Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Jana Hallovä

The Arthurian Legend in Modern Adaptations Bachelors Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Mgr. Filip Krajník, Ph. D.

2016 / declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

Jana HaNova

2 Table of Contents

1. Introduction 4

1.1 Thesis Introduction 4

1.2 Introduction to the Contemporary Adaptations 5

2. Character Portrayal 9

2.1 Arthur 9

2.2 Morgan le Fay 14

2.3 Merlin 18

3. Plot Interpretation 22

3.1 Uther and Igraine 22

3.2 Guinevere and Lancelot's Affair 25

3.3 The Conception of Mordred and his Overthrow of King Arthur 32

4. Christianity and Paganism 36

4.1 Transition from Paganism to Christianity 36

4.2 Arthur and his Dual Religion 41

4.3 Guinevere and Christianity 43

5. Supernatural Features 47

5.1 Magic and the Essence of World 48

5.2 Manifestations of Magic 50

6. Conclusion 53

7. Sources 56

8. Summary 58

9. Resume 59

3 1. Introduction

1.1 Thesis Introduction

There is power in legends; some are an integral part of history, some serve to represent countries or people and some are simply source of entertainment, but most of all legends provide great opportunities for new inspirations and new art works, literary or otherwise. The legend of the great King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table does just that and to this day it has inspired many great works and will continue to do so.

All legends change with time; each new approach and each new retelling either adds something, omits something or changes something, and this way new and new stories arise, new characters are introduced, and new nuances are implemented, giving even more opportunities for the next retelling. It is no different with the Arthurian legend, which started by a few chapters in the pseudohistorical Historia Regum

Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth (written around 1136) where the prophecies of

Merlin and the character of Arthur are introduced. Geoffrey of Monmouth's account on

Merlin's life Vita Merlini follows and the legend of King Arthur is set into its typical mystical environment shrouded in magic and prophecy. The story of Arthur inspires and fascinates and more and more stories connected to his reign appear, such as Chretien de

Troyes's works which introduce new and nowadays crucial characters such as Sir

Lancelot; they are followed by the works from the so called Vulgate cycle which incorporates many more Christian motives into Arthur's story and later it is followed by the Post-Vulgate cycle works. The Arthurian legend is written down in an attempt to create the most complete account on King Arthur in 1485 by Thomas Malory in his masterpiece Le Morte Darthur or The Hoole Book of Kyng Arthur and of His Noble

Knyghtes of The Rounde Table (later referred to only as Le Morte D 'Arthur). By his

4 work, Malory provides an excellent source for future authors and more brand new stories (such as the well-known Sir Gawain and the Green Knight by the so called

'Gawain-poet' or 'Pearl-poet'), and versions of the old stories are created to this day.

Furthermore with the rise of new technologies, the Arthurian legend inspires the newly created recounts to take new forms as films, series or even computer games.

As the stories of the Arthurian court become even more popular with the improving technology, which is becoming more and more capable of portraying various fantasy settings and motifs found throughout the legend, this thesis will analyze several of the more famous contemporary new media adaptations (namely in the form of films or series) and it aims to uncover any new approaches and ideas concerning the medieval legend. The chosen adaptations are the films Excalibur (1981), First Knight (1995),

Guinevere (1994), King Arthur (2004) and the television miniseries Mists of Avalon

(2001), the fact that these adaptations belong among the most well-known contemporary works based on the Arthurian legend is not however the only reason for the choice - all of these adaptations concentrate mostly on similar events or themes

(such as adultery, religion, magic etc.) and furthermore some of them bring completely new approaches such as retelling the stories from a different point of view or changing the setting completely. This thesis mainly aims to determine the current trends and nuances in the portrayal of the Arthurian legend by analyzing the aforementioned representatives of its contemporary adaptations.

1.2 Introduction to the Contemporary Adaptations

As previously stated, the main focus of the thesis is to determine the trends in contemporary portrayal of the Arthurian legend and its most integral stories in the new media adaptations. For that purpose, several films and a miniseries are analyzed and

5 compared to the original legend sources, mainly Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte

D 'Arthur - the most complete collection of the legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. This subchapter serves as an introduction and an overview of the discussed contemporary adaptations.

One of the probably most famous film renditions of the Arthurian legend is the film Excalibur (1981) directed by John Boorman. The film is based mostly on Malory's

Le Morte D'Arthur with several changes in plotline. It covers the story from Arthur's conception, through his coronation, reign, the quest for the Holy Grail and his encounters with Mordred up until his death. The film attempts to capture many events of the Arthurian legend and it also focuses on characters such as Merlin, Morgana

(Morgan le Fay), Lancelot, Perceval, king Uther and Igraine and several others. The cast of Excalibur (1981) includes actors such as Nigel Terry (in the role of Arthur), Helen

Mirren (Morgana), Liam Neeson (Gawain) or Patrick Stewart (Leondegrance).

Much like Excalibur (1981), the television miniseries Mists of Avalon (2001)

(based on a bestseller by Marion Zimmer Bradley and directed by Uli Edel) portrays the events of the legend starting with Arthur's conception and ending after his death. The series however tells the story from Morgaine's (Morgan le Fay) point of view. It transforms the character of Morgaine from an antagonist into a protagonist and it puts the events of the legend into a new light. The series also concentrates on the society's transition from paganism to Christianity and the difficulties the pagan priestesses face with the coming of a new religion. Mists of Avalon (2001) covers the stories of

Morgaine, Morgause (Margawse), Merlin, the Lady of the Lake, Arthur, Guinevere and many others; the series is cast by actors such as Julianna Margulies (Morgaine),

Caroline Goodall (Igraine) or Joan Allen (Morgause).

6 The film Guinevere (1994) by Jud Taylor is another adaptation which tells the story of King Arthur and the characters around him from a different point of view. The story is told by Queen Guinevere and the film provides an in-depth insight into the queen's character, including her childhood, her time at Arthur's court and mainly her relationship with Lancelot and their affair. Guinevere (1994) takes a different approach to the love triangle between Arthur, Guinevere and Lancelot and portrays the characters of Guinevere and Lancelot as childhood friends who fall in love before Guinevere marries Arthur. The film also concentrates on the schemes of Morgan le Fay and, as many other mentioned adaptations, on paganism and Christianity. The film also bears strong feminist messages, sometimes portraying feminist zealotry (in the case of

Morgan le Fay) but mainly showing the importance and influence of a confident and self-sufficient woman behind the throne. The cast includes for example Sheryl Lee

(Guinevere) or Donald Pleasence (Merlin).

Another adaptation concentrating on the affair of Sir Lancelot and Queen

Guinevere is the film First Knight (1995) by Jerry Zucker. The film mostly portrays the relationships between the characters of Lancelot, Arthur and Guinevere and concentrates on Guinevere's dilemma, Lancelot's attempts to seduce the queen and

Arthur's struggle with their affair; starring actors such as Sean Connery (Arthur),

Richard Gere (Lancelot) or Julia Ormond (Guinevere). Unlike the other selected adaptations, First Knight (1995) does not include any magical elements in the story.

The most recent of the discussed adaptations is the film King Arthur (2004) by

Antoine Fuqua, which portrays the story from a completely different angle - it abandons many of the traditional storylines and themes of the Arthurian legend and it claims to provide a new, more historically accurate take on King Arthur's story. The reason is that the film is based on the controversial Sarmatian hypothesis formulated by

7 C. Scott Littleton and Linda A. Malcor, which suggests that King Arthur was in fact a

Roman officer named Lucius Artorius Castus who commanded a small troop of

Sarmatian soldiers aginst Saxons in Britain around 182 AD. The film however preserves the clash of faiths and in small measure the love triangle between Lancelot, Arthur and

Guinevere. The starring actors include Keira Knightley (Guinevere), Clive Owen

(Arthur) or loan Gruffudd (Lancelot).

8 2. Character Portrayal

Firstly the thesis will concentrate on the portrayal of a few major characters of the Arthurian legend in the legend sources and subsequently in the contemporary adaptations. Character development and emotional states become crucial part in contemporary storytelling - in a dramatic story the audience seeks characters they can identify with or sympathize with, and by concentrating more on emotion and less on action the creators develop a deeper bond and sympathy between the viewer and the character, therefore the thesis will analyze how the creators portray the chosen characters and how they tie them to the story in order to capture their audience. The selected characters are Arthur, Morgan le Fay and Merlin. As the main character of the

Arthurian legend, Arthur's portrayal in the adaptations is crucial to the retelling of the story, since either his deeds and behavior or his reactions and approval or disapproval set the whole story into place (Arthur's portrayal determines for example the impressions other characters leave on the viewer - for example his attitude towards his wife's affair and his previous behavior help the viewer determine whether she is completely in the wrong or whether her actions are somewhat understandable). Morgan le Fay and Merlin are characters that (either both or at least one of them) appear in most

Arthurian adaptations and for a good reason - their characters help fill the story with intrigue and mysticism which is an important part of the Arthurian legend. Both of their portrayals vary in the adaptations and their personalities are often different from one retelling to another, which is why they are both excellent subjects for further study.

2.1 Arthur

The main protagonist of the Arthurian legend is a chapter for itself. There are many interpretations of his character and even though he is generally known as a noble

9 king, the legend sources do not forget to tell about his darker deeds. Arthur's character portrayal is often instrumental in determining the course and overall "feel" of the legend retelling (for example in Excalibur (1981) Arthur's character is closely tied to the vast majority of the scenes and even though the film follows other characters, most of the portrayed occurrences happen either in reaction to Arthur, on his command or in order to destroy him). In some adaptations of the legend, Arthur's role as the main protagonist is changed either into one of the primary characters or even a secondary one (like in

Guinevere (1994) where Arthur's role and importance is often overshadowed by the queen's, even when concerning war or politics). Finally in some works tied to the

Arthurian legend and its later contemporary adaptations Arthur only makes a cameo appearance, yet his presence is still crucial to tie the story to the well-known legend (for example in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and its modern film rendition from 1973, where Arthur is present to set the story into the Arthurian court, Arthur still exhibits his wise leadership in the story as he condemns the knights' complacency). After all whatever the scale of Arthur's role is, he is an instrumental character that is rarely left undeveloped by authors and directors - that is why Arthurs's portrayal in the discussed contemporary works is one of the most important factors that should be analyzed. In this chapter Arthur's character will be discussed in only a few of the contemporary adaptations since many of Arthur's nuances are later on included under different subchapters, for example in the subchapter 'Arthur and his Dual Religion' (p.41-43).

