Maps and Their Makers: an Introduction to the History Of

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Maps and Their Makers: an Introduction to the History Of Given in Loving Memory of Raymond BraisUn Montgomery Scientist, R/V Atlantis maiden voyage 2 July - 26 August, 1931 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Physical Oceanographer 1940-1949 Non-Resident Staff 1950-1960 Visiting Committee 1962-1963 Corporation Member 1970-1980 ^p «^ ^p ^^ ^* "^ Faculty, New York University 1940-1944 Faculty, Brown University 1949-1954 Faculty, Johns Hopkins University 1954-1961 Professor of Oceanography, Johns Hopkins Universi^ 1961-1975 7^ 2- ^-r'r, \^i>l- \ z MAPS AND THEIR MAKERS HUTCHINSON'S UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GEOGRAPHT editors: PROFESSOR S. W. WOOLDRIDGE Professor of Geography in the University of London AND PROFESSOR W, G, EAST Professor of Geography in the University of London GA MAPS AND THEIR MAKERS;-,/^ An Introduction to the History of Cartography by G. R. CRONE, M.A. LIBRARIAN AND MAP CURATOR ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY m i nwH iw—wffmMBUMi MBL / WHO! LIBRARY^ Woods Hoie, MA Marine Bioio^Jc?.! Ubcr^tory Woods Hole OcecDographic InstJtuLion ."^ *'.>•*. ^ , :,*'r*-.:'5 HUTCHINSON'S UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Hutchinson House, London, W.i. Mew York Toronto Melbourne Sydney Cape Town First Published - 1953 Printed in Great Britain by Premier Press, Ltd. at Bushey Mill Lane Watford, Herts. CONTENTS List of Maps Page vii Preface ix Introduction xi Chapter i The Classical and Early Medieval Heritage 15 II The Evolution of the Marine Chart 29 III Catalan World Maps 39 IV Fifteenth-century World Maps: Fra Mauro and Martin Behaim 51 V The Revival of Ptolemy 68 VI The Cartography of the Great Discoveries 77 VII Topographical Surveys of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 102 VIII Mercator, Ortelius, and Their Successors 110 IX The Reformation of Cartography in France 128 X The British Contribution in the Eighteenth Century 141 XI National Surveys and Modern Atlases 151 Appendix i General Works on Cartography 173 II Reproductions of Early Maps and Charts 174 Index 177 LIST OF MAPS Page Ptolemy's World Outline, from the Rome edition of 1490 23 Outline of the eastern section of the Catalan Atlas, c. 1375 44 Outline of Henricus Martellus' World Map, 1489 81 The Pacific Ocean redrawn from the chart by D. Ribero, 1529 94 Outline of the Contarini World Map, 1506 98 Outline of Mercator's World Map of 1569 117 France, from the 'Carte de France corrigee . sur les observations de MM. de I'Academie des Sciences', 1693, showing the revised position of the coastline 129 vu — PREFACE A MAP can be considered from several aspects, as a scientific report, a historical document, a research tool, and an object of art. In this outline I have endeavoured to balance these con- siderations, and to regard maps as products of a number of processes and influences. Severe selection of topics has been necessary, and many of considerable interest have had to be omitted. In particular. Oriental cartography is not dealt with, nor is the cartography of individual countries. My aim has been to indicate the main stages of cartographic development to which many countries have contributed in turn. The scope of this series does not permit extensive illustra- tions. I have therefore given in an appendix a list of the more important volumes of map reproductions. The best reproduc- tions, however, are no substitute for the originals, and the only way to study them satisfactorily is by personal inspection though this is a counsel of perfection in present conditions. I owe a debt of gratitude to the colleagues and friends with whom at various times I have discussed much of the subject matter of this book: in particular to Prof. E. G. R. Taylor, Prof. R. Almagia, Dr. A. Z. Cortesao, and M. Marcel Des- tombes: to those in charge of the great map collections, par- ticularly Mile. M. Foncin, Conservateur des Cartes, Biblio- theque Nationale, Paris, and Mr. R. A. Skelton, Superintendent, Map Room, British Museum; and my colleagues, past and present, at the Royal Geographical Society. They have of course no responsibility for any errors or shortcomings on my part. The outline maps were drawn by Mrs. P. S. Verity, of the R.G.S. Drawing Office. G.R.C. L\ INTRODUCTION The purpose of a map is to express graphically the relations of points and features on the earth's surface to each other. These are determined by distance and direction. In early times 'distance' might be expressed in units of time, or lineal measures —so many hours' march or days' journey by river, and these might vary on the same map according to the nature of the country. The other element is direction, but for the ordinary traveller, w^hose main concern was "Where do I go from here, and how far away is it.