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Visions of Freedom the new cold war history Odd Arne Westad, editor Visions of Freedom Havana, Washington, Pretoria, and the Struggle for Southern Africa, 1976–1991 piero gleijeses The University of North Carolina Press Chapel Hill © 2013 The University of North Carolina Press All rights reserved Designed and set in Calluna by Rebecca Evans Manufactured in the United States of America The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources. The University of North Carolina Press has been a member of the Green Press Initiative since 2003. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gleijeses, Piero, author. Visions of freedom : Havana, Washington, Pretoria, and the struggle for southern Africa, 1976–1991/Piero Gleijeses. pages cm. — (New Cold War history) isbn 978-1-4696-0968-3 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Africa, Southern—History—1975– 2. Cold War—Political aspects— Africa, Southern. 3. Africa, Southern—Politics and government—1975–1994. 4. Africa, Southern—Foreign relations—1975–1994. 5. Africa, Southern— History—Autonomy and independence movements. I. Title. II. Series: New Cold War history. dt1165.g54 2013 968.0009048—dc23 2013024964 Portions of this work have appeared earlier, in somewhat different form, as “Moscow’s Proxy? Cuba and Africa 1975–1988,” Journal of Cold War Studies 8:4 (Fall 2006): 98–146, © 2006 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and “A Test of Wills: Jimmy Carter, South Africa, and the Independence of Namibia,” Diplomatic History 34:5 (Nov. 2010): 853–91 (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., publisher), and are reprinted here with permission. 17 16 15 14 13 5 4 3 2 1 To Setsuko Ono This page intentionally left blank Contents Acknowledgments xi Abbreviations Used in Text xiii Prologue 9 1 The Cuban Drumbeat 17 2 Neto, Castro, and Carter: A New Beginning? 37 3 The Cubans in Angola 65 4 Strained Relations: Cuba and Angola 98 5 The Fronts Harden: The United States and Cuba, 1978–1980 119 6 Carter and Southern Africa: A Balance Sheet 139 7 Enter Reagan 166 8 The Wonders of Linkage 197 9 Angolan Travails 213 10 The Failure of Lusaka 242 11 The United States, South Africa, and Savimbi 279 12 The View from Cuba, 1984–1986 314 13 Havana and Moscow: Conflicting Strategies 343 14 Negotiations in the Offing? 379 15 Cuito Cuanavale 393 16 Maniobra XXXI Aniversario 421 17 Chester Crocker Meets Jorge Risquet: Talks about Talks 431 18 The Negotiations 450 19 The New York Agreements 482 20 Visions of Freedom 503 Notes 527 Bibliography 613 Index 641 This page intentionally left blank Maps and Illustrations maps Cuba 2 Africa 3 Angola 4 Namibia, showing the homelands and “White Area” 5 Southern Angola, showing the Cuban defensive line 6 Angola’s eleven military regions 7 Zaire and its neighbors 40 Angolan territory occupied by South Africa, February 1984 237 Military operations near the Lomba River, late September and early October 1987 395 illustrations President of Angola Agostinho Neto with Fidel Castro 265 Agostinho Neto with President of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito 265 Agostinho Neto with Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 266 Lúcio Lara, Neto’s closest aide 266 President of Angola José Eduardo dos Santos 267 Jorge Risquet, Castro’s point man for Africa, with José Eduardo dos Santos and Fidel Castro 267 Chief of Staff of the Angolan Army Ndalu with Jorge Risquet 268 Sam Nujoma, leader of the Namibian rebels, with Fidel Castro 268 Namibian guerrillas 269 Sophia Ndeitungo, Namibian student in Cuba 269 Cuban Special Forces lieutenant with Namibian insurgents 270 Nelson Mandela in Cuba 270 The “Wall of Names” in Pretoria’s Freedom Park 271 General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev with Raúl Castro 271 Mikhail Gorbachev with Fidel Castro 272 General Konstantin Kurochkin, head of the Soviet Military Mission in Angola 272 General Polo Cintra Frías, head of the Cuban Military Mission in Angola 273 Lourdes Franco Codinach, a Cuban doctor in Angola 274 President Jimmy Carter, Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski 274 President Ronald Reagan with Mikhail Gorbachev 275 Ronald Reagan with Assistant Secretary of State for Africa Chester Crocker 276 Angolan rebel leader Jonas Savimbi 276 Ronald Reagan with Jonas Savimbi 277 South African Foreign Minister Pik Botha 278 President of South Africa PW Botha 278 “Mr. President: Why Is Chester Crocker Trying to Sell 20 Million Black Africans into Communist Slavery?” 283 “Savimbi, Savimbi, He’s Our Man, If He Can’t Do It Nobody Can!!!” 305 “wanted For Supplying $2 Billion-Plus of Aid and Comfort Annually to America’s Soviet Enemy in Cuban-Occupied Angola.” 312 Cuban, Angolan, and Soviet soldiers fleeing 401 South African Defense Minister Malan: “2 + 2 = 10 . You ain’t seen nothing yet!” 459 “Some People Just Don’t Know When to Quitto . .” 