In Le Morte D'Arthur Malory encompasses many of Arthur's 'weak spots' and the overall portrayal of the king is less than perfect. Malory includes Arthur's insecurities, for example making brash decisions out of fear without considering the consequences: "Than Kyng Arthure lette sende for all the children that were borne in

May Day, begotyn of lordis and borne of ladyes; for Merlyon tolde Kynge Arthure that

10 he that sholde destroy hym and all the londe sholde be borne on May Day. Wherefore he sente for hem all, in payne of dethe," (39) Malory of course does not forget to portray Arthur's many good qualities, whether knightly (his prowess in battle, honor, good leadership etc.) or his qualities as a person (such as his love and loyalty both for his wife and his knights). Malory's rendition simply portrays Arthur as both noble and capable of cruelty and manipulation, he portrays Arthur human - with all his flaws.

The film Excalibur (1981) depicts Arthur from the beginning of his life to the end using the more significant occurrences from Malory's rendition. Arthur is portrayed in his youth as a squire to sir Ector and his son Kay, he is portrayed during his prime years as Britain's favorite king and he is portrayed during his darkest days after being cheated on by his wife. Furthermore Excalibur (1981) ties Arthur's general disposition to the state of Britain; before Arthur pulls the sword out of the stone, Britain is unified, chaotic and at war - this uncertainty looming over the land is mirrored in Arthur's character - at first sight he seems content and at peace but it not aware of the greatness that he is to embody soon; both Britain and Arthur's life are at the precipice of a great change. After Arthur pulls Excalibur from the stone, Merlin tells Arthur: "You will be the land and the land will be you" (Boorman, Excalibur), the connection is then portrayed throughout the entire film; during Arthur's prime Britain is united and it prospers and towards the end of the film, after Arthur suffers his ultimate heartbreak,

Boorman, in linking Arthur to the situation in Britain, makes a clear connection between the desolate land and its desolate king. Later it is revealed by the Holy Grail that Arthur is indeed linked to his land just as the prophet wizard foretold and once peace will be restored to his mind, so will the peace be restored to his land. Just as Arthur and his disposition are linked to Britain, similarly his reign and power as a king are linked to the sword Excalibur. Therefore in the scene, which Mingo explains in his essay The

11 Adventures of King Arthur and the Noble Knights of the Silver Screen: "When Arthur finds Guinevere and Lancelot, naked in the forest, in each other's arms, he digs

Excalibur in the soil (which is the land, it is himself) between them." (70), Boorman does not only convey the betrayal and heartache that Arthur suffers by metaphorically

'stabbing himself he also depicts the beginning of Arthur's decline and the moment when he gives up on himself - by leaving the sword, the symbol of his power, lodged in the ground. Furthermore Excalibur (1981) uses the ambiance of certain scenes to reflect

Arthur's current state of mind; for example in his later years, during his glory days,

Boorman shows Arthur traveling through the countryside in the company of his knights just before meeting Lancelot. The viewer can again see the parallel that the film creates

- setting the hero in his prime into pristine surroundings; the scene subsequently starts changing the longer Arthur's fight with Lancelot lasts and the closer he gets to breaking

Excalibur - Arthur moves from the plain peaceful meadow to a creek with waterfalls lined with sharp stones evoking more danger. After Excalibur is broken again the ambiance reflects Arthur's feelings - his desperation; by using no sound but howling of the wind Boorman underlines the regret in Arthur's dialogue: "My pride broke it. My rage broke it! This excellent knight, who fought with fairness and grace, was meant to win. I used Excalibur to change that verdict. I've lost, for all time, the ancient sword of my fathers, whose power was meant to unite all men... not to serve the vanity of a single man. I am... nothing." (Boorman, Excalibur). Finally in Excalibur (1981) not only

Arthur's personality and state of mind portrayals are important to the overall impression of the film. Boorman uses Arthur's physical appearance on several occasions to show the passage of time:

Instead of a time lapse cut on a landscape, I'd make the transition happen on a

character's face. There's a point when I go from the young Arthur with

12 Guinevere straight to a scene, years later, in which he meets Lancelot. In that

scene Arthur has sprouted a beard, and you suddenly see him behaving very

much like his father, Uther. (Kennedy)

Passage of time is showed in the same way for example when Arthur is showed in his desolate state after Guinevere and Lancelot leave Camelot.

In Guinevere (1994) Arthur passes the role of the main protagonist to his wife

Guinevere, he is therefore portrayed more from her point of view with all the flaws she finds in her husband, as both the man she is loyal to and the man who keeps her from the man she loves - Lancelot. Arthur is at first portrayed when he arrives to help

Guinevere's father against Melgin (an antagonist king asking for Guinevere's hand) and subsequently asks for Guinevere's hand himself. Considering that Guinevere has returned to her father before the fight with Melgin to ask for his consent so that she can marry her beloved Lancelot, Arthur is not the perfect savior - by asking for Guinevere's hand he delivers her from one politically enforced marriage only to tie her in another, which is not exactly voluntary as Guinevere says: "How can I deny you? I owe you more than my life." (Taylor, Guinevere) Arthur's proposal to Guinevere is not the only instance when it is made obvious that she is not quite content with her husband, Arthur is for example blamed by her for letting himself be beguiled by Morgan le Fay even though he was clearly under the effects of magic; he also lacks Guinevere's ideals about achieving peace in Britain as he would rather handle dissent with battle. All in all

Arthur's portrayal is largely influenced by Guinevere's character's perception of him yet his role still evokes a lot of sympathy in the viewer as he is never truly at fault for keeping Guinevere from the life she had hoped for.

In King Arthur (2004) Arthur's character undergoes a complete overhaul, instead of the well-known king the viewer is presented with a Roman commander of a group of

13 rather brutish soldiers instead of company of honorable knights in shining armor.

Arthur's role as the noble leader is even more enhanced by the absence of his stellar knights and even though Arthur's company in King Arthur (2004) is not in any way dishonorable their way of presenting themselves and their links to paganism (which often evokes the impression of 'barbarism') he is still clearly portrayed as a person with more refinement - substituting his title as the king with his nobility and demeanor.

Fuqua therefore tries to preserve some iconic traits of Arthur's character as well as drawing the viewer by presenting a completely new setting and background, bringing both innovation and tradition into his story.

2.2 Morgan le Fay

Morgan le Fay is predominantly portrayed as one of the major antagonists throughout the Arthurian legends. She is mostly a somewhat young witch able to manipulate the forces of nature, that often plots and schemes to gain power, whether political or magical. Her character is first introduced in Vita Merlini by Geoffrey of

Monmouth where she is portrayed as Morgen - the queen of Avalon, one of the nine sisters that oversee The Island of Apples - Avalon: "She who is first of them is more skilled in the healing art, and excels her sisters in the beauty of her person. Morgen is her name, and she has learned what useful properties all the herbs contain, so that she can cure sick bodies." (Geoffrey of Monmouth, The Vita Merlini, 18) The witches of

Avalon are portrayed as generally benevolent healers and Morgen even promises to heal

Arthur of the wound caused by Mordred. Morgan's character is afterwards not given proper attention until the works of the Vulgate and Post-Vulgate cycles which transform her into the well-known antagonist - the malicious witch striving to bring Arthur's reign to an end. The latter portrayals of the sorceress' character then gave base for Malory's

14 interpretation of Morgan le Fay in Le Morte D 'Arthur and in many contemporary adaptations.

In Malory's Le Morte D Arthur Morgan le Fay schemes in order to put her beloved Accolon on the throne instead of Arthur, so that she may stand by his side as his queen. She devises a plot where she switches Excalibur and its enchanted scabbard so that Arthur dies by Accolon's hand; her plans are however thwarted by Nyneve - one of the damsels of the lake. Morgan however in the end indirectly causes Arthur's ultimate death when she destroys the real enchanted scabbard in the end: "she lete throwe the scawberde in the deppyst of the watir. So hit sanke, for hit was hevy of golde and precious stonys" (Malory, 94). Since the scabbard is said to protect its owner against being wounded, Arthur's invincibility is removed from him and subsequently

Mordred is able to wound him mortally in their final battle. Morgan is part of several other malicious plots such as the attempts to kill her husband king Uriens or Lancelot and in the end she is one of the ladies that carry Arthur across the lake to his burial.

In Excalibur (1981) Morgana's plots and schemes very often include Merlin.

She attempts to get in his good graces and become his apprentice in order to learn the secrets of his vast power. To some extent, she takes over the role of the much less malevolent Nyneve (as presented in Le Morte D Arthur - one of the damsels of the lake whom Merlin fall in love with - she is however afraid of him and his demonic heritage and only uses his feeling for her in order to learn more of his powers and in the end she seals him under the earth). Once Morgana learns Merlin's secrets (namely the Charm of

Making discussed in latter part of the thesis) she uses his own power against him and seals him in a cavern, in both the case of Nyneve and Morgana Arthur is then deprived of the help of his trusted powerful wizard during an important battle. Boorman makes

Morgana's reasons for her hatred of both Arthur and Merlin rather clear: "Morgana

15 hates Arthur because his father killed her father and she wants to take revenge for this.

But most of all she hates Merlin as the agent provocateur of that action." (Mingo, 73)

As Mingo suggests in his essay, Morgana's reasons are more understandable to the modern viewer then her hatred of Arthur in Le Morte D 'Arthur - vengeance against a heinous act is a contemporarily accepted concept and in some cases perhaps understandable, Malory however does not provide much reason behind Morgan's hatred for her brother, other than her yearning for power. Furthermore in Excalibur (1981)

(and in many other adaptations) Morgana is the sister who conceives Mordred with

Arthur and attempts to use him in order to gain power over the throne of Britain - her character is therefore on some level even more demonized then it is in the literary sources of the legend, since Morgana knowingly tricks Arthur into incest and then manipulates his own son into destroying him. Excalibur (1981) does not provide the character with any redeeming qualities and gives her a solely antagonistic role unlike some other adaptations and literary sources that introduce the elements of love and loss into Morgan le Fay's life, giving her malicious nature some measure of reasoning.

The film Guinevere (1994) again uses the character of Morgan as a malevolent power-hungry witch. In this case however her goal is to get Guinevere and Lancelot to rule Britain together since she believes this will make her the main women behind the throne because she has raised them both and saved Lancelot from death when he was a child. Since Morgan is said to be a high priestess of the pagans (essentially a title which belongs to the Lady of the Lake in most adaptations), Lancelot's original roots as

Lancelot du Lac - a boy raised by the lady of the lake is somewhat revisited in

Guinevere (1994). Lancelot is therefore fiercely loyal to Morgan until he is required to choose between her and Guinevere. Morgan's role as the hated antagonist of the story in enhanced by the influence she has on Lancelot and by the impact her meddling has on

16 Guinevere and Lancelot's love. The therefore film again does not convey any redeeming qualities in Morgan's character and rather portrays her as a bitter and vengeful witch. Furthermore Morgan is to some extend connected to zealotry in the name of pagan religion and feminism for Morgan exclaims her disgust in the Christian male-centered society several times.