^" the accurate representation of direction was not of primary importance. Partly for this reason, written itineraries for a long time rivalled maps, and throughout the centuries from the Roman road map to the thirteenth-century itinerary from London to Rome of Matthew Paris and even to the Underground and similar 'maps' of today, no attempt is made to show true direction. Similarly, conspicuous land- marks along a route were at first indicated by signs, realistic or conventional, and varied in size to indicate their importance. Clearly the conventions employed varied with the purpose of the map, and also from place to place, so that in studying early maps the first essential is to understand the particular con- vention employed. The history of cartography is largely that of the increase in the accuracy with which these elements of distance and direction are determined and in the comprehensiveness of the map content. In this development cartography has called in other sciences to its aid. Distances were measured with increasing accuracy 'on the ground'; then it was found that by applying trigonometrical principles it was unnecessary to measure every requisite distance directly, though this method required the xi Xll INTRODUCTION much more accurate measurement of a number of short Hnes, or bases. Similarly, instead of determining direction by observ- ing the position of a shadow at midday, or of a constellation in the night sky, or even of a steady wind, use was made of terrestrial magnetism through the magnetic compass, and instruments were evolved which enabled horizontal angles to be measured with great accuracy. Meanwhile the astronomers showed that the earth is spherical, and that the position of any place on its surface could be expressed by its angular distances from the Equator (latitude) and a prime meridian (longitude), though for many centuries an accurate and practical method of finding longitude baffled the scientists. The application of these astronomical conceptions, and the extension of the knowledge of the world through exploration and intercourse, encouraged attempts to map the known world—but this introduced another problem: how to map a spherical surface on a flat sheet. The mathematician came to the rescue again^—with his system of projections, by which some, but not all, spatial properties of the earth's surface can be preserved on a single map. Then the astronomers dis- covered that the earth is not a perfect sphere, but is flattened slightly at the Poles; this introduced further refinements, such as the conception of geodetic as opposed to astronomical latitudes, into the mapping of large areas, and great lines of triangulation were run north and south across the continents to determine the true 'figure of the earth', and to provide bases for their accurate mapping. Meanwhile, increasing demands were being made on the map maker. The traveller or the merchant ceased to be the sole user of maps. The soldier, especially after the introduction of artillery, and the problems of range, field of fire, and dead ground which it raised, demanded an accurate representation of the surface features, in place of the earlier conventional or pictorial delineation, and a solution in any degree satisfactory was not reached until the contour was invented. This again adds to the task of the surveyor who must run lines of levels and sometimes go to the extent of pegging out the contour lines on the ground. Then the archaeologist, the historian, and much later, the modern geographer had their own special INTRODUCTION Xlll requirements, and in co-operation with them the cartographer must evolve methods of mapping all kinds of 'distributions', from geological strata and dolmens, climatic regimes and plant associations, to land use and 'urban spread'. It is the present widespread recognition of the value of the map in the co- ordination and interpretation of phenomena in many sciences that has led to what may truly be called a modern renaissance of cartography. It would be misleading to represent the stages summarily sketched above as being either continuous or consecutive. There have been periods of retrogression or stagnation, broken by others of rapid development, during which outmoded ideas have held their place beside the new. Again, cartographers have constantly realized the theoretical basis for progress, but have had to wait for technical improvement in their instru- ments before they could apply their new ideas. Since the easiest way to make a map is to copy an old one, and considerable capital has often been locked up in printing plates or stock, map publishers have often been resistant to new ideas. Con- sequently, maps must never be accepted uncritically as evidence of contemporary knowledge and technique. In studying cartographical history, the various classes of individuals who have contributed to the map as it reaches the public must be clearly differentiated. The explorer, the topo- graphical surveyor and the geodesist, with their counterparts on the seas, the navigator and the hydrographical surveyor, provide the data; the compiler, computer, and draughtsman work them up to the best of their ability; and finally, with printed maps and charts, the engraver or printer has his part in determining the character of the finished map.
