Bonny and Read – Author’s Notes

(WARNING: Thar be spoilers here. Do not read any further until you have finished reading the entire libretto.)

Background

Despite their status as the most famous and popular female pirates in history, not much is known for certain about and . There are many stories and legends, but few proven facts. The original source for much of the information we have about them is A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates, by Captain Charles Johnson. First published in London in 1724, this is a collection of biographies of various pirates of the early 18th century, including Bonny, Read, and John “” Rackham. The GHP, as it is known for short, is generally considered to be a reliable source. It does contain some errors and fanciful elaborations, but most of what Johnson wrote about his subjects has been proven to be accurate. However, in the case of Bonny and Read, much of what he relates, particularly the stories of their early lives, has never been verified by hard evidence or corroboration from other reliable sources. To complicate matters, we do not even know who this Captain Johnson was, or what his sources were. Most authorities believe the name was a pseudonym used by the real author, who for some reason wanted to keep his identity a secret. This makes it difficult to determine how accurate the GHP might be when it comes to any unverified information. The GHP and other unsubstantiated stories aside, the only known facts concerning Anne Bonny and Mary Read are as follows. • On the night of August 22, 1720, Calico Jack Rackham stole a ship from Nassau Harbor. Two women named Anne Bonny and Mary Read were identified as being among his accomplices. • Over the next two months Bonny and Read engaged in various acts of with Rackham throughout the . • In late October Rackham and his crew, along with Bonny and Read, were captured off the coast of , and taken to St. Jago de la Vega, the colonial capitol. • On November 28, following the execution of Rackham and the other men, Bonny and Read were brought to trial, charged with several counts of piracy. They were convicted and sentenced to hang. At their sentencing, both women claimed to be pregnant. It was ordered that they be held in custody pending the outcome of an examination to validate their claim. And that’s it. That’s all we know. Who they were and where they came from, how they got involved with Rackham and became pirates, and what happened to them after their trial is not known for certain. The career of Anne Bonny and Mary Read coincided with what is known as the “” in the Caribbean/Atlantic region. This period, roughly from 1715 to 1725, was the most active in the history of piracy, and witnessed the careers of some of the most famous and successful pirates in history, such as , , and Black Sam Bellamy. The initial impetus was the end of British involvement in the War of the Spanish Succession, which put large numbers of sailors from the navy, as well as , out of work. In addition, a dramatic increase in maritime trade between Europe, Africa, and the colonies of the Western Hemisphere (known as the “Triangular Trade”) provided a wealth of attractive targets. The post-war financial belt-tightening that followed heavy government spending during the war prompted a reduction in naval warships deployed to protect colonies and shipping, and the colonies themselves had few resources of their own to devote to this purpose. These factors combined to make this region ripe for piracy. The British government eventually stepped up its efforts, and by the mid-1720s piracy in the region had been mostly suppressed. The conventional view of these pirates is that they were wild, violent, sadistic, greedy, selfish criminals – albeit “colorful”, in our modern view, and even attractive in a “bad boy” sort of way. However, history, as they say, is written by the victors, and this view is based on the records of the time, which were written by the legal, civil and commercial authorities of the day – in other words, the very people who had a vested interest in vilifying these pirates. More recently, some historians have begun studying the pirates of the Golden Age from the pirates’ own point of view, and a somewhat different picture has begun to emerge. The early 18th century was a time of great social inequality and injustice, when the lower classes were subjected to repression and abuse by the upper classes that were striving for power and profit in an emerging modern world. The common seamen of the day in particular, both in the regular navy and the merchant marine, were subjected to hard living and working conditions, as well as harsh discipline and considerable brutality. With unemployment high, poverty rampant, and an almost inexhaustible supply of cheap labor available, merchants and ship owners had little incentive to treat sailors well, and the sailors had little alternative but to put up with it. Many of those who became pirates did so in reaction to these conditions, seeking to free themselves from the tyranny they felt was inflicted on them by an unjust world, and striving to develop their own alternative communities and culture based on simple democratic principles. Is it stretching the point to view all pirates of this period as altruistically-motivated social revolutionaries? Perhaps; but they do appear to have been something more than just common criminals.

2 Scene Notes

Act I, Prologue What happened to Anne Bonny after her trial is unknown. There are many stories, but none have ever been proven to be true. One story that has surfaced in recent years claims that there are surviving descendents of hers who say that she returned to Charleston, married a man named Joseph Burleigh, and moved to Virginia. She raised a large family and lived a long life, dying in 1782. These purported descendents supposedly have evidence to support their claim. However, this story, like all the others, has never been verified.

Act I, Scene 1 From 1716 to 1718, New Providence Island in The Bahamas was the base of operations for a large alliance of pirates, under the leadership of captains such as , Henry Jennings, Charles Vane, and Edward “Blackbeard” Thatch. They were so successful that they brought commerce in the Caribbean/Atlantic region to a virtual standstill. In August of 1718, arrived as the first Royal Governor of The Bahamas, charged with the task of suppressing piracy. Rogers was a merchant, former , and a famous mariner of his day who had circumnavigated the globe. (During that voyage he also rescued Alexander Selkirk, the real-life castaway whose adventures inspired Robinson Crusoe.) He arrived with warships, soldiers, and a large number of new colonists – and the promise of a Royal Pardon for anyone willing to give up piracy. Many of the Bahamian pirates accepted the King’s Pardon. Others resisted, and either left or were driven out. Pirate activity continued for several more years, and Rogers struggled to exert his authority over the colony’s lawless and unruly elements. Exactly how and when Anne Bonny arrived in New Providence is uncertain. The story she tells Jack in this scene is consistent with the story of her life as related in the GHP (though in the GHP, she is the illegitimate product of an affair her father had with one of his maidservants). However, there is no evidence or corroboration from other reliable sources to back up this story, so her true background remains uncertain. 1700 is usually accepted as being the year of her birth, making her around nineteen when she became involved with Jack Rackham. However, there is no evidence to support this, and we really do not know how old she was. Some of the elements in this scene, such as her affair with Chidley Bayard and her fight with Maria Vargas, are based on various stories about her wild and scandalous behavior following her separation from her husband, James Bonny. But, again, there is no proof that these stories are true, or that such people as Bayard and Vargas even existed. John Rackham, known as “Calico Jack” for the colorful clothes he wore, was a prominent member of the Bahamian pirates. Nothing is known of his early life, but the events of his career as related in this scene, including the manner in which he succeeded Vane as captain and then subsequently lost his ship, are factual. Exactly how and when he became acquainted with Anne Bonny is uncertain, but it is believed that they met and began a romantic relationship some time after he returned to Nassau and obtained a pardon, in May of 1719.

Act I, Scene 2 It is believed that when his money began running out, Jack Rackham joined a privateering expedition against the Spanish under Captain Josiah Burgess, another former pirate, though this probably occurred earlier than depicted. In actual practice, there was not much difference between pirates and privateers. The methods, objectives and motivation were much

3 the same – to make a living, and maybe even get rich, by attacking and plundering ships at sea. The main difference between them amounts to a legal technicality. Pirates had no allegiance to any country, and might attack the ships of any nation. Privateers held a commission (known as “Letters of Marque”) from a particular country authorizing them to attack that country’s enemies, though they might also be engaged to hunt down pirates. Prizes taken were supposed to be delivered to the proper authorities, at which time the privateers would be paid a portion of the profits from the spoils. However, privateers might be just as likely to keep everything for themselves. Of course, one nation’s privateer was another one’s pirate. Though the concept was generally recognized by most maritime nations, enemy privateers were more likely to be treated as criminals than as legitimate combatants. Many privateers were former pirates and vice versa, and many men switched back and forth between the two. Some were both pirates and privateers at the same time, using their privateering commissions as a cover for piracy. Some might even carry Letters of Marque from more than one country, attack whomever they wished, and produce whatever documentation might be necessary to “legitimize” a particular act of piracy. We do not know for certain how and when Mary Read arrived in New Providence. The story she tells Anne is consistent with the story of her life as related in the GHP; and as with Anne’s story, there is no evidence to support it. Most stories portray her as being older than Anne, 1690 usually being the year given for her birth. However, there is no evidence to support this, and we really do not know how old she was. The way Anne and Mary meet as depicted in this scene was inspired by a story in the GHP. According to Johnson, both women disguised themselves as men in order to become pirates, Anne so she could accompany Jack. Mary joined Rackham’s crew, and Anne, thinking she was a man, revealed her true identity to Mary and attempted to seduce her. (According to Johnson, despite her relationship with Jack, Anne continued to be promiscuous.) At that point Mary revealed to Anne that she also was a woman in disguise. They pledged to keep their mutual secret, and became fast friends. Jack soon became jealous of their close relationship, at which point they let him in on the secret of Mary’s identity. (It’s a good story, but, as with so much else, there is no proof that it’s true.)

Act I, Scene 3 This scene is fictitious. Though Anne Bonny and Jack Rackham are alleged to have been romantically involved, not much is known about the details of their relationship.

Act I, Scene 4 There was a pirate by the name of Dennis McCarthy who was hanged in Nassau, though this occurred earlier than depicted, in December of 1718. He was one of several pirates executed on the same day, in what Governor Rogers intended as a demonstration of his authority. There was considerable sympathy for these men among the people of Nassau, and at one point the unruly crowd did come close to staging a riot to stop the executions and free the men. There is no evidence of a connection between McCarthy and Jack Rackham, but it is not unlikely that they could have known each other. However, Rackham would not have been present at McCarthy's execution, as he was elsewhere at the time engaged in piracy. It is not known if Mary Read was in Nassau by this time, but it is possible that Anne Bonny was, and she may very well have witnessed the hangings. McCarthy and some of the others did display the attitude and behavior depicted. This was not uncommon at pirate executions, where many pirates were unrepentant and defiant, and took the opportunity to express their scorn for the Establishment…and engage in a bit of “gallows humor”. McCarthy did not actually hang

4 himself, but this part was inspired by another real-life incident. William Fly, a pirate executed in Boston in 1726, was so frustrated by the ineptness of the hangman that he instructed him in how to hang a man properly, and set up the rope and tied the noose with his own hands. The second part of this scene is based on a story told in the GHP. Anne’s husband, James Bonny, was a pirate who had accepted the King’s Pardon and subsequently became an informer for Governor Rogers. To ensure that Anne was free from James, and to prevent him from making any trouble for them, Jack offered to “buy” Anne in what was then termed a “divorce by purchase”. According to this arrangement, which was not strictly legal, the husband would agree to a divorce or annulment in return for a cash payment. James accepted the offer.

Act I, Scene 5 According to the GHP, it was a man named Richard Turnley, enlisted to act as a witness to the contract, who informed Governor Rogers of the divorce-by-purchase deal. (For dramatic purposes, this has been changed to James Bonny himself.) Rogers was as much a stickler for morality as he was for legalities, and made various attempts to suppress what he considered sinful and immoral behavior in his colony. He called Anne and Jack before him, disallowed the divorce-by-purchase, and ordered Anne to return to her husband. If she refused, she would be sentenced to be publicly whipped. Faced with this, Anne agreed to return to her husband, and to be a proper wife and cease associating with bad company. The divorce-by-purchase story did not appear in the GHP when it was first published, but was included in a later edition. Whether this was the result of new information being discovered, or if the story was invented in order to flesh out the Anne Bonny biography, is unknown. Other than the GHP itself, there is no evidence that the story is true. Expulsis Piratis, Restituta Commercia – “Piracy Expelled, Commerce Restored” - was the Latin phrase adopted by Woodes Rogers as the motto for his colony. It is interesting to note that this motto stresses the importance of restoring trade and commerce - not law and order, public safety, or legal and civil rights, which is a good indication of what was truly important to members of the ruling establishment such as Rogers.

Act I, Scene 6 The implication in the GHP is that Anne Bonny’s forced return to her husband was the main motivation for Jack Rackham to turn pirate again and take Anne with him. Whether or not there is any truth to this, it is probable that Rackham, given his character and circumstances, was contemplating a return to piracy anyway. Exactly how the plot was hatched, and how Mary Read became involved, is unknown.

Act I, Scene 7 Though the known facts behind the story of Anne Bonny and Mary Read are few, it is true that on the night of August 22, 1720, the William, a 12-ton armed sloop belonging to a privateer named John Ham, was stolen from Nassau Harbor. John Rackham was later identified as being responsible. George Featherstone, Andrew Gibson, John Howell, John Davis, Noah Patrick, Anne Bonny and Mary Read were identified as being among his accomplices. Featherstone was later identified as being the crew’s sailing master. Richard Corner was not named among those who participated in the theft of the William, but was later identified as being the crew’s quartermaster, so it is likely that he was with them. We do not know anything else about these men personally. Their characters as depicted are fictitious. (More on Tom Deane

5 later.) It is unclear whether John Ham was on board the vessel when it was seized. We also do not know what relationship he had, if any, with Jack Rackham, though it is not unlikely that they knew each other. His character, as depicted, is fictitious. The ruse by which the pirates get passed the Delicia is factual. The action depicted in the remainder of this scene is fictitious, though not improbable. We do not know for certain how Bonny and Read came to join Rackham’s pirate crew. The GHP and other popular stories state that they both disguised themselves as men, and kept their true identities secret even from their fellow pirates. Such a thing might have been possible. There are documented cases down through history where women successfully disguised themselves as men under similar circumstances. However, despite the popularity of this element of their story, there is no solid evidence that they actually did this, and a certain amount of evidence exists to the contrary. They are known to have worn male attire while engaged in pirate actions, but this may have been simply a matter of practicality. In his proclamation concerning the theft of the William, Governor Rogers specifically stated that they were women and gave their names. He obviously knew exactly who they were, and it is therefore likely that their male companions knew it as well. At least one witness at their trial stated that despite their manner of dress they were easily identifiable as women. Others who were held captive by the pirates testified that Anne and Mary dressed in male clothing when in action, but otherwise wore conventional female attire. This evidence would seem to indicate that they made no serious attempt to disguise their gender, particularly not from their fellow crew members. During this period, the presence of women on ships, other than as passengers, was generally prohibited; but modern research has shown that there were exceptions. The same may have been true for pirate crews, and Bonny and Read, for whatever reason, do appear to have been an exception. The manner in which the crew organizes itself does have a basis in fact. The pirate crews of the Golden Age were highly democratic communities. When setting out, a crew would draw up a set of Articles by which to govern themselves. (This is contrary to the view of the government authorities of the time, who failed to understand the pirates’ democratic organization, and instead saw only chaos and anarchy.) The Articles covered such things as how plunder was to be shared, compensation for crippling injuries, mediation of disputes, rules of conduct, and punishment for breaking the rules. The captain and other officers were elected by vote of the crew, and could be removed in the same way if the crew felt that their performance was unsatisfactory. The power of the captain was limited. He had command of certain operational aspects of the ship, and absolute authority during chase and battle. But all other important decisions were made in accordance with the Articles, as enforced by the quartermaster (a particularly important position), or by vote of the crew. We do not know what the Articles were that Rackham’s crew observed. The ones proposed by Jack in this scene are based on the real Articles of Bartholomew Roberts, one of the few examples of pirate Articles to have survived intact. There was a provision in Roberts’ Articles that banned women from the ship. However, this appears to have been less an issue of considering a woman to be incapable of functioning as a pirate, and more a matter of wanting to prevent a situation where sexual tension and competition might lead to disputes among the crew. (Interestingly enough, this same provision against having women on board also banned young boys from the ship as well.)

Act II, Scene 1 On September 5, 1720, Governor Rogers issued a proclamation announcing the theft of the William, identifying those responsible, and branding them pirates. Rogers was apparently

6 very concerned that Rackham’s return to piracy could pose a threat to his own continuing efforts to pacify the region. This proclamation marks the first time that Anne Bonny and Mary Read were identified as engaging in piracy. If either of them ever did so previously, there is no record of it. In fact, this is the first known reference to either Bonny or Read in any surviving records of the time. Prior to this, there is no evidence of their existence at all. It is also interesting to note that Anne is referred to in the document as “Anne Fulfurth alias Bonny”. Why “Fulfurth”? No one knows. There is no other proven connection between Anne Bonny and this name. Was Fulfurth her real name, and Bonny simply an alias she sometimes used? Was Fulfurth her maiden name, which she reverted to using after leaving her husband? We simply do not know. (For that matter, we do not know for certain that she actually was married to a man named James Bonny. Aside from the GHP and other unsubstantiated stories, there is no evidence that she was married, and no record of the existence of James Bonny.)

Act II, Scene 2 After plundering several fishing boats, Rackham and company left The Bahamas and cruised the Windward Passage between Cuba and Hispaniola, capturing two merchant ships, before proceeding to Jamaica. The action in this scene is not meant to be any particular piracy they committed, but rather represents what a typical pirate attack was like. Pirate actions of this period usually involved little or no fighting or violence. Pirates were ready and willing to fight when necessary, but were generally more pragmatic than bloodthirsty. If they could intimidate a ship into surrendering without a fight, so much the better, and that is usually what happened. Pirate ships were fast, well-armed, and carried a larger crew than what was usual for the size of the vessel. Merchant ships, by comparison, were slower, carried fewer guns, and, in the interest of minimizing expense and maximizing profit, carried as small a crew as possible. When accosted by pirates, most ships surrendered, knowing resistance was probably futile, and hoping that in return for surrendering without a fight the pirates would take what they wanted and not harm anyone. Common seamen working on merchant ships were generally overworked, underfed, poorly paid, and subjected to brutal discipline. Many merchant captains were harsh taskmasters, either by nature or because of pressure to ensure a successful and profitable voyage. It was not uncommon for a captain to want to defend his ship and cargo from pirates, only to have his crew refuse to fight. (This became such a problem that the British government eventually passed a law making it a crime for sailors not to resist pirate attacks.) Pirates usually treated common seamen well, feeling a bond of brotherhood with them. Not so captains, who were seen as representatives of a repressive social order that the pirates detested. If a captain was cooperative and could be proven to be a good man who treated his crew well, he might not be harmed. Otherwise he could find himself abused and brutalized, though usually not killed. Modern research has shown that the pirates of the Golden Age were not nearly as brutal and sadistic as they were reputed to have been. They were generally no more violent than most people of their time, and often perhaps less so than those who opposed them. Most of the atrocities attributed to them were greatly exaggerated or even fabricated; and when they did employ violent methods, these were no different than those practiced by privateers and even by the regular navy and other government authorities. (Jack Rackham appears to have been even less violent than most. He is not known to have committed any atrocities, abused his victims, or killed anyone during any of his attacks.) It was the practice among pirates to place all plunder in a common stock, to be distributed later according to the agreed upon “profit sharing” arrangement. For an individual to hold

7 something back and try to keep it for himself would have been a flagrant and unforgivable violation of both the letter and the spirit of the Articles. Dueling among pirates was not uncommon, and anyone had the right to challenge another crew member if he felt he had been harmed, wronged or slandered. However, there were strict rules governing how a dispute was to be settled. Fighting on the ship itself was prohibited, and any duel would be held ashore. The victor was whoever drew “first blood”, so most fights were probably not to the death.

Act II, Scene 3 The inspiration for this scene comes from one of the most famous stories concerning Mary Read. According to the GHP, Mary, still disguised as a man, fell in love with a handsome young sailor who had recently joined the pirate crew. (His name is not given. Some other versions of this story say that his name was Tom Deane, but the source for this is unknown.) She revealed her true identity to him, and he in turn fell in love with her. But then the young man got into a dispute with another pirate, who challenged him to a duel. This pirate was older and more experienced, and Mary was afraid that her lover would be killed. So she purposely picked a fight with the older pirate, challenged him, and arranged to fight him first. Mary won her duel, killing her opponent, thus saving her lover’s life. However, other than the tale told in the GHP, there is no evidence that such an incident ever happened. The reason for the selection of Andrew Gibson as the pirate Mary kills is because his fate is unknown. He was among those identified as participating in the theft of the William, but that name is absent from the list of crew members who were later tried, convicted and executed along with Jack Rackham. There is no evidence of what became of him.

Act II, Scene 4 During October of 1720, Rackham and company cruised the northern shore of Jamaica, capturing a few more small ships and boats. All in all, they were not particularly successful. They took no great prizes or plunder of significant value. However, their presence in the area was a cause of concern for Sir Nicholas Lawes, the Governor of Jamaica, who sent out privateers to hunt them down. The story Mary tells Anne about the truth of her early life is fictitious, though not improbable. Again, we do not know anything for certain about her background. The story she tells about how the fight with Gibson really happened is loosely based on another version of the duel story. In this version, Mary’s opponent proved to be better than she expected, and she found herself in danger of losing. So she tried a unique stratagem. She suddenly stepped back and pulled open her shirt, revealing her breasts. Her opponent, who had no idea she was a woman, was so surprised that he hesitated, and that hesitation gave Mary the opportunity to kill him. This variation is not found in the GHP, and appears to be a later invention, the source for which is unknown. The capture of Rackham and his crew did occur more or less as depicted. One evening in late October, the pirates were anchored in Negril Bay, when they were surprised by an armed sloop commanded by Captain Jonathan Barnet, one of Governor Lawes’ privateers. After a sea chase of several hours (which, for dramatic convenience, has been left out of the play), Barnet caught up to the William. The pirates refused his call to surrender, so he opened fire, disabling their ship. Rackham and the other men had been drinking heavily, and during the final action they reportedly hid in the hold, too drunk or afraid to come on deck and fight. Anne Bonny and

8 Mary Read were the only ones who resisted. (According to the GHP, Mary, frustrated by the men’s cowardice, fired down into the hold, wounding one of them.) Barnet’s men boarded and captured the William – and were surprised to find that their determined opponents were two women.

Act II, Scene 5 Following their capture, the pirates were taken to St. Jago de la Vega, which was then the capitol of Jamaica. On November 16, Rackham and the other men were brought to trial and quickly convicted on four counts of piracy. They were all hanged over the next two days at Gallow’s Point in Kingston on Harbor. The GHP says that before his execution, Rackham was allowed to see Anne one last time. Her first words to him were the caustic remarks she makes at the beginning of this scene. What else transpired between them, if they did in fact meet, is unknown.

Act II, Scene 6 On November 28, Anne Bonny and Mary Read were brought to trial, charged with the same counts of piracy as the men. The following year, a pamphlet was published in Jamaica, The Tryals of John Rackham and other Pyrates, which included transcripts of both trials. From this we know a considerable amount of detail about the crimes with which they were charged and about the courtroom proceedings. However, even this source contains little or no information about them personally or their background. Both women pled not guilty, but for some reason said little or nothing in their own defense, and declined to question the various witnesses who gave testimony against them. (In the British legal system at that time, defendants in criminal trials were not allowed to be represented by legal counsel.) As with the men, they were quickly convicted and sentenced to hang. But then, at their sentencing, when asked if they had anything to say, they replied, “We plead our bellies”, meaning that they were claiming to be pregnant. According to British law, a woman convicted of a capital offense could not be executed if she was pregnant. Execution would be postponed until after she had given birth, at which time it was not uncommon for the sentence to be commuted. It was ordered that the women be held in custody, awaiting confirmation of their alleged pregnancies. According to the GHP, both were indeed pregnant. The father of Mary’s child was the young sailor with whom she had fallen in love and for whom she had fought her duel. It is implied that he was not among the pirates who were convicted and executed, though what happened to him is unclear. It is assumed that the father of Anne’s child was Jack Rackham, though given Anne’s supposed promiscuity, that is perhaps not a certainty.

Act II, Scene 7 The GHP aside, there is no direct evidence of whether or not Anne and Mary were truly pregnant. No record exists of the findings of any examinations. It is possible, though, that Mary at least was pregnant, since there is evidence that she did remain in prison for several more months. What happened to Anne Bonny after the trial is unknown. There is no record of her continuing to be held in prison, giving birth to a child, being executed, being released, escaping, or dying in prison. She simply disappears, with no explanation. The story Anne tells Mary about the truth of her life is a fictional twist on the story of her early life as told in the GHP. (In the GHP, Anne Bonny does beat up a young man who attempts to assault her, and there is a reference to a story of her stabbing a servant girl with a kitchen

9 knife.) The GHP never identifies her parents by name. Some other sources give her father’s name as William Cormac, and her mother’s name as Mary Brennan, but there is no verified proof of this. Supposedly an entry dated 1709 was once found in the records of St. Paul’s Church in Charleston identifying a William Cormac, his wife Mary, and daughter Anne as members of the parish. Even if this is true, there is no proof that this is Anne Bonny and her parents. Given that there is no evidence to support the GHP story, and we don’t really know for certain who Anne Bonny was and where she came from, this alternate version of her early life, though fictional, is as probable as anything else. One of the most popular elements in modern times of the story of Anne Bonny and Mary Read is the supposition that they had some kind of sexual relationship. Many people today are so convinced of this that they are often referred to as the “Lesbian Pirates”. However, this notion is merely a matter of speculation. The truth is that there is absolutely no solid evidence to support it. Neither are there any stories or legends that can be conclusively traced back to their own time that present this idea. There is the story in the GHP about Anne attempting to seduce Mary, but she did so thinking that Mary was a man. Johnson indicates that once they knew each other to be women, neither had any sexual interest in the other. Of course, the absence of evidence does not prove that there was no such relationship; and the fact that both women seem to have been involved in relationships with men would not necessarily preclude them from also being involved with each other. There just isn’t any conclusive proof. (The sexual/romantic elements that arise in their relationship in this work are simply the result of how the story and characters developed, and not a matter of conforming to any preconceived ideas about their sexuality.)

Act II, Scene 8 Since there is no record of Anne Bonny being executed or dying in prison, it is quite possible that she was released. If so, we do not know how or why, or what became of her afterwards. There are many stories, but no proof that any of them are true. One such story says that she befriended a doctor named Michael Radcliff, who may also have been her lover, and that he helped to secure her freedom. Another story, one of the most popular and widely believed, is that her father back in Charleston heard the story of the two famous female pirates, and recognized Anne as his runaway daughter. He used his wealth and influence to arrange for her to be quietly released, and brought her home. (As in the previous scene, there is once again a fictional twist on this story.)

Act II, Scene 9 Exactly what happened to Mary Read after the trial is unclear, but there is one piece of evidence. In recent years, an entry was discovered in the records of St. Catherine’s Parish, Jamaica, recording the burial of a woman named Mary Read on April 28, 1721. No gravesite has ever been located, and no cause of death is given. Some stories say that Mary died in childbirth. The GHP says that she died from a fever, a not unlikely occurrence in a prison in those days. If she was still in prison as of that time, it is likely that she truly was pregnant. Whether she gave birth before she died, and if so, what happened to the child, is unknown. Of course, we cannot be certain that this is the same Mary Read, but it is possible. The time frame is right, and St. Catherine’s is the district of Jamaica where St. Jago de la Vega (now called Spanish Town) is located. We also, of course, do not know if Anne Bonny was still there, if she was present at Mary’s death, or even knew of it.

10

Act II, Scene 10 Following his execution, Calico Jack Rackham’s body was hung in a cage on a tiny island in Port Royal Harbor and left to rot. This was a common practice of the times, intended as a warning of what would happen to anyone who engaged in piracy. The island has been known ever since as Rackham’s Cay. The same was done to a couple of the other crew members, as well as to Charles Vane, Rackham’s former captain, who was executed in Port Royal in March of 1721. (Vane was imprisoned for a year before his execution. Whether he and Rackham ever saw or spoke to each other in prison is unknown.)

Act II, Epilogue This scene is, of course, fictitious.

11 Pirates: Fact and Fiction

Our modern conception of pirates has been inspired mainly by the Golden Age of /Atlantic region, and many of the stereotypes and archetypes we associate with pirates are grounded in this period. However, it should be recognized that much of this is based more on subsequent fictional representations than on actual fact, giving rise to many misconceptions about what these pirates were like. The following addresses some of the more common facts and fictions about pirates.

The Pirate’s Code Fictional representations have often portrayed pirates as having some sort of universal “” that all pirates held in common and adhered to. This was not the case. However, as discussed elsewhere, most pirate crews did adopt Articles to govern themselves, and these various Articles did have many provisions in common.

The The “Jolly Roger”, the iconic pirate flag with white skull and crossbones on a field of black, was real. It may have gotten its name from the French jolie rouge, or “pretty red”, a term used to describe the red flag traditionally flown in warfare to announce that no quarter would be given. At times a black flag was used to mean the same thing. Or it may have derived from the fact that “Roger” was a nickname for the Devil or Death, and the image of a grinning skull became known as “Jolly Roger”. There was no one standard Jolly Roger flag used by all pirates, each of whom had their own variations. Such a flag usually showed a skull, with or without crossed bones, or a full skeleton, to symbolize death. The depiction of weapons – spears, swords, or daggers – as a symbol of violent intent was common. An hourglass was also frequently included, to symbolize that life was a fleeting thing that would soon end. (Pirates, it seems, were a rather philosophical bunch, with a love of symbolism, a penchant for fatalism, and a decidedly macabre sense of humor.) The use of flags for communication was standard naval practice, something that pirates adopted. Flying a flag emblazoned with violent or demonic symbols was an effective way to signify to a target ship that it should surrender…or else. The first known use occurred around 1700, when Emanuel Wynn was reported to have flown such a flag. was the only major pirate captain to fly what we know today as the classic Jolly Roger, with a white skull over crossed thigh bones on a black background. Blackbeard’s flag portrayed a skeleton holding an hourglass and stabbing a red heart with a spear. Bartholomew Roberts’ flag pictured Roberts himself and a skeleton jointly holding up an hourglass. Calico Jack Rackham’s flag had a black background with a white skull over crossed swords (familiar more recently as the pirate flag used in the Pirates of the Caribbean films).

Buried Pirates did not bury their treasure. In fact, most pirates never had any treasure to bury. Most of the plunder pirates took was comprised of supplies and provisions needed to sustain themselves, and goods and commodities that could be sold. Most of the cash and valuables that came their way were quickly spent on entertainment, and few pirates ever amassed any large hoard of treasure. And since there was no , there also were no treasure maps where “X” marks the spot. These things belong almost exclusively to the realm of fiction. (The only significant exception was Captain , whose career pre-dates the Golden Age.

12 He did bury some treasure on Gardiner’s Island off Long Island before heading back to England to try and clear his name. However, the authorities quickly located this stash and dug it up.)

Walking the Plank “” refers to a method of execution where the victim would be forced to walk out onto a long board suspended from the ship over the water, tormented for a while with the fear of what was about to happen, and then forced to jump off into the water, where they presumably would drown (or maybe be eaten by sharks.) This practice is far more common in fiction than it ever was in reality. There are actually only a few recorded instances of pirates or mutineers doing such a thing, and these all occurred much later than the early 18th century. The pirates of the Golden Age are not known to have ever engaged in such a practice.

Pirate Jargon Most people expect pirates to say things like “Shiver me timbers!” and “Aargh, me hearties!”, their voices sounding like a cross between a growl and a mouthful of marbles. Did pirates really talk this way? Probably not. This type of pirate jargon was created for and popularized by novels and films. Most of the pirates of the Golden Age were English-speaking, but came from many different parts of England or elsewhere in the British Empire. They probably spoke using whatever was the conventional speech of their own native region, and a variety of different dialects of English were probably present within the pirate communities. However, there were also men of other nationalities serving among the pirates, as well as a large number of blacks (both freedmen and escaped slaves), and even some Native Americans. In addition, most pirates were experienced seamen who had served in the regular navy or merchant marine, and they probably used the same nautical terms and jargon that other sailors used. Put it all together and there must have been a considerable amount of variety in the way individual pirates or pirate groups expressed themselves. What did it sound like? That’s hard to tell, since pirates left behind few written records of their own, and those who did tended to use conventional written English.

“Whar’s me parrot?” Did pirates walk around with parrots on their shoulders? Though this is mostly another part of the fictional image of pirates, it may have some basis in truth. It is known that sailors of this period did have a penchant for keeping pets on board ship. Sometimes these were dogs and cats, kept both for companionship and for reducing the vermin common on a ship. These same sailors also had a keen interest in the more exotic animals they found in the places they visited. Those that were more easily domesticated were sometimes kept as pets, particularly monkeys and certain types of birds such as – you guessed it – parrots. Pirates tended to have many of the same characteristics as regular sailors, and very likely shared this interest in unusual pets.

The Cutlass What’s a pirate without his cutlass? Actually, pirates used a wide variety of weapons, but this type of sword was a favorite. A cutlass is a heavy short sword with a wide, single-edged blade, slightly curved at the point. It had a hilt with a cross bar, and sometimes a basket, to protect the hand - handy for punching someone, too. The cutlass was ideal for shipboard combat, where fighting was at close quarters, and hacking and slashing were more common than

13 any kind of swordplay. Similar to a machete, and sometimes called by that name in the Caribbean, it could also double as a cutting tool for less lethal purposes.

Peg Legs, Crutches, Hooks and Eye Patches Did some pirates really have peg (i.e. wooden) legs and metal hooks in place of missing legs and hands, walk with a crutch, or wear eye patches to cover missing or sightless eyes? Again, though fiction may have exaggerated such things, there is some basis in truth. Seafaring in the Age of Sail was a dangerous profession. Crippling accidents, serious battle wounds, and debilitating diseases were common, and the quality of sanitation, personal hygiene and medical care was low. Often the only response medical science had to life-threatening infection was to cut something off. Sailors, however, had no pension plans or long-term disability. If you could no longer work, that was probably the end of you. So many seamen did whatever they could to deal with disabilities and keep themselves employable, learning to work effectively with one hand or one leg, or finding a job where their disability was not a handicap. The same was true for pirates, though it should be noted that pirates, unlike the regular navy or merchant marine, did provide their crippled comrades with additional income from the common stock in compensation for their injuries.

Pirates and Sex The pirates of the Golden Age were known to party hard. They spent much of their “down time” engaged in drunken revelry, and probably were not opposed to consensual sexual debauchery when they had the opportunity for it. However, the modern notion that they were depraved sexual sadists who gleefully raped and sodomized their victims – of both sexes – at every turn is not supported by any evidence. In fact, many pirate crew Articles specifically prohibited such conduct. Also, contrary to what some people believe, there is no evidence that homosexuality was rampant among pirates. On the other hand, same-sex relations between crew members are not known to have been prohibited, either. (The provision in Roberts’ Articles against having young boys on board appears to have been an indictment of pedophilia, not homosexuality per se.) Most likely, given their generally liberal and libertarian attitude, as long it had no negative impact on their mutual enterprise, crew members were probably free to do whatever they wanted.

Marooning Marooned on a desert island – a common and popular image associated with pirates; and again, though somewhat exaggerated in the realm of fiction, something that is based on fact. This practice involved stranding someone on a deserted island, or some other such inhospitable place, with scant chance for survival or escape. The victim might be a crew member who had committed some offense, a captain who had been voted out or been the target of a , or (in rarer cases) a captive. Some pirate Articles identified this as the designated punishment for breaking certain rules, such as attempting to cheat a fellow crew member. The marooned person would usually be left with little or no food and drink – but was given a loaded pistol, in case they wished to commit suicide rather than succumb to some other fate. Another variation of this practice was to set someone adrift in a small boat, usually out on the open sea and again with limited supplies, which gave them a somewhat better chance of survival. Perhaps the most famous story of pirate is the legend behind the famous rhyme that goes…

14 Fifteen Men on a dead man’s chest, yo-ho-ho and a bottle of rum Drink and the Devil had done for the rest, yo-ho-ho and a bottle of rum It was created by Robert Louis Stevenson for his novel . There is a legend connected with the song, which says that Blackbeard once marooned a large number of men from his crew as punishment for an attempted mutiny. He left them on a small barren island with no food or fresh water. He left each man a bottle of rum and a cutlass, and nothing else, apparently expecting that they would get drunk and kill each other. However, when Blackbeard returned a month later, he was surprised to find fifteen men still alive. The location for this incident is said to be Dead Chest Island, a small barren island half a mile off Deadman’s Bay on Peter Island in the BVI. (Nearby is Norman Island, said to have been the inspiration for the island in Treasure Island.) What the source of this legend is and whether or not there is any truth to it, and whether Stevenson knew of the story or if it was invented later, is unknown.

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