The miniseries Mists of Avalon (2001) is the only discussed adaptation which does not portray Morgan le Fay as an antagonist of the story. Morgaine is in fact the main protagonist whose tragic fate is determined mainly by the manipulations of her aunts Morgause and Viviane. Morgaine is mostly used by the Lady of the Lake in order to preserve the pagan ways. She harbors great love for her brother Arthur and never wishes him harm; there is an unconditional trust between the two characters which may be also observed in its one-sided variation in Le Morte D 'Arthur, where Arthur misplaces his trust in Morgan and later is betrayed; in Mists of Avalon (2001) however

Morgaine never intends to break that trust in order to gain power. Her relationship with

Arthur is in fact the first thing that distinguishes Mists of Avalon (2001) and Morgaine from the typical antagonistic portrayal of Morgan le Fay; Morgaine has the same reason to resent Arthur as she does in both Excalibur (1981) and Guinevere (1994) - Arthur is still the product of Igraine's rape; the character of Morgaine however develops a bond to her brother, since Mists of Avalon (2001) give the characters several years of childhood spent together before assigning them to their mentors. The series shows another portrayal of the manipulation of pagan clergy by separating Morgaine and

Arthur after their joyful childhood, contributing to the depiction of the early stages of the corruption and pain caused by the old religion. Later in the series, much like in

Excalibur (1981) and Guinevere (1994), Mordred is conceived by Arthur and Morgaine yet they are both unaware of their identities at that time, which is another scheme by the

17 witches of Avalon. Afterwards, in culmination of the emotional pain that the pagan manipulators have caused Morgaine, she eventually refuses to be part of their schemes when it comes to her son Mordred and denounces the high priestess Viviane in an enraged speech:

What has my mother given up for your Avalon? My father died at Uther's hands

because of you. My poor innocent brother Arthur, who was a baby on my lap,

and loved me as no other! And I loved him! Look what you've done to us.

You've twisted our love, and turned it into shame, all for the sake of Avalon!

No! I will not kill the child within me, but I will not let you take him to Avalon!

I will not let you twist and bend him to your will! (Edel, Mists of Avalon)

Her defiance however is in the end the cause of both Arthur's and Mordred's demise as her son is left in the hands of Morgause and manipulated into betraying the king. The series therefore humanizes Morgaine's character to great extent, also by preserving several aspects of the legend, which are not commonly preserved in the adaptations and make Morgan le Fay into an antagonist, such as Morgaine's love for Lancelot, her marriage to King Uriens or her love for Accolon.

Morgan le Fay is therefore used in the aforementioned representatives of contemporary adaptations as a crucial part of the story - she either serves as the obligatory villain, or in Mists of Avalon (2001) the transformation of her character's role and personality serve as one of the main innovations over the traditional legend lore.

2.3 Merlin

Merlin is without a doubt one of the most well-known characters from the

Arthurian legend. The legendary wizard is in majority portrayed as an old wise sorcerer, usually skilled in divination and illusions. Merlin's character first appears in Geoffrey

18 of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae as Merlinus (in the Latin original) and subsequently Geoffrey of Monmouth writes an account on Merlin's life and adventures named Vita Merlini; he portrays Merlin as the son of an innocent woman and a demon which gives Merlin his signature personality - a helpful prophet and advisor as well as a trickster figure. His prophecies in the subsequent stories of King Arthur give the plot a structure and his "powers are key to the construction of the Arthurian world" (Saunders,

211) - without his magic many important legend events would never come to pass (the birth of Arthur, Arthur's victory against the eleven kings etc.).

In Malory's LeMorte D 'Arthur Merlin plays many roles, often he is a friend and advisor to Arthur, yet on the other hand he plays tricks on him and does not always reveal all that he knows; for example when he appears to him as a small boy, talking of deeds passed, and when Arthur dismisses the talk of a mere child, he refuses to tell him important things of past and present - in this instance and several other Merlin's

"prophecy is [...] linked to shape-shifting" (Saunders, 211). Merlin is mostly both a wise councilor and a trickster figure and this dual personality can only be due to his demonic heritage. Most of the aforementioned adaptations do not take Malory's intake on Merlin's roots into account yet his trickster nature is generally preserved.

In Excalibur (1981), Merlin is portrayed as the most powerful wizard of the land and the only one who can manipulate its integral forces (until Morgan tricks him into giving out the Charm of Making). Merlin's role as a prophet and an advisor to Arthur is an important part of the whole film, however there are instances where he can even be considered a comical relief because of his behavior and even naivete when it comes to relationships; the director John Boorman explains his perception of Merlin's character and his subsequent portrayal in Excalibur (1981):

19 Merlin fascinates me because he's a mixture of real awesome power and foolish•

ness. He gets things wrong. He's both less human and more human than ordinary

people. He has enormous power and knowledge, and yet there are simple things

he doesn't grasp or understand. New forces are contending with his magic and

each other. New passions - love, hatred, revenge - are in play. And

these emotions are beyond him." (Kennedy)

Merlin's story in Excalibur (1981) is largely similar to Malory's rendition; unlike in

Malory's Le Morte D 'Arthur however Merlin does not remain trapped beneath the earth in the adaptation - Arthur's need for his loyal advisor is so great that his love for him allows Merlin to return to Arthur as an apparition. By this Boorman adds the concept of love and camaraderie which goes beyond loyalty to Merlin's character.

In Mists of Avalon (2001) Merlin's character is firmly tied to the whole pagan religion - as the influence of paganism wanes so does Merlin's power and life-force.

The more and more Christianity takes over Britain the more Merlin's condition worsens, culminating in his death. The miniseries also makes Merlin into Arthur's primary caretaker - ensuring Arthur's initial strong connection to paganism and therefore providing plenty space for his conversion to Christianity due to other influences than his upbringing. Merlin is also portrayed as an ally and companion to the witches of Avalon which again strengthens his connection to the old religion - he is not the solitary sage spending most of his days among Arthur and his knights, he is part of the pagan clergy as a whole - this somewhat diminishes his importance in the story and leaves more space for the witches to manipulate the fate of Britain.

In the film Guinevere (1994), in the effort to portray a strong and wise woman behind the throne, the queen takes on many roles previously embodied by Arthur himself - she is the heiress of the land of Camelot, she often attends battles alongside

20 her husband and she even comes up with the suggestion to create the Round Table to make Arthur's trusted nights and him equal. As such she is even given Arthur's advisor

- Merlin. Merlin is still portrayed in the 'employ' of Arthur, he however approaches

Guinevere even before she marries Arthur in order to determine whether she is a fit future ruler of Britain, and after Arthur and Guinevere are engaged he often councils her about her role in the fate of the land, in religion and other matters, just like he does

Arthur in some of the other discussed adaptations and legend sources. Not only Merlin's main focus of attention shifts but also his religious identity is somewhat different from other interpretations of his character - Merlin is still a powerful mage, yet his magic is only hinted on (for example when Morgan le Fay talks of Igraine and how she was tricked), Merlin is never in fact seen performing magic or any ritual (unlike Morgan who stays true to her title as a pagan priestess by performing illusions and blood rituals); this contributes to the overall less pagan impression that Taylor creates on her interpretation of the wizard - he is even seen in Christian clergy robes with a rosary around his neck and after he is questioned on them by Guinevere (who is raised as a pagan in Taylor's rendition) he responds that: "Underneath the ritual it is always the same God." (Taylor, Guinevere) Merlin is however never said to be Christian, his usual identity as a pagan wizard is simply diminished likely in order to promote peace between the two religions, which he strives to teach Guinevere.

21 3. Plot Interpretation

There are many original plot events that the chosen adaptations concentrate on and portray in their own way, either bringing more original nuances to their interpretations of the legend or honoring the traditional story. The thesis will concentrate on three main events that are depicted in several adaptations and it will study how they are handled by their creators, namely Arthur's conception and the trickery of Igraine, Guinevere and Lancelot's affair and the conception of Mordred and his subsequent betrayal of Arthur. These events were chosen for a simple reason - they are respectively the beginning, the main plot twist and the ending of the Arthurian legend (after the appearance of Lancelot in the Vulgate cycle) - the story as the world knows it would not be complete without any of these occurrences and therefore they are also the events which are most commonly portrayed in the contemporary adaptations.

3.1 Uther and Igraine

Both the majority of the legend sources and many contemporary adaptations pay at least some heed to the conception of Arthur. The union between king Uther

Pendragon and Igraine - the wife of the duke of Tintagil - is after all considered the beginning of the Arthurian legend and it also introduces characters such as Merlin or

Morgan le Fay. How the actual act in the end plays out however varies from adaptation to adaptation.

Malory's approach is more action driven and therefore the reader does not get many details of the characters' feelings about the entire situation. King Uther proclaims great love for the duke's wife and is determined to stop at nothing to get to lay with her, yet Malory makes it clear that Igraine was a woman of honor which makes Uther turn to desperate measures and seek the help of Merlin. Merlin is not concerned about

22 deceiving Igraine and helps Uther for pure profit on his part - he asks for Igraine's and

Uther's child in return. Uther's desperation (or perhaps initial indifference towards the potential child) makes him agree to Merlin's proposal and so the conception plays out.

Igraine does not find out the truth about the fateful night until after she is married to

Uther, and when he tells her, she "made grete joye whan she knewe who was the fader of her child." (Malory 6) That sole sentence represents Igraine's feeling towards Uther and about the conception. Many adaptations however dig deeper into the relationships between Arthur's parents and the duke and some of them even include a knowing observer - Morgan le Fay.

In Mists of Avalon (2001) Uther's instant infatuation with Igraine is preserved.

Igraine however has strong connection to Avalon and magic and she often has prophetic dreams and visions. She is previously told by her sister Viviane, the Lady of the Lake and the High Priestess of Avalon, that she is to bear a child who will one day become the king of Britain, but it will not be the duke's child. Once she sees Uther she immediately recognizes him as the future father of her son, presumably because of her strong connection to magical forces, and she feels strong attraction towards him, which unnerves the duke. After departing from Uther's company the duke decides to kill Uther in secret, Igraine is however granted another vision in which she sees what may come and warns Uther telepathically of her husband's plans. What she does not know is that

Uther retaliates against the duke and kills him, then rides to Cornwall with Merlin and lies with Igraine. Morgaine however encounters Uther (disguised as her father) and

Merlin and instantly knows that something is out of order. The film therefore makes the entire affair between Uther and Igraine an instance of a forbidden love which is resolved by the duke's death. Since Igraine is aware of the fact that she will be unfaithful to her husband, the deceit is in the end a less severe matter.

23 Excalibur (1981) stays more or less fateful to Malory's rendition of Arthur's conception with a little more focus on emotional reactions of the characters involved.

One of the main differences is perhaps the outcome - when Merlin comes to claim his prize - Arthur. Uther is then very unwilling to pay the price for Merlin's help and even though he does not have a way of preventing Merlin from taking Arthur away, his rage about the ordeal in made very obvious (unlike in Le Morte D 'Arthur). Much like in

Mists of Avalon (2001), Morgan is aware of Uther's deceit because of her magical talents.

In Guinevere (1994) the scene between Uther and Igraine is omitted since the film follows the story of Guinevere in her youth, not Arthur. Morgan le Fay however mentions the act several times, professing her disgust in what was done to her mother:

"Igraine was my mother first, but Uther raped her [...] then he married her with bishop's blessing and he ordered me a nine year old child to be hanged." (Taylor,

Guinevere) Her crusade against Arthur and his claim for the throne can be interpreted as a belated revenge on Uther for his deeds and her attempts to put Lancelot and Guinevere on the throne may not be only seen as a means to gain power but also as an attempt to remove "a product of rape" from power. Her hatred of Arthur and what he stands for represents Morgan's views of Christianity and its male-centered society that takes over

Britain, Igraine's rape being the pinnacle of what men can do under God's watch.

Again in the contemporary adaptations more emphasis is put on the characters' emotional states and responses concerning Uther and Igraine. The aforementioned renditions not only portray both participants with more depth and emotional reactions, but even consider the element of vengeance for the act - as depicted in Guinevere

(1994). The conception of Arthur is also used as a means to add a bit more mysticism to

Morgan le Fay's character, as she is aware of the act by a mere intuition.

24 3.2 Guinevere and Lancelot's Affair

The love triangle between King Arthur, Queen Guinevere and Sir Lancelot is one of the most prominent plot events of the Arthurian Legend ever since its first appearance in Chretien de Troyes's Chevalier de la Charrette (The Knight of the Cart).

Guinevere's adultery is approached differently in different sources and adaptations; in earlier narratives she is even considered a traitor to the King's love for not resisting

Mordred's attempt to claim her as his own after his betrayal of Arthur. The impression of Guinevere is not the only thing which varies with different retellings of the legend,

Lancelot's primary intentions with the Queen, Arthur's reaction and the ultimate resolution of the affair are a few examples of the adultery's highlights, which are recreated in different ways. Furthermore Arthur is not a purely loyal and faithful husband in the legend sources and he has his own affairs. However Arthur's infidelity is rarely discussed as much as Guinevere's, as McCracken points out:

The status of the queen's adultery is different from that of the king's infidelity.

[...] the queen's adultery is implicated differently from the king's in succession

concerns. The queen's conception of an illegitimate child would threaten the

proper succession of the throne in a way that the birth of a king's bastard would

not since the queen's child would be born into the royal family, whether or not

her husband was the father. (190)

Arthur's adulterous deeds are furthermore usually associated with trickery, enchantment and illusion, which somewhat diminishes their gravity and makes Guinevere's consensual affair even more serious. Finally the Vulgate cycle and later narratives eliminate the potential threat of Guinevere and Lancelot's child by making the character of the queen barren, which some contemporary adaptations use as an opportunity to

25 develop Guinevere's character in more depth and show her desperation over her situation.

In Mists of Avalon (2001) the love between Gwenwyfar (Guinevere) and

Lancelot faces not only the obstacle of her marriage to Arthur but also the fact that

Morgaine is also in love with Lancelot. The first hint of the future dilemmas may be observed just around the beginning of the series, when Morgaine meets Lancelot for the first time. Again she is casually manipulated into acting on her feelings for Lancelot by her aunt Viviane (mother of Lancelot) who uses Morgaine to make Lancelot stay in

Avalon. Morgaine and Lancelot's relationship shows some potential at that point but is quickly disrupted by the first appearance of Gwenwyfar by whom Lancelot is instantly fascinated, as he asks Morgaine to part the mists of Avalon in order to meet her.

Morgaine however recreates the mists after seeing how taken they are with each other and her jealousy gets the best of her - this desperate acts eliminates any chance

Morgaine has for a romantic relationship with Lancelot, since the only thing he sees behind her behavior are the machinations of the witches of Avalon: "For a moment there when I looked at you, it was just like looking at my mother." (Edel, Mists of

Avalon) The whole scene not only establishes Morgaine's unfulfilled love for her cousin

Lancelot, which is one of the things that contributes to her overall desperation and sad fate throughout the film, it also sows the first seeds of rivalry between Morgaine and

Gwenwyfar. Later in the series another aspect of the 'love square' between the four main characters is presented, when Morgaine and Arthur are tricked into spending the night together and conceiving Mordred. Later the scene has a serious impact on the relationship between Gwenwyfar and Arthur. Lancelot and Gwenwyfar share several moments during the series where they profess their love for one another but both agree they should not act upon it because of their love and loyalty to Arthur. Arthur however

26 is not oblivious to their mutual attraction and he acknowledges it and later even tells them he is aware of it - unlike in for example the Vulgate cycle, where Arthur outright denies all the signs of their love and claims he does not believe it: "if it's true that

Lancelot was in love with her, I wouldn't believe him capable of betraying me with my wife [...] Even if everyone told me that rumor every day, and even if I had seen more evidence then I have, I wouldn't believe it." (qtd. in McCracken 188) Mists of Avalon

(2001) instead builds on Arthur's love for both characters and the love those two share and culminates the situation in Arthur's proposal for a solution of Gwenwyfar's infertility: "My wife thinks it's her fault that we have no child, I believe it's me. [...]

We will both be with you together, and if the child we want should come of this none of us need ever know for certain and you will be able to swear in truth that out child was conceived in king's bed." (Edel, Mists of Avalon) Arthur therefore attempts to take care both of the problem of not having an heir and of the problem of Gwenwyfar and

Lancelot being in love - he attempts to resolve everything in private and have all of their honors intact. This however does not work out not only because Gwenwyfar still does not conceive but because her and Lancelot's romance does not end that night. As

McCracken points out, in the Arthurian legend "knowledge of Guinevere's adultery becomes the instrument of political contests between factions that compete for the king's favour." (189) and in many other adaptations and legend sources, one of Arthur's knights brings the affair to the attention of the court, forcing Arthur to act accordingly - in Mists of Avalon (2001) it is none other than the treacherous Mordred. After the truth is out, Gwenwyfar and Lancelot escape from Camelot, Gwenwyfar seeking repentance for her sins back at the monastery and Lancelot returning only to Arthur's aid during his last battle with Mordred. Mists of Avalon (2001) therefore, as in many other aspects, preserve much of Malory's story and intentions behind the character developments;

27 however Morgaine's more protagonistic qualities alter the affair to some extent, contribute to the overall desperation of the main characters and introduce more instances of unfulfilled and unrequited love.

Excalibur (1981) again attempts to use some instances from Malory's rendition

(with several changes) in its portrayal of the adultery. The affair is more straightforward, than in other contemporary adaptations, as it is only one of many occurrences portrayed in the film. In Excalibur (1981) Arthur is forced to deal with their affair firsthand since it is made public by Gawain at court. Arthur then must judge a duel for Guinevere's honor between Lancelot and Gawain. The scene slightly alters

Malory's duel of Lancelot and Sir Meliagrance: in Le Morte D'Arthur, Meliagrance discovers blood on Guinevere's sheets and deduces that one of the wounded knights has spent the night with her and Lancelot agrees to duel him in front of Arthur in order to preserve the queen's honor, Meliagrance however does not know it was Lancelot whom

Guinevere has spent the night with. Excalibur (1981) portrays Morgana as the person unraveling the affair, by having her tell Gawain about it, Gawain then proceeds to challenge Guinevere's honor and asks to duel Lancelot. In both renditions Lancelot is kept from attending the duel on time, Malory depicts how Lancelot was imprisoned by

Meliagrance and set free by the love of a lady: "So she cam to hym againe, the same day that the batayle shulde be, and seyde, ' Sir, Launcelot, bethynke you, for ye ar to hard-harted; and therefore, and ye wolde but onys kisse me, I shulde delyver you and your armoure, and the beste horse that was within Sir Mellyagaunce stable.'" (636).

Boorman replaces the scene with that of Lancelot praying to God so that he is purged of his love for Guinevere in order to win the battle honorably, he is then faced with a vision of himself which he must battle; he wins the battle but is gravely wounded, which keeps him from arriving in time. Boorman therefore eliminates the character of

28 another lady making Lancelot's love and devotion for Guinevere more pure and portraying perfectly the inner battle that Lancelot faces by loving his king's wife.

Lancelot manages to attend the duel and win in both cases and Excalibur (1981) then proceeds to deviate from Malory's rendition in portrayal of the affair. Guinevere for example is no longer tried for her adultery but she and Lancelot leave, after it is clear that Arthur knows of their affair (when they discover his sword lodged in the ground where they have laid together). In the end their love remains unfulfilled, as Guinevere reconciles with Arthur and Lancelot comes to fight at Arthur's side against Mordred - loyalty to the king and honoring the vows taken before God prevail against passion and temptation, underlying the story with proper Christian values. Arthur ends his time with

Guinevere (before his battle with Mordred) on the hopeful note that they shall be together again even if in death: "I've often thought that in the hereafter of our lives, when I owe no more to the future, can be just a man, we might meet. You'd come to me, claim me yours, know that I am your husband." (Boorman, Excalibur)

The film First Knight (1995) deals primarily with the affair between Lancelot and Guinevere. Much like in de Troyes's Le Chevalier de la Charrette (Knight of the

Cart) the character of Meleagant (Malagant in the film) is preserved in Zucker's rendition as the main antagonist of the story and the pattern of Lancelot delivering

Guinevere from danger and imprisonment is a large part of the depicted affair. The affair does not undergo changes only in plot events in Zucker's film; firstly Lancelot is no knight - he is a warrior who earns money by sparring with villagers for entertainment, he stumbles upon Guinevere by accident and takes a liking to her, at that time however she is already engaged to Arthur; yet Lancelot owes no significant loyalty to the king and so, unlike in the original lore, he does not fight nor deny his attraction and furthermore he actively pursues the queen and purposefully tempts her. When he is

29 later offered a seat at the Round Table by Arthur, he is hesitant and even refuses at first presumably because he does not wish to swear loyalty to the king whose wife he loves.

Another distinction from de Troyes's and later Malory's depiction of the affair is the fact that, in the film, the characters never spend the night together, yet Zucker depicts their romance as even more passionate then courtly despite that fact. The lack of physical adultery between the characters does however contribute to the portrayal of

Guinevere in First Knight (1995) - she is in spite of her attraction to Lancelot a loyal wife who loves her husband no less then she loves her suitor; as she says to Arthur herself: "Love has many faces. I may look on you differently, but not with less love."

(Zucker, First Knight) As in the other discussed adaptations, Lancelot's chase after

Guinevere's rescue lacks the beautiful dames that often help him along the way in the

Vulgate and post-Vulgate renditions, which gives his affair with Guinevere more impact and puts emphasis on the special bond between the two characters. In the end Malagant replaces the character of Mordred in First Knight (1995) and his last battle with Arthur

(during which Lancelot returns to help) ends in the king's death, Arthur's attitude towards the affair is much more at peace at his deathbed as he asks Lancelot to take care of Guinevere -putting Arthur's love for both of them above his anger and shame.

In Guinevere (1994) the union of Lancelot and Guinevere can be interpreted as a result of pagan manipulations. A similar motif occurs in Mists of Avalon (2001) where the main representative of the old Goddess (Viviane) uses her magic and her scheming nature to save the religion through the union of its strongest links (Morgaine and

Arthur); the same is done by Morgan le Fay in Guinevere (1994) where she pushes

Lancelot and Guinevere (who are both raised in a pagan sanctuary by her) into marrying and ruling Britain together. In both cases the love between the characters is real

(although in Mists of Avalon (2001) their love is more of a strong family bond) but it is

30 diminished and tainted by the intervention of the manipulative priestess figure.

Therefore from the start of the film Guinevere (1994) their union appears as something that should not happen (since it is the will of the antagonist). The character of Morgan attempts to taint the affair throughout the whole film, shifting the focus from

Guinevere's vows to Arthur to the two people in love who try to overcome the malevolent meddling forces. Lancelot's loyalty is also never truly to Arthur in the adaptation, his allegiance shifts from the woman who raised him (Morgan) to the woman he loves; and furthermore Arthur's role in the whole affair is diminished when he is beguiled by Morgan to lay with her. Arthur is portrayed as less than an ideal husband and although he is remorseful, the film attempts to portray Guinevere as the person who is wronged and at the same time can do no wrong. Guinevere's incapability to bear a child is also omitted and therefore the emphasis on portraying her as the perfect queen, loyal to her husband even through her fondness for Lancelot. Portraying the adulterous queen in such an overly positive light is part of the film's message:

Taylor's intention to show that a woman is not so easily seduced by temptation and that she is not powerless in the world ruled by men.

The love affair appears to be one of the most commonly used concepts of the original legend in contemporary adaptations, mainly for its dramatic elements and the opportunities for further character development. Even films like King Arthur (2004), that are not centered around the affair or do not use it as one of the main plotlines, hint on at least some attraction and chemistry between Lancelot and Guinevere - because not only is the affair nowadays an irrefutably crucial part of the legend, but the affair adds the necessary plot twist to Arthur and Guinevere's romance, which is a common element in current renditions of any love story.

31 3.3 The Conception of Mordred and his Overthrow of King Arthur

Mordred's betrayal of Arthur is what finally causes the end of the king's reign.

Mordred as a character is treated very differently in various adaptations - sometimes he is vengeful towards Arthur, other times he is manipulated by other characters into betraying his father. The aforementioned films and series however all interpret Mordred as the son of Arthur and his sister Morgan le Fay instead of the original sister

Margawse.

In Malory's Le Morte D 'Arthur Arthur lays with King Lot's wife - Margawse:

"The Kynge [Arthur] caste grete love unto hir and desired to ly by her. And so they were agreed, and he begate upon hir Sir Mordred." (30), their union is consensual in

Malory's rendition and there is no magic or deceit involved (unlike in many contemporary adaptations). However Arthur is not aware that Margawse is his sister by

Igraine. Later in Le Morte D 'Arthur Merlin prophesizes Arthur's downfall at the hands of a child born on a May Day and so Arthur decides to slay all the children born on May

Day to make sure the potential threat is killed:

Merlyon tolde Kyng Arthure that he that sholde destroy hym and all the londe

sholde be borne on May Day. Wherefore he sente for hem all, in payne of dethe,

and so there were founde many lordis sonnis and many knyghtes sonnes, and all

were sente unto the Kyng - and so was Mordred sente by Kyng Lottis wyff. And

all were putte in a shyppe to the se; and som were foure wekis olde and som

lesse. (39)

Mordred miraculously survives in the end and therefore remains a secret threat to

Arthur. Malory's Mordred is in the end simply a traitor and usurper who on top of his betrayal pursues Guinevere even after she hides from him in the Tower of London:

"Than Sir Mordred soughte uppon Quene Gwenyver by lettirs and sondis, and by fayre

32 meanys and foule meanys , to have her to com oute of the Towre of London; but all thys avayled nought, for she answerd hym shortely, oppynly and pryvayly, that she had levir sle herself than to be maryed with hym." (680). Any previous heroisms and chivalry are erased by Mordred's treason and the only thing that Arthur feels for his son is hatred.

In Mists ofAvalon (2001), the character of Morgause (Margawse) - the wife of

King Lot - is preserved. Morgaine is still (as in other adaptations) Mordred's mother;

Morgause however takes over his upbringing and is the main driving force behind

Mordred's overthrow of Arthur. Mordred is conceived by Morgaine and Arthur during a pagan ritual, orchestrated by Merlin and the Lady of the Lake Viviane, while neither of them is aware of the other's identity. Morgaine discovers that she has committed incest when Arthur tells her about the night of the ritual and the mystery woman, which he has laid with, Arthur is much later told the truth by Mordred himself. Mists of Avalon

(2001) portrays the contrast between Morgaine and Arthur's love and romantic love - in many adaptations, such as for example Excalibur (1981) or Guinevere (1994), Morgan le Fay actively seeks to sleep with Arthur in order to conceive the future king - the intention is still preserved, Morgaine however is an unknowing participant in the machinations of the Lady of the Lake. Both Morgaine and Arthur's characters are ascribed more despair in their lives by finding out that the union they shared and idolized was in fact a twisted manipulation and a perversion of their brotherly (and sisterly) love for each other, contributing to the pattern in which the series portrays all the major characters - pushing them to their own limits of sanity with graduating amount of tragedy in their lives. Mordred's conception is therefore both the product of love and cruelty which later reflects on his character. Mordred much like the act of his conception is manipulated by the pagan clergy leaders and he acts both out of love and cruelty, which was involuntarily instilled in him; the series portrays Mordred's desire

33 for the love of his father and mother, which is made clear in his dialogue with

Morgause:

I do not like to think that this great King, this great man, my father, is my

enemy. And then for the sake of Avalon I must bring him down to nothing. I

would rather love him, as all men do. I would like to look on my mother, Lady

Morgaine; I would like to look on her who bore me, as my mother. Not as the

priestess or the Goddess. I am so weary of Gods and Goddesses. I am weary of

my fate. (Edel, Mists of Avalon)

However his corruption by Morgause is ultimately too deep and the twisted machinations and their result (Mordred's thirst for power) overcome his more gentle nature. Mists of Avalon (2001) also enriches Mordred's story with his final confrontation with the priestesses of Avalon, in which he, enraged that his mother is more loyal to Arthur then to him, kills the Lady of the Lake Viviane. In the same confrontation Morgause is previously killed by Viviane and afterwards Mordred's famed battle with Arthur follows where they kill each other as the legend tradition dictates. In his final minutes however Mordred's character is rewarded with final reconciliation and farewell with his mother Morgaine, portrayed only through the closeness and expressions of the characters. Mordred therefore achieves at least some measure of peace and contentment in the end instead of dying alone as a traitor - much like Morgaine in the series his character is given many redeemable qualities which ultimately turn his death from the scene of a victory against the usurper to a tragic death of a neglected son.

In Excalibur (1981) Mordred's conception is one of the scenes which culminate in Arthur's illness and the desolation of Britain - the chain of tragic events in Arthur's life starts with him finding Guinevere and Lancelot together in the forest, accompanied

34 by the symbolism of Arthur lodging Excalibur in the ground, as discussed in Arthur's character portrayal (p. 11-12), followed by Merlin being trapped inside the earth, followed by Morgana's seduction of Arthur and the conception of Mordred. Boorman again utilizes a parallel in his rendition by portraying Morgana's scheme as the ultimate revenge for Igraine's rape - just as Igraine was tricked by Uther transformed into

Gorlois (the duke of Cornwall) so does Morgana transform herself into the image of

Guinevere and lays with Arthur in order to conceive the future king. Morgana however shows her true self to Arthur after the conception is complete so that he is aware of his upcoming doom. Mordred's birth scene is also ascribed importance in Excalibur (1981); as Mingo points out in his essay:

Boorman has a bolt of lightning striking Arthur at the same time Mordred is

born. Arthur's health worsens after this event [...]. The curse is also visibly clear

in the colours used in the film: Mordred is born at night in the middle of a

terrible storm. The images that follow his birth are of a devastated, poor,

obscure, dangerous countryside, with a preponderance of dark colours. (70)

Again Boorman uses nature and the ambiance of his film to enhance the mysticism and the gravity of the current scene - Mordred's birth scene is immediately followed by the desolation of Arthur's land signalizing the beginning of the end. Mordred's subsequent adolescence and his confrontations with Arthur's knights and ultimately Arthur himself stay true to the treacherous nature and cruelty that Mordred embodies. Boorman does not attempt to humanize Mordred nor does he give any reason for his actions other than

Morgana's tutelage. Mordred is therefore (as Mingo points out) only a tool. He is not given any relatable personality and he often appears as something supernatural - he is a product of magical trickery, but unlike Arthur he remains one through his entire life, and his sole purpose is to destroy Arthur.

35 4. Christianity and Paganism

The Arthurian legend has both strong Christian overtones and takes place in a world filled with pagan motifs and magic. In works such as Malory's Le Morte

D 'Arthur or the works of Chretien de Troyes "we are never quite sure whether we are in an otherworld of faeries and demons, a human world of natural magic and technology, or somewhere in between, although a broadly Christian context and notion of providence are always assumed" (Saunders, 205). Both paganism and Christianity have an important place in the legend and therefore in most of its contemporary adaptations - some of them build their whole storyline on the struggle between the two religions, such as Mists of Avalon (2001), and some simply use the religious situation of Britain when creating the ambiance of their retelling, without putting too much emphasis on the given religion or religions, like the film First Knight (1995). To determine the current trends in using religious aspects of the legend, the thesis will analyze the presence of religion in the contemporary adaptations, the relationship between paganism and Christianity and the impact, that religion has on a couple of main characters (namely Arthur and

Guinevere).

4.1 Transition from Paganism to Christianity

Many of the contemporary film adaptations of the Arthurian Legend deal with the society's transition from paganism brought in by the Celts and the newly arrived

Christianity. A land including both practices goes hand in hand with any interpretation of the legend and some creators of its contemporary adaptations give special attention to the clash of the Christian and pagan beliefs. Most legend sources portray Britain as predominantly Christian but pagan motifs are always preserved in the stories - the more current retellings however often concentrate on the transition from one religion to

36 another and create animosity between the followers of the two rather than tolerance, giving their story an extra conflict.

This conflict is a very prominent part of the miniseries Mists of Avalon (2001) where paganism is said to be dying and in need of a revival. The main pagan figures -

The Lady of the Lake (Viviane) and Merlin - determine that the revival is to be accomplished by Arthur, Morgaine and their actions. Arthur is the only hope for

Britain's return to paganism, since he has been raised in pagan environment and will have the power to influence the nation. However the transition of the country to

Christianity has too much of a pull and the king has to submit to the popular demand.

Arthur therefore supports both religions, as discussed in 'Arthur's dual religion' (p.42).

The responsibility for the revival of paganism then falls to Morgaine, or more precisely,

Mordred. Mordred is a product of two people of great influence over the country, who still uphold pagan values - he becomes the perfect tool of pagan overthrow instigated by Morgause. Paganism in the hands of Morgause is in this instant portrayed more as a vengeful force, trying desperately to claw its way back into Britain's favor through

Mordred. The previous portrayal of the witches of Avalon as more or less silent protectors of the land is twisted into an image of evil hags manipulating both nature and people in order to achieve their goals (whether it is said of Morgause - the main antagonist, or the more sympathetic Viviane). This perversion of paganism or magic is also portrayed in the legend sources as Saunders points out in her essay: "The negative aspect of magic is most fully explored in Morgan le Fay, who repeatedly threatens the order of the Arthurian world." (211) As with many things in Mists of Avalon (2001) the evil deeds are ascribed to Morgause or Viviane rather than Morgaine. The image of people twisting magic to evil purposes eventually becomes an important aspect of the series and is one of the other occurrences which tie the series' rendition of the legend to

37 the sources; Saunders points out that "Malory presents magic as enabling women to practice violence, to abduct, imprison and possess male bodies." (211), however both

Malory and Mists ofAvalon (2001) do not depict only women as the evil mages, Merlin does his share of evil deeds and whether they are for the greater good or not, he too uses magic as a device to trick, deceive and change the fates of men. Regardless whom it is represented by, paganism and the sorcery which accompanies it quickly become portrayed as malevolent forces. This is perceived by many of the main characters:

Gwenwyfar for example gradually despises pagan values and after seeking the help of this religion in a desperate moment of weakness, she condemns all who follow pagan ways (especially Morgaine) and seeks solace and forgiveness in a monastery. Igraine also recognizes that the religion she used to rely on has been twisted to evil purposes and turns to Christianity to find peace. In the end even the Lady of the Lake admits that the time of paganism is over. The transition to Christianity is rather forceful and somewhat violent. Paganism has to be portrayed as something evil in order to be overthrown by a more peaceful alternative. Morgaine is in the end the only character who still believes in the pagan values - perhaps because in her eyes the old religion was never evil and because her love for her son made it easier for her to accept his actions in the end and forgive him. At last she learns to live in the Christian world deprived of

Avalon by believing that Virgin Mary is only a new face of her old Goddess.

King Arthur (2004) portrays the Roman takeover of Britain and its subsequent withdrawal when faced with the Saxon threat. The transition from paganism to

Christianity is therefore forceful but only temporary. The Britons are still in touch with their Celtic roots and are fighting both against the Romans and Saxons to preserve their ways. Christian values bear the most importance for Arthur himself, the other "knights" stick to their pagan ways and Lancelot even often argues with Arthur and tries to

38 dissuade him from Christianity. That is mainly because Arthur's perception of

Christianity is very different from its current form. Much like paganism was twisted in the Mists ofAvalon (2001) to its evil purposes, so was Christianity somewhat twisted in

King Arthur (2004). Arthur in the end recognizes that Rome has made a travesty from his beliefs, Britain remains pagan with both Romans and Saxons gone and Arthur still upholds his ideal Christian values, even though the Rome's values are different.

Paganism is portrayed as a rebellious movement against Christianity - the woads are native Britons who only wish to preserve their ways against the invading forces. The viewer is therefore inclined to be much more sympathetic to Merlin and his woads, and the "knights" who basically stem from the same background than to the Christians. The usual solace and piety of Christianity is omitted and all that is left is the perception of a forcible attempt for mass religious conversion. Much like in Mists ofAvalon (2001), the evil and violent religion must be eliminated and therefore the pagan ways are preserved in Britain in the end.

In Guinevere (1994) many religious roles are different from the usual roles -

Guinevere is raised as a pagan, Merlin's mostly pagan identity is transformed into a religiously ambiguous one and Arthur is a solely Christian King. Guinevere is raised by

Morgan le Fay in a sanctuary, which may be perceived as a portrayal of a generally accessible Avalon, as it is led by the priestesses of the old Goddess, yet it is a tangible place which anyone can visit. The essence of Avalon is therefore preserved without a part of its mysticism. The adaptation is however not devoid of magic and mysticism at all - the high priestess (Morgan) performs many magical rituals to get her way in the end and place her wards on the throne of Britain. Guinevere is throughout the film slowly introduced to the Christian reality of Britain, Merlin ensures her that, as long as she is a good person, it does not matter how she calls the higher force that she relies on.

39 Guinevere then slowly adapts to the Christian ways for the sake of her husband and the changing kingdom while still honoring the Goddess. Morgan's betrayal and ambition however are not as closely linked to the perversion of the old religion as in for example

Mists of Avalon (2001). In spite of her zealotry the old religion is not condemned because of her actions - only she is, and Guinevere is not escaping and avoiding her religion, she is escaping her old mentor and her schemes. The film portrays Morgan's attempt at the battle of religions as a violent and condemnable act and Taylor rather promotes the peace and harmony of accepting both religions side by side.

In Excalibur (1981) Boorman does not forget to include the concept of

Christianity taking over the pagan Britain and even though he concentrates more on the mysticism and magic of the Arthurian legend, Christianity is not omitted. Boorman fascination with the supernatural rather than spiritual is perfectly represented in the scenes concerning the Holy Grail - contemporary lore often connects the grail to a holy chalice used during the Last Supper, Boorman however, as Mingo explains in his essay, shifts the Grail's significance from a Christian symbol to an artifact mystically connected to Arthur and his health. "In Boorman's film, the Grail belongs to Arthur, not to Christ and consequently it symbolises the pagan idea of the land and the king being one." (69) - Mingo does not only point out the elimination of Christian significance in the Grail but he even ascribes it a pagan significance. The connection between the land and Arthur is not a revelation the viewer only sees during the scenes involving the

Grail, it can be seen throughout the whole film, as discussed in Arthur's character portrayal (p. 11-12), the fact that Boorman would however tie it so closely to the concept of the Holy Grail only support's the claim that Boorman does not put too much attention on Christianity in his film. That however does not mean that Christian motifs are omitted completely, the clash of Christianity and paganism is still portrayed in the film,

40 and Boorman addresses it himself in Kennedy's interview: "that's what my story is about: the coming of Christian man and the disappearance of the old religions which are represented by Merlin. The forces of superstition and magic are swallowed up into the unconscious." (Kennedy) Boorman therefore portrays his film with strong pagan overtones, however he still makes it clear that the times are changing and that

Christianity is taking over Britain, which is made clear mostly through Merlin's dialogues; "the wizard can see that the days of paganism, and, as a consequence, of these creatures [pagan wizards - Morgana and Merlin] are numbered, with the conquest of the 'only God'." (Mingo 67) Overall, through Merlin's comments, Excalibur (1981) portrays the transition to Christianity less as a losing battle, as it is portrayed for example in Mists ofAvalon (2001), but more as a surrender.

4.2 Arthur and his Dual Religion

The character of King Arthur is largely associated with religious views in the contemporary adaptations. The aforementioned films and series have their own portrayal of Arthur's religious side and some of them put Arthur right in the middle of the conflict between paganism and Christianity. The two religions are constantly battling for Arthur's favor and therefore for their dominance over Britain. After all, if the High King supports only Christianity or only paganism, said religion would greatly benefit from the influx of followers, who would be swayed by their king's opinions.

This approach adds more complexity and even more importance to Arthur's character and deviates from the legend sources such as Chretien de Troyes's works or Malory's

Le Morte D 'Arthur, in which a Arthur is often surrounded by pagans and pagan magic

(Merlin, Morgan le Fay, Excalibur etc.) he himself is however predominantly a

Christian king upholding Christian values.

41 In Mists ofAvalon (2001) Arthur is portrayed as the last hope of paganism. The high priestess - Viviane (the Lady of the Lake) and Merlin are attempting to sway

Arthur towards paganism and are desperately trying to stop Arthur from being a

Christian King. Arthur is therefore raised as a pagan by Merlin and is made part of various pagan rituals (such as the great hunt in which he unknowingly impregnates his sister Morgaine). Morgaine is this way also used to preserve Arthur's link to Aval on and paganism and their son is meant to save the old religion altogether. In this adaptation Arthur is essentially used as a tool to preserve the old ways by Viviane, however there are aspects that pull him towards Christianity, mainly his wife

Gwenwyfar who is portrayed as a Christian woman who tries to uphold Christian values and condemns the old pagan ways. Arthur is therefore torn between his upbringing and his adulthood circumstances. The pagan clergy again retains its manipulative traits as they attempt to sway Arthur towards worshipping solely the old Goddess - the Lady of the Lake for instance uses the situation, where Arthur finds himself in mortal danger by praying to both of his gods, to essentially blackmail him to swear his allegiance to the

Goddess. One might argue that Gwenwyfar, as a Christian representative, and her influence over Arthur are not as innocent as they appear in swaying him towards one religion. The majority of characters converted towards Christianity do so to seek solace and redemption, Gwenwyfar however uses guilt instead of the promise of peace in order to convince Arthur: "You say you are a good man, but you condemn your wife to barrenness for the sake of an oath to painted savages. I despise you, Arthur Pendragon!

Neither good Christian, nor good pagan, nor a good husband to me." (Edel, Mists of

Avalon) However unlike Viviane and her constant manipulations, Gwenwyfar's character does not represent the entire religion and her shortcomings are only ascribed to her person, not to Christianity as a concept.

42 In King Arthur (2004) Arthur - the Roman commander starts off as a sworn

Christian in charge of several pagan recruits. In this adaptation, Arthur does not become a ruler of Britain; therefore the conflict between pagan and Christian values which

Arthur faces becomes more of an inner struggle then the fate of the whole land. The film includes several discussions on Christianity between Lancelot and Arthur, where

Lancelot tries to sway Arthur from his beliefs. Arthur acts as a dutiful Christian but gradually discovers that the values he used to uphold are not the same values that

Roman Christians are pushing onto their followers. The struggle then shifts from paganism versus Christianity to the fact that the church has transformed the Christian values into something that Arthur does not relate to anymore - his old beliefs are now more akin to the pagan ones then to the recent Christian ones. He does not however condemn God or his religion; he only acts as a reminder of what Christianity used to be.

4.3 Guinevere and Christianity

Much like Arthur, Guinevere often serves as a religious symbol in many adaptations. Most aforementioned adaptations portray Guinevere as a pious Christian woman who sometimes in some ways even sways Arthur towards Christianity.