Recommended publications
  • Coronado and Aesop Fable and Violence on the Sixteenth-Century Plains
    University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Great Plains Quarterly Great Plains Studies, Center for 2009 Coronado and Aesop Fable and Violence on the Sixteenth-Century Plains Daryl W. Palmer Regis University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly Part of the Other International and Area Studies Commons Palmer, Daryl W., "Coronado and Aesop Fable and Violence on the Sixteenth-Century Plains" (2009). Great Plains Quarterly. 1203. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/1203 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. CORONADO AND AESOP FABLE AND VIOLENCE ON THE SIXTEENTH~CENTURY PLAINS DARYL W. PALMER In the spring of 1540, Francisco Vazquez de the killing of this guide for granted, the vio­ Coronado led an entrada from present-day lence was far from straightforward. Indeed, Mexico into the region we call New Mexico, the expeditionaries' actions were embedded where the expedition spent a violent winter in sixteenth-century Spanish culture, a milieu among pueblo peoples. The following year, that can still reward study by historians of the after a long march across the Great Plains, Great Plains. Working within this context, I Coronado led an elite group of his men north explore the ways in which Aesop, the classical into present-day Kansas where, among other master of the fable, may have informed the activities, they strangled their principal Indian Spaniards' actions on the Kansas plains.
    [Show full text]
  • The Mediterranean: One Sea, Many Names
    The 14th International Seminar on Sea Names Geography, Sea Names, and Undersea Feature Names The Mediterranean: One sea, many names Pokoly Bela (Senior Adviser, Committee on Geographical Names, Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development, Hungary) 1.An Important Sea 1.1. The Mediterranean Sea, covering an area of 2,5 million sq. kms, holds its importance in its geographical position. Wedged between Europe, Asia and Africa, it is lined by no less than 21 independent states. Of all countries of the world at least one in ten has a coastline along its shores. Fig. 1. The Countries around the Mediterranean Sea 1.2. Indeed the sea has, over the centuries, lost some of its overwhelming position. With the expanding contacts to the Far East and with the exploration of the „new” continents, it was realized that it is no longer the centre of earth. 1.3 With the opening of the Suez Canal, with the discoveries of vastly important oil and gas deposits in the Middle East, and with expanding international contacts and tourism it has witnessed a comeback in the past two centuries. 2. It is not possible to highlight all aspects of this sea however, so I need to look some aspects of its naming. 2.1. As with all seas, local people of ancient times, unaware of other seas called it The 324 The 14th International Seminar on Sea Names Geography, Sea Names, and Undersea Feature Names Sea. Similarly with other seas, it was also called Great Sea by local peoples living along its shores. 2.2.
    [Show full text]
  • The Corvus, the Roman Boarding Device
    Wright State University CORE Scholar Classics Ancient Science Fair Religion, Philosophy, and Classics Spring 2020 The Corvus, the Roman Boarding Device Jacob Stickel Wright State University - Main Campus, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://corescholar.libraries.wright.edu/ancient_science_fair Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine Commons, and the Military History Commons Repository Citation Stickel , J. (2020). The Corvus, the Roman Boarding Device. Dayton, Ohio. This Presentation is brought to you for free and open access by the Religion, Philosophy, and Classics at CORE Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Classics Ancient Science Fair by an authorized administrator of CORE Scholar. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A philological examination of Eratosthenes’ calculation of Earth’s circumference Kelly Staver1 1 Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.A. Introduction Errors in Eratosthenes ’ Assumptions Historical Inconsistencies of Eratosthenes’ Final Result • A Greek mathematician named Eratosthenes calculated an accurate measurement Two of Eratosthene’s five assumtpions are either mistaken or questionable at • Cleomedes and John Philophus state Eratosthenes’ result was 250,000, whereas of the Earth’s circumference, that being 250,000 stades or close to Earth’s actual best: many others such as Vitruvius, Martianus Capella, Strabo, and many others state circumference of 40,120 km,¹ in Hellenistic Alexandria, Egypt circa 240 B.C.E.² • Assumption (1) is incorrect. The longitudinal difference between it was 252,000 stades.¹⁴ • To do this, Eratosthenes’ utilized the distance between Alexandria and Syene and Syene and Alexandria is about 3 degrees.⁶ • Benefits of 252,000 stades: gnomon measurements taken in Syene and Alexandria at noon on the summer • Assumption (2) is questionable since we do not know how long a • Yields a clean 700 stades per circular degree.¹⁵ solstice.³ stadion is.