483 Acknowledgments Setsuko Ono has stimulated me along my journey with her probing and frank comments, and she has inspired me with her intelligence, her courage, and her art. Her sculptures adorn Havana, Washington, Baltimore, Tokyo, and Shibu- kawa. The paintings that she exhibited at the 2009 Bienal of Havana—For Our Beautiful Earth: Resistance to Overwhelming Force and Dreams of Peace—express with exquisite sensitivity her longing for a more just world. They challenge me to be relentless in seeking the truth in my chosen field. For the past decade, I spent at least two months every year in Havana doing research for this book. Gloria León, one of Cuba’s most gifted intellectuals, has helped me understand her country and saved me from countless gaffes and faux pas. Jorge Risquet, a key protagonist of the events analyzed in this book, made it possible for me to gain access to the closed Cuban archives. He has become a close friend while remaining a harsh and very intelligent critic. I was fortunate to be able to count on Hedelberto López Blanch—Cuba’s foremost investigative journalist—and on the help of Rodrigo Álvarez Cambras, Juan Carrizo Estévez, Gisela Castellanos Castro, Nancy Jiménez Rodríguez, Antonio López López, Fernando Remírez de Estenoz, and Jorge Risquet Valdés Jiménez. Migdalia León is my Cuban doctor and a dear friend. My research in Pretoria, Windhoek, and Luanda was enriched by the help of six good friends: Claudia Uushona, Paulo Lara, Isabel Martín, Emiliano Man- resa, Pedro Ross, and Rosa Fonseca. Thenjiwe Mtintso, Aziz Pahad, and Ronnie Kasrils helped convince the National Archives of South Africa to declassify the documents of the State Security Council that were critical to my research. At the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, where I teach, Associate Dean John Harrington, a lover of history, is a good friend and has helped me in every possible way. I also owe a special debt to Senior Associ- ate Dean Myron Kunka and to Kelley Kornell, the best coordinator that the U.S. xi foreign policy department has ever had. Kelley holds our department together, and she has assisted me with intelligence, grace, and skill. I also benefited from the assistance of Brian Wingfield, Willy Shield, Thomas Field, David Fowkes, Elizabeth Wente, and Raphaël Guévin-Nicoloff. Three brilliant research librar- ians—Linda Carlson, Kathy Picart, and Barbara Prophet—tracked down even the most outlandish publications. They performed miracles with good cheer. I greatly appreciated the intelligent criticism of Professors Lars Schoultz and Odd Arne Westad, who reviewed my manuscript for the University of North Carolina Press. My good friend Isaac Cohen offered, as always, incisive and wise comments, as did Professor Jim Hershberg. I thank Anna-Mart van Wyk for her insights on South Africa. Bringing this manuscript to press was greatly eased by the professionalism of Chuck Grench, Ron Maner, and Sara Cohen at the University of North Carolina Press. For more than three decades Doctor David Berler has safeguarded my eyesight—a challenging task—and Doctor Marwa Adi has now joined the effort. I am deeply grateful to them. My research took me to archives in the United States, Cuba, Europe, and Africa. I thank all the archivists, but I feel a particular debt to Teresita Muñoz at the military archives in Havana and to Neels Muller at the Foreign Ministry Archives in Pretoria. And, above all, to my dear friend Ivys Silva Jomarrón, at the Central Committee of the Cuban Communist Party. Her wisdom and ef- ficiency were invaluable. Maja Murisic searched the Yugoslav archives for me and translated the docu- ments she gathered. Jan Krzewinski did the same in the Polish archives. All other translations are mine. Four protagonists read the manuscript: Jeff Davidow, the director of the Of- fice of Southern African Affairs of the U.S. State Department in 1984–86; Eeben Barlow, a senior officer in the South African Defence Force in the 1980s; Jorge Risquet, Castro’s point man for Angola in the period covered in this book; and General Paulo Lara, a senior officer in the Angolan army in the 1980s. All were forceful critics of my manuscript. To them, and to all who agreed to be inter- viewed for this book, I give my sincere thanks. And I also thank the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, the American Philosophical Society, and SAIS for their financial assistance. Nancy Mitchell is much more than the foremost expert on Carter’s foreign policy. Her forthcoming book, Race and the Cold War: Jimmy Carter in Africa, illuminates U.S. foreign policy with unsurpassed intelligence. She generously set it aside time and again to read my manuscript, and I greatly benefited from her literary skill and her penetrating criticism.
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