Guinevere is usually a character which is faced with temptation and often succumbs to it and she may even be compared to Eve in this aspect. Guinevere, as most of the characters of Arthur's court, is in the majority of the legend sources a model Christian; that however changes when her character is ultimately charged with treason and infidelity. In the pre-Vulgate works Guinevere is often considered an adulteress when she does not refuse Mordred during his usurping of Arthur's throne and after Chretien de Troyes introduces Lancelot du Lac as both a loyal knight and a secret lover of his king's wife, the popular interpretation of Guinevere as the cheating queen is given even

43 more significance in future works (such as Le Morte D'Arthur). Guinevere's fall to temptation is in most cases followed by her punishment and subsequent redemption, as she removes herself into a nunnery following the Christian concept of repenting for one's sins and being rewarded solace and forgiveness; much like Saunders suggests in her essay, "perhaps the recurrent emphasis across Arthurian legend on Guinevere's choice to become a nun marks the gravity with which adultery in women is treated: her mortal sin is balanced by her active repentance, which Lancelot follows in his retreat to the hermitage." (214) Guinevere's spiritual journey is reflected in several of the aforementioned adaptations and her Christianity is often an important part of the story.

In Mists of Avalon (2001) Gwenwyfar (Guinevere) is portrayed as a very pious

Christian woman, who, despite her desires, upholds her duties to her religion and her husband; that is however foiled by a pagan curse. To overcome this curse Gwenwyfar is swayed into taking several actions that go against her Christian values including a pagan ritual suggested by Morgaine. Gwenwyfar does not, in this adaptation, fall to temptation because of weakness of will or any other failing; she attempts to uphold her duties to the extent that she is capable of doing the previously unthinkable. Her struggle with going against her values makes her vengeful and spiteful and diverts her even more from the path of the paragon Christian woman. In the end Gwenwyfar's only hope for spiritual salvation is the solitude and piety of a monastery (ironically situated on the lake where

Avalon can be entered by its priestesses). Gwenwyfar leaves her husband and her love

Lancelot to atone for her sins and turns to the life of abstinence and piety among the local nuns. There she finally finds solace and even reconciles with Morgaine.

In Guinevere (1994), Guinevere is raised by the priestesses of the old religion

(namely Morgan le Fay) and only somewhat converts to Christianity after her marriage to Arthur. She ultimately goes along with the Christian aspects of Arthur's court but she

44 does not forget her pagan upbringing. Her connection to paganism has a great importance in the film and that is because it creates both ties and rifts between

Guinevere and other main characters; her pagan roots, for example, tie her more closely to Lancelot - they share same childhood, same beliefs and same values and on top of that they are both supposed to rule Britain together (according to Morgan le Fay) in order to preserve the supremacy of paganism and the old Goddess. Just as Guinevere's beliefs tie her to Lancelot, they create a rift between her and Arthur - when Guinevere is familiarized with the Christian traditions of Arthur's court she protests against several of them and her resentment and coldness towards Arthur, whom she marries practically only out of obligation and gratefulness, grows even more. Guinevere's pagan persona also helps to create a contrast between hers and Morgan's characters - paganism is to some measure connected to feminism in the film and Morgan and Guinevere are both depicted as strong female characters; however Morgan's ideals in honoring the old

Goddess are portrayed more as acts of zealotry and hatred as she strives to bring down the Christian male-centered society by any means necessary, whereas Guinevere honors the feminist ideals and the concept of a female goddess by using her strength of character to achieve peace in her land rather than a religious overthrow.

The film King Arthur (2004) changes many of the traditional Arthurian roles and among them even the religious role of Guinevere. In Fuqua's adaptation Guinevere is one of the pagan natives of Britain, she is in league with Merlin and often attempts to dissuade Arthur from Christianity. As a retelling where the character of Morgan le Fay is not represented, one might argue that Guinevere's character is in some ways merged with hers by portraying a strong, driven woman honoring pagan traditions and sometimes manipulating Arthur to her own ends (sometimes even by charming him, although without the use of magic). Nevertheless Fuqua portrays the pagan (or woad)

45 Guinevere as a strong warrior woman which is similarly achieved in the previously discussed film Guinevere (1994) and it highly contrasts with the more common portrayal of Guinevere as a pious gentle woman, at times even arguably weak-willed.

The pagan portrayal of the queen draws from the commonly familiar image of the Celtic warrior woman and attempts to incorporate both Guinevere's loyalty and honor and the warrior woman's tenacity and strength into her character.

46 5. Supernatural Features

Magic and its manifestations are without a doubt an integral part of the

Arthurian legend and from the very early appearances of king Arthur in literary traditions, there is Merlin appearing by his side, a character bringing supernatural occurrences into the legend. With the appearance of Merlin other characters appear, and in Vita Merlini Geoffrey of Monmouth introduces the famed (or later rather infamous) witches of Aval on. Magic becomes an integral part of Arthur's story - without it he would not have been even born after all and with that, an opportunity arises to create more and more fantasy adaptations of the legend, which treat its supernatural aspects in their own individual ways. This thesis will concentrate on the portrayal of magical forces in the film Excalibur (1981) and in the miniseries Mists of Avalon (2001), since in these two renditions magic is an integral part of the story and its presence creates the entire ambiance. Magic and its portrayal in the contemporary cinema is however not only represented by the use of special effects or the number of incantations involved, both the discussed adaptations have their own ideas on where magic actually comes from and on how it manifests itself, which is why this chapter will be dedicated mostly to these questions.

As a most complete collection of the tales of Arthur and his knights, Le Morte

D'Arthur does not fail to include strong magical overtones to the stories and it is prudent to include Malory's take on portraying magic as well as its portrayal in the aforementioned adaptations. The aspect of magic in Malory's works is discussed extensively by Corrine Saunders in her contribution to the Cambridge Companion to Le

Morte D 'Arthur, where she points out that: "In the course of the rise and fall of Arthur and his court [...] the magic of humans and otherworldly beings, angels and demons, interweaves, and natural and black magic, demonic temptation and miracle are all

47 treated as real possibilities." (209) Malory's magic is simply there all around - a natural part of the world, and unlike Excalibur (1981) and Mists of Avalon (2001), Le Morte

D 'Arthur does not attempt to overly explain the presence of magic nor where it comes from. As for the manifestations of magic, Saunders points out that in Malory's books

"The occult forces of cosmos may be contained in natural objects, in particular stones and plants, which can achieve marvelous effects. The metal of the sword Excalibur possesses a distinctive bite and its scabbard prevents the loss of blood." (209) - Le

Morte D Arthur connects magic to nature as after all the majority of the legend depictions do (due to the connection between the two made by Celtic lore and paganism), Malory however portrays many magical manifestations in the form of enchanted items and magical artifacts, which is an important concept in the legend (for example in the case of Excalibur) yet some of the adaptations stray from the concept - in Mists of Avalon (2001) for example, there is a magical amulet involved but it is far from being most important, the ritual for which one wears it is far more significant, similarly Guinevere (1994) largely abandons the concept of magical objects and concentrates on performing magic rather than carrying it.

5.1 Magic and the Essence of World

Much like many contemporary works of fantasy, Mists of Avalon (2001) and

Excalibur (1981) attempt to explain the presence of magical energies in the Arthurian world and so subsequently, in the discussed adaptations, magic comes from a sort of

"essence of the world" - a source that is, unlike any Christian aspects of the legend, very recognizable and can be drawn from.

In Excalibur (1981) such essence is called the Dragon. Merlin often speaks of it as of a real dragon and he provides a vague description: "The Dragon. A beast of such

48 power that if you were to see it whole and all complete in a single glance, it would burn you to cinders. [...] It is everywhere! It is everything! Its scales glisten in the bark of trees, its roar is heard in the wind! And its forked tongue strikes like [a lightning]."

(Boorman, Excalibur); however it is never actually seen - only its powers manifest themselves. It is unclear, whether by 'Dragon' he means the entire world or only its magical aspects but it is clear that the dragon seeps with power which can be used by mages. The meaning behind the name - 'the Dragon' is unclear, however it is likely named thusly for its association to raw power - much like the legendary beasts themselves, magic is capable of immense destruction or a great protection. The

Dragon's power is manifested by not only Merlin's spells and tricks but also by the

Charm of Making - an incantation able to call forth the most powerful forces of the

Dragon. When Morgan uses the charm to trap Merlin inside the Dragon (a cavern where the magic is most powerful) it becomes clear, that the power lies mostly in the Dragon and not as much in the one using it and manipulating it (much like an actual dragon).

Excalibur (1981) however presents love and devotion as something more powerful than the power of the dragon when Arthur's need for his trusted friend Merlin frees him from his icy prison in the bowels of the Dragon. Magic is after all many times twisted to evil purposes and needs to be overcome - much like a dragon that wreaks havoc upon the land and needs to be slain.

In Mists ofAvalon (2001) magic comes from a tangible place - Avalon. Avalon is however inaccessible to those who do not have a connection to the old religion and it is situated behind a lake of mists - those unworthy of access could easily get lost in the mists and never find their way. In the same place there is a Christian church built -

Christians therefore thread through sacred pagan grounds and are watched by them unknowingly. This may be the metaphor for the actual state of Britain in Mists of

49 Avalon (2001) - Christians slowly take over the land while the pagans lurk in the shadows, watching and planning how to come back into power. Avalon is its on world in this adaptation and it serves as a refuge for those who still worship the old Goddess - however paganism requires sacrifices (for tangible effects, tangible price) and many of its followers rather turn to the solace of Christianity. Even the church at the lake serves as a beacon of hope for those lost in the mists (those who lose connection to paganism but have nowhere else to turn) - its bells call to the lost souls and offer them sanctuary

(Morgaine, Igraine, Gwenwyfar etc.) Much like in Excalibur (1981) magic may be seen as a helpful tool but overtime it becomes clear that it is far too often twisted to evil purposes (for example by Morgause), it is again "defeated" by more humane and compassionate values - hope, solace, peace etc. Here these values are provided by

Christianity.

5.2 Manifestations of Magic

As opposed to magic as an entire force moving the world, this subchapter will focus on how magic is portrayed tangibly and how the contemporary adaptations deal with spells, illusions, rituals and exhibitions of magical power in general. In most legend sources the first manifestation of magical energies is the illusion Merlin creates in order to impregnate Igraine with Uther's child, which is a perfect example of the scale of magic in the Arthurian legend - magic moves the world and is a tool which can change the fate of Britain, it is not however used in large scale as might be expected - it does not create natural disasters nor does it kill people, magic is only used to help out the subtle manipulations of those wielding it. And as most of the legend sources, including Malory's Le Morte D 'Arthur, do not go into much detail on particular

50 manifestations of magic, it is a part of story where the creators of cinematic adaptations have a chance to bring something new and more dramatic into the legend.

Boorman's Excalibur (1981) puts a lot of emphasis on magic and it recreates the mystic ambiance of the legend. Simply by using the right surroundings (dark and gloomy forests or caverns) the film evokes certain sense of wonder and supernaturalism in the viewer. Boorman somewhat deviates from the usual divinations and premonitions in the legend sources and puts more emphasis on spells and illusions, he in fact emphasizes the impact of spells by showing how powerful they are (by giving the

Charm of Making immense power) and by showing how dangerous they are even for the one performing them: "Now look, I once stood exposed to the Dragon's Breath so that a man could lie one night with a woman. It took me nine moons to recover."

