12.1 Rated Loads-(See par. 7.03 [1]) Lifting crane rated loads at specified radii shall not exceed the following percentages of tipping load (par. 7.01.3) at specified radius: (1) Crawler mounted machines 75% (2) Rubbertire mounted machines 85% (3) Machines on outriggers 85% Rated loads shall be based on the direction of minimum stability from the mounting, unless otherwise specified. No load shall be lifted over the front area of a truck mounted crane, except as approved by the crane manufacturer.

7.12.2 Classification, applicable to cranes with boom length of 50 feet or greater-lifting cranes shall be classified by a symbol consisting of two numbers based on crane rated loads (Par. 7.12.1) in the direction of least stability, with outriggers set if the crane is so equipped. (1) The first number of the group shall be the crane rating radius, in feet, for the maximum rated load, with base boom length. (2) The second number of the group shall be the rated load (expressed in pounds divided by 100, and rounded off to the nearest whole number) at 40-ft. radius, with 50-ft. boom length. Example.- To illustrate the above method of classification, assume a truck crane rated 40 tons at 12-ft. radiuswith base boom length, and 19,600 pounds at 40-ft. radius with 50-ft. boom length. The classification of this crane would be: "40-ton truck crane (Class 12-196)" The number 12 represents the radius, in feet. for the 40-ton 4n rated load, and the number 196 representsthe rated load in Methodof DeterminingCrane Rating Classification. pounds,at 40-ft. radius, divided by 100.

Source: PCSAMANUAL "1974 Mobile Crane Standards #2"

110 This section describes the basic types A surveyof themanufacturers of cranes of cranes which could be used to move in the USA and Canadashowed that new and lift box-units. An attemptwas modelsintroduced within the last year made to locatethe crane with largest or two have greatlyincreased capacity. capacity of its type. The AmericanSky-Horse attachment on a crawlermounted basic crane was found As shown on pages118 and 119, to be the type utilizedby Shelleyfor the maximumload which can be the constructionof the concretestaggered lifted by a Liebherr 1250 C box-systemand by ECHO for constructionof Tower crane.is33 tons or project. However,the 66,000pounds. This probably the Weymouthport box systemin Finlandprefers means a 33-tonbox-unit should AUSA concrete two small cranes,one on each end, be the upper limit- to use for greater flexibility. (See page 93)

A cost and availabilitystudy would The basic crane types shown here are: furtherdefine the optimumweight for a box-unit,but this is beyondthe 1. Crawler-mountedcranes scope of this thesis. Perhapsonly 2. Truck cranes, including mobile a contractorwould have accessto any self-erecting hydraulic cranes. reliableinformation with regardto 3. Tower cranes fluctuatingrental rates and avail- 4. Gantry cranes (Goliath cranes) abilityof cranetypes in any one projectarea. Then estimateswould have to be made to determinethe compositionand schedulingof the crew.

ill CRANE SELECTION

what size crane to use When choosing a hydraulic crane for a job, it is important to determine the weight to be lifted, the radius and boom length required for the lift, and that these factors fallwithin the capacities specifiedby the manufacturer for the model cranebeing considered. Rated lifting capaciti.esof hydraulic cranes depend on: 1. Operating Stability - Whether the lift will be madeon outriggers (as isnormal) or on the tires only. Full outrigger stance is required for lifts appioeching maximumcapacity of the crane, Ter- rainshould be level and firm 2. The manufacturer's chart of rated lifting capacities is based on structural and mechanical limitations of the machine handling freely-suspended loads, and by the stated percentage of tipping (moment at which crane load begins to overcome level stability). Use of jib extensions affects capacity, and the jib capacity chart should be con- sulted. Rated capacity drops in proportion to any increase in working radius. Condition of the wire C SWINGCLEARANCE (RADIUSOF REAREND FROM rope should be checked oeriodically, especially AXIS OFROTATION) whenapproaching maximum capacity loads, X BOOMLENGTH PIN-TO-PIN Y RADIUSOF LOAD Z BOOMANGLE 3. Counterweight - Since manufacturers rate lifting capacities by radius, use of counterweights Crane operating and clearance dimensionsare shown is usually mandatory for safe lifts. The fulcrum distance is the distance between the front and Source:,PCSA MANUAL, "Hydraulic Excavators rear outrigger midpoint, and the center of gravity of the crane'scounterweight, and Telescoping-BoomCranes," p. 20.

112 Load Weight - A wide variety of such working tools as crane hooks, Load weight has a direct relation to the capacity of magnets, tongs or buckets, may be used with the the basic crane. Thus it is imperative to accurately crane boom.These attachmentswill be applied most determine that the weight of the load, including slings, effectively by first determining the following job spreader bars, etc., is within the limits specified by factors: the manufacturer for the specific boom length and 1. Type of load radius required, before proceeding with the lift. Foot- 2. Size and shape of load ing for cranes mustalso be considered, since cranes 3. Load weights in relation to basic unit capacity operate under a wide variety of conditions. 4. Location and movement of load (from where to Location of Load - where) Distance of move and the possibility of repetitive 5. Height of lift lifts must be considered when positioning the basic 6. Radius of work zone unit and determining the boom length required. 7. Clearance for boom and rear end Height of Lift Dimension - 8. Ground clearance It is necessary to know the height of lift to determine 9. Overhead clearance (wires, etc.) the length of boom and the position of the basic unit. 10. Ground condition Radius of Work Zone - The Type of Load to be Handled - This is the area the basic unit can serve with a given Most loads are readily classified into solids, semi- boom length. liquids such as concrete, and bulk materials such as sand and gravel. The physical state and shape of the Clearance for Boom - load indicate the most suitable tool to use. For example, Clearance for boom point and rear-end swing must a crane hook is commonly used with a sling il the load always be allowed when lifting in confined lQuarters is an I-beam, a crate, a boiler, a stack of lumber, or near wires and other overhead obstrictions. machinery or a stone slab. A zoncrete or skip bucket Ground Clearance - (with crane hook arrangement) is used to handle semi- In order to plan an efficient work cycle and avoid liquid material. Clamshell or similar buckets gener- hazards, it is necessary to consider clearance be- ally are used for digging and for handling bulk ma- tween the machine and both natural and man-made terials. Grabs, grapples, tongs and clamps find their obstructions on the ground. greatest use in handling materials that are more or less regular in size and shape, such as pulp logs or Overhead Clearance - sheet metal. When setting up a crane, sufficient overhead clearance must be allowed between the machine and overhead wires, structures or other overhead obstructions. The Size and Shapeof Load - Ground Condition - This is an important factor in determining necessary Manufacturer's capacity charts are based on a ma- clearances. Large bulky loads require greater clear- chine resting on firm, level ground. In the best in- ances than smallconcentrated loads to avoid damage terests of operational srfety and overall efficiency to surrounding structures. Load interference with it is absolutely essential t0 check ground conditions. boom, often the causeof boom failure, must be pre- particularly the stability of the terrain, making al- vented, lowances for soft ground conditions.

113 An exampleof decreasingload capacity with increasingdistance from axis.

5' 0' 45' 40' 35' M 6440 kg The loads are specified as follows: 5 14168.-bs 17 m - with full upperstructure swing 0 - for a machine parked 3320 kg 16 m on level ground 7304 lbs - with a 33% safety factor 0 (75% of the tipping loads) 15m 2160 kg 8680 kg 4752 lbs 19096 lbs0 4 m 3 4700 kg 0 10340 lbs 3 m 1520 kg 3060 kg 3344 lbs M 6732 lbs0

r'n 12000 kg 2 4 262 bs 26400 lbs 7740 kg 0 17028 lbs 2 0 ,9M 0 4660 kg 10692 Ibs O 980 kg 2156 lbs .8m 3620 kg 7964 lb, 0 1620 kg .7 m 0 3564 Ibs 1200 0 kg) 0 lbs 12000 kg264 0 m 26400 lbSg 2640 kg 0 10400 kb StM lbs 22M t?5 700 kg 7600 kg. . 1540 -bi 16720 lbY

1320 kg 5460 k 2904 lbs 12012 lb -10 A 2 2280 kP 2 5016 lbs Al 4600 kg 10120 1b1 - 5

16m 15m 14m 13m 12m 11m 10im 9m Sm 7, 6m 5m 4m 3m I f I I S I I I I I I I I Source: AmericanPoclain Corp. 300 S.RandolphvilleRd. Piscataway,N.J. 08854 Poclain Crane Attachment D 150 04 74

114 Typical Load Table*

Power 132ft.Ext. Radius Boom Length in Feet pin. Fly &173 ft. in ___ _& 141 ft. 2 .Offiet Feet *46 58 70 82 94 106 118 130 141 **173 **205 12 250,000 120,000 118,500 (71.5) (75.7) (78.2) _ - 15 200,000 120,000 116,300 112,900 (67.3) (72.5) (75.6) (78.2) 20 150,000 120,000 101,500 94,350 90,550 87,600 (59.9)_ (67.1_ (71.3) (74.6)(76.9 (7.8) 25 118,000 100,000 89,000 81,100 76,950 73,850 69,950 65,450 (51.8) (61.4) (66.8) (70.8) (73.7) (76.0) (77.9) (79.5) 30 95,000 85,300 78,400 71,100 66,750 63,600 59,900 55,800 53,150 42.3 55.3) (62.1) (67.0) (70.5) (73.2) j754) (77.2) (79.3) - 58,900 55,750 52,200 48,350 45,450 35 78,500 74,000 69,200 62,600 0 (30.0) 48.6 (57.2) (63.0) (67.1) j7q.3) (72.8) (74.9) (77.2 ~4D 61,200 54,700 52,650 49,450 46,050 42,500 39.300 35,000 (41.0) (51.9) (58.9) (63.7) (67.3) 70.2) 72.5) (75.0) (78.6) 45 54,160 54,150 48,300 46,900 44,350 40,700 37,700 34,250 33,350 21,500 (. (462) (54.5) 60.1l (64.3) (67.} (70.2) (72.9) 76.9 80.0 50 46,030 ,030 43,050 41,800 40,100 36,250 33,650 30,100 29,500 19,900 (17.2) (39.7) (48) 5 6.4) ( .1 64.8 (67.7) (70.7) (75.1) (78.7_ 27,100 23,600 23,400 16,850 31,720 . 7,TT07 729,250 8 (21.6) (39.2) (48.3) (54.5) 591) (62.7) (6 2) 17.6 j75_ 70 22,670 22,670 22,670 , 21,850 18,700 18,850 14,600 (24.4) (38.8) (47.1) (53.0) 57.4 (61.5) (68.0) 72.8 80 17,010 17,010 17,010 , 14,900 15,300 12,850 (26.3) (38.6) (46,2) (51.8) (56.5) (64.2) (69.7) 9 12,600 12,600 12,60- 11,90 12,500 11,450 (27.7) (38.5) (45.5) 51.2) (60.3) (66.6) 106~8,840 ~,840 UW 152 T0,056 (28.8) (38.4) (45.3) (56.2) (63.4) .... ------0- 5,500 ,6 5~~ 55 0 828 I 0,l50f6 1 __ Boo n O. ees _deg_ (12.1) (29.8) (38.7) (51.9) (60.1) 6,660 6,620 120 reqirod f give Iit' 2,660 2,660 120 Grsa b owth load (16.6) (30.7) (47.3 (56.6) 130 capt CiIpy pun( 5,010 60 _____ n,_I _(42.2) . (53.0) 140 3,260 4,100 (36.4) '49.1 150 1,600 3,080 ______9.5 44.9) 160 -(40.4) SOURCE:GROVE MNFG.CO., SHADYGROVE, PENN. Form 1054-175-15 M *Grove TM 1275 PCSACLASS 12-649

115 CRAWLER MOUNTED CRANES

Crawlermounted craneshave the largest Skillfuloperation is necessaryto maintain capacity of craneswhich can also trans- stability.When loaded,the crane is allowed port and move loads about at the site. to move only horizontallyand on sufficiently load-bearing ground. The crawlermounting available from most manufacturersfits most conditionsand attachmentsfor pile driving,digging, Becausethe crawlercrane has a speedof only and dredging. The crawler crane is 2 mph and may damagepaving, it cannottravel superioron soft or wet groundto any long distancesand must be transportedfrom other crane type. job to job on a flatbedtrailer.

The cranesshown beloware examplesof Attachmentssuch as the Guy Derrickfor the the largestcapacity equipment which I American1100 CrawlerCrane increasethe A stability could obtainfrom manufacturers'liter- and load capacityof the basic ature. craneten times up to a ratedcapacity of 600 tons.

.12.

MANITOWOC 4600 UFTCRANE S-3-27 MANITOWOCRINGER 4600 S2 MAXIMUM CAPACITY 240 TONS AT 8FT RADIUS. MAXIMUMCAPACITY 600 TON AT 57 FT RADIUS. WiTH 140 FT BOOM AT 50 FT RADIUS, LIFTS WITH 130 FT. BOOM AT 50 FT RADIUS, 52.7 TONS. BASIC BOOM IS 80 FT.. MAXIMUM LIFTS 525 TONS, AT 7OFT RADIUS LIFTS BOOM & JIB8 COMBINATION THAT CAN BE 484 TONS* WITH 200 FT. BOOM AT 70 FT. RAISED UNASSISTED IS 250 FT. OR 240 FT. & RADIUS LIFTS 329 TONS, AT 100 FT RADIUS 60 FT. (no. 123) LVFTS 306 TONS ASSEMBLY IS CON- VERTIBLE FROM UFTCRANE* 116 TRUCK CRANES

Truck cranesare the most efficientof all Truckcranes do not attainthe large cranesdue to theirmobility--able to travel liftingcapacities of crawlercranes. on the highwayon theirown wheelsat speeds Truck cranesrange up to about 150 tons up to 50 mph. Multipleaxles and dual of rated capacity. flotationenable use as "off-highway"units not limitedto hard roads. Outriggersare used forstability.

Many types oftruck cranes are available. Self-assemblingfully hydraulic mobile cranesare ofspecial interest for their speed of erection.

HYDRAULICTRUCK CRANE LATTICEBOOM TRUCK CRANES SELF-ERECTING WITH32' a0OM GCI MAAMUMCAPACITY 30 TONSAT I7' AT Id RADIUS LORAINMC-S150 150 TON RATING 5400 WITHHA N1C0EAT 4GERADUS LIFTS5.9 TONS HAANICHFEGERP & H 6250-TC

117 TOWER CRANES

ADVANTAGES

Economicalif a great numberof membersis to be hoisted. Ableto performthree kinds of movements at the sametime: to hoistthe load,to movebackwards and forwards,and to turn togetherwith the loadon the boom. The boomof certaintower cranes is furnished witha travellingcrab which would be a fourthkind of movement. Circular tracks are possible. The loadcapacity. curve is constantto a largeradius. For example,the LIEBHERR750C can manuever a 25 ton loadfrom 0 ft.to 85 ft.,indicating efficientmachine usage for thatload.

DISADVANTAGES

Requiresa heavyrail track resting on a properfoundation, unless the model is lightor a self-assemblingcrane. Cumbersome,lengthy, and expensive assembly,dismantling and shipping.

118 1oad

RANGE OF LIEBHERR TOWER CRANES

35 LOAD CAPACITY IN TONS radius

The maximumhook height of the 1250 C Liebherr Tower crane is 262.4 ft. Hook heightsfor other crane types are not shown here.

RADIUS IN FEET Adoptedfrom information courtesyof UEBHERRCrne Corp,

119 AN EXAMPLE: A Hydraulic Crane

The GCI 5400 is a completelymobile self-erecting hydrauliccrane. In tractor-trailerconfiguration it travelsat a highwayspeed of 50 mph. The 40 ft. jib, blocksand all riggingare mountedon the crane. Once outriggersare set, the main mast erectshydraulically from horizontalto vertical postiionand telescopesto operationalheight in minutes.

Crane in travel position. Crane with outriggers in position. (Boom and mastIn travel position).

