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For Use by the Author Only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV Afrika-Studiecentrum Series David Livingstone and the Myth of African Poverty and Disease For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV Afrika-Studiecentrum Series Series Editors Lungisile Ntsebeza (University of Cape Town, South Africa) Harry Wels (VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands, African Studies Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands and University of the Western Cape, South Africa) Editorial Board Emmanuel Akyeampong (Harvard University, USA) Akosua Adomako Ampofo (University of Ghana, Legon) Fatima Harrak (University of Mohammed V, Morocco) Francis Nyamnjoh (University of Cape Town, South Africa) Robert Ross (Leiden University, The Netherlands) VOLUME 35 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/asc For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV David Livingstone and the Myth of African Poverty and Disease A Close Examination of His Writing on the Pre-colonial Era By Sjoerd Rijpma LEIDEN | BOSTON For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV © Translation: Mrs R. van Stolk. The original text of this story was written by Sjoerd Rijpma (pronounced: Rypma) in Dutch—according to David Livingstone ‘of all languages the nastiest. It is good only for oxen’ (Livingstone, Family Letters 1841–1856, vol. 1, ed. I. Schapera (London: Chatto and Windus, 1959), 190). This is not the reason it has been translated into English. Cover illustration: A young African herd boy sitting on a large ox. The photograph belongs to a series of Church of Scotland Foreign Missions Committee lantern slides relating to David Livingstone. Photographer unknown. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rijpma, Sjoerd, 1931–2015, author. David Livingstone and the myth of African poverty and disease : a close examination of his writing on the pre-colonial era / by Sjoerd Rijpma. pages cm. — (Afrika-studiecentrum series ; v. 35) Includes index. ISBN 978-90-04-27783-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-29373-1 (e-book) 1. Livingstone, David, 1813–1873— Travel—Africa, Sub-Saharan. 2. Public health—Africa, Sub-Saharan— History—To 1884. 3. Nutrition—Africa, Sub-Saharan—History—To 1884. 4. Africa, Sub-Saharan—Social conditions—19th century. I. Title. II. Series: Afrika-Studiecentrum series ; v. 35. RA552.A357R55 2015 362.10967—dc23 2015007829 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface. issn 1570-9310 isbn 978-90-04-27783-0 (paperback) isbn 978-90-04-29373-1 (e-book) Copyright 2015 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV The more faults you find in the great man and the more obvious his weaknesses, the more earnestly you have to look for the real power which enabled him to achieve what he did. T.R. Glover, 1935 ∵ For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV Contents Foreword xi Preface xvii Preface to the 2015 Edition xxi Some Basic Data (Tables 1 and 2) xxii David Livingstone Chronology xxvii Acronyms and Abbreviations xxix PART 1 Africa’s Past: Surprising New Aspects Introduction to Part 1 2 1 ‘Health and Nutrition’ or ‘Disease and Hunger’? 7 What is the Actual Meaning of ‘Malnutrition’? 11 How Old is ‘Malnutrition’? 16 ‘Malnutrition’ in Africa Since Decolonization 17 New Concepts, the Same ‘Malnutrition’ 19 European Doctors in Africa before 1880 21 Poverty in Precolonial Tropical Africa 23 The United Nations, Statistics and the Present 25 Livingstone as Source of Information 25 Malaria, Mal Aria and ‘Fever’ 27 The Correlation between Health and Nutrition 30 What is Meant by ‘Resistance’? 31 Community and Sickness 36 Assumptions 38 PART 2 David Livingstone in Tropical Africa Introduction to Part 2 42 2 1849–56: Missionary Travels and Researches 44 Sojourn and Travels in Southern Africa (1841–49), The Missionary Travels (1849–53) and the Trans-Africa Journey (1853–56). A Paraphrase of a Number of Aspects of the Book 44 A Short Historical Outline 45 The First Ten Years in Southern Africa 47 For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV viii contents The Kololo 52 To Luanda (1853–54) 59 Luanda (1854); Back to Linyanti (1854–55) 67 From Linyanti to Quelimane (1855–56) 73 Reflections on Livingstone’s Missionary Travels 83 Differences between Book and Journals 85 Missionary Travels Compared 87 Preparations for the Zambezi Expedition 110 3 1858–64: Narrative of an Expedition 112 Exploration of Rivers and Lakes; Return to Linyanti with the Kololo. A Paraphrase of Various Aspects of the Second Book 113 Investigating the Zambezi 115 Exploring the River Shire and Lake Malawi 120 Intermezzo: A Journey on Foot from Mozambique to Linyanti and Back 126 The Universities’ Mission; The Ruvuma Explorations 134 The End of the Expedition 141 Reflections on Narrative of an Expedition 147 Narrative of an Expedition Compared 147 Once Again to Africa 180 4 David Livingstone: A Usable Source of ‘General’ Information? 