Given in Loving Memory of Raymond BraisUn Montgomery Scientist, R/V Atlantis maiden voyage 2 July - 26 August, 1931 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Physical Oceanographer 1940-1949 Non-Resident Staff 1950-1960 Visiting Committee 1962-1963 Corporation Member 1970-1980 ^p «^ ^p ^^ ^* "^ Faculty, New York University 1940-1944 Faculty, Brown University 1949-1954 Faculty, Johns Hopkins University 1954-1961 Professor of Oceanography, Johns Hopkins Universi^ 1961-1975 7^ 2- ^-r'r, \^i>l- \ z MAPS AND THEIR MAKERS HUTCHINSON'S UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GEOGRAPHT editors: PROFESSOR S. W. WOOLDRIDGE Professor of Geography in the University of London AND PROFESSOR W, G, EAST Professor of Geography in the University of London GA MAPS AND THEIR MAKERS;-,/^ An Introduction to the History of Cartography by G. R. CRONE, M.A. LIBRARIAN AND MAP CURATOR ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY m i nwH iw—wffmMBUMi MBL / WHO! LIBRARY^ Woods Hoie, MA Marine Bioio^Jc?.! Ubcr^tory Woods Hole OcecDographic InstJtuLion ."^ *'.>•*. ^ , :,*'r*-.:'5 HUTCHINSON'S UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Hutchinson House, London, W.i. Mew York Toronto Melbourne Sydney Cape Town First Published - 1953 Printed in Great Britain by Premier Press, Ltd. at Bushey Mill Lane Watford, Herts. CONTENTS List of Maps Page vii Preface ix Introduction xi Chapter i The Classical and Early Medieval Heritage 15 II The Evolution of the Marine Chart 29 III Catalan World Maps 39 IV Fifteenth-century World Maps: Fra Mauro and Martin Behaim 51 V The Revival of Ptolemy 68 VI The Cartography of the Great Discoveries 77 VII Topographical Surveys of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 102 VIII Mercator, Ortelius, and Their Successors 110 IX The Reformation of Cartography in France 128 X The British Contribution in the Eighteenth Century 141 XI National Surveys and Modern Atlases 151 Appendix i General Works on Cartography 173 II Reproductions of Early Maps and Charts 174 Index 177 LIST OF MAPS Page Ptolemy's World Outline, from the Rome edition of 1490 23 Outline of the eastern section of the Catalan Atlas, c. 1375 44 Outline of Henricus Martellus' World Map, 1489 81 The Pacific Ocean redrawn from the chart by D. Ribero, 1529 94 Outline of the Contarini World Map, 1506 98 Outline of Mercator's World Map of 1569 117 France, from the 'Carte de France corrigee . sur les observations de MM. de I'Academie des Sciences', 1693, showing the revised position of the coastline 129 vu — PREFACE A MAP can be considered from several aspects, as a scientific report, a historical document, a research tool, and an object of art. In this outline I have endeavoured to balance these con- siderations, and to regard maps as products of a number of processes and influences. Severe selection of topics has been necessary, and many of considerable interest have had to be omitted. In particular. Oriental cartography is not dealt with, nor is the cartography of individual countries. My aim has been to indicate the main stages of cartographic development to which many countries have contributed in turn. The scope of this series does not permit extensive illustra- tions. I have therefore given in an appendix a list of the more important volumes of map reproductions. The best reproduc- tions, however, are no substitute for the originals, and the only way to study them satisfactorily is by personal inspection though this is a counsel of perfection in present conditions. I owe a debt of gratitude to the colleagues and friends with whom at various times I have discussed much of the subject matter of this book: in particular to Prof. E. G. R. Taylor, Prof. R. Almagia, Dr. A. Z. Cortesao, and M. Marcel Des- tombes: to those in charge of the great map collections, par- ticularly Mile. M. Foncin, Conservateur des Cartes, Biblio- theque Nationale, Paris, and Mr. R. A. Skelton, Superintendent, Map Room, British Museum; and my colleagues, past and present, at the Royal Geographical Society. They have of course no responsibility for any errors or shortcomings on my part. The outline maps were drawn by Mrs. P. S. Verity, of the R.G.S. Drawing Office. G.R.C. L\ INTRODUCTION The purpose of a map is to express graphically the relations of points and features on the earth's surface to each other. These are determined by distance and direction. In early times 'distance' might be expressed in units of time, or lineal measures —so many hours' march or days' journey by river, and these might vary on the same map according to the nature of the country. The other element is direction, but for the ordinary traveller, w^hose main concern was "Where do I go from here, and how far away is it.^" the accurate representation of direction was not of primary importance. Partly for this reason, written itineraries for a long time rivalled maps, and throughout the centuries from the Roman road map to the thirteenth-century itinerary from London to Rome of Matthew Paris and even to the Underground and similar 'maps' of today, no attempt is made to show true direction. Similarly, conspicuous land- marks along a route were at first indicated by signs, realistic or conventional, and varied in size to indicate their importance. Clearly the conventions employed varied with the purpose of the map, and also from place to place, so that in studying early maps the first essential is to understand the particular con- vention employed. The history of cartography is largely that of the increase in the accuracy with which these elements of distance and direction are determined and in the comprehensiveness of the map content. In this development cartography has called in other sciences to its aid. Distances were measured with increasing accuracy 'on the ground'; then it was found that by applying trigonometrical principles it was unnecessary to measure every requisite distance directly, though this method required the xi Xll INTRODUCTION much more accurate measurement of a number of short Hnes, or bases. Similarly, instead of determining direction by observ- ing the position of a shadow at midday, or of a constellation in the night sky, or even of a steady wind, use was made of terrestrial magnetism through the magnetic compass, and instruments were evolved which enabled horizontal angles to be measured with great accuracy. Meanwhile the astronomers showed that the earth is spherical, and that the position of any place on its surface could be expressed by its angular distances from the Equator (latitude) and a prime meridian (longitude), though for many centuries an accurate and practical method of finding longitude baffled the scientists. The application of these astronomical conceptions, and the extension of the knowledge of the world through exploration and intercourse, encouraged attempts to map the known world—but this introduced another problem: how to map a spherical surface on a flat sheet. The mathematician came to the rescue again^—with his system of projections, by which some, but not all, spatial properties of the earth's surface can be preserved on a single map. Then the astronomers dis- covered that the earth is not a perfect sphere, but is flattened slightly at the Poles; this introduced further refinements, such as the conception of geodetic as opposed to astronomical latitudes, into the mapping of large areas, and great lines of triangulation were run north and south across the continents to determine the true 'figure of the earth', and to provide bases for their accurate mapping. Meanwhile, increasing demands were being made on the map maker. The traveller or the merchant ceased to be the sole user of maps. The soldier, especially after the introduction of artillery, and the problems of range, field of fire, and dead ground which it raised, demanded an accurate representation of the surface features, in place of the earlier conventional or pictorial delineation, and a solution in any degree satisfactory was not reached until the contour was invented. This again adds to the task of the surveyor who must run lines of levels and sometimes go to the extent of pegging out the contour lines on the ground. Then the archaeologist, the historian, and much later, the modern geographer had their own special INTRODUCTION Xlll requirements, and in co-operation with them the cartographer must evolve methods of mapping all kinds of 'distributions', from geological strata and dolmens, climatic regimes and plant associations, to land use and 'urban spread'. It is the present widespread recognition of the value of the map in the co- ordination and interpretation of phenomena in many sciences that has led to what may truly be called a modern renaissance of cartography. It would be misleading to represent the stages summarily sketched above as being either continuous or consecutive. There have been periods of retrogression or stagnation, broken by others of rapid development, during which outmoded ideas have held their place beside the new. Again, cartographers have constantly realized the theoretical basis for progress, but have had to wait for technical improvement in their instru- ments before they could apply their new ideas. Since the easiest way to make a map is to copy an old one, and considerable capital has often been locked up in printing plates or stock, map publishers have often been resistant to new ideas. Con- sequently, maps must never be accepted uncritically as evidence of contemporary knowledge and technique. In studying cartographical history, the various classes of individuals who have contributed to the map as it reaches the public must be clearly differentiated. The explorer, the topo- graphical surveyor and the geodesist, with their counterparts on the seas, the navigator and the hydrographical surveyor, provide the data; the compiler, computer, and draughtsman work them up to the best of their ability; and finally, with printed maps and charts, the engraver or printer has his part in determining the character of the finished map.