120 hookelevation in feet 261 s n

RATEDLIFTING CAPACITIESIN POUNDS OUTRIGGERSFULLY EXTENDED LIFTING CAPACITIES- 3600

Radius Boom Length In Feet In - -- __- - - Feet 32 38 44 50 56 62 68 74 80 10 60,000 12 50,000 50,000 45,500 42,500 40,000 15 41,000 1,000 31,000 31,000 31,000 28,000 26,000 20 32,000 32,000 27,800 27,800 20,600 20,600 20,600 20,600 20 1 ,5 23,400 23,400 20,500 20,500 20,500 15,000 15,000 15,000 - , 0 18,400 18,400 18,400 15,900 14,800 14.800 14,800 - 14,700 14,700 14,700 14,700 12,500 12500 12.500 0 11,900 11,900 11,900 11,900 11,900 11,900 10,300 8,600 8 6q00 8600 8600 8600 - -6,200 6,200 6200 S4.600 4.600 75 _4,000 OperatingHeights All capacities are based on structural ... .a - -- strength and do not exceed 66%% 140 ' so -- - Is.o - -e " 115' of the tipping load, in accordance radiusin feet with SAE J-765 and SAE J-987.

|12,

JIBCAPACITIES IN POUNDS 255'tip height at 75* 40 It. JIB No dIllel 115' reach at 140' Boom Raed. Radius 85' Angle Load in Feet 80' telescoping boom 75, 6,500 27 main mast 70' 4,500 36 140' telescoping 65' 3,700 46 63 lifts 60,000 lbs. at 170'- 20,000 lbs. at 217' 60- 3.100 56 55- 2,600 65 50' 2,400 73 45- 2,100 - 1900 88 Sets up 9 feet from structure. 35- 1700 95 30- 1,600m FAST ERECTION: 217' In 16 min- 26- 1,500 104 utes, 255' In 45 minutes. 0- 1,300 115

Source:General Crane Industries,Ltd. 670 IndustrialRoad, London,Ontario

121 GANTRY CRANES

GantryCranes are usedfor transporting loadsup to 60 tonsover short distances, Theirmain use is in yardsof manufacturing plantsmoving heavy elements to storageor. transportationdepots. Moreuniversal use is restricteddue to theirlarge size and slow speed of 3 mphor about 90 ft. per minute up a maximumslope of 7%. Their liftingheight is limitedto about50 ft. on the largestmodel (shown opposite).

If meanscould be foundto easilydis- mantleor transportthe crane,its size and stabilitywould be adequatefor erectingrow-housing. The modelshown is assembledby boltingthe erection jointsof the weldedsteel frame. Variousattachments are available.

The GantryCrane is sometimestermed a 'Goliath'crane; it is not to be confusedwith the gantryattachment of a basiccrane used to increase capacity.

DROTTTRAVELIFT 1000 Al LIFT CAPACITYCHART

Capacity vs. Vehicle Dimensions

Height to INSIDECLEAR WIDTH Hook Saddle 19'7"0 24'7" 29'7" 34'7" 39'7" 44'7" 497" 54'7" 59'7" 64'7" 69'?" 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 116000 100000 85000

24'9" 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 112000 94000 79000 65n00

29'9" 120000 120000 120000 116000 113000 109000 105000 90000 74000 60000 47000

34'9" 120000 120000 120000 113000 113000 101000 83000 70000 56000 42000 39000 39'9" 120000 120000 120000 110000 100000 82000 65000 54000 42000 29000 ( 44'9" 120000 120000 113000 95000 79000 65000 51000 39000 27000

49'9" 120000 118000 97000 80000 6500050000 37000 27000

Courtesy DROTT Manufacturing 1974 122 __ _------__ _ _ _ - -

TOWNHOUSESERECTED BYA GANTRY CRANE (Drott "Travelift"IOOO Al)

t 4'-Z"eerwidth lifts 2700QQIb_49'-9" _t 59'-7" clear width lifts 270001b 44-9"

DROTT TRAVELIFT 1000 Al front view side view

123 I

3' 94H AMERICAN SKYHORSE MULTIPLE PART CRAWLER CRANE 1100 BOOM SUSPENSION

-300 TON LOAD BLOCK

WORKSITE PREPARATIONS 948 MAST 1. Crawler tracks must rest on firm uniformly supporting UPPER surface such as concrete slab or sound timber mats placed on compacted soil and extending a minimum of 3 feet 60' 94H CENTER beyond each sideof the crawler tracks. This entire bearing SUSPENSION surface must be level within 1 inch and must havesufficient stability to remain within this tolerance when subjected to PENDANTS a load of 655 tons at 4.52 foot radius from the center of rotation. This is equivalent to a maximum bearing pressure of the track pads on the support surface of 186 psi (60 inch shoes). 94H CENTER 2. A 12-1/2 foot wide path having an outside radius of 34 feet must be level ± 3 inch with the surface supporting the crawler treads. Path must be long enough to accommodate the boom swingarc.

-10' 94H CENTER TRAVEL Machine may travel without load on grades up to 10 percent. In all traveling conditions, the swingmust be left free to float. Bogie tires are normally aimed straight ahead, but may be 94H INNER turned to position the boom. TRAILING COUNTERWEIGHT The SKY HORSE is capable of travel with rated loads. When traveling with maximum rated capacities, the load is suspended r directly over the front of the machine and the surface must meet the level and stability requirements of "Work Site Preparation." Travel with the load in other positions or simultaneousswing and travel is possiblewith 90%of the rated capacity providedthe sameconditions are met.

TAIL

124

I Lifting capacitiesof the AMERICAN Model 11250 crawler ERECTIONPROCEDURE FOR SKY HORSE: craneis increased upto 400%with the addition of the Sky 1. Assemble the 1100 at the site In the usual manner - as a Horseattachment. Boom and jib combinationsto 460 feetare standard lift crane without a boom. Raise A-frame to available.When shipped from the factorywith the Sky Horse special Sky Horse position. Assembly "Sky Horse" mast of attachment,the machineis equippedwith a modulatedclutch the required length at a convenient place alongside the torque converter, controlled load lowering and single lever machine or in front of the machine. control on auxiliary hoistdrum, supplementaltrailing counter- 2. With outside assistance, install the mast into the upper weight with suspensionpendants, and 94 inch crosssection boom foot seat. Reeve mast suspension ropes and blocks. boomand mastwith suspensionrope and pendants. Place the counterweight pendants along the top of mast bail. Raise mast about 5 feet above ground and reeve the boom suspensionrope and blocks. TRAILING COUNTERWEIGHT:The Sky Horse trailing 3. Usingmast as a boom and derrickinglines as a load line, counterweightis pin connectedto therotating machinery deck assembleboom length requiredalongside of machine. of the crane and is attachedto the masttip by adjustable pendantlines. The counterweight tankis filled with sandto 4. Swing machine180 degrees,and using mastas a boomand obtain the requiredweight of 200,000 pounds.Four setsof derrickinglines as a load line assemblethe counterweight dual wheelsare positionedhydraulically. Counterweight con. trailer and tank directly behind thecrane with the nectingbar is crossbraced for rigidity. connectingarms blocked up about3-1/2 feetabove ground. Do not install ballastat this time. 5. Swing the crane 180 degreesand back the machine into the trailer, gradually raising the connecting arms into place as it COMBINATIONBOOM: BasicSky Horseboom is 150 feet clears the bottom of the crane counterweight. Insert trailer long and consistsof a 35 foot 94H inner,10, 20 and 50 foot attachment pins and install trailer tie rods. 94H centers,and a 35 foot 94H outer, which hassix offset 6. Usingmast as a boom and derricking linesas a load line, sheaves.All sectionsof this pin connected94 inch cross raisethe boomand install it in the lowerboom foot seat. sectionboom are constructedof tubularT-1 steel chordsand 7. Boom out, andconnect outer derrickingblock to boomtip. tubular lattice. Oneadditional 50 foot 94H centersection and Raisemast to nearly verticalposition. Continuing to take three 50 foot 94S center sectionsare utilized to obtain a up mastlines and pay our derrickinglines, until top of mast maximumlength of 350 feet. The1100 Series600 ton Guy is over the counterweighttank. Attach the counterweight Derrick attachmentalso utilizesthis sameboom. All sections, pendantsto tank earsand fill tank with ballast.Pay out exceptthe 50 foot 94H centers,are used for the standardLift mastlines and take upderricking lines until counterweight Craneboom. pendantsare taut. Raiseboom point about 5 feet off the groundand reeve main load fall. 8. Using derricking lines only, raise boom to a position SKY HORSEMAST: The basic100 foot 94 inch crosssection approximately 45 degreesabove horizontal. Machine is now mast consistsof a 50 foot inner sectionwhich is mountedin ready to walk to the work site. the upper boomfoot and a pin connected50 foot mast tip. The inner sectioncontains guide sheaves for the loadand whip Operator's Instructions available upon request. line. The masttip hasthree boom suspensionline sheavesand NOTE: In accordancewith varyingmaterial situations, and the equalizermounting brackets for counterweightpendant. Mast company's policy of constant product improvement,these height is extended to a maximum of 180 feet with the specificationsare subject to changewithout notice and addition of 10 and 20 foot 94H, and 50 foot 94S center without incurringresponsibility to units previouslysold. sections with matching pendants.All mast sections and pendantsare pin connected for quick assembly.These same mast componentsare also usedfor the Guy Derrick attachment.

125 GUY DERRICK ASSEMBLY & TRAVEL

1. Assemblemast onground. With anothercrane, pin mast into upperboom foot.

2. Reeve mast suspensionline and connect suspension pendants.

3. Raisemast parallel to ground. 6. Lower mastto 30" andconnect boom suspension. Raise NOTE: Due to industrystandards governing rope safety mast to 45". Hoist boom parallel to ground and reeve factorson the pendants,260 and 270 feet of mastmust loan line. be assistedto a height of 100 feet abovethe ground. Reeveboom suspension line.

4. Attach guy linesto guy cap. 7. Raise mast to vertical position and attach guy lines to anchors. Tension guy lines and raise boom to a working 5. Using mast as boom (aswith anothercrane) assemble position. Readjust guys until guy cap is plumbed above boomon ground andpin into lowerboom foot. crane turntable.

126 Load handling capability of the AMERICANModel 11250 crawler crane is tremendously increased (up to 10 times) with the addition of the Guy Derrick attachment. The reason for this great increase is because with the guy linesattached this machine is impossible to tip and, therefore, all ratings are based on strength. Boom and jib combinations to 490 feet are available.

WITHOUTHEIGHT RESTRICTION TO TRAVEL COMBINATIONBOOM: Basic Guy Derrick boom is 1. Equally support boom outer section on flat bed 130 feet long and consists of 35 foot inner, 10 and 50 trailer. foot centers, and 35 foot outer with six offset sheaves 2. Lower mast to 45* angle. in the boom point. All sections of this pin connected lines to mast inner section and travel. 3. Tie guy 94 inch cross section boom are constructed of tubular T-1 steel chords and tubular-lattice. Maximum boom TO TRAVEL WITHHEIGHT RESTRICTIONS length is 350 feet. The 1100 Series SKY HORSE 1. Equally support boom outer section on flat bed attachment also utilizes this same boom. Boom trailer. sections are interchangeable with conventional lift 2. Lower mast until the stop bracket on the boom crane boom. inner section contact the mast inner section. 3. Tie the mast inner section to the boom inner GUY DERRICK MAST: The basic 94 inch cross section. section mast consists of a 50 foot inner, 50 foot 4. Remove the two top splice pins between the mast center and 50 foot mast tip. All sections are pin inner section and the first center section. connected and constructed of tubular T-1 steel 5. Place blocking on top of boom at a sufficient chords and tubular lattice. The inner section, which is to allow the mast to lie parallel with the height mounted in the upper boom foot, contains guido boom. sheaves for the load and whip line. The mast tip has Lower mast* to blocking, retract A-frame and 6. three boom suspension line sheaves and an anti- travel. friction bearing guy cap. Mast height may be ex- *If mast is longer than 180', another crane must assist tended to 270 feet with the addition of 10, 20 and 50 mast down because mast suspension pendants will foot center sections. These same mast components contact lacings. are also used for the SKY HORSE attachment.

127 SKY HORSE RATINGS

21 BOOMLENGTHS FROM 150ft. to 350ft. ft. ARE AVAILABLE LENGTHS 150ft., 260ft., and 350 ft. ARE COMPAREDWITH A TOWERCRANE 0

LOADCAPACITY IN TONS ufted overside using 110,800 lbs. counterweights and trailing 200,000 lbs. counterweight. AMERICAN MODEL 11250 300 150' 00M 82.10

,I',

250 -- ~ T - - - - A0

200 BT

10 MA -t------+1 150

100

34~0'ut 80 82 .. , ..- ,... 1 80MAS uj0t 50 .4-i I -~ i6.71 4 . UEBHERR150 C TOEK CRAnE+t .. 1

t* --- > 0 V wim I I I I i I I I I I I I I I I 246 F0 0 501 100' 150 200' 250' 3O0' 4. RADIUSIN FEET

128 GUY DERRICK RATINGS

23 BOOMLENGTHS FROM 130 ft. to 350 ft. ARE AVAILABLE LENGTHS220 ft., 260 ft., 300 ft, and 350 ft. ARE SHOWN

LOAD IN TONS AMERICAN MODEL 11250 3 220' BOOM

IST 250

267~& M

200

iMoo 27T 150

100

50 - --- -

0------+

RADIUSIN FEET

129 EXAMPLES: Crane Applications

Describingthe constructionof Habitat, any time the extra crane was architectMoshe Safdie writes: required--for about five percent of the boxes--they just brought it "The big Dominion Bridge Crane in without question."[23] had a capacityof a hundredand fiftytons at the base,but only seventytons at a distanceof a hundredand twentyfeet from its edge. We didn'tknow the exact distance of the boxes whenwe orderedit. Thisfirst box to be liftedweighed eighty tons and was one hundredand eighty feetout--too big for the crane at thatdistance. We suggested gettinganother, smaller crane, thenwe wouldput the two cranes oppositeeach otherand the box in the middle,connect them both to the crossbar on whichthe box wouldbe placed.This would give each crane the proportion of the load it could carry, i.e., it wouldbe proportionalto the distancefrom the end of the cross bar to the box.

The contractorinsisted that this - -t-- -4 ol procedurewas absolutelyimpossible. They delayedthe job two weeks arguingthat it couldn'tbe done. Underpressure from Churchill they at lastbrought in the othercrane, i 1000, I put in the crossbar, and lifted the box. The wholething was done in front of the press in forty-five minuteswithout one problem.The PLAN OF HABITAT WITH CRANE TRACKS procedurebecame so simplethat Sourca"CONTEMPORARY CONCRETE STRUCTURES"by A.Komendant,1972 p.535

-130 The crane used to erect the WEYMOUTHPORT A pair of 60-ton cranes is used in projectfor ECHO GROUP,Inc. was a 125-ton Finlandto placeeach 40-tonAUSA Americancrawler crane. concrete box-unit. (See Page 93) One of the problems encountered is This systemwas describedon page 98. the necessity to keep all four lifting points level to avoid torsional strains. The cranewas used as a standardcrane up to the fourthstory construction, but for higherlevels was equippedwith a Sky- Horse attachment,a water-filledcounter- balancingunit which increasedthe capacity of the crane 150%.

The erectingfirm (CurtisSteel of Norwood) had a specialjig designedwhich fit all the varioussized modules for rapidhoisting. With a 200 ft. main boom and a 60 ft. jib, the Sky Horsecould swing a 32 ton loadout 85 feet. As the buildings neared completion, the main boomwas increasedto 260 ft.

The crane used to erect the "Palacio del Rio" for H.B. Zachry Companyof San Antonio, Texas was a 350 h.p. crane equipped with a special 36 foot diameter ring base and a 270 ft. boom, as describedon page 94.

131 A tower crane on a terraced hillside, or a road alongthe hill,could reach CRANE PbSITION r about115 ft. with a 33-tonbox-unit 110 9 8 7 +12- or about 140 ft. with the lightest box-unitof 25-tons,to a hook- heightof 262 ft.

Area for unloading and handling box-unitswould have to be provided. The diagramis a conservativeestimate of the reachof the tower crane. Buildingsup to 20 storiesor more could be easily erected.