(Boorman, Excalibur) In Excalibur (1981) magic manifestations always include an aspect of nature, enhancing the pagan overtones of the film discussed previously in subchapter 'Transition from paganism to Christianity' (p.40-41). Every spell that is performed and every flash of magic is either manifested by or accompanied by an act of natural forces; for example when Merlin explains the Dragon to Arthur, a lightning strikes the ground in front of them as a proof of the Dragon's power. In Mingo's essay two of the scenes that portray some kind of shape-shifting in Excalibur (1981) are discussed to point out parallels between them: "When Merlin needs to stir the dragon

[...] the mist will help the king to take the shape of Gorlois. Similarly, at the end of the film, the sorcerer again manipulates the dragon mist which will result in Morgana's death and cause a dense fog that will give Arthur a strategic advantage over Mordred."

(72) The presence of the mist in the two manifestations of powerful magic again confirms the presence of natural forces in any portrayal of a magical act. Nature plays a key role overall in Boorman's rendition of the legend and accompanies not only the

51 supernatural magical manifestations but also the significant moments in the plot; for example in Arthur's and Guinevere's wedding, which takes place in the middle of forest

- the ties of magic to nature and nature's importance throughout the film only contribute to the overall mysticism and sometimes obscurity of the ambiance that

Boorman created in his adaptation.

The miniseries Mists of Avalon (2001) is filled with manifestations of magical powers. Much like in Excalibur (1981) tangible magic always comes from an unseen source, the powers stems from Avalon thanks to the old pagan Goddess, who rewards her priestesses. The manifestations of magic in Mists of Avalon (2001) is however handled more through portraying its consequences and furthermore there are numerous rituals and prophetic dreams in the series, as opposed to conventional spells and incantations, which are more common in contemporary fantasy films. The series therefore concentrates less on wowing the viewers with its special effects and more on the dark and mysterious ambiance that the blood rituals, apparitions and prophecies create. The way in which the manifestations of magic are portrayed in the series also enhances the portrayal of paganism, for example Morgause's ritual to make Gwenwyfar barren has a specific pagan 'feel' to it as does the ritual celebration during which Arthur lies with Morgaine. Both these scenes emphasize the somewhat 'barbaric' approach to magic in order to portray the lives of the characters in a world dominated by paganism.

52 6. Conclusion

As the Arthurian legend is nowadays basis for numerous different portrayals, which attempt to capture the stories from different angles or introduce now nuances, the discussed films and series portray many crucial elements and plotlines from the legend sources and they have their own approach in depicting them.

The film Excalibur (1981) draws from Malory's Le Morte D'Arthur and it portrays the Arthurian legend from Arthur's conception to his death. Boorman's film uses the more subtle nuances such as colors, aspects of nature or character portrayals and expressions to establish his depiction of the legend; he also lowers the focus on

Christianity and sets his story among more mystical and pagan motives. Excalibur

(1981) also brings interesting approach to the portrayal of the legend by implementing numerous parallels and ties throughout the story (such as several parallels between some plot events, or magical acts, or the ties of Arthur and Britain, Arthur's power and

Excalibur and many other).

Mist of Avalon (2001) portray the legend in a wholly new angle by retelling the well-known stories from the point of view of Morgaine while simultaneously turning her character from antagonist to a protagonist. The series also introduces the conflict between Christianity and paganism as a main driving force behind the story and the reason for many of the events of the legend. Many other elements of the previous lore are either changed or enhanced and some other characters are ascribed new approaches

(for example Morgause or Mordred).

Similarly Taylor's film Guinevere (1994) portrays the Arthurian legend from a woman's point of view - Guinevere's; and it takes on a whole new approach to her character by depicting her as a woman raised in a pagan environment and eventually

53 ruling Britain in Arthur's stead. The film conveys strong feminist overtones and makes an impression with its new portrayals of some of the main characters.

First Knight (1995) portrays the affair between Lancelot and Guinevere in a new way by eliminating Lancelot's primary loyalty to Arthur and by giving his character more mischievous traits in his pursuit of the queen. Zucker's film digs into the adultery more extensively and it concentrates on the character developments throughout the story.

The most original of the adaptations is without a doubt Fuqua's King Arthur

(2004) that changes the legend setting entirely and brings the main characters into whole new dimensions by overhauling their identities based on a newish controversial theory of the reality of King Arthur. Fuqua's daring approach towards the legend and the fame of his film may just contribute towards new retellings or studies based on the same theory.

After the study of these contemporary works and the analysis of their most prominent points of focus, it is clear that nowadays the creators of the legend adaptations focus predominantly on the character developments and their internal struggles - the Arthurian legend sources provide excellent plot opportunities in which contemporary works may portray the hardships and emotional issues, such as adultery, incest, crises of faith etc. With the popularization of the fantasy genre the more pagan and mystical aspects of the legend become attractive for creating further adaptations, therefore the creators often somewhat abandon the chivalric and secular aspects of the legend to focus more on the magical and obscure ones. Lastly, as originality holds great importance in creating new popular works, there is a trend to bring brand new ideas into the medieval legends, such as retelling the story from a different point of view, change

54 the nature of integral character or even change the setting and historical context of the legend.

55 7. Sources

De Troyes, Chretien. The Knight of the Cart. Trans. Burton Raff el. New Haven:

Yale UP, 1997. Print.

Excalibur. Dir. John Boorman. Perf. Nigel Terry, Helen Mirren, and Nicolas Clay.

Orion Pictures, 1981. Film.

First Knight. Dir. Jerry Zucker. Perf. Sean Connery, Richard Gere, and Julia Ormond.

Columbia Pictures, 1995. Film.

Gawain and the Green Knight. Dir. Stephen Weeks. Perf. Murray Head, Ciaran

Madden, and Nigel Green. Scancrest, 1973. Film.

Geoffrey of Monmouth. Historia Regum Britanniae. Trans. Aaron Thompson.

Cambridge: In parentheses Publications, 1999. Print.

Geoffrey of Monmouth. The Vita Merlini. Trans. John Jay Parry. 1925. Global Grey,

2014. globalgrey. Web. 20 Apr. 2016.

Guinevere. Dir. Jud Taylor. Perf. Sheryl Lee, Sean Patrick Flanely, and Noah Wyle.

Alexander/Enright & Associates, 1994. Film.

Joe, Jimmy. "Vulgate cycle". Timeless Myths - Arthurian Legends. Timeless Myths,

1999. Web. 20 Apr. 2016.

Kennedy, Harlan. "John Boorman - In interview." American Film. March 1981.

American Cinema Papers Archive. Web. 20 Apr. 2016.

King Arthur. Dir. Antoine Fuqua. Perf. Clive Owen, Keira Knightley, and loan

Gruffudd. Touchstone, 2004. Film.

Littleton, C.Scott and Linda A. Malcor. From Scythia to Camelot. New York:

Routledge, 2000. Print.

Malory, Thomas. Le Morte Darthur or The Hoole Book ofKyng Arthur and of His

Noble Knyghtes of The Rounde Table. New York: Norton, 2004. Print.

56 McCracken, Peggy. "Love and adultery: Arthur's affairs." The Cambridge Companion

to the Arthurian Legend. Ed. Elizabeth Archibald. Bristol: Cambridge UP, 2009.

188-200. Print.

Mingo, Carlos A. Sanz. "The adventures of King Arthur and the Noble Knights of the

Silver Screen." Read on Screen: Film Adaptations of Literature in English. Ed.

Carlos A. Sanz Mingo, Klára Kolínská. Prague: Metropolitan University Prague

Press, 2015. 60-76. Print.

Mists of Avalon. Dir. Uli Edel. Perf. Julianna Margulies, Anjelika Huston, and Joan

Allen. Constantine Film, 2001. Television.

Saunders, Corinne. "Religion and Magic." The Cambridge Companion to the Arthurian

Legend. Ed. Elizabeth Archibald. Bristol: Cambridge UP, 2009. 201-217. Print.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Trans. Jessie L. Weston. Cambridge, Ontario: In

parentheses Publications, 1999. Print.

57 8. Summary

The aim of this thesis is to analyze five representatives of contemporary cinematic adaptations of the Arthurian legend and to determine the trends in current portrayal of the story of King Arthur. The chosen adaptations are the films King Arthur

(2004), Guinevere (1994), First Knight (1995) and Excalibur (1981) and the television miniseries Mists of Avalon (2001) - all of which were picked due to their renown, focus on similar aspects of the legend and imaginative content.

The thesis firstly focuses on the portrayal of three main characters in said adaptations and the legend sources (namely Arthur, Morgan le Fay and Merlin). The theses studies which character traits the portrayals focus on and in how the characters are depicted.

In the second chapter analyzing the works, the thesis concentrates on several plot events and their depiction and main points of focus in the adaptations, namely on the conception of Arthur, the affair between Lancelot and Guinevere and the conception of

Mordred and his subsequent overthrow of King Arthur.

Next the thesis focuses on the portrayal of religion in the adaptations and what importance it is ascribed. It also discusses the different roles of paganism and

Christianity, how it affects the characters and how do the adaptations deal with the clash of two religions.

Last but not least the thesis discusses the role of magic and the supernatural features included in contemporary works. It analyzes how the adaptations attempt to explain the presence of magic and how they depict its manifestations.

58 9. Resumé

Cílem této práce je analýza pěti reprezentantů současných filmových adaptací artušovských legend a vyhodnocení trendů v novodobém vyobrazení příběhů krále

Artuše. Vybranými filmy jsou Král Artuš (2004), Guinevere (1994), První Rytíř (1995),

Excalibur (1981) a filmová minisérie Mlhy Avalonu (2001). Díla byla vybrána díky tomu, jak jsou proslavená, na jaké aspekty původních legend se zaměřují a jaké nové a originální nuance přinášejí.

V první části se práce zabývá vyobrazením tří z hlavních postav ve zmíněných adaptacích (konkrétně Artušem, Morgan le Fay a Merlinem); studuje jejich vlastnosti a zaměřuje se na jejich celkovou interpretaci.

V další části, analyzující jednotlivé verze, se práce soustředí na několik dějových událostí a jejich zobrazení. Konkrétně jde o početí Artuše, aféru Lancelota a Guinevere, početí Mordreda a následné svržení krále Artuše.

Následně se práce zabývá vyobrazením náboženství v jednotlivých zpracováních a jeho důležitostí. Studuje role pohanství a křesťanství, jejich vliv na jednotlivé postavy a jak se adaptace vypořádávají se střetem dvou náboženství.

V neposlední řadě je rozebírán význam magie a nadpřirozených jevů v současných zpracováních. Práce analyzuje, jak se autoři pokoušejí vysvětlit výskyt magie a jak zobrazují její projevy.

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