    [Show full text]
  • The Development of Maritime Hydrography and Methods of Navigation
    THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARITIME HYDROGRAPHY AND METHODS OF NAVIGATION Lecture delivered by H enri BENCKER,on April 5th 1943. The “ Société des Conférences de iMonaco ” has kindly done me the honour to call upon me to treat before you a subject which is possibly a little dry although dealing with things of the sea, viz. the development of maritime hydrography and methods of navigation. I am all the more willing to fulfil this mission as we are indebted to the generosity of the Princely Government for the foundation and upkeep, since the year 1921, of a special Institute, situated in the Principaliiy and entrusted with the co-ordination of all questions relating to the world's hydrography. But, first of all, what is meant by “ hydrography ” ? It is customary to designate under this heading that branch of geographical science dealing with the regimen of current or stable waters which is peculiar to a given continental area. But from the stand point which concerns us, maritime hydrography is really the art of compiling charts and drawing up documents for the use of mariners with regard to the safety of their navigation and in view of ensuring the proper steering of their ships in all navigable parts, including oceans, seas and adjacent coastal zones. It includes the carrying out of necessary maritime surveys for the security of navigation viz. : coastal triangulation and shore topography measurements, the taking of soundings and sea depths, the description of coastlines, the study of tides and sea-currents. Its aim is to publish in an appropriate form for the use of navigators all data relating to the correct configuratiotf of navigable regions and all nautical information which may be of service to them.
    [Show full text]
  • Reef-Coral Fauna of Carrizo Creek, Imperial County, California, and Its Significance
    THE REEF-CORAL FAUNA OF CARRIZO CREEK, IMPERIAL COUNTY, CALIFORNIA, AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE . .By THOMAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN . INTRODUCTION. occur has been determined by Drs . Arnold and Dall to be lower Miocene . The following conclusions seem warranted : Knowledge of the existence of the unusually (1) There was water connection between the Atlantic and interesting coral fauna here discussed dates Pacific across Central America not much previous to the from the exploration of Coyote Mountain (also upper Oligocene or lower Miocene-that is, during the known as Carrizo Mountain) by H . W. Fair- upper Eocene or lower Oligocene . This conclusion is the same as that reached by Messrs. Hill and Dall, theirs, how- banks in the early nineties.' Dr. Fairbanks ever, being based upon a study of the fossil mollusks . (2) sent the specimens of corals he collected to During lower Miocene time the West Indian type of coral Prof. John C. Merriam, at the University of fauna extended westward into the Pacific, and it was sub- California, who in turn sent them to me . sequent to that time that the Pacific and Atlantic faunas There were in the collection representatives of have become so markedly differentiated . two species and one variety, which I described As it will be made evident on subsequent under the names Favia merriami, 2 Stephano- pages that this fauna is much younger than ctenia fairbanksi,3 and Stephanoccenia fair- lower Miocene, the inference as to the date of banksi var. columnaris .4 As the geologic hori- the interoceanic connection given in the fore- zon was not even approximately known at that going quotation must be modified .
    [Show full text]
  • Gog and Magog and Ethnic Difference in the Catalan Atlas (1375) Thomas Franke
    University of New Mexico UNM Digital Repository History ETDs Electronic Theses and Dissertations 9-12-2014 Monsters at the End of Time: Gog and Magog and Ethnic Difference in the Catalan Atlas (1375) Thomas Franke Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/hist_etds Recommended Citation Franke, Thomas. "Monsters at the End of Time: Gog and Magog and Ethnic Difference in the Catalan Atlas (1375)." (2014). https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/hist_etds/30 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Electronic Theses and Dissertations at UNM Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in History ETDs by an authorized administrator of UNM Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Thomas Samuel Franke Candidate History Department This thesis is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication: Approved by the Thesis Committee: Michael A. Ryan , Chairperson Timothy C. Graham Sarah Davis-Secord Franke i MONSTERS AT THE END OF TIME: GOG AND MAGOG AND ETHNIC DIFFERENCE IN THE CATALAN ATLAS (1375) by THOMAS FRANKE BACHELOR OF ARTS, UC IRVINE 2012 THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS HISTORY The University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico JULY 2014 Franke ii Abstract Franke, Thomas. Monsters at the End of Time: Gog and Magog and Ethnic Difference in the Catalan Atlas (1375). University of New Mexico, 2014. Although they are only mentioned briefly in Revelation, the destructive Gog and Magog formed an important component of apocalyptic thought for medieval European Christians, who associated Gog and Magog with a number of non-Christian peoples.
    [Show full text]
  • General Index
    General Index Italic page numbers refer to illustrations. Authors are listed in ical Index. Manuscripts, maps, and charts are usually listed by this index only when their ideas or works are discussed; full title and author; occasionally they are listed under the city and listings of works as cited in this volume are in the Bibliograph- institution in which they are held. CAbbas I, Shah, 47, 63, 65, 67, 409 on South Asian world maps, 393 and Kacba, 191 "Jahangir Embracing Shah (Abbas" Abywn (Abiyun) al-Batriq (Apion the in Kitab-i balJriye, 232-33, 278-79 (painting), 408, 410, 515 Patriarch), 26 in Kitab ~urat ai-arc!, 169 cAbd ai-Karim al-Mi~ri, 54, 65 Accuracy in Nuzhat al-mushtaq, 169 cAbd al-Rabman Efendi, 68 of Arabic measurements of length of on Piri Re)is's world map, 270, 271 cAbd al-Rabman ibn Burhan al-Maw~ili, 54 degree, 181 in Ptolemy's Geography, 169 cAbdolazlz ibn CAbdolgani el-Erzincani, 225 of Bharat Kala Bhavan globe, 397 al-Qazwlni's world maps, 144 Abdur Rahim, map by, 411, 412, 413 of al-BlrunI's calculation of Ghazna's on South Asian world maps, 393, 394, 400 Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra, 60 longitude, 188 in view of world landmass as bird, 90-91 Abu, Mount, Rajasthan of al-BlrunI's celestial mapping, 37 in Walters Deniz atlast, pl.23 on Jain triptych, 460 of globes in paintings, 409 n.36 Agapius (Mabbub) religious map of, 482-83 of al-Idrisi's sectional maps, 163 Kitab al- ~nwan, 17 Abo al-cAbbas Abmad ibn Abi cAbdallah of Islamic celestial globes, 46-47 Agnese, Battista, 279, 280, 282, 282-83 Mu\:lammad of Kitab-i ba/Jriye, 231, 233 Agnicayana, 308-9, 309 Kitab al-durar wa-al-yawaqft fi 11m of map of north-central India, 421, 422 Agra, 378 n.145, 403, 436, 448, 476-77 al-ra~d wa-al-mawaqft (Book of of maps in Gentil's atlas of Mughal Agrawala, V.
    [Show full text]
  • The Longitude of the Mediterranean Throughout History: Facts, Myths and Surprises Luis Robles Macías
    The longitude of the Mediterranean throughout history: facts, myths and surprises Luis Robles Macías To cite this version: Luis Robles Macías. The longitude of the Mediterranean throughout history: facts, myths and sur- prises. E-Perimetron, National Centre for Maps and Cartographic Heritage, 2014, 9 (1), pp.1-29. hal-01528114 HAL Id: hal-01528114 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01528114 Submitted on 27 May 2017 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. e-Perimetron, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2014 [1-29] www.e-perimetron.org | ISSN 1790-3769 Luis A. Robles Macías* The longitude of the Mediterranean throughout history: facts, myths and surprises Keywords: History of longitude; cartographic errors; comparative studies of maps; tables of geographical coordinates; old maps of the Mediterranean Summary: Our survey of pre-1750 cartographic works reveals a rich and complex evolution of the longitude of the Mediterranean (LongMed). While confirming several previously docu- mented trends − e.g. the adoption of erroneous Ptolemaic longitudes by 15th and 16th-century European cartographers, or the striking accuracy of Arabic-language tables of coordinates−, we have observed accurate LongMed values largely unnoticed by historians in 16th-century maps and noted that widely diverging LongMed values coexisted up to 1750, sometimes even within the works of one same author.