Crawlercranes could also be used. These cranescan manuevera slope of about13 degreeswithout being dismantled.Crawler cranes do not have the abilityto maintain liftingcapacity at great distances: as shownon page 128, liftingcapacity dropssharply as radiusincreases.

CRANE ON TERRACEDHILLSIDE

132 ERECTIONSEOUNCE FOR HIGH-RISEBUILDING PLAN OF TOWER AND FOUR CRANE POSITIONS

ERECTIONSEQUENCE FOR TOWER Source PROF.EDUARDOCATALANO

133 PROJECT ORGANIZATION

The siteerection rate is determinedby the factorycasting rate, for althoughthere is probablya bufferstock of elementsin the storageyard (as flat panels)sufficient for two or threeweeks' supply, this will soon be used up if the elements are being erected fasterthan theyare being produced. More- over, shouldan elementneed to be replaced or repaired,a bufferstock is neededto preventa hold-upin schedulederection.

Althoughboxes take longerto erect than panels,there is an overallsavings in erectiontime sincethe box comprisessix- panel-elementsor sides. This pointis often overlookedwhen it is assertedthat such units are awkward to erect.

Fifty units a day is to be regardedas the maximumattainable. Theerection time variesbetween 1-3 man-hoursper squaremeter (squarefeet) of habitablefloor space and willconstitute 15-25% of the totalamount of labor entailed by the prefabricated units. [26]

134 CRITICAL PATH SCHEDULE Box-Unit Housing Project

ZONING BETTERMENTS CONSULTCITY CONSULTCITY COMPLETE BETTERMENTAGREEMENT

PREPAREZONING PROCESSZ ING APPUCATION APPUC ON

CHECKNEIGHBORHOOD IENUST SUPPORTFOR NEEDS REQUIREDZONING 14 14

GATHER SITE DATA PROf

90-FORMA PREUM. LHA ADVERTIS

UP PAV i i I - POSALI i REVISE0 OBTAIP S I CORRECT BUILD 0 PLATS PERMIr NE tATE S WITBODERS

4ELECT REQUIREMEN LENDER FRFIRS COSTRUCTION

CONSULT AGENCIES'- COORDINATEWITH CONSULTWITH NEIGHBCRHOOD&LHA TO DETERM LHA, HUD,HAA, ETC. SUBSIDIZINGAGENCIES OPERATINGAND PROPERTY MANAGEMENTPOLICIES

Adaptedwith permissionof the M.I.T.PRESS from "IndustrializedHousing Feasibility Study" by A. Herreyand W. Litle,Cambridge, Mass. 1971

135 t

SOURCES FOR CHAPTER V

#1 A. Herrey and W. Litle #14 ECHO GROUP,INC. Brochure INDUSTRIALIZEDHOUSING FEASIBILITY STUDY Fort Lauderdale, Florida M.I.T.Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1971 #15 T. Koncz #2 MHMA 37th ANNUALREPORT TO THE MEMBERSHIP PRECASTCONCRETE CONSTRUCTION A March 22, 1973 MobileHomes ManufacturersAss. VOLUMEIII. LARGEPANELS BauverlagGmbH, Wiesbaden,Germany #3 SYSTEMSBUILDING NEWS magazine

#4 DavidEacret THE ECONOMICSOF INDUSTRIALIZEDHOUSING A U. MichiganThesis (RotchTH1000 E116)

#5 KennethCampbell, Editor PROFITSAND THE FACTORY-BUILTHOUSE: 1972 UPDATE Audit Investment Research,Inc.

#6 PROFESSIONALBUILDER magazine CahnersPublishing Co., Chicago,Ill.

#7 MANUFACTUREDHOUSING: AN OUTLINE

#8 ENGINEERINGNEWS RECORD magazine McGraw-Hill Publishers, Albany, N.Y.

#9 Kenneth Campbell, Editor 1970: PROFITSAND THE INDUSTRIALIZEDHOUSE ot

#10 INTERNATIONALSYMPOSIUM ON BOX-UNITCONSTRUCTION CIB Proceedings#26, 1973 Balatonfured, Hungary

#11 Moshe Safdie, BEYOND HABITAT,M.I.T. Press

#12 H. B. ZachryCo., San Antonio,Texas, Brochure

#13 TelephoneInterview: Mass. Dept. PublicWorks

136 FOOT NOTES

1 Source# 1 p. 104 2 Source# 1 p. 105 3 Source# 1 p. 97 4 Source# 2 p. 11 5 Source# 1 p. 96 6 Source# 3 p. 13 September,1974 7 Source#13 8 Source# 4 9 Source#13 10 Source# 5 p. 38 11 Source# 6 p. 137 October,1973 12 Source#12 13 14 Source# 9 p. 38 15 Source# 1 p. 102 16 Source# 6 p.,113 17 Source# 1 p. 108 18 Source# 1 pp. 38 19 Source# 8 p. 23 July 19, 1973 20 Source# 1 p. 106 21 Source#10 p. 6 Paper 11-6 Variel 22 Source#10 p. 4,5 Paper 11-6 Variel 23 Source#11 p. 24 Source#14 25 Source#15 26 Ibid.

137 138 VI. Review of Box-Unit Structures Using Concrete

A. REVIEWOF BOX-UNITSSTRUCTURES USING CONCRETE...... 139

1. ConcreteStacking Systems...... 140

2. Some ConcreteBox-Unit Types...... 142

3. Box-UnitsAssembled from Panels...... 144

4. HybridSystems: Box-Units with On-SiteConcrete Infill...... 146

5. Two ExistingSystems with OppiositeApproaches: The SwissVARIEL System and RussianCAP TYPE...... 148

6. Aspects of Box-UnitDesign: a. AssemblyMethods for individualboxes...... 151 b. Post-tersioning(for finalbuilding assembly)..152

139 CONCRETE STACKING SYSTEMS

1 2 3

5>T

6; - 8 9 10 11

140 1 RUSSIANSTACKING SYSTEM 6 ECHO SYSTEM The centralcorridor is included Interiorplanks span in the longbox.. A 3" gap between betweenexterior plates. Lightweight boxes allowsspace for welding. 'core'kitchens and bathrooms A variationwould be to allow are separate.[6] largergaps for poured-in-place MID-SECTIONSYSTEM concrete.[1] 7 Centersection can containkitchens 2 HABSYSTEMby F.D. Rich, Jr. and bathswith split-levelstairs. Unitsare thin-shelledbox-beams Option to have mid-section in two separatesections. spanningthe depthof the building. Columnsare caston site. Plenum SHELLEYSYSTEM spacesurrounds each box to provide 8 air circulationfor heating.Suited The "Shelley" System allows box- bestfor single-loadedbuildings.[2] units to be stacked alternately.[8]

3 "BOTTLE-RACK"SYSTEM 9 OFFSETSYSTEM

Idea used for MarseillesApartment The "OffsetSystem" proposed in this Block (United'habitation) in 1950 paper coordinates structure and mech- by Le Corbusierwhere 'light-weight anical system to be staggered at units were placed in a reinforced regular intervals. concreteframe.[3] 10 SPANNINGBOXES 4 PLATFORMSYSTEM Supportsare arrangedin squarebays Lightweightboxes can be supported so boxescan be rotated90 degrees. on precast,cast-in-place, or lift- This system is usuallyproposed for slab platforms. [4] steel construction.[9]

5 BOXESWITH SPANNINGPLANKS 11 COMPOSITESPANNING BOXES Boxes can be 3-or 4-sided. Idea Boxes with custom design for each proposed by Ill. Inst. of Technology buildingapplication can assume and Cornell. Boxes containkitchens almostany configuration.This and baths,planks allow largerliving- type was used for HABITAT '67.[10] rooms.[5]

141 SOME CONCRETE BOX-UNIT TYPES

142 A Box cast in two pieces:with separate F Exterior wall or frame is load-bearing. ceiling. The inner form may be re- The floorcan be ribbedto carry loads moved after 4 hours of air-curing length-wise. becausethe form does not carry the top slab as in other types. [11] G FramedBox. Thisprinciple is used by CONBOXof Denmark[15] and by the B Box cast in two pieces:floor separate. Uchida Lab in Japan [16]. Usually The bottomslab is connectedby special steelconstruction; requires infill. screw devices or by welding plates. The VARIELSystem. The boxis support- C Box cast of two side sections: this ed on four cornersbut can only attain method is favoredby Kommendant[12]. heightof 3 floors. Advantageis ease 1. Sidewalls can be varied in of transport and adaptability to non- thickness;buttresses can be housing uses. [17] easilyprovided. 2. Window& door openingscan be STRESSED STRUCTURES,INC. System. installedin a horizontalcast- Interiorwalls are cast together ing position. with specialcements; notethat the 3. The joint at mid-pointis least top of the ceilingbecomes the floor subjectedto stresses,regard- for the unit above. less of loadingconditions. 4. Transportand handlingeasier. J RING-MODULESproposed by many, including Van Vliet in Holland [18], GO- If the sides are tapered to enable DB Arquitectos, Assoc. in Spain [19] easy removalfrom forms,some type BuildingBlock Modulesin USA [20]. of fill or separate floor is needed. Also, the 10'6" overall height shown K FLEX-BAUSYSTEM by Elementwerkder by Kommendantis excessivefor housing. Gebr. Brun,AG in Lausanne,Switzer- land. [21] D Bottomslab with upturnededges: This methodis used with 5" walls to allow L OverlappingSystem: similarsections bendingdouble-reinforcing into walls for floor and roof aranged so place- by the H.B. ZachryCo. Eric Chen, ment is facilitated. Suspended MIT graduatestudent, proposed the ceilingis necessaryto cover edge. locationof joint at mid-pointin the walls. [13) Box-unitsassembled from panels are shown on the followingpages. E Box with supportsat ends; the deep floor carries loads

143 BOX-UNITS ASSEMBLED FROM PANELS

144 E Similar to 'D' but with kitchens and A Walls betweenfloor and top slab. bathroomsas separate3-D elementscast in Easilyplaced and assembled. Walls do concrete. One advantageis the larger not contributeto cantileveringaction clear span livingroom by turningthe of floor slab. Verticalloads pass 14'-0"shipping dimension to the side. In- through3 connectionsat each section cores can be combined betweenboxes. terior with stairs to create split-levelapartments. B Same as "A" but ceilingrecessed and The largeopenings could apply to examples beam is appliedto stabilizedboxes at and front and ends. Verticalloads pass F but for A, B, and C, the resulting wall sectionwould be more likelyto break through2 connectionsat the section. or be damaged. C Floors and ceiling recessed. Floors notched at openings. Vertical loads pass F Notches in the wall section provide shear keys andhelp increasethe depth of sec- through one connection at the section. Note the extension of the beam carries tion under openings. Use of a two-way the balcony slab. This slab, separate reinforcedfloor slab opens possibilities of creating interestingbuilding facades. from both the ceiling and floor slab, affordsan effectivethermal break in cold climates.

Note: For examplesof other typesof Sameas 'C' except the corridors are D . box-unitsand systems,including separate loadbearing forms up to 60 ft. suspensionstructures and vertical long dependingon the buildingtype. bathroomcores, the readeris also This systemallows the corridorto be pre- referredto thesesby GraduateA.S. finishedin the factory. The corridor Studentsin the Departmentof could be a strong designelement since it Architectureat M.I.T. can cantilever out from clusters of box- units.

145 HYBRID SYSTEMS: Box-Units with On-site Concrete Infill

A. Box-unitwhich bears upon poured-in- place concrete fill between walls up to the top of the ceilinglevel. B.. Similarto A exceptfill level is A ~lowerto enableceiling to nest insidefloor. Difficulty is keeping fill at desiredlevel for all units. HI III C. Box with floor-truss:may vary in depth and type of materials used.

146 The 'Hybrid'systems shown on the Some of the considerationsinvolved: oppositepage featurefinished lightweightbox-units with poured-in-place 1. Protectionof the box-unitsduring concretepoured betweenthe unitsto handlingand transportis necessary. form structuralsupports where needed. The box may not be as rigid as a These systemshave the followingad- concretebox, but it might resist vantages: handling and torsional stresses with use of stressedskin materials 1. The lighterbox-units are easier (ie, plywood sheathing,etc.) and to transportand erect than concrete. stresses caused by dead load would boxes. be much less. 2. Like other box-units,prefinishing, 2. Wallsmust be designedto withstand electricaland mechanicalwork, etc. the hydrostaticpressure ofthe can be done in the factory--but poured-in-placeconcrete. Walls manufacturingtechniques of the can not leak: otherwise the pre- mobile homeindustry could be finished box-unitwill becomesoiled. utilized.* 3. There is littleor no savingin the 3. The on-siteconcrete allowsfor width of wall required. Since the structuralcontinuity, and only as minimumbearing widthfor each unit much concreteas is neededfor would be about 3", the infill would supportor fireproofingneed be need to be 6" minimum. To that must used. be added the dimensionof the light- 4. In some cases,as in exampleC, weightwall. accessspace for ducts,etc. 4. Temporary bracing could be used during can be provided in the floor. fabrication, transport, and while pouringthe infill.For structures similarto exampleC, the ceilingwould requirestrengthening or bracing. 5. This type of constructionworks well in verticallyaligned structures. * When offsets,cantilevers, zig-zags, Professor Zalewski, in addition to changes of levels, etc. are desired, suggestingthe basicstructural types many 'special' design conditions from which examples A, B, and C have arise as to make their use question- been adapted,has also envisionedthe able. Also, the end-units require use mobile homes as the of modified special formwork. lightweight box-units types.

147 TWO EXISTING SYSTEMS WITH OPPOSITE A PPROACHES

The VARIELSYSTEM and the RUSSIANCAP TYPE .VARIEL System SYSTEMrepresent two European examples with oppositeapproaches.

The VARIELSYSTEM has end supportsonly, and is designedfor buildingsup to 3 levels. Its use is not limitedto housing, Product- ion in 1972 vas 75% schools, 10%offices, 10% residentialand 5% miscellaneous.* Estimatedproduction for 1974 was 12,000 modulesincluding plants in France, Belgium,Germany, Holland, Sweden, and SouthAfrica. The ELCON A.G. is studying the possibility of plants in Isreal, Czechoslovakia, and Chile.

Source:International Symposlhn an Box-UnitConstruction The RUSSIANCAP TYPE SYSTEMrepresents CI8 WI9 S56 1973 Paper.H-6 H.Grassi one currentconcrete box-unit type with adaptationfor spanningpanels. In contrastto the VarielSystem, the Russianunit is definitelydesigned for housingand openingsare very limited. FLOOR *EngineeringNews RecordMagazine July 19, 1973, p. 23

0 b END ty SIDE SECTION

2_70cm 8'-10" g0 em Z 1'-A" I

148 2. RUSSIAN BEARING WALL System "CAP TYPE"

LzzzzLizzzzzzzuzzzzzz2 Lb7 E'1P

B 1o 70 0 .90- 101

dimensionsin millimeters Source: CIB Proceedings#26 Paper 11-14 E.L. Viesmanand N.B. Levontin 149 InstituteTSNIIEP zhilischa "Cap Type" ASPECTS OF BOX-UNIT DESIGN

Obviously,the design ofthe box-unit Some methodsof producing individual dependson complexrelationships of box-unitshave alreadybeen discussed function,modular/dimensional relation- in CHAPTERIV. MATERIALSAND METHODS. ships derived from intended use and available products, provisions for Unfortunately, not enough material has mechanicalequipment and access, been found or publishedwhich gives relationshipsto other components detailed technical information on existing such as elevators, corridors, and systems,especially with regardto stairs, methods of manufacture and connections and casting machinery, with assembly, and contraints of transport- the exception of the sources referred to. ation and erection. Of course,in the- Note thatthe complicatedforms of final analysis,the productmust be HABITATrequired equally complicatedand one which is desirableand profitable. expensivedetailing as shown by Komendant.

In a narrowersense, the structural Other ideas concerning detailing and designcan be discussedwith regard connectionscan be found from the thesis to work offormer M.I.T. graduate students in the AdvancedStudies program of 1. The individualbox-unit, Architectureunder the supervisionof and Prof. Catalano and/or Prof. Zalewski. 2. The finalbuilding assembly. Other systemsand assemblytypes are also presented.

Four of the methodsused to assemble As illustrated on page 140, "ConcreteStacking Systems", it individualbox-units are shown on the page. is clear that the two aspectsare opposite interdependent:the desiredfinal Type 1 relatesto BOX-UNITSASSEMBLED building assembly determines the FROM PANELS: all exampleson structuraldesign of individual page 144 except 'A' and 'B'. box-units. Type 2 refers to the same types as 1. Type 3 relates to example B on page 142 and the 'CapType' on page 149. Type 4 refersto type D shown on page 142.

150 SOME WAYS TO ASSEMBLE INDIVIDUAL BOX-UNITS

1. Four panelsare welded so that transferof apartment floor loadsare transferred by shearto thebearing walls. Major vertical loads from unitsabove are takendirect- ly through the walls.

2. Four panels are assembled so that floor and ceiling are compressedbetween the walls. Cables orthreaded rods are tightenedafter application of specialepoxy. This method may require later leveling of the floor.

3.Two separatelycast pieces are joinedtogether with dowelsso that the floor supportsthe walls. The upper"U" can be formed by many methods. The floorshould extend beyond the walls to facilitateforming.

4. Two componentsare joinedto- getherby bendingreinforcing steelupwards and castingthe uppershell on top. Walls should be 5" minimum for this method.

151 t

POST - TENSIONING

Post-tensioningseemed the idealway Problemsencountered were: to tie box-units together vertically and horizontally--especiallybecause 1. Difficulty of placing the box-units it is often advocated. accurately.If the rodsare to be withinthe walls,the box-unitsmust However,some of the problems either be threaded over the rods or which were encountered led to special rods inserted from above and attemptsto findsimpler methods. rotated to secure the connection below. 2. Depth of walls required. In order to makea continuousconnection, First: is post-tensioningnecessary? deep pocketsor recessesfor accessmust Tyingthe unitstogether can be be provided.Also, the achievedby othermeans, such as the device for anchorage has considerabledimensions. The walls methodson page179 or 181. The weight of Habitatranged from to 12"--but of the buildingand depth/heightratio 5" this meant box 17.5ft. I can be shownto resistearthquake forces. a x 38.5 x 10 ft. weighing80 to 95 tons.*,

f Earlystudy for Early study for rodsplaced be- rods placed in- tweenunits, with side the walls rodsinside the of the box-units, walls at exterior Possibilityof - walls. tying the boxes Arrows indicate in three directions - directionof is explored;the post-tensioning floor and ceiling /TK rodsor cables. must have suffic- / ient depth. *PCI Post-tensioning Manual Prestressed Concrete Institute 1972, p. 25

152 An earlystudy attemptingto adapt post-tensioningdetails from panel constructionis shownat C. Note that there is no way for -" Box 4 to be secured. Note relative size of connectionrequired, and weakeningof the floor sectionat the connection. - 6 The rod placed betweenwalls enables thinnerwalls to be used;it seems the only feasibleapproach to post- tensioningif the rod protrudesone level above the unitbeing placed.

P 06 - X - *

100

C, b. .

153 0

154 VII. Proposed Offset System: Structure

A. PROPOSEDOFFSET SYSTEM...... 156

1. Diagramof PanelConstruction...... 156

2. SystemCharacteristics...... 157

3. FactoryAssembly Sequence...... 165

4. Chartsfor Box Weights, Walls,and Floors...... 166

5. Loads...... 170

6. Preliminary Calculations for Maximum Numberof Floors,Wall Thickness, & Stability.....171

7. ConnectionConditions...... 174

8. Openingsbetween Boxes...... 176

9. Level or StaggeredStacking...... 177

10. PreferredStacking: SequenceB...... 178

11. Preferred:Detail 1 for Levelor Staggered Stacking...... 179

12. Detail2: BoltedConnection for Level Boxes...... 180

SOURCESAND FOOTNOTESFOR CHAPTERSVI AND VII...... 182

155 4

LIn]

z z =0 vftf_ W

SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

The proposedOFFSET SYSTEM is character- The maximumheight of openingsat izedby its assemblyfrom large precast doors is 7'-O",so there is always concretepanels, and by the locationof a "beam" at the top of the panel; supportsat 8'-8"intervals which allow Likewise,there is alwaysa bottom it to be 'offset'. strip on the wall panel where the floor slab connectionis made. The box-unitis as completelyfinished as possiblein the factory,including Depending on conditions, the "beam", mechanicaland electricalequipment the ceiling slab, and the floor slab and endwalls and windows. can cantilever. In some cases,the "beam" could cantilever to carry a Becausethe walls,ceiling, and floor separatecorridor or balconyslab are separatepanels, various combinations for the box-unitabove. of paneltypes can be selectedto suit varying design conditions. For example, Althoughthe concretepanels could a coffered floor could serve as a mat be manufacturedto any dimension, in poor soil conditions, while a two- the planning moduleused has been way reinforced floor slab could serve shown to adjust to most apar'tment whereshaped balconies are desired. and building types. Differenttypes of wall and floor combinationsand the resultingweights Two main box-widths are proposed: of box-unitsare givenon the following and 13'-0". pages. The rightcombination will depend 1'-10" on desired effect and total costs in- Box lengths are: volved,and includingbox weight. 19'-6" However,the proposedsystem is based 28'-2" on a modularincrement or grid ofl'-1" 36'-10" (13"). Since manylarge openings are 45'-6" desiredin the sidewalls, the wall is 54'-2" designedso maximumopenings are 6'-6", leaving "columns" of 2'-2" for load- Note that when two 6" ribbedwalls and bearingsections. one 1" joint are used, the resulting 13" corresponds to the modular grid.

157 W;

ONE BOX TYPE & ONE ROOF TYPE

Cantilevered Options on page 144

158 2'- 2" MODULE

13'-0" 10-10"

9'-0" x 19'-6"

28'-2"

I----,-t I I ch1: I I -4 I 36'-10" I I[ 11UII I I

Side Walls End Walls

159 WALLS Variable OTHER USES

9'- 0'

I6.6

159-2"9

23'-10" 9

4" 6"

OPENING SIZES WALL SECTIONS

160 A. No side openings B. Maximum number of openings

A. When there are no openingsin the B. The side walls are shown with the side of thebox-unit, a box-beam maximumnumber of openingsat structureresults. This is an regular intervals--as would be used economicalstructure for hotels, for livingrooms with two exposures. dormitories,hospital rooms, and When the upper cther unitswhere each box con- 'beam'is reinforced tains the completeliving area. to carrythe extra loads,a certer 'column'could be removedto createan opening The walls can cantilever at of 15'-2". By greater distances than those increasingdepth of the 'beam' (i.e.,increasing the floor-to- containingmany openings. floorheight of the box-unit for specialapplications) and using three bays, an opening 23'-10" would result.

161 ON-SITE CONNECTIONS

162 WALL SECTIONS

Top View

b c d,

Section

a C d 1.~

163 FACTORY ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE

164 FloorUnit is Lateralbeams Ceilinglowered and placed. attachedand attachedby welding. weldedor doweled. Wall panels brought Patch and grout. by overheadtracks Bathroomcore or and alignedand components placed. Seal joints at junctions braced. of componentsand walls HVAC equipment or ceilings. Wallswelded at installed. supports. Attachlight fixturesand Front wall placed. plates.

Electricalraceways Install finish flooring. installed. Place on-site connections Trim attached where and equipmentinside unit. necessary. Place corridorwall with access panelopen for on-sitework.

Installprotective panels and covering.Inspect and label. 165 BOX WEIGHTS ALL CALCULATIONS FOR BOXES 13'-O"= 4 m WIDE WITH 4"=10 cm HOLLOWCORE CEILING FLOOR TO FLOOR HEIGHT 910"= 274 cm* WEIGHTS GIVEN IN TONS. 1 TON=2000 lbs.= 9072 kilograms

6" FLOORS 5" RIBBEDWALLS BATHROOMS 4"CEILING 4" HOLLOWCORE WALLS KITCHFNS (36.8 psf) 4" SOIDIfWALLIS 6.4 18.8 SLAB 47 5.0 3.0 4.7 174 BAND 6.4 18.8 6.4 196 HOLLOW 5.5 3.0 4.7 17-21tons CORE 6.4 _____ 196

19'6" 6.4 21.1 SOLID 705.0 19.7 SLAB 60& 3.0 47 21.1 9.2 25.6 SB 6.7 7.0 3.0 6.7 234 90 25.6 9.2 26.8 HC 79 7.0 3.0 6.7 24.6 23-29 !ons 9.0 26.6 28'-2" 9.2 290 SS 10.1 7.0 3.0 6.7 268 9.0 2.88 12.0 326 SB 8.8 9.8 3.0 8.8 304 11.8 32.4 12.0 34.1 HC 103 9.8 3.0 8.8 319 30-37 tons 11.8 33.9 36'10 12.0 37.0 SS 132 9.8 3,0 8.8 34.8 11.8 36.8 14r8 39.6 SB 109 11.4 3.0 10.9 362 15.0 392 14.8 41.4 HC 12.7 11.4 30 10.9 380 36-45 tons 150 41.6 45L6" 14.8 450 SS 16.3 114 3.0 109 41.6 15.0 45.2 17.6 465 SB 13.0 13.6 3.0 129 425 18S 469 17.6 4&6 HC 15.1 13.6 3.0 12.9 44.6 43-53 tons 18.0 49.0 54-2" 17.6 529 SS 19.4 13.6 3.0 12.9 48 N 18.0inear foot for533'-O"widebox3u NOTE Approximateaverage weight is I ton per linear foot for IS3'"wide boKunits

166 The typicalbox-unit is assembled fromlarge The lightestweight box would be assembled panels. Flat walls and ceilingare more from Hollow-corewalls and Ceiling,and a economicalto manufacture, especiallyif Slab-band floor: * battery molds are to be used. The floor slab could be a slab-bandas shownto For example,for a typicalunit 36'-10"long reduceweight, or a 6" two-wayreinforced and with an interior13'-0" dimension: flat slab when a cantileveredfloor is desiredto form corridorsor balconies. Slab-band floor: 3"/6" 8.8 tons Hollow-core wall: 4" 4.6 tons The followingtables give thebasic wall 4.6 tons types and their respectiveweights: Hollow-core ceiling: 4" 6.7 tons 24.7 = 25 tons

1. Infill panels and/or pour or about 2/3 ton per linealfoot; making the with cellular concrete. next box unit size of 45'-6"about 30 tons 2. Ribs and the largestsize of54'-2" about 36 tons. 3. HollowCore 4. Solid Slab However,the averageweight is about 1 ton per linealfoot of box unit lengthconsidering The 4" Hollow-corewall is lightestat all typesof slab construction.The typical 28 psf, includinaa solidstrip which unit 36'-10"could be more than 35 tons. acts as a column. Obviously, efforts should be made to make the box as light as possible and still achieve Basic floor types are: necessarystrength and durability,and still achieveeconomy of manufacture. 1. Slab-band 2. Hollowcore 3. Solid Slab Hollowcore walls can not be made with Note that these floorsspan the short existing extrusion equipment and wouldbe more expensive dimensionof the unit, i.e., 13'-0". than slabs regardless The lightestfloor suitable which is flat of weight savings. Only good for walls shownis the slab-bandfloor with 3" with no openings. concretebetween 6" bandswhich connect to the solid strip 'columns' in the walls.

167 WALLS WEIGHT IN TONS NO ALLOWANCEFOR OPENINGS 9'-O" WALL HEIGHT

PSF 1755d 2535sf 3315sf 409.5d 4875sf

infill: panels or pour 4.

5"IU~-i LiiIJINOT Y'T TECHNIC LLY8 ECO OMICALLYF SLE

Cellular Concreteinfil betweenstructure 6

ribs 3" 36.1 3.2 TONS 4.6 TONS 6.0 TONS 74 TONS 8 8 TONS

5.5-3" 382 34 4.8 6.3 78 93

6 3 40.3 3.55 I 6.7 8.3 9.8

hollow core 4."1506 __ 28 25 35 46 7 6.8

36 32 4.6 60 74 88

6 :44 3.9 5.6 73 9.0 l0.7

solid s3ab 83 32 45 59 75 90

460 40 58 75 9.4 113

6" 55.2 48 6.9 97 115 13.6

168 FLOORS T r y y--q 456'" WEIGHT IN TONS Light weight structuralconcrete 110pcf 36-1i' 13'-0" FLOOR WIDTH (9.2 psf per Inch thickness) l9~.6"

478 f Moxsoan PS~F 2535sf 362 sf fl5s slab- band 3" 36.8 4.7 TONS 6.7 TONS a8ToNs io9 TONS 13TONS

454 5.8 8.3 109 134 16

4483 6.1 8.9 11.6 14.3 17 hollow-core 6ooo oo 43 5.5 79 10.3 12.7 15.1

L 7"O00 00 50 63 92 12 14.8 176

If.. =0.0 20'-O" 57 72 10,4 12 16.9 20.1

solid slab 47 = 0 .-10" 435 55 79 10.4 129 653

5 Z75" 13'-0" 529 67 9.7 12.7 156 186

6K 14'-I" 55.2 7 101 132 f6.3 19.4

6 "5 -2" 598 76 || 143 176 21.1

7.5" 17'-6" 69.0 8.7 12.6 165 20.4 24.3

8" 8-8" 73.6 9.3 15 17.6 21.8 2&9

* Source STRUCTURAL DESIGNGUIDE TOTHE ACI BUILDING CODE TABLE 3-3

169 9

LOADS 20 bamunits If 700 TONS 0 MECHANICALFOOM COMMUNTYSPACE I~20

5 WIND ANSIA581

OVERTURNING, RACKINGOR SLIUNG 13

STRUCTURAL CONTINUITY 9 O -

FIRE RESCUEUMIT

SEE OLLOWIG CAL UUTIONS. 4

CONNECTIONTO FOUNDATION OR SUBSTRUCTURE

EARTHQUAKE (U.8Code latest issue) GROUNDSETTLEMENT

170 STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

Besidestaking into consideration "In additionto the eccentricity basicassembly methods and types followingthe bending,there naturally of box-units,attention mustbe is a constructiveand technicaleccent- givenbasic structuralbehavior. ricityowing to tolerances.As the thicknessof the wall, for weight reasons, "Statical and constructive is much smallerthan its height,in the questions...whichare typicalof ratio of approximately 1/25, there results a precast reinforced three- a serious buckling problem...." dimensionalconstruction are: J. Varsano'spaper detailsload capacity 1. The buckling ofthe walls; varianceas a functionof eccentricityand 2. The eccentricityin the suggests thickeningwalls at the ends of walls. boxes to increasemoment of inertia,or to 3. The support conditions and use the four walls as constructiveones. the loads betweenthe units".* Walls can be stiffened by increasing the Accordingto JosephVarsano, dimensions,adding ribs or pilasters,or "even if support is carried out connectingwalls of adjacentbox-units in an idealway and eccentricityis with a devicethat enablesthem to act as nil from the point of view of the a single,thicker wall or bracesthem at passageof forcebetween the upper requiredintervals. The lattermethods storey wall and the lower storey have been outlined by Prof. W. Zalewski one, even in this idealcase, there of M.I.T. is great eccentricity following the momentsoperating on the walls as a This paperpresents some calculationsfor resultof the bendingof the floor the OFFSETSystem proposed herein on page and ceiling."* 172, to give a roughidea of buildingheight and stability. Due to time limitations, calculationsfor wind stabilityare not *JosephVarsano, Isreal/ / presented. "Statical Problems in Three Dimensional PrecastUnits", Paper 11-13presented at the InternationalSymposium on Box- Unit Construction,BalatonfUred, Hungary, 1973; p. 1.

171 PRELIMINARYEARTHQUAKE STABILITY CALCULATIONS

Assumethe coeffientc establishedby Building Codeswill be 5% = .05 for the locationgiven.* cW force assumed greatestat Let W= mass or weightof building. the top of Accordingto the proportionsof the triangles, the building 9 the limitof stability= d/6 (with1/6 eccentricityconsidered maximum allowed)

d/6 c W:: 2/3 H W dW _ cW 2H W 6 3

d/H = 4c

When c = .05, d/H = .2 or 2/10 RW

The ratioof depthto heightmust be 2:10 W2/3H

If the maximumbuilding height is 20 floors or 180 ft., then the minimumdepth must be 36 ft. to resistearthquake forces in the locationgiven.

Note: Some authorspropose the use of verticalpost-tensioning when the buildingis over5 floorshigh. [25]

*Dependingupon the seismicregion, the coefficient could range up to 10%. d/6

172 MAXIMUMNUMBER OF FLOORS WALL THICKNESS

Assumeaverage box wt. = 30 tons "When designed by the empirical method, = 60,000lbs. the ratioof the unsupportedlength to = 60 kips. thicknesslc/h cannotbe more than 25 A 28'-2"box has four bearingplates, or 30 for panel and enclosurewalls, unless each side. Each plate carries60/8= it can be shown be a structural analysis 7.5 kips on an area 4" x 25" = 100 sq.in. that adequatestrength and stabilitywill exist at greaterratios." [23] Assumef' = 4,000 psi; fa = 1,500 psi (ACI CODE 1971) "Load bearingwalls can all be designedby Each supportcan carryPa= Area x fa the rational method, or by the empirical methodonly if the eccentricityof the load 100 sq. in. x 1,500psi = 150,000lbs. is equal to or less than one-sixthof the Therefore,150 kips can be carriedat wall thickness'.'[24] each support. Sinceeach floor contributes 7.5 kips at each floor,the maximumno. of floorswill be approximately: Assumingthe empiricalmethod applies,

150/7.5= 20 floors lc = 8'-0" unsupportedclear height

If fa is assumedto be 1,000 psi instead = 96" of 1,500 psi only 100 kips can be carriedat each support,and the no. of So: thickness h = 3.84 min. = 4" floors will be approximately: NOTE: Using lightweight(110 pcf) concrete 100/7.5 = 13.3 = 13 floors and takingaccount the reductionin Modulusof elasticity,the effectsof buckling and eccentricity, Prof. Zalewski has shownthe allowable fa could be in the range of 800 psi-- 28'-2" using a more critical box-unit length, the heightof the buildingmay attain 26'1-0 only 10 floors.

173 CONNEC T-If{ CONDIT-ION S

E EhE

pzjE a Side to side connection. b Offsetconnection. C End of box to side of box. d End of box to side of box. e Cantilevered ends meet. f Cantilevered floor to core. 9 Separateslabs between boxes. h Openingsbetween box-units. Staggering on uneven terrain. Theoretical stacking.* i k Theoretical stacking.*

*Details orfeasibility not developed.

174 The industrialized box-unit should anticipate all the connection conditions that will occur for as wide an applicationas possible.

These connectionsinclude the types shownon the oppositepage.

In addition,connections for varioustypes of roofs,exterior cladding, and sub-structures have to be considered.

Varioustypes of roofs are shownon page 215.

Exteriorsurfacing can be appliedby sprayingon stuccoor concrete,fastening large panelsof masonryor othermaterial, or simply providingthe surfacingfor end units as an integralpart of the box-unit.

The concretebox-unit has an advantagein that it can be used as a foundationby thickeningand waterproofinqthe walls. Unitscan be set into hillsides,and have dirt coveringthe roof for gardens.

Conditionswhere box-unitsare to be elevatedon pilotisare best solved when the ribs can be filled withconcrete as shown on pages 152 and 153. . Also, hollowcore walls can be groutedfor verticalcontinuity. Special panels or space framescould be prefabricated or cast-on-siteto carrythe loads whichoccur at the regularintervals.

175 OPENINGS

A Openingsbetween box-units can createpassageways, large living spaces,terrace gardens, etc.

FigureA is adaptedfrom an idea by Prof.W. Zalewski; Figure B is a variation for a 2- levelspace, and FigureC shows a staggeredchecker-board with bearingwalls. The lowerlevel, witha thickerceiling could be 9.- usedas a patioor garden.

...... X6X-X-'- X

IT[ I L1

176 LEVEL OR STAGGEREDSTACKING

mmmmesmemme

L 1B

rIZIIZIU

177 0

PREFERRED: STACKING SEQUENCE B

One of the problemswhich occurs 12 13 14 1 when any connections are to be madebetween box-units on site, is locationof access. 6 7 8 9 10 Thisproblem is avoidedwhen box- unitsspan from front to backwith

1 1 3 onlyfour supports which are accessible from the ends. A Weldsbetween boxes may not be ab- solutelynecessary, but theydo provide an extra rigidity and thus increase the safety margin.

Box-unitscan be placedin sequence 12 13 14 15 as shownin Figures A or B. The small circles note where side welds can be made. (Top welds can be made 19 6 at any location, so they are not shown.)

THEARRANGEMENT SHOWN IN FIGUREB ASSURESCONTINUOUS ATTACHMENT FOR A RODOR BAR WELDED OR OTHERWISE B SECUREDAS SHOWNIN THE DETAILSOF CONNECTIONON PAGE179 WHICHCAN BE USEDFOR BOX-UNITS ON LEVEL OR UNEVENTERRAIN.

178 DETAIL 1: For Staggered (example shown) or Aligned Level Box -Units

Place Box 1. Box 2 placedany Rod or bar is Box 3 placed. distance above weldedto opposite Steel rodor bar Box 1. side of Box 2. Steps repeated. is spotwelded to a steel plate cast Extensionallows intothe sidesof continuityto the box-unitat roof. 8'-8"intervals. Seal and apply grout.

179 DETAIL 2 9

4" LT.WT. REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS -

OPTIONALWELD AT OPENINGS box 3 1"TOLERANCE BETWEEN UNITS FINISH FLOORING--- 6" HOLLOW CORE CONCRETE FLOOR WELD PLATES CAST INTO CONCRETE - GROUT COVERING WELDS BEARING PLATE WITH BOLTED CONNECTION BETWEEN BOX 1 AND BOX 2

STEEL BAR WELDED TO BOX 3 (a) NEOPRENE BEARING PADS (b) NON-SHRINKING GROUT (c) UNDER BEARING PLATE AT HEIGHT OF STEEL SHIMS. [Sealant in tape form to run length of boxes.] 0 4" HOLLOW CORE CEILING---

CORNER ANGLES AT SUPPORT POINTS

box 3 box 4

box i box 2

FRONT SIDE

180 SEQUENCE: FOR DETAIL 2

Place Box 1. Place Box 2. Place 9" x 25" bearing Box 3 placed. plate. Connectionsoccur at Apply steel shims if Weld plate is 8'-8"intervals. necessary. Fasten bolts on pro- optional,depending truding rods to link upon local conditions. Dashesindicate the Apply sealant to close Box 2 to Box 1. location of major joint betweenboxes. Side weld can be made reinforcing steel. Placeneoprene pad. with a bar or angle. Place non-shrinking Bolt acts as guide for grout over bearing Box 3. area.

181 0

SOURCES Chapters VI & VI1

#1 R.M.E. Diamant #9 AugustKomendant INDUSTRIALIZEDBUILDING VOL. II, 1965 CONTEMPORARYCONCRETE STRUCTURES "RussianMonolithic Box Units" "PrefabricatedHousing", p.524+ (Barker TA 681 .K81 1972)Mc-graw Hill. #2 Prof.Catalano and Masters Class(Theses) HOUSINGSYSTEMS: 7 STUDIESFOR #10 BostonArchitectural Center FACTORY-PRODUCEDCONCRETE AND INTERNATIONALSYSTEMS BUILDING STEELMODULAR UNITS, M.I.T., 1970 CONFERENCEROUND TABLE CONFERENCE Nov. 1971, B.A.C. Boston, Mass. #3 Oktay Uray,Editor PROCEEDINGSOF THE 2nd INTERNATIONAL #11 H.B.Zachry Co. Brochure SYMPOSIUMON LOWER COST HOUSINGPROBLEMS. San Antonio,Texas Dept. ofCivil Engineering, Univ. of Missouri,April 24-26, 1972 #12 Dieter Meyer-Keller RAUMZELLENBAUWEISEN-ENTWICKLUNGS- #4 Carlo Cresti STANDUND TENDENZEN, 1972 LE CORBUSIER:Gestalter unserer Zeit BauverlagGmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany Kunstkreis Luzern, 1969 #13 T. Koncz #5 FEEDBACK: 22 HousingSystems for PRECASTCONCRETE MANUAL,VOL. III, 1971 OperationBreakthrough. "Constructionwith box-shaped units" BoeingCorporation for H.U.D. U.S. Gov't.Printing Office #14 INTERNATIONALSYMPOSIUM ON BOX-UNIT CONSTRUCTION,1973 #6 Joseph Carreiroand StevenMensch CIB Proceedings#26 BUILDINGBLOCKS: DESIGN POTENTIALS Balatonfured, Hungary AND CONSTRAINTS Cornell University Press, 1971 #15 ARCHITECTUREPLUS Magazine May/June 1974 "Architechnics:Japanese architects use #7 ECHO GROUP,INC. Brochure Fort Lauderdale, Florida moderntechnology to buildwhat others haveonly dreamed" by MichaelFranklin Ross #8 Moshe Safdie #16 STRUCTURAL BEYONDHABITAT DESIGNGUIDE TO THE ACI M.I.T.Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1970 BUILDINGCODE, McGraw-Hill, 1972

182 FOOTNOTE S

1 Source# 1 p. 45+ 22 Source # 9 p. 531 2 Source# 3 p. 213+ 23 Source#16 p. 317 "The Logic of a Solution" From ACI CODE Sections by A.D. McDonaldand F.D. 14.1.2,14.2-d, and 14.2-j. Rich, Jr. 24 Source #16 p. 317 3 Source # 4 p. 32 ACI CODESection 10.16 4 Source # 5 and 14.2 5 Source # 6 6 Source# 7 7 Source# 5 8 Source# 5 p. 187 9 Source# 6 10 Source# 8 11 Source# 9 p. 526 12 Ibid. 13 Source #11 14 Source# 5 15 Source#12 p. 117 16 Source#15 p. 89 17 Source#14 Paper11-6 Variel System H. Grassl,Switzerland 18 Source #12, p. 120; also Source#2 19 Source #12 p.132 SIC System (alsodescribed in Source#14) 20 Source#12 p.144 DISKINSystem 21 Source #12 p.131

183 9

184 Vill. Subsystems and Components

A. SUBSYSTEMS...... 186

1. Foundations...... 186 2. Electrical...... 187 3. Water Supplyand SolidWaste Disposal...... 189 4. Fuel Supplyand Trends/Characteristicsof Use...... 190 5. Heatingand CoolingSystems for Apartments...... 192 6. VentilationRequirements...... 196

B. COMPONENTS...... 198

1. StandardInterior Components...... 198 2. Bathrooms...... 200 3. BathroomDetails: VerticallyAligned Plumbing.....204 4. OFFSETSYSTEM with the SoventSingle Stack...... 205 5. Detailsof the OFFSETSYSTEM...... 208 6. ChimneySize Requirementsfor ApartmentDryers.....210 7. SpecialCases: Laundry-BathroomCombinations...... 211 8. Kitchens...... 212 9. Doors,Closets, Floors, Walls, and Ceilings...... 213 10. Roofs and Drainage...... 215

SOURCESAND FOOTNOTES...... 216

185 9

Subsystems

FOUNDATIONS

"Useof the concretebox as a foundation Prof. KennethF. Reinschmidt calculated is idealfor hillsites where the found- the effectof box-systemdead weight on ationcan alsoserve as living space, foundationcosts for the MIT INDUSTRIAL- One end of the box can bepunctured for IZEDHOUSING FEASIBILITY STUDY of 1971,[23 windows.Since the concrete module is three-dimensional, it can be used for His assumptionwas basedon concrete earth retentionand thuseliminate the unitsweighing 30 tonseach and light- needfor the usualand expensivere- weightboxes weighing 6 tonseach, used tainingwalls. The modules, within- for a sample 7-story building and others tegralcolumns in the wallsto receive as givenin Fig.8A11.1 of thatstudy. point loads, create a strong and econ- 0i omicalbase forthe stackedmodules For the7-story building,the foundation above". [1] coatpremium for the concretesystem would be $0.19/sq.ft. with200 psf deadweightand The box-unitcould conceivably be $0.31/sq.ft. with 235 psf deadweight. placedon a gravelbase, eliminating the usualslab on gradeor perimeter walls and piers. Othercost comparisons between hand- craftedconcrete and steel-framedboxes Whenmodules are raisedabove ground, are includedin the MIT STUDY[3] columnsand panelscan be used. The and other information attempting to besttype wall section to use in this comparecosts may be foundin Terry case would be a ribbed type as shown A. Louderbach's Thesis at MIT. [4] on page152 .

A deeply coffered floor slab would serveas a 'floatingraft' in some soft soils.

186 ELECTRICAL ELECTRICALSUPPLY COMMUNICATIONSSYSTEMS TELEPHONEWIRING TELEVISIONCABLES DETECTIONSYSTEMS: fire, smoke, security Electrical services are easily run For concreteboxes with large side open- throughoutthe box-unitand the ings, another methodof wiring would be building; although careful planning to run a valancestrip at the 7'-O"level. must be done to assureaccess to Thisvalance could be a decorativefeature wiring for periodic checks and to conceal the wiring, provide plug-in required repairs, and perhaps outlets for adjustable and relocatable future replacement. Therefore, light fixtures, and even conceal hot and the electrical service should cold water pipes and fire detection devices preferably NOTbe embeddedinto or sprinklers. This methodis compatible the concrete slab unlesssome with the concretebox-unit proposed in means of accesscan be found. this paper sinceopenings are 7'-0"high so there is always a 'beam' at the side Several manufacturers offer modular and front of the box-unit. type circuitry. One proposal for OPERATIONBREAKTHROUGH for lightweight modules or box-units was an electrical harnesswhich featuredpre-assembled LIGHTNING PROTECTION electrical wiring draped over the roof (the ceiling)of the unit.[5] Lightingprotection devices will be securedas an on-siteoperation. If box-unitsdo not have large openings, a logicalwiring device is the base- board plug-in strip, with switches let into door frame. With this type of method,special door framesmust be used to take wiring around the door opening.

187 188 WATER SUPPLY

Each box containingeither a kitchenor The pneumatictrash convevina svstem is a bathroommust have provisionsfor pipes availablefrom ECI AIR-FLYTECorporation supplyingwater. Furthermore,if a heating of Fairfield,New Jersey. The systen)con- systemis chosenwhich dependsupon a sistsof conventionalgravity trash supplyof hot or cold water from a central speciallydesigned sizing and receiving facility,some means must be foundto hoppers,a pneumaticconveying system and bringthe pipes to the front of the a waste holdingarea oontaininglarge com- apartment. This can be accomplishedby pactorswith roll-offcontainers. [6] bringingpipes betweenboxes (bestat partywalls where there are no openings) Waste is placedin the gravitytrash chutes, or havinga verticalshaft at the facade or directlyinto receivinghoppers in the whi.chleads directly from a mechanical requiredareas. Waste is automatically space on the rooftopor in the basement, sized and transportedunder high negative along the perimeterof the building. pressure in any direction for the required If floor-to-floorheight is not critical, distance. a suspendedceiling can be introduced. Also, the pipescan be concealedin a The TAISEICORPORATION of Tokyo,Japan strip within the box-unit itself at the plansto installits new pnematicsystem heightof the door. in high-riseapartment buildings in Osaka, Japan in 1975. Afternearly a year of test WASTE DISPOSAL operation,the systemhas shown it can transport moisture-heavygarbage as well as fist- Disposalof liquidwastes is discussedin sized rocks,beer bottlesand telephonebooks. the sectionon plumbingwhich follows. From chutes,refuse is suckedthrough pipes 16 to 24 inchesin diameterto an intermediate Disposalof solidwastes is usuallydone pointwhere air and garbageare separated.Air outsideof the box-unititself. One con- passesthrough a filterand it is cleanedto be veniencethat could be consideredfor the releasedor utilizedfor the pressurizedconveyor dwellingis a trash compactor. to the incinerator.The garbagecan travel throughthe pipes at speedsof 6.5 to 10 ft. per Solid wastescan be droppedin a trash secondin the 1,150ft. long tubes tested. chute locatednear a 'core'for stairs and other vertical services. or elevators Althoughthe system is expensive, it is expected to pay for itselfwithin six years. [7]

189 9

FUEL SUPPLY

Regardlessof the typeof fuel used for ResidentialEnergy Requirements estimated by heating,cooling, clothes drying, cooking, Arthur D. Little,Inc. for 1972 presentedby etc., it will be conveyedinto the apart- ProfessionalBuilder Magazine, February,1975, ment unit by eitherpipes or wires. p. 38 shows:

As shown in the chartopposite, electricity SPACE HEATINGENERGY REQUIRED 58% 9 is the most widelyused fuel type at the LIGHTINGAND APPLIANCES 22% source of use in privately ownedmulti- WATER HEATING 16% unit dwellings in 1973. However, the AIR CONDITIONING 4% high cost of generating electricity may change this trend. 100% 1972:16.7 Quadrillion BTU * Accordingto the Pratt InstituteStudy, the most economicalheating system con- By fueltype, the breakdownis sidering first cost and operating cost appearedto be a gas-fired sealed- GAS: 35% (7%water heating, combustion through-wall unit in each 28% spaceheating) room. Electric radiant heaters are ELECTRICITY37% (22%lighting & appliances lower in first cost. but higher in 7% waterheating operating cost. [8] 4% air conditioning 4%space heating) Whenair-conditioning is required, the OIL 27%(25% space heating electric utility may offer reduced rates 2%water heating) during the heating system to balance the COAL 1% ( 1%space heating) demandon its capacitynecessary to 100% supplyelectric power duringthe summer.[9] * Not consideringcosts, the electricheating To provide for the addition of solar energy as and cooling systems are ideal for box-unit a sourceof fuel,the systemas appliedto multistory applicationsince they are self-contained dwellingsshould be ableto accomodate and requirethe minimumon-site connections. the addition of hot and cold water pipes and provideaccess for heating/coolingequipment at window-walls.

190 Number of floors

5% 50 OR MORE UNITS

Number of units

ELECTRICITY Heating fuel type 3% OIL

CHARACTERISTICSOF NEWPRIVATELY OWNED MULTI-UNIT DWELLINGS, 1973 -

SOURCE"CHARACTERISTICS OF NEW MULTI-UNITRESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS, 1973" US. DEPTOF COMMERCE,CENSUS BUREAU, SUPPLEMENT C20-74

191 HEATING & COOLING SYSTEMS FOR APARTMENTS

Six heating/coolingsystems are Becauseof the effectsof wind, rain brieflyreviewed in the following and the stack effect,through-the-wall section. These are units are not recommended.for buildings over 20 stories high. [11] 1l Radiant Heating 2. 'Valance'Heating/Cooling If air-conditioningis not initially 3. PTACwith baseboardheaters provided,sleeves for tenant-supplied 4. Vertical Fan Coil Units units can be provided. Also, an ex- 5. CabinetFan CoilUnits haustfan could be installedto remove 6. BalconyUnit. (Mixed types) odorousand smoky air. Windowsshould open for fresh air. Centralsystems requiring ductworkfor The system preferred for use with the air handling are not included: unless concretebox-units detailed would be the floor-to-floorheight is increased the 'Valance'Heating/Cooling System 8" to 12"they would not fit. becauseof it adaptsto all interiors, includingthose with slidingglass doors All pipingand ductworkis generally onto balconiesand thosewith desks run verticallyalong the perimeterof acrossthe frontof the box. Also, it the buildingso as not to cut down on would have low and interior closet and room space. life-cycle costs * providesboth heating Horizontal ductworkor piping,except and cooling. The systemcould be convertedeasily over corridorceilings, is generally if avoidedin apartmentbuildings.[10] water heated by solar energy became availablein some futuretime. Heatingand air-conditioningequipment is usuallylocated in the basement,with C the coolingtower on the roof. Central heatingcan be providedwith gas-, oil-, or coal-fired boilers.

192 RADIANTHEATING

Heatingwith radiantpanels However,this systemis not or cablesimbedded in concrete populardue to initialin- offersthe best visualsystem: stallationdifficulties and nothing interferes with drapes, slowheating response in furniture, or large floor-to- comingto full output. ceilingglass areas. Coolingis by anothermethod.

'VALANCE'HEATINGAND COOLING

Next to radiantheating, the The method is draftless, 'valance'system by the Edwards produces even floor-to- Engineering Corporation [12] ceiling temperature, offersgreatest planning free- has excellent dehumid- dom. ification on cooling to A ValanceUnit is a convection cycle, and acts filterthe air. There operateddevice mounted at the is low operatingand intersection of any wall and maintenancecost with ceiling. Waterpasses through no finnedtransfer surface with- blowers, fans, or movingparts. in the valance,creating a convectionflow of air for heatingor coolingthe space The systemis silent,as as desired. opposedto fan-coilunits which often produce45-60 The central boiler and chiller db sound levels. [13] can be arranged in a vertical or horizontalinstallation to supplyeither two-pipe or four-pipesystems.

193 PACKAGEDTERMINAL AIR- CONDITIONINGUNITS WITH ELECTRICBASEBOARD HEAT

Ease of installation. Limited furniture and Lowestfirst costs. drapery placement. No central equipment High operatingcosts. or space required. Air leakage in louvers. 9 consumption Electric Noisy equipment. [14J can be metered and chargedto the individual apartment. Tenantcontrol of comfort.

VERTICALFAN COIL UNITS

Chilledwater or hot Pipes are factoryfabricated 0 water is suppliedby a to the exact lengthsrequired, central chiller or so on-siteis minimized. boiler and distributed Low operating and life-cycle through a two-pipe costs. factory-furnished riser Requires central system system. An electric change-over from heating to' heatingcoil is furnished coolingin the spring. for intermediatesupple- mentalheating during mild Requires floor space. weather when the system Pipes must be run between has not been changed over box-units and connected.o from cooling to heating. Higher first costs than "A". 9 Whole system could breakdown.[15]

794 I CABINETFAN COIL UNITS

Each box-unit contains a Allows tenant control. cabinet. Controls include Noise levelslow because a unit-mounted switch and unitsdon't have compressors. a thermostat which controls Fan coilscan maintaincloser an electric valve that temperaturecontrol since meters the flow of water to they can be modulatedwhile the coil. Cold water is the PTACunits cycle on and from chiller with cooling off. Unit mountedcontrols tower;hot water is from save field installationcosts. centralboiler. Limitations on drapes and Fan systems for coil allow furniture. a lower total cooling capacity Whole systemcan breakdown. requirement,termed 'diversity'. The capacityrequirements can Not good with glass doors. No ductworkis required, be met with widerange of units. but riser supply and return pipingmust run to each unit. [16]

BALCONYUNIT

The HVAC unit can be located Increaseof laborand costs in a specialarea on the balcony. associatedwith ductwork. The coolingunit has a compressor Box-unitsmust accomodate and evaporatorcoil, fan,motor laraeropenings for ducts and filter. An integral water- ratherthan pipes. cooledcondenser must be field- pipedto a centralcooling tower. Tenantcan controlcost and Controlis througha remotewall comfort;air can be controlled. mounted thermostat,so its locationis important. Air Balcony location saves interior dusts can run outsideor inside space, butsoffit is required. the box-units.

195 i

DUCT SIZES

TO 18 FLOORS

TO 15 FLOORS __2w_

TO 12 FLOORS

TO 9 FLOORS

TO 6 FLOORS

BATHROOMS KITCHENS CORRIDORS TO ALLOW FOR SOIL PIPES 14" IS MAXIMUM KITCHEN VENT WIDTH. TO PASS VENT DUCT, 10" NOTE THAT RATIO OF LENGTH TO IS MAXIMUM INTERIOR WIDTH. WIDTH DOES NOT EXCEED 3:1.

F- 0

196 VENTILATION

FHA MinimumRequirements for Multi- The chartopposite is adaptedfrom familyHousing are given on page 71 TIME SAVER STANDARDSFOR BUILDINGTYPES [17] in Table 4-3.1.* and assumes

Insidedwelling units: 50 cfm of exhaust air per toilet. 150 cfm of exhaust air per kitchen. Livingrooms, dining rooms, [18] bedroomsand other habitable rooms requireten (10) ~ ventilation air changes per Corridors, stairs, and lobbies require hour--supplyor exhaustor four (4) supply ai.r changes per hour-- provide summerair condition- space shall not be used as supply or ing or cross-or through- return air plenums for living units' ventilation. ventilation.* Kitchens require eight (8) exhaustair changes--maybe room controlledexhaust fan: wall or ceiling,15 air changes per hour;range hood, 40cfm per lineal foot of conventional hood or 50 cfm per lineal foot of hood for islandor penin- sular placement.

Baths requirefive (5)exhaust air changes--maybe room controlled exhaust fan with 8 air changes per hr.

*From the 1973 Edition,HUD MINIMUM PROPERTY STANDARDS,MULTIFAMILY HOUSING, p. 4-27.

197 CLOSETA CHESTA

CLOSETB CHEST MINIMUM BATH

KI CORRIDOR KITCHEN CLOSET C

A A FrOL' B B B m-H r - 13'-0

K2 SMALLU-KITCHEN

WASHER LAUNDRY

WINDOWS

K3 LARGE U-KITCHEN

SLIDING GLASS DOORS

END WALLS SELF-SUPPORTINGINTERIOR STAIR B5 LUXURY BATH K4 L-SHAPED KITCHEN 8'-8" x 10"IO

198 Standard Components

The standardcomponents have been designed The ends of the box-units could be to fit a 13" grid module. They fit into light-weightweather screens or the two box-unitwidths of 10'-10"and window walls. A series of standard 13'-0". The dimensions shown for the window sizes would fit most require- bathrooms are exterior dimensions in ments. the case a 3-D bathroomunit is to be used. All the apartment types shown have been developedusing these components, Althoughbox-units could be plannedso with the exception of special bath- two apartmentscould 'share'a box, laundry combinations with extra large none of the plansdeveloped in this doors for use by the handicapped or paper have this condition. Also, the. elderly,or for hospitaldesign use. plans are made so interior walls are not necessary--3-Dcloset components Typicalelevator and stair arrangements and door assembliessuffice to divide for tower-typebuildings are shownon spacesnot separatedby bathroomsor pages 232 and 233. Basicelevator and kitchens. staircore types and locationsare shown on page 228 for double-loadedcorridor The stairis a light-weightwooden buildings,but Only schematically. self-supporting structure for use in two-level apartments. Another Standardelevators are availablefrom designwould have to be used for or manufacturers three-levelapartments or houses. four five in this country. Stairways can be cast Closet space is built into the in adjustable molds or purchased from space under the stairway. independent manufacturers. The structuralsystem has been planned Although fireplace details are not so openingscould accomodatetwo doors presented in this paper, there are with a wall between,standard sliding a few prefabricated fireplace models glass doors, a stair way, and still and stacks whichcan beadapted for not be of excesswidth for a corridor., use in box-unit systems of all types. This dimensionwas decidedto be 6-61. Windowsin the side walls can be a maximumof 6'-6"wide. (Thatis, the masonry rough opening is that size).

199 e

BATHROOMS

Bathroomscan be eitherassembled from componentparts on themain assembly line, or placed in the box-unit as a pre- finished3-d 'core'ordered from special manufacturers. 0 Advantagesof componentparts include easeof obtaining customparts from a largeselection of suppliers.There is moreease in changingmodels to suit different markets. One less walland possiblyone lessceiling is required. Also,floor-supported fixtures may be used. Thisadvantage is important,be- causeelaborate wall constructionand bracingis not required.

Fixturesdeveloped especially for concretepanel construction are wellsuit- An exampleof the use of component ed for box-unituse. This includes tubs parts used by DESCON/CONCORDIA withraised outlets that are supported SYSTEMS,LTD. of Montreal,Canada. on a special frame, floor supported Componentparts are also used by waterclosets with back flush about 5" many builders, including convent- off the floorat the centerof outlet, lonal on-site builders. The en- and lavatoriesbuilt into cabinets. tire bathtubunit is available from severalmanufacturers molded Wallhung toilets and lavatoriescan from fiberglass reinforced poly- also be used with special base supports ester with fire retardants. anchoredto the floor behind the wall to supportthe loads. Thisoption, developedby theTYLER PIPE COMPANY and theJ.R. SMITH COMPANY is oftenused in concretepanel construction.[19]

200 Three-dimensionalbathrooms are now Alcoa H-Series Service Modules ire incombustible nonloadearing and offered in this country by ALCOA designed for installation on structural floors of apartment buildings that are CONSTRUCTIONSYSTEMS, INC. of Pitts- installed by others. These compact and lightweight modules are easily burgh,Penn. Standardmodels are lifted by crane and mansuverad within the buieling to the proper location offered in four series: the type ACSI can supply special lifting cages or moving tools if required for high-rise buildings is Series H. [20] Modules are primarily finished bathrooms with plumbing installed in open chases for ease of hookrups, inspection and testing after installation The bathroom modules can be equipped COMPONENTS, with hosting and cooling fan-coil INC. of E.Chicago,Ill. units to add extra value to the will custom-build Package Varlious compatible kitchen bathrooms(and components are available. kitchens)to any requiredspecifications. Installation of Alcoa H-Series Service Modules can be sequeritisi with the Typicalprice for a samplebath in 1974 installation of other bjiiding com- ponentsl, or, preferably, tthemodules 10 was given as $1,500 includingceramic can be instslleo hotzontally "~m the perimeter of the building after the tiled prefabfloor section, drywalled structure is in place When the modules are installed after the struc- exteriorand interiorpartitions with ture, they can be scheduled independ- 141002/Thre,bedroomns ently and the building tends to 14701/Onebedroom ceramictub surround,usual fixtures, protect the modules from the weather and from construction damage, When shelving,medicine cabinet, pre-in- ins'allation is trom the building perimeter, wall openings should be stalledplumbing tree and protective approximately 8 feet high and must be wide enough to accommodate the covering. [21] width of the module H-Series Modules work equally well H6801 6.x6 14602 6 x7 in elevator apartmentsand walk-up H4603 6.x12 H4701 8ir7 WESTINGHOUSEELECTRIC CORP. has stopped living units. For best results and maximum cost savings. the modules producingthe fiber reinforcedpolyester should be located remote from party and corridor walls to eliminate ~-nni0 bathroommodels designed by the ECHO redundancyand ut'lize the module as LI- a design element as well as an lW ILAV MODULESYSTEMS, INC. for its Weymouthport. operating core. H4702 Se? 14801 Sits 1410026.110 H1201 1.12 project. However, some firms in Germany are producing.plastic bathroom 3-d units.[22]

H701E 8x7 H1001EH 10x7 HK801 5x2/6 Loose cabinets (Elderly) (Handicapped)

Shown above are ALCOA CONSTRUCTIONSYSTEMS, INC. H-SeriesService Modules for elevatorand walk-upapartments, intended for concretepanel construction,but adaptableto other types.

201 DESCON/CONCORDIASYSTEMS, LTD. offersa Most mechanical core 3-D units are light-weightprefabricated mechanical designedfor use with panel-type servicescore for use in its high-rise construction.Another core unit residentialbuildings with concrete for low-rise use is offered by panel construction.[23] COMBI-COREof Jackson, Mississippi.(24]

The unit, shown below,is placedfloor- to-floor and linked vertically with speed connectors.Water, drainage, Such a specializedunit may not be de- venting,and electricalconnections sirable or necessary when box-units may be tappedon any of three faces. are the type of constructionutilized. When buildingwith boxes,the box itself can providesupport for pipes,vents, and so forth and the services would be containedrather than being a separate element.

Exampleof prefabricatedmechanical servicecore from DESCON/CONCORDIA SYSTEMS,LTD.

202 For OPERATIONBREAKTHROUGH, The RoUse-Wates Companyproposed a single-stackplastic D.W.C. The UniformPlumbing Code used in 10 systemwhich had been developedin Britain, statesand by communitiesin 25 other usingP.V.C. plastic soil and rain water statespresently permits the use of pipes andC.P.V.C. plastic hot and cold plasticpipe in mobilehomes and single- water supply. Fire requirements weremet familydwellings of up to two stories. by carefuldetailing of the penetration of the building systems. [25] In October,1974, theannual convention or the International Association of The Pratt Institute studyof. 1967 consid- Plumbingand MechanicalOfficials (IAPMO) ered the use of three types of plastic . rejecteda proposalto amend the Code pipe: to allowplastic plumbing pipe in high- rise buildings. Fire departmentofficials 1. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride), and plumbersunions opposed the change. Fire officialscited casesof plastic- 2. ABS(Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, related injuries to firemen, said that burningplastic pipe emits toxicgases, 3. Bituminous fiber pipe. [26] and that meltingpipe can easilyspread a fire when burning material falls on Althoughplastic pipes have the advantageof drapery and carpets. [28] cheapermaterial costs, lighter weight, and An amendment simplifiedtechniques of jointing,all to the Housingand Community plasticpipe is combustibleto some extent. Development.Actof 1974 restrictedHUD (P.V.C.will not supportcombustion, -but the (The Departmentof Housingand Urban other types need some degreeof fire protec- Development)from imposinga model code tion.) "One solutionis to fill the plumbing on any community. [29] Previously,HUD chasewith a very light vermiculiteconcrete, could refuse to recertify cities' which would not only give fire protection housingdevelopment programs, as re- but also thermal insulation for the hot quiredevery two years, unlesstheir water supply lines and acoustical insulation. codeseliminated bans on specific Plasticpipe has an extremelyhigh coeffi- materials, such as aluminumwire, cient of thermalexpansion and must either plastic-sheathedelectric cable and plastic be rigidly restrained or provided with a slip pipe. joint at each floor. Slip joints, formed by The chemical doubleneoprene 0-rings, have been used in solventsused to make joints the pipes Englishand Europeanpractice and appearto in may also be be entirely satisfactory." [27] suspect for harmful affects.

203 Vertical "(NoHub" System

When utility spaces are vertically aligned, the design of drain, waste, and ventilation(dwc ) systems follow conventional practice except for detailing on-site connections and providing fire stops and acoustical sealants. t

The TYLER "NO-HUB"waste systemis shown.

WASTE VENTILATION SUPP 'PIS WASTE ELEVATIONOF DETAILA SECTION BETWEEN DETAIL B VIEW OF UTILITY PLUMBINGWALL AND BOX-UNITS AT CORRIDOR CONNECTIONSBETWEEN BOX-UNITS PLAN OF BATHROOM

204 Sovent System for Offsets

When the bathroomcores stack vertically, Since I wantedto investigatethe most advan- directlyabove theother, the designof the ced technological developments commercially pipingand other servicespaces is relatively available today,a study of the SOVENTplumb- simple. However,when modulesare stacked ing systemis included,as well as the most "imaginatively",offsets for pipes are re- recent conventional loop-vent types. quired, and detailed planning is crucial. In 1961,Mr. FritzSommer, head of thedepart- Becausethe structuralsystem here is ment for sanitary installationat the Technical plannedso the offsetsoccur at 8'-8" inter- Schoolin Bern,Switzerland, developed a new vals, thebathroom/closet and bathroom/dressing drainage system [30] that combines SOil stack room areasare plannedto occupythis interval and VENT into a singlestack system that is along the length ofthe box-unit. This allows self-ventingwith specialfittings (aerator for two differenttypes of offsets: and deaerator) balancingpositive and negative pressuresat or near the zeroline. This 1. Droppedceiling offset as shownon SOVENTsystem, available in copper,finally page 208 which requires a separate receivedapproval of theAmerican Standards deaeratorfitting at the horizontal Institute(ANSI) on January18, 1973,and was stack offsetand a lowered ceilingwhich acceptedby the Southern BuildingCode Con- can occurover the tub, in a closet, gress and 68 agencies(state, local, and over a corridor,over a dressingroom municipal governments)to date.[31] It seems area,etc. likelyother codeswill acceptthis systemin the near future. 2. Slantedpipe offsetas shownon page 209 which does not requirea separate The SOVENTsystem is particularly suited for deaeratorfitting if the pipesslope use with "offset" box-unit modules and fits more than 30'. This type offsetcannot well into conventional building types as well. be used to bridge modules over corridors. However,other productsand use of the tradi- tionalloop-vent system should be considered In most cases,only the plumbingassembly need dependingupon costs,performance, avail- be changedto converta standardbathroom into ability, and code-acceptance. one intendedfor use in "offset"box-unit modules. Althoughthe basic bathroomlayouts and fixtures are unchanged, more attention must be paid to fire-proofing in the "offset."

205

4 SOVENT APPLICATION

A This is the only B If the aeratorpro- C location which allows trudesabove the Aerator fitting lower enough headroom for ceilingslab, access in box-unit the offsetoption is easierbut the is appropriate when plumbing when floor-to-floor fixture is likely to W heightis 9'-0". be damaged.Note is to be vertical, Minimumdepth for decrease in slab but a special con- the floorconstruct- thickness required. dition results in ion will be 8". the lowerbox-unit of the building.

206

& I (Deoerator fittings and vents are required where offset pipes slope less than30*)

BOX- UNIT WITH TWO BEDROOMS 13'O" x 40'-O"

207 OFFSET OPTION 1

Offsettingidentical box-units (as shownbelow) or changingbathroom locations which do not fine up vertically is possible with the SOVENTSYSTEM.

Whenthe utility spaceis perpendicularto the side walls, offsets are achievedby runningsupply and waste pipes and ventilationtubing in the space (2'-6 xt-4"deep)built-in over the bathtub.

PLAN OF BOX-UNIT 13'-O"x28?-2" DETAI L

208 OFFSET OPTION 2

No deoerator fitting is requiredif the pipes slope 30* or more as is possiblewith the utility space parallel to the sidewalls.

(For clarity, only wastepipes are shown)

ELAN OF BEDROOMAND BATHROOM BOX-UNIT I0'-0"x 28'-2"

PLAN OF END APARTMENT

209 SCHEME I NATURALCHIMNEY VENTILATION m-p.

mojlnce ports 0

r71

CHIEPROOF 9

cleonout door at base 2-5 FLOORS 6-15 FLOORS 16-25 FLOORS 12"x 12" 15"x 15" I8"x I8" CHIMNEY CHIMN-EY CHIMNEY 9 SCHEME I VENTINGWITH EXHAUSTFAN Sprinkler deluge - system with -- bypass around main volvo.

300 cfm

-w FIREPROOF 300cfm VENT WITH ROOF FAN 150cfm -_ 2 e 8" O4o 4- OL~ r- 4

2-4 FLOORS 5-6 FLOORS 6-15 FLOORS 16-25 FLOORS NOT GiVEN CHIMNEY SIZE REQUIREMENTS FOR DRYERS INSIDE APARTMENTS

Source MAYTAG ARCHITECTURAL GUIDE 1973 MAYTAG COMPANY NEWTON, IOWA Adapted with permission of the Maytag Company 210

9 OFFSET OPTION OFFSET OPTION

OFFSET OPTION WITH DRYER VERTICAL ONLY

LAUNDRY - BATHROOM COMBINATIONS SPECIAL CASES

211 KITCHENS

Kitchenshave a supportingplatform under the cabinetswhich serve as toe space;back walls serve as additionalbracing. The kitchen modulescan be suppliedby an independent manufactureror assembledfrom componentsat the factory. L-shapedunits cannot be sent as a unit. They will be fabricatedin two sections.

Hot and cold water supplypipes and wastepipes have relativelysmall diameters and are easily accommodatedin verticalshafts and dropped ceilings(6 inchesis sufficient).Vents can utilizethe same type of flexibletubing now used in flexiblehot-air systems. When the kitchenadjoins the corridorwall, there is the optionto vent throughthe hung ceiling in the corridor.

An exampleof kitchenmodules offered by DESCON/CONCORDIASYSTEMS, LTD. in its concrete-panelsystem. This type of kitchenmodule is offeredby many manufacturersfor all types of construction.

212 DOORS FLOORING

Variousmodular doors, complete with hardware Hardwoodflooring is preferred: blocksor and locks, comemounted in frames with gaskets tiles. Other options: vinyl tile and for easy installationbetween other compo- carpeting. nents. The bathroom.floor is a one-piecepretiled A specialentry door includeshardware, commu- panel or synthetic material panel (such as nicationsequipment, side panels,mail delivery Coriam). slots, electric light for both public corridorand apartmententrance, and space Experience will show if paper or plastic pro- for a verticalelectrical corduit riser tection for floors is necessary for transit and circuitbox on one side in the and finishingwork done on site. corner of the box The floor slab has a very smooth surface so Slidingdoors and specialdoors between most flooring can be applied directly, modulescan be placedwithin a moduleand installedon site to eliminatejoint irregu- larities.

CLOSETS SURFACES

Closets are pre-assembled, including interior Surfaceswill be preparedto eliminateimper- lightingand wiring--onepanel for telephone, fections. The preferredceiling is vermiculite television,and electricoutlets and wall plaster for its ability to absorb moisture. switches. The electricalconnection is made Other options: paint,textured or acoustical. where the closetabuts the beam on one side of themodule. Walls can be painted, papered, or paneled.

213 0

1 3

4 5

214 ROOF DRAINAGE

The type of roof will dependon the 4 The uppermost box-units can be buildingapplication. Single- providedwith slabswhich incline family,dwellings and townhouses inward to corridor drains or could rely on simple pitched roofs outwardto gutters. and gutters. High-risebuildings, especiallywith penthouses,would Alternately, the roofing material requireon-site roofing applications. can be fabricatedor assembled Mansardroofs, solarcollectors, etc. to producethe necessaryslope. would also be possible,not to men- tion sod roofs and dirt terraces. Someroofs, especially in very hot climatesare designedto contain Basic drainagemethods are shown a specific water level for 'natural' on the oppositepage. cooling.[32]

1 Drainagecan occur insidethe box-unit--connectingto a mech- anicalshaft such as in the 5 Prefabricated roof sections for bathroomor broughtinto the standard-typebuildings contain all cornerwith a flexiblepipe. the mechanicalductwork and pipes, The scale of the drawingis wiring, etc. for horizontal distrib- exaggerated for clarity. ution.Gutters could be incorporated at the perimeter,or a trough,as 2 Drainagebetween box-units shown, could be devised. eitherat the facade or at the junctionwith the corridor.

3 Drainageoutside the box- unit with a water-spout.

215 SOURCES FOR CHAPTER Vill

#1 JosephCarreiro et. al. #10 APARTMENTCONSTRUCTION NEWS Magazine BUILjINGP3LOCKS: DESIGN POTENTIALS GrallaPublications, New York, N.Y. AND CONSTRAINTS Cornell University Press, 1971 #11 COMPONENTS,INC. 4400 Homerlee, East Chicago,Ind. 46312 Brochure #2 A. Herrey and W. Litle INDUSTRIALIZEDHOUSING FEASIBILITY #12 SMITH NO-HUBDRAINAGE CATALOG #NH-2 STUDY,M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, 1971 Piscataway,New Jersey08854

#3 TerryA. Louderbach #13 COMBI-CORECORP., Jackson, Miss. COSTESTIMATING IN INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING,Master of ScienceThesis #14 DESCON/CONCORDIASYSTEMS, LTD. Dept.of CivilEngineering, M.I.T., 1971 Montreal, Canada

#4 FEEDBACK:22 HousingSystems for #15 ALCOA CONSTRUCTIONSYSTEMS OperationBreakthrough. Boeing Corp. 576 L AlcoaBldg. Pittsburgh,Pa. 15219 forHUD. U.S.Gov't. Printing Office. #16 AMERICANSOCIETY OF MECHANICALENGINEERS #5 ECI AIR-FLYTECORP., 15 DanielRd. New York, N.Y. ANSI B16.32,1973 Fairfield,NNew Jersey07006 (1974) #17 STREIFSANITARBAU, D-6483 SalmUnster 1 #6 ENGINEERINGNEWS-RECORD Maaazine .HanauerLandstr.4, W. Germany Mc-GrawHill Construction Weekly #18 CopperDevelopment Assoc., Inc; New York,N.Y. #7 PrattInstitute, Brooklyn, N.Y. DESIGNHANDBOOK: Single-Stack Plumbing System COSTREDUCTION METHODS FOR HIGH. RISEAPARTMENTS for HUD., 1967 #19 H.R.Hayand J.I. Yellott CONSTRUCTIONAND OPERATIONOF A NATURALLY #8 McGuinessand Stein AIR-CONDITIONEDBUILDING. MECHANICALAND ELECTRICALEQUIPMENT Sky Therm Processesand Engineering, FORBUILDINGS, 5th Edition. Wiley. Phoenix, Arizona, 1968

#9 John HancockCallender #20 EDWARDSENGINEERING CORP. TIME-SAVERSTANDARDS FOR ARCHITECTURAL 101 Alexander Avenue DESIGNDATA, 5th Edition,McGraw-Hill. PomptonPlains, New Jersey07444 (b)FORBUILDING TYPES

216 FOOTNOTES

1 Source#1 p. 68 27 Ibid. 2 Source#2 p. 415+ 28 Source#6 p. 11 3 Source#2 p. 88+ Aug. 29, 1974 4 Source#3 29 Ibid. 5 Source#4 30 Source#8 p. 66+ 6 Source#5 Also,Source #18 7 Source#6 p. 22 31 Source#18 Aug.29, 1974 32 Source#19 8 Source#7 9 Source#8 p.328 10 Source#9 p.840 11 Ibid. 12 Source#20 13 Source#8 p.321 14 Source#10 p. 70 November, 1974 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Source#9 p. 18 Source#9 p.840 DESIGNDATA 19 Source#12 20 Source#15 21 Source#11 22 Source#17 23 Source#14 24 Source#13 Also, Professional BuilderMagazine IB Feb.,1974 p.145 25 Source#4 26 Source#7

217 - - a -. a S - - I -

218 IX. Apartment and Building Types

A. INTRODUCTION...... 220

B. BOX-UNITS...... 222

C. APARTMENTTYPES...... 224

1. Chart of Floor Slab Sizesand ApartmentSizes. .226 2. Explanation...... 227

D. BUILDINGTYPES...... 229

1. Chart of Tower Buildingsand Double- loadedCorridor Building Types...... 228 2. Tower BuildingTypes and Variations...... 230 3. Tower Planswith Core Types...... 232 4. InterchangeableModular Apartment Plans...... 0 .234 5. Double-Loaded-CorridorBuilding Examples.. .236 .. 0 . 6. Clusterand LinearGrouping...... 240 .. 0 . .. . 7. Abstractionsfor Low-RiseRow Houses...... 242 0 8. HillsideRow Houses...... 243 9. Two-bedroomWalk-up Apartments...... 244 10. Four-and-FiveBedroom Apartments...... 245 11. End Apartmentsfor Low-Riseand High-RiseBuildings.....246 12. Clusters ofWalk-up and, Row Houses...... 247 13. TerraceHouses and InvertedPyramid Clusters...... 248

219 '1

220 .4 Introduction

This chapterpresents the wide rangeof Althoughthe systemshown would probably apartmentand buildingtypes possible be most successful for multi-family usingthe proposed"Offset" System. complexes,there is no reasonwhy some adaptationscould be made to suit the Some of the plans are well developed single-familymarket. Singlefamily but othersare in the schematicstage. types are not shown,but many ofthe Nevertheless,the principlesof 'apartment'types are essentially applicationare apparent. adaptablefor use.

A. DOUBLE-LOADEDACCESS 1E C C:=Iz= - t j 1- 1X w

B. SINGLE-LOADEDACCESS

N .

