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Radioactive Particles in the Environment: Sources, Particle Characterization and Analytical Techniques spine 5,5 mm IAEA-TECDOC-1663 Radioactive particles in the Environment: Sources, Particle Characterization and Analytical Techniques INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA ISBN 978–92–0–119010–9 ISSN 1011–4289 Radioactive particles in the Environment: Sources, Particle Characterization and Analytical Techniques The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency: AFGHANISTAN GHANA NORWAY ALBANIA GREECE OMAN ALGERIA GUATEMALA PAKISTAN ANGOLA HAITI PALAU ARGENTINA HOLY SEE PANAMA ARMENIA HONDURAS PARAGUAY AUSTRALIA HUNGARY PERU AUSTRIA ICELAND PHILIPPINES AZERBAIJAN INDIA POLAND BAHRAIN INDONESIA PORTUGAL BANGLADESH IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF QATAR BELARUS IRAQ REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA BELGIUM IRELAND ROMANIA BELIZE ISRAEL RUSSIAN FEDERATION BENIN ITALY SAUDI ARABIA BOLIVIA JAMAICA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA JAPAN SENEGAL BOTSWANA JORDAN SERBIA BRAZIL KAZAKHSTAN SEYCHELLES BULGARIA KENYA SIERRA LEONE BURKINA FASO KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE BURUNDI KUWAIT SLOVAKIA CAMBODIA KYRGYZSTAN SLOVENIA CAMEROON LATVIA SOUTH AFRICA CANADA LEBANON SPAIN CENTRAL AFRICAN LESOTHO SRI LANKA REPUBLIC LIBERIA SUDAN CHAD LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA SWEDEN CHILE LIECHTENSTEIN SWITZERLAND CHINA LITHUANIA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC COLOMBIA LUXEMBOURG TAJIKISTAN CONGO MADAGASCAR THAILAND COSTA RICA MALAWI THE FORMER YUGOSLAV CÔTE D’IVOIRE MALAYSIA REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA CROATIA MALI TUNISIA CUBA MALTA TURKEY CYPRUS MARSHALL ISLANDS UGANDA CZECH REPUBLIC MAURITANIA UKRAINE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MAURITIUS UNITED ARAB EMIRATES OF THE CONGO MEXICO UNITED KINGDOM OF DENMARK MONACO GREAT BRITAIN AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MONGOLIA NORTHERN IRELAND ECUADOR MONTENEGRO EGYPT MOROCCO UNITED REPUBLIC EL SALVADOR MOZAMBIQUE OF TANZANIA ERITREA MYANMAR UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ESTONIA NAMIBIA URUGUAY ETHIOPIA NEPAL UZBEKISTAN FINLAND NETHERLANDS VENEZUELA FRANCE NEW ZEALAND VIETNAM GABON NICARAGUA YEMEN GEORGIA NIGER ZAMBIA GERMANY NIGERIA ZIMBABWE The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’. IAEA-TECDOC-1663 RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES, PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATION AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 2011 COPYRIGHT NOTICE All IAEA scientific and technical publications are protected by the terms of the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in 1952 (Berne) and as revised in 1972 (Paris). The copyright has since been extended by the World Intellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include electronic and virtual intellectual property. Permission to use whole or parts of texts contained in IAEA publications in printed or electronic form must be obtained and is usually subject to royalty agreements. Proposals for non-commercial reproductions and translations are welcomed and considered on a case-by-case basis. Enquiries should be addressed to the IAEA Publishing Section at: Sales and Promotion, Publishing Section International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria fax: +43 1 2600 29302 tel.: +43 1 2600 22417 email: [email protected] http://www.iaea.org/books For further information on this publication, please contact: Terrestrial Environment Laboratory International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria email: [email protected] RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES, PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATION AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES IAEA, VIENNA, 2011 IAEA-TECDOC-1663 ISBN 978-92-0-119010-9 ISSN 1011-4289 © IAEA, 2011 Printed by the IAEA in Austria August 2011 FOREWORD Over the years, radioactive particles have been released to the environment from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear fuel cycle operations. However, measurements of environmental radioactivity and any associated assessments are often based on the average bulk mass or surface concentration, assuming that radionuclides are homogeneously distributed as simple ionic species. It has generally not been recognised that radioactive particles present in the environment often contain a significant fraction of the bulk sample activity, leading to sample heterogeneity problems and false and/or erratic measurement data. Moreover, the inherent differences in the transport and bioavailability of particle bound radionuclides compared with those existing as molecules or ions have largely been ignored in dose assessments. To date, most studies regarding radionuclide behaviour in the soil-plant system have dealt with soluble forms of radionuclides. When radionuclides are deposited in a less mobile form, or in case of a superposition of different physico-chemical forms, the behaviour of radionuclides becomes much more complicated and extra efforts are required to provide information about environmental status and behaviour of radioactive particles. There are currently no documents or international guides covering this aspect of environmental impact assessments. To fill this gap, between 2001 and 2008 the IAEA performed a Coordinated Research Programme (CRP- G4.10.03) on the ‘Radiochemical, Chemical and Physical Characterization of Radioactive Particles in the Environment’ with the objective of development, adoption and application of standardized analytical techniques for the comprehensive study of radioactive particles. The CRP was in line with the IAEA project intended to assist the Member States in building capacity for improving environmental assessments and for management of sites contaminated with radioactive particles. This IAEA-TECDOC presents the findings and achievements of the above CRP in the area of measurement and characterisation of radioactive particles in the environment. Ten IAEA Member States, namely Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Israel, Kazakhstan, Norway, Russian Federation, Spain, Ukraine, the UK, the USA and the EC Institute of Transuranium Elements (ITU) participated in the CRP. The IAEA acknowledges to contributions of all the participants and mentoring by Prof. Brit Salbu. The IAEA also wishes to express its gratitude to N. Vajda for her kind assistance in editing and preparating this publication for publishing, as well as to all the contributors to the IAEA-TECDOC and those who assisted in its drafting and review. The IAEA officer responsible for this publication was S. Fesenko of the Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, IAEA Environment Laboratories. EDITORIAL NOTE The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA. CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 3 1.3. SCOPE .................................................................................................................................... 3 1.4. STRUCTURE ......................................................................................................................... 3 2. SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES IN THE ENVIRONMENT ................................. 4 2.1. NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTS ............................................................................................. 4 2.2. NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE ..................................................................................................... 6 2.2.1. Accidental releases from nuclear reactors ............................................................ 6 2.2.2. Releases from nuclear reactors under normal operation ....................................... 8 2.2.3. Releases from reprocessing plants ........................................................................ 9 2.3. OTHER SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES ...................................................... 10 3. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES TO STUDY RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES ........................... 11 3.1. IDENTIFICATION AND ISOLATION OF RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES ...................... 11 3.1.1. Identification of the presence of radioactive particles ........................................ 11 3.1.2. Particle location and re-location ......................................................................... 13 3.1.3. Particle isolation, micromanipulation ................................................................. 14 3.2. NUCLEAR ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES TO STUDY RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES ................................................................................................................. 15 3.2.1. Gamma spectrometry .......................................................................................... 15 3.2.2. Beta counting .....................................................................................................
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