183 David Livingstone’s ‘Inaccuracies, Distortions and Omissions’ in Another Perspective 194 Scientific Reliability 203 PART 3 Unexpected Discoveries in Tropical Africa; A Journey with Blinkers Introduction to Part 3 218 5 1849–56: Missionary Travels and Researches 219 Sojourn and Travels in Southern Africa (1841–49), the Missionary Travels (1849–53), and the Trans-Africa Journey (1853–56). A Paraphrase with the Emphasis on Health and Nutrition 219 The Kalahari Desert and Lake Ngami 219 The Kololo 223 To Luanda (1853–54) 232 Luanda (1854), and Back to Linyanti (1854–55) 241 From Linyanti to Quelimane (1855–56) 249 For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV contents ix Reflections: Health and Nutrition in Missionary Travels 258 ‘Malnutrition’ 261 Breastfeeding, Sexual Abstinence and Birth Spacing 263 Health and Sickness 267 Nutrition and Food Production 280 With the Bushmen 281 With the Kololo and in the Barotse Valley 282 On the Way to Luanda, and then to Quelimane 284 Impressions Without Quantifying 287 Other Doctors on Food and Food Supply 288 The Opinion of Other Doctors 298 Wars 299 6 1858–64: ‘Narrative of an Expedition’ 301 Exploration of Rivers and Lakes; Return to Linyanti with the Kololo. A Paraphrase with the Emphasis on Health and Nutrition 301 Investigating the Zambezi 302 Exploring the River Shire and Lake Malawi (1859) 304 Intermezzo: A Journey on Foot from Mozambique to Linyanti and Back (1860) 310 The Universities’ Mission; the Ruvuma Explorations 322 The End of the Expedition 330 Reflections: Health and Nutrition in Narrative of an Expedition 336 ‘Malnutrition’ 338 Sickness and Health Among the Local Population 340 The Europeans 342 Nutrition and Food Supply 348 Poverty and War 353 Doctor John Kirk 355 7 1866–73: Waller’s The Last Journals of David Livingstone 358 Searching for the Sources of the Nile (1866–73), A Paraphrase of Waller’s The Last Journals of David Livingstone 362 To Lake Malawi, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Mweru and Lake Bangweulu (1866–68) 363 From Zanzibar to Lake Malawi 363 En Route to Lake Tanganyika 369 To Kazembe, and Finally to Lake Bangweulu 378 From Lake Bangweulu to Lake Tanganyika and Back (–1873): The Full Circle 387 With Stanley to Tabora 403 To the Source of the Nile in Lake Bangwuele 407 For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV x contents Reflections on Waller’s The Last Journals of David Livingstone 411 Livingstone and the ‘Personnel’ 414 Livingstone and the Arabs 416 Livingstone, Stanley and the Sources of the Nile 419 Reflections: Health and Nutrition in The Last Journals 422 Health 423 Livingstone’s Illness and Death 426 Food and Food Supply 429 8 What David Livingstone Really Discovered in Tropical Africa 435 Children without ‘Malnutrition’ 436 Symptoms in the Historic Literature 436 Lengthy Breastfeeding, Sexual Abstinence and Birth Spacing 437 Birth Spacing since Colonization 440 Birth Spacing and Birth Control 442 Health and Reduced Sickness 446 Full Value Nourishment and Food Supply 464 ‘Ignored Possibilities’ 465 ‘Specialization and Innovation’ 468 Diversification and Intensification 470 His Opinion on Health and Nutrition 501 Some Closing Remarks 503 Assumptions and Confirmation 503 Child Mortality: The Difference between the Past and the Present 503 Development and ‘Underdevelopment’ 506 African Agriculture Before and After 1880 508 ‘Population Explosion’ 510 ‘Traditional’ and Western Medicine 512 Colonisation and Decolonisation 515 Help for ‘Underdeveloped’ Countries 518 Ideas About the Future 521 What Help Cannot Achieve 521 What About ‘Malnutrition’, Infections and Under-Five Mortality? 528 Unnoticed African Solutions 529 Literature 533 Books Consulted, Not Cited 576 Maps: from David Livingstone and the Victorian Encounter with Africa 581 Index 584 For use by the Author only | © 2015 Koninklijke Brill NV Foreword Books and articles about David Livingstone, the nineteenth-century Scottish missionary, colonial pioneer, medical doctor, explorer, adventurer, scientist, botanist, humanist, ethnographer, and linguist, can hardly be counted. The long list of qualifications after his name partly explains the widespread inter- est in his life and personality. Livingstone’s travels and writings were so multi- faceted that discussion about them continues today.
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