~j~J

221 44-- .- 44-- . ~~

O BOX 2 30X 3 B 4 BOX 5 BOX 6 13,-dx 28,-2" 13!-"xf 36!- 0O" lO'-lO~x281-2t 13,-O"x3G!-10"3-~ 36'-10 1'-0"36 -l

44 L

Bo BOX 2 Box30 --BOX4w....7 B18OX12 BOX61

4 3 0 x 36'-10* 130"x 36-10" O6-10"%36'--K 3-O x 36-Id 13V0 45-6" 0-id x 54-2"

BOX UNITSWITH UTILITY OPENINGS AT 8'-8" INTERVALS

222 ------

BOX 15 BOX 16 BOX17 BOX 18 BOX 19 BOX 20 BOX 21 I3-O"x 2W-f 3-O"x36-10" d-Kea 36'-ed 1l-0"x 36'-0" 13'-O"x 36'-10" 10-l'-1" 36- 0" 3'-d' 36'-Kf lii

I J

BOX 22 BOX 23 BOX 25 BOX 27 BOX 28 13.U. 36'-" i3'-O"a36'-W" 13'-"x 45'-" id-iO"x54'-2" 13'4x 54-"

223 Apartments

366 sf 66sf 366 sf 620s 752Sf 732 037f

1 2 3 4 5 6 9

10 12 13 14 * 15* 16

S73249s 1= 1281 sf

17 18 * 190 20 21 22

90095 sf 9070 S1

CE 3;C . P-. ] C I Ir ,. 23 24 25 26 27 28

1549sf11 sf ~ 58262 sf176

29 0 31 32a 3a

224 PPE LE Lv

36Ek3TFA fLL

34. 37 38

157711 40 ji OC]2 iLJ LI UMgf]~j

4J 47sf

-39- 2 028sf

opion

225 FLOORS APARTMENTS 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 FLOOR TYPE 1....- -0

-44 - s - *- 111.1 Ii ii OR esesseees es e ss *eses ~:K seen : e::: ese 41 0 c I -n I~ ..~~~, *.* FT4 - p ------__t 0 -T T e s -T- .7

CORRIDOROPTION E

BALCONYOPTION -4-I

F - - - - T tT -__

G I ~ "r -i ______~ ie __ 1H -t -- ---

APARTMENT AREAS

NUMBERS INDICATE 2400sf NUMBER OF BEDROOMS

2000sf -

1600sf -

1200 sf

S 2 2 2 2 800 sf- 2 2 - 22 ' - -- T - ,

400sf---

-- SIDE ENTRANCEAPtS- --- 2-OR LEVELAPTS -- NW"E L

226 The chart on the oppositepage shows the frequencyof use of five basic floor lengths. Corridorand balcony optionsare not included--theiruse would dependon optionalrequirements. The dashedline indicatesthe extent of balconies or corridors for each floor slab.

In order to provideapartment area flexibility,two differentbox widths are reccomended:13'-0" and 10'-0". An elevenfoot wide slab couldbe used instead of the 'modular' width.

Apartment areas are calculated to show the range possible using the basic floor slabs shown above. Numbersindicate the numberof bedrooms for each dwelling.

227 BUILDING TYPES

TOWER BUILDINGS

TOWER I TOWER 2 TOWER 3 Variation of TOWER 7 TOWER 8 Tower I Low rise or pyramid options

TOWER 4 TOWER 5 TOWER 6 Variation of Variation of Variation of Tower 4 Tower 4 Tower 5

DOUBLE-LOADED-COR RIDOR BUILDINGS

rp11f3 LIII1i~~ E-i Eli Eli Eli3 Eli Eli Eli ~ EuJL: L !IIBdo EZ1F u IL D L.C. I DLC. 2 D.L.C. 3 DL C. 4 D.L.C. 5 D.L.C. 6 D.L.C. 7 D.LC 8 D.L.C. 9

228 The greatmajority of high-riseapartment DOUBLE-LOADED-CORRIDORbuildings are cate- buildingswill be eitherTOWERS or DOUBLE- gorized by the location of the elevator and LOADED-CORRIDORbuildings in theirbasic stair cores. Nine basic types are shown. form.

The TOWERSare categorizedby the shapeand illustrationsgive the maximumlength dimensionsof the core area. For ex- as determinedby the 75 ft. (or other code dimension) ample,Tower 1 has a centralcore con- from apt. door to the fire stair. tainingelevator, stair, and vertical Of serviceswith a dimensionabout 1.5 x course,the basictypes can be varied 1.5 box-unitwidths. internally by interchangeable modular apartment types and externallyby severalmeans Tower i: 1.5 x 1.5 including: Tower 2: 1.5 x 2.0 Tower 3: 2.0 x 2.0 1. Reduction of height in segments or Tower 4: 1.0 x 2.0 across an entire floor. Tower 5: 1.0 x 3.0 2. Shortening both halves or one half. Tower 6: 1.0 x 4.0 3. Formingclusters of low-risebuildings Tower 7: 2.5 x 2.5 at the base, close-in or far away. 4. Providing a base: terrace,parking Enlargedplans on pages232 and 233 structurebelow or above ground. 5. Elevating show that coresmay be enlargedto the the buildingon pilotis. limitsof the dottedlines. Maximum 6. Creating voids by removing vertical or horizontalsegments volumes for the seven tower types, and from the variationsare shownabstractly on building. pages 230 and 231. 7. Removingor recessingbox-units. 8. Extendingbox-units or balconies. Usingthe OFFSETSYSTEM, buildings can 9. Bridging one building to its site attaina 'plastic'aspect with many or to another building. 10. Creating protrusions,recesses, and convexor patternsin the facadewith concave tendencies--but unless carefully materials, colors, textures, and patterns studied,unwanted shadows could be cast by window locations, etc. uponthe neighborsor viewsopened to roomsnearby.

229 TOWERS

1- -

230 Externalvariations are possibleby 1. use pf clustersat the base. 2. use of podium:shops, parking, recreationuse. 3. removingor recessingbox-units. 4. extendingor recessingbalconies. 5. extendingbox-units. 6. creatingpatterns by the location of the aboveelements, by change of windowand facadetreatments, colors, material, textures, etc. 7. openingsegments of the tower along the lines of the corridors. 8. elevatingthe tower on pilotis. 9. heightchange. 10. bridging to other buildings or to the site.

231 TOWER PLANS

WITH CORRIDORSFORMED WITH SEPARATE PANELS

CIRCULATION CORE I CORE 2 CORE 3

TOWER I TOWER 2 TOWER 3

232. TOWER PLANS

WITH CORRIDORS FORMEDBY CANTILEVERINGFLOORS AT END OF BOX UNITS OR WITH SEPARATE PANELS

CORE 4 CORE 5 CORE 6

TOWER 4 TOWER 5 TOWER 6

Z33 60

234 7

1 55 6

-]L-

235 0,

DOUBLE-LOADED CORRIDOR BUILDINGS

4 5

236 TWO LEVEL APARTMENTS WITH CROSS VENTILATION

UPPER LEVEL

------

UPPER LEVEL APT. 43

LOWER LEVEL UPPER LEVEL WITH CORRIDOR 3

DIAGRAM SHOWINGTWO APARTMENTS(TYPE 38) OVERLAPPING ON TWO LEVELS TO PROVIDE CROSSVENTLATION LOWER LEVEL APT. 43 3-lEDROOM LUXURY END APARTMENT 2028 SF (Also conaerts to duplex townhous)

237 9

238 239 CLUSTER AND. LINEAR GROUPINGS

,I iliI - I .E I, - :1- - ==77 n I I LW LW

~~I~II ~ IU0U INI I -LLL LL LL L w

.240 TWO-STORY DWELLINGS

Entrance Level

241 ABSTRACTIONS FOR LOW- RISE HOUSING

Regular

IE Irregular

242 HILLSIDE HOUSING

243 a

2-BEDROOM APARTMENTS

0 st

244 3 & 4 BEDROOM APARTMENTS

245 4 & 5 BEDROOM APARTMENTS

- A1

n 51I

- -- 520/

Q1.

.- -1 - 1i-l-14 i I f Iwl.4.ms.ia

n -- 2

553

3 At r

246 C CLUSTER HOUSING

247 -

TERRACED, INVERTED, AND STAGGERED HOUSING

Some ofthe moreunconventional desians proposedfor usewith the OFFSETSYSTEM are shownschematically on the opposite page.

These buildingscan be terraced,inverted,and staggered,as wellas using cantilevering sections.

The examplesof buildingsterraced into the hillsideor as pyramid-typesare morepromising for developmentthan the invertedtypes which would require specialstructural considerations.

Froman architecturalpoint of view, the proposedsystem is veryflexible, It adaptswell to a widevariety of conventionalbuilding types shown earlier,as wellas townhouses, walk-ups,cluster groupings, and the"offset" types shownhere.

248 ABSTRACTIONS: "OFFSET" HOUSING

249 H I *0

250 0 Acknowledgements

It is difficultto adequatelythank the persons who have contributed so much to make this thesis possible. The brief acknowledgementswhich followcan only serve to indicatea portionof the effort and influence given.

Professor Eduardo Catalano Professor Catalano's invaluable advice, ideas, ThesisAdvisor and encouragement,including a largecapacity Departmentof Architecture for patience,are greatly appreciated.My Building Systems and Industrialization interestin box-unitconstruction is definitely MassachusettsInstitute of Technology derivedfrom his backgroundand studio-work with industrialized methodsand planning.

Professor WaclawZalewski ProfessorZalewski supplied much neededinsight, Co-advisor especiallywith regardto structuralconcepts, Department of Architecture calculations,and details. Many thanksare due Massachusetts Institute of Technology for his enthusiasticdiscussions and for helping to reviewand correctthe work.

ProfessorArthur Bernhardt Professor Bernhardtmade available muchhis of Departmentof Architecture libraryfor referenceand contributedto an MassachusettsInstitute of Technology understandingof the broad issuesinvolved in all aspectsof industrializedbuilding.

ProfessorHoracio Caminos and Prof. Caminosand ReinhardGoethert helped Reinhard Goethert with my questions about thesis preparation Urban SettlementDesign in and format. Reinhard Goethert's special Developing Countries Section efforts are appreciated. Departmentof Architecture MassachusettsInstitute of Technology

251 For informationwhich has been includedin this thesis, and for other materialwhich shouldhave been if time permitted,special thanks is due the followingpersons:

Prof. Dr. Arch. F. Aguirre,for his recentpaper on Box-Unitsin Spain, Mr. Hanns U. Baumannof ConsultantsNetwork, Inc. for informationon concretetechniques, Mr. StaffordBerglund, Architect SAR, SwedishCouncil for BuildingResearch, for loan of his paper, Prof.Bilek, CVUT Facultyof Building,Prague, Czechoslovakia, for his paper on Box-Units, Mr. Bjertnaes,Chief, Corporate Planning, Moelven Brug A/S, Norwayfor brochureson that system, Mr. Claus Bonderup,for informationabout theConbox System of Denmark, Mr. G. Christensen,C.E., DanishBldg. ResearchInst., for his paper on BathroomBox-Units, Prof.E. Deutschmann,Technical University of Dresden,GDR, for his paper on Box-Units, Prof. G. Fleury,Center of Bldg. Research,Paris, France, for his paper on Box-Units, Mr. ClanceyGoody, Architect, Boston, Mass. for informationon concretebox-units, Dr. Grabowski,Dept. Head,Bauakademie der DDR, Berlinfor paper on sanitaryunits, Dr. Hantzsche,Dept. Head, Inst. fur Wohnugs& Gesellschaftsbau,Dresden, GDR for his paper, Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Herholdt, Director of the Bauakademie, Berlin, for sending recent papers, Dr. G. Karrholm, Chalmers Univ. of Technology, Gothenburg, Swedenfor "Scaninavian" Box-Units papers, Dr. Ing. Johannes Keller for sending "Raumzellen Bauweisen, 1972" by Dieter Meyer-Keller, Dr. Reznitchenko of Moscow, Russia for "Factory Productionof MonolithBox-Units" and other papers, Mr. Antero Salonen, Director, Lab. of Tech. Res. Center of Finland, for the AUSAinformation and muchmore, including interesting photos, a collection relating to industrialized work, etc. Mr. Mitchell, of Building Block Construction, Fremont, Calif. for a telephoneinterview about that system, Mr. Edgar Woodof ECHOGROUP,INC. for cost data, photos, letters,and telephone interviews, Ms. Doris Wylezol, for recommendingreferences which might have been overlooked, Mr. Donald Howells, Director,Tech. Div.,Gray Tech Industries, for the CONQUIKcasting system, Ms. DeborahForschman, Engineer, for preliminarycalculations on box-unitslab dimensions, Prof. Kenneth Reinschmidt, Dept. of Civil Engineering, M.I.T. for discussion of costs and research.

Thanks for permission to adapt copyright material is due:

The M.I.T.Press forexerpts from BEYONDHABITAT and INDUSTRIALIZEDHOUSING FEASIBILITY, Mr. Donald Spear, Editor and Publisher of THE BLUEBOOKOF MAJORHOMEBUILDERS, Mr. Krumm,President of the MaytagCompany for theMAYTAG ARCHITECTURAL PLANNING GUIDE

Type: IBM Letter Gothic Elite Letters: Helvetica Medium For part of the typing: Mrs. CarolMcSweeney Printing by the GNOMONPRESS

252 I am gratefulto the followingfirms which Crane manufacturerswhose informationis respondedto my questionairesent in 1974: incorporated in Chapter V are: ACTIVEHOMES, Marlette, Mich. AMERICANHOIST & DERRICKCO. AMERICANHOME IND., Calif. 63 S.RobertSt., St.Paul,Minnesota 55107 BATIMETAL *BOISECASCADE, Boise, Idaho AMERICANPOCLAIN CORP. BRIGGS 300 S. RandolphvilleRd., Piscataway,N.J. 08854 CARDINALINDUSTRIES, Columbus, Ohio CASTLEHOMES, North Carolina CLARKEQUIPMENT CO. CHANNELBUILDING CO, Lima Division,Lima, Ohio 45802 DAVIDSONIND., Southport, Ind. DELMARAHSG. CORP.Princess Anne, Maryland GENERALCRANE INDUSTRIES, LTD. DESCONINTERNATIONAL, Montreal, Canada 670 IndustrialRoad, London,Ontario DESIGNHOMES, INC. Prairie du Chien, Wisc. DONN BLDG. SYSTEMS,Mediana, Ohio GROVEMANUFACTURING CO.(Division of W. Kidde& Co.) DYNAMICHOMES, Minnesota Shady Grove,Penn. 17256 ECHOGROUP, INC. Fort Lauderdale, Fla. GLEN MANOR HOMES,Danville, Penn. HARNISCHFEGERP & H (No response) HALLS (Austin-Hall,Ltd.) Kent, England H.H. HANKINS& SONS, CO. KOEHRING(Lorain Division) HEARTHSIDEHOMES, Whitman Industries Chattanooga,Tenn. 37405 HODGSONHOUSES, INC. HOJGAARD & SCHULTZA/A LIEBHERRCRANE CORP. KIT MANFG.CO., Long Beach , Calif. 4100 ChestnutAve. NewportNews, Va. 23605 LAURELHOMES, INC., Penn. MIDAMERICAHOMES, Indiana LINK-BELTSPEEDER (Div. of FMC Corp.) MARRETTHOMES, Marrett, Mich. Cedar Rapids,Iowa NATIONALHOMES PERMABILT,Marshall, Mich. MANITOWOCENGINEERING CO. SAVINA,Wichita, Kansas Dept. 7316 Manitowoc,Wisc. 54220 SCOTTY"S,Pembroke Pl., Fla.

UNIONMFG. & SUPPLY,Colorado NORTHWESTENGINEERING CO. UNITIZEDSYSTEMS, Virginia 201 W. WalnutSt. VILLAUMEINDUSTRIES, Minn. GreenBay, Wisconsin,54305 H.B. ZACHRY,San Antonio,Texas USDC,Arlington, Va. Numerous manufacturers are refered in * Mr. John T. Daly,A.I.A, was particularly to the and are again thanked helpfulwith his 2-pagereply in detail. thesis for their promptreplies to requestsfor information. ArchitecturalServices Manager for Boise Cascade. 253 254