    [Show full text]
  • TOME XIX-19811 144° 2 (Aivril- Juln)
    ACADNIE DES SCIENCES SOCIALES ETPOLITIQUES INSTITUT D'tTUDES SUD-EST EUROPtENNES TOME XIX-19811 144° 2 (Aivril- juln) Problèmes de l'historiographie contemporaine Textes et documents EDITURA ACADEMIEI REPUBLICII SOCIALISTE ROMANIA www.dacoromanica.ro Comité de rédaction Réclacteur en chef:M. BERZA I Redacteur en chef adjoint: ALEXANDRU DUTU Membres du comité : EMIL CON DURACHI, AL. ELIAN, VALEN- TIN GEORGESCU,H. MIHAESCU, COSTIN MURGESCU, D. M. PIPPIDI, MIHAI POP, AL. ROSETTI, EUG EN STANESCU, Secrétaire du comité: LIDIA SIMION La REVUE DES ÈTUDES SUD-EST EUROPEENNES paralt 4 fois par an.Toute com- mande de l'étranger (fascicules ou abonnement) sera adressée A ILEXIM, Departa- mentul Export-Import Presa, P.O. Box 136-137, télex 11226, str.13 Decembrie n° 3, R-79517 Bucure0, Romania, ou A ses représentants a l'étranger. Le prix d'un abonnement est de $ 50 par an. La correspondance, les manuscrits et les publications (livres, revues, etc.) envoyés pour comptes rendus seront adressés a L'INSTITUT D'ÈTUDES SUD-EST EUROPÉ- ENNES, 71119 Bucure0, sectorul 1, str. I.C. Frimu, 9, téIéphone 50 75 25, pour la REVUE DES ETUDES SUD-EST EUROPÉENNES Les articles seront remis dactylographiés en deux exemplaires. Les collaborateurs sont priés de ne pas dépasser les limites de 25-30 pages dactylographiées pour les articles et 5-6 pages pour les comptes rendus EDITURA ACADEMIEI REPUBLIC!! SOCIALISTE ROMANIA Calea Victoriein°125, téléphone 50 76 80, 79717 BucuretiRomania www.dacoromanica.ro lin 11BETUDES 11110PBB1111E'i TOME XIX 1981 avril juin n° 2 SOMMAIRE
    [Show full text]
  • Medieval Portolan Charts As Documents of Shared Cultural Spaces
    SONJA BRENTJES Medieval Portolan Charts as Documents of Shared Cultural Spaces The appearance of knowledge in one culture that was created in another culture is often understood conceptually as »transfer« or »transmission« of knowledge between those two cultures. In the field of history of science in Islamic societies, research prac- tice has focused almost exclusively on the study of texts or instruments and their trans- lations. Very few other aspects of a successful integration of knowledge have been studied as parts of transfer or transmission, among them processes such as patronage and local cooperation1. Moreover, the concept of transfer or transmission itself has primarily been understood as generating complete texts or instruments that were more or less faithfully expressed in the new host language in the same way as in the origi- nal2. The manifold reasons (beyond philological issues) for transforming knowledge of a foreign culture into something different have not usually been considered, although such an approach would enrich the conceptualization of the cross-cultural mobility of knowledge. In this paper, I will examine the cross-cultural presence of knowledge in a different manner, studying works of a specific group of people who created, copied, and modified culturally mixed objects of knowledge. My focus will be on Italian and Catalan charts and atlases of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, partly because the earliest of them are the oldest extant specimens of the genre and partly because they seem to be the richest, most diverse charts of all those extant from the Mediterranean region3. In addition, I have relied on the twelfth- century »Liber de existencia riveriarum et forma maris nostris Mediterranei«, a Latin 1 Charles BURNETT, Literal Translation and Intelligent Adaptation amongst the Arabic–Latin Translators of the First Half of the Twelfth Century, in: Biancamaria SCARCIA AMORETTI (ed.), La diffusione delle scienze islamiche nel Medio Evo Europeo, Rome 1987, p.
    [Show full text]
  • Fortis-Bank-Sa-Nv-2003.Pdf
    I. INTRODUCTION 3 II. PROPOSED PROFIT APPROPRIATION FOR THE PERIOD 4 DISTRIBUTION OF AN INTERIM DIVIDEND : REPORT OF THE ACCREDITED STATUTORY AUDITORS 6 III. AUDITORS: SPECIAL BRIEFS 8 IV. ARTICLE 523 OF COMPANY LAW 8 V. NOTES TO THE CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEET AND INCOME STATEMENT 9 VI. CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEET AND INCOME STATEMENT 15 REPORT OF THE ACCREDITED STATUTORY AUDITORS 83 VII. SHAREHOLDER BASE 85 VIII. MONTHLY HIGH AND LOW FOR FORTIS BANK SHARES ON THE WEEKLY AUCTIONS IN 2003 86 IX. BOARD OF DIRECTORS AND COUNCIL OF ACCREDITED STATUTORY AUDITORS FORTIS BANK 87 X. EXTERNAL POSTS HELD BY DIRECTORS AND EXECUTIVES THAT ARE SUBJECT TO A LEGAL DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENT 89 I. INTRODUCTION This document contains the annual report and the consolidated annual accounts of Fortis Bank as at 31 December 2003. The financial environment in which Fortis Bank operates was influenced in 2003 by an international unstable geopolitical situation combined with less than positive economic conditions and an improving, though still hesitant stock market climate. Despite a persistently challenging international economic environment, both Fortis and Fortis Bank once again succeeded during 2003 in streamlining and expanding operations beyond the domestic Benelux market; this had implications in terms of commercial organisation and operational and support activities. Fortis Bank continues to focus on its customer-first policy, vigorous cost control, efficiency improvement and the effective management of increased financial risks. Initiatives launched in previous years to prepare for the introduction and repercussions of the revision of the Basel Accord of 1988 regarding the capital adequacy standards of banks and the application of IAS/IFRS (International Accounting Standards / International Financial Reporting Standards) were further pursued in 2003; both changes will have a major impact on financial reporting.
    [Show full text]
  • Apocryphal Voyages to the Northwest Coast of America by Henry R
    1931.] Apocryphal Voyages to Coast of America 179 APOCRYPHAL VOYAGES TO THE NORTHWEST COAST OF AMERICA BY HENRY R. WAGNER FOREWORD The opportunity afforded me to publish the present article, whieh might appropriately be called More Imaginary California Geography, allows me to make a few corrections and amplifica- tions to Some Imaginary California Geography, published in the PROCEEDINGS for April, 1926. On page 21 of that article in referring to Juan de Fuca a statement is made about the abortive expedition of 1589 or 1590 financed by Hernando de Sanctotis in which Fuca perhaps took part. There was an expedition of about 1589 or 1590 financed by Sanctotis but it was not the abortive one to which Fuca refers. This took place in late 1593 or early 1594 and was financed by Sebastian Vizcaino's company. On page 48 the date of Father Benavides' memorial is incorrectly given as 1632 instead of 1630. Since 1926 a map of Guilleaume Bleau has been unearthed which is believed by Dr. F. A. Wieder to have been made in 1648. A reproduction of it was published in Vol. 3 of the Monumenta Cartographica. If the date assigned to the map by Dr. Wieder is correct it is probably the earliest one of Briggs' type with corrections. I have lately received from Mr. G. R. G. Conway in Mexico City a photograph of a manuscript map in Tomo X of the Muñoz documents in the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is not dated nor is the Derrotero which it precedes. The place names on the northwest coast are different from those on the Briggs map and the arrangement of them is also different.
    [Show full text]