DOCSLIB.ORG

HOW the REAGAN ADMINISTRATION TAUGHT IRAN the WRONG LESSONS Nathan Thrall*

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
HOW the REAGAN ADMINISTRATION TAUGHT IRAN the WRONG LESSONS Nathan Thrall* HOW THE REAGAN ADMINISTRATION TAUGHT IRAN THE WRONG LESSONS Nathan Thrall* The prospect of peacefully preventing Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons looks bleaker by the day. Iran appears more emboldened than it has in decades, and support for the Bush administration’s foreign policy is at an all-time low. As a presidential election year approaches, conservatives are seeking to distance themselves from Bush by eulogizing Reagan. Yet they forget or ignore that the present predicament is in large part Reagan’s legacy. This article examines how the Regan administration, through a seemingly endless series of self-deceits and capitulations, nurtured the ambitions of Iran’s current leadership, ruined U.S. credibility, and eroded America’s power to deter the Islamic Republic. Still, while Democrats may welcome any shifting of blame from the failed Iran policies of Reagan’s predecessor, it is they who have the most to learn from Reagan’s mistakes; for Reagan’s errors were realist errors, and the influence of realism is now rising most markedly on the left. Carter gave birth to the decades-long U.S. appeasement of Iran; Reagan fostered it. What experience and history teach is this—that people and governments never have learned anything from history, or acted on principles deduced from it. -G.W.F. Hegel On December 31, 1977, in the banquet augury of the approach taken by later room of Tehran’s Niavaran Palace, the administrations. “I would be willing to bet,” president and the first lady of the United Young said, “that in another year or so… States attended a dinner hosted in their honor Khomeini will be [seen as] some kind of saint by the shah and the shahbanou of Iran. An when we finally get over the panic of what is hour and a half before the New Year, Jimmy happening there.”2 Carter proposed a toast. “Iran,” he said, Within months, members of Carter’s “because of the great leadership of the Shah, is National Security Council (NSC)—which had an island of stability in one of the more been the main promoter of “the Pahlavi troubled areas of the world. This is a great supremacy premise,” the idea that the shah tribute to you, Your Majesty, and to your would continue to rule—were meeting with leadership, and to the respect and the Muhammad Reza Pahlavi’s successors. On admiration and love which your people give to November 1, 1979, at a 25th anniversary you.”1 commemoration of the Algerian revolution, The waves of mass demonstrations that Iran’s new prime minister, foreign minister, would culminate in the shah’s downfall began and minister of defense hosted Carter’s less than a week after Carter’s visit; barely a national security advisor, Zbigniew year after he raised his glass, the shah and the Brzezinski, in the suite of their Algiers hotel.3 shahbanou fled Iran. Ayatollah Ruhollah Accompanying Brzezinski as a note-taker was Khomeini, Iran’s first and future supreme a promising young NSC staff member, leader, returned from exile just over two Secretary of Defense Robert Gates. The weeks later. Carter’s ambassador to the UN, Iranians demanded that the terminally ill shah, Andrew Young, welcomed the chaos with who had been brought to the United States the words both comforting and delusional—an week before, be turned over to them for trial. Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 11, No. 4 (December 2007) 7 How the Reagan Administration Taught Iran the Wrong Lessons Brzezinski—who had fought Secretary of Differing perceptions of the causes and State Cyrus Vance to permit the shah’s entry consequences of that year’s events delineate, to the United States—refused. “To return the more than the events of any other year, those Shah to you,” he said, “would be incompatible today who are willing to accept a nuclear Iran with our national honor.”4 from those who are not. Three days later, the U.S. embassy in The year 1983 is also of special relevance Tehran was seized. Carter responded with to the contemporary United States, because the attempts at conciliation, another tactic that year’s events brought about an American would be employed, in extremis, by his troop withdrawal (or redeployment, as it was successors. Yet his letter to Khomeini (“from then called) from Lebanon, an unraveling one believer to a man of God”), seemed only Arab country whose long-suppressed and to reinforce the supreme leader’s oft repeated Iranian-backed Shi’a plurality was on the rise. conviction that “America cannot do a damn The U.S. withdrawal resulted from three thing.” primary factors, all of which exist in 2007. Official diplomatic ties between Iran and First, as America’s adversaries knew too well, the United States have now been severed for domestic support for the American military nearly three decades. As a new crisis escalates presence was dwindling and would only between them, the two countries have little shrink further as the upcoming presidential more than shared history on which to rely in election approached. Second, Iran possessed gauging one another’s intentions. For Iran, this the power to create conditions that would alter history consists of the CIA’s role in the 1953 U.S. public opinion and effectively force overthrow of Muhammad Mossadegh, America’s expulsion. Third, America failed to American support for the repressive shah, U.S. perceive, in the tangled web of Middle Eastern aid to Saddam Hussein during the Iran-Iraq politics, how its actions and interests War, and U.S. capitulation to extortive throughout the region were intertwined; only hijacking and hostage-taking. For the United after considerable and repeated injury did States, it consists of the virulently anti- America discover that it could be punished in American Islamic Revolution, the hostage the Mediterranean for its actions in the Gulf. crisis, and the decades of terrorism that For all the change in U.S.-Iranian relations followed. Now this history is used, by that 1983 brought about, the year began with partisans in each country, to advance the next relative constancy. The United States was still steps in the quickening confrontation. viewed by Iran as the Great Satan, the source Yet other histories now also play a role in of all the world’s ills, the national embodiment shaping U.S. policy toward Iran. Two rival of what the Koran’s final sura (chapter) calls analogies, détente with China and the Soviet “the insidious whisperer who whispers in the Union on the one hand, and appeasement of hearts of men.” Iran’s leadership was still Nazi Germany on the other, each attempt to consolidating its power, prosecuting its frame the debate over the central question of domestic policy of Islamization, and pursuing whether or not Iran can be contained. Properly its two primary foreign policy objectives of addressing that question, however, requires defeating Iraq and exporting the Islamic turning to the history of the Islamic Republic Revolution. The United States, by leading the itself; for the assertiveness displayed by Iran’s multinational force in Lebanon, providing aid present leaders can be traced to the to Iraq, and attempting to broker an Arab- impressions they formed in their first decade Israeli peace, continued to stand in the way of, of interacting with the United States. and on the most fertile soil for, the Islamic Revolution’s export.5 A WARNING The changes that were taking place at the beginning of the year were largely positive. A No year is more important to understanding sense of relative normalcy had returned to current U.S.-Iranian relations than 1983. Lebanon. In those first, optimistic months of 8 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 11, No. 4 (December 2007) Nathan Thrall the year, many Lebanese who had fled their For all its boldness, the embassy bombing bloodstained country were returning. The had little impact on U.S. foreign policy. The multinational force, despite a March grenade United States effectively ignored what turned attack that wounded five Marines, was out to be a warning and remained focused encountering few problems. Israel had instead on its primary regional objective of withdrawn from most of the country, and a achieving an Israeli-Lebanese agreement that peace agreement that would assure its could serve as a foundation for a broader complete withdrawal appeared near. Arab-Israeli peace. When Secretary of State These developments came to an abrupt end George Shultz flew to the region for that on the afternoon of April 18, 1983. A dented, purpose only days after the attack, the first late-model GMC pickup truck, laden with stop on his itinerary was not changed to hundreds of pounds of explosives, slammed Beirut. Reagan’s response was nothing more into the main entrance of the U.S. embassy in than perfunctory. “This criminal attack on a Beirut. It was the first large-scale attack diplomatic establishment will not deter us against a U.S. embassy anywhere in the world. from our goals of peace in the region,” he said. Seven stories of the building collapsed and 63 “We also remain committed to the recovery by people died, 17 of them Americans. The the Lebanese Government of full sovereignty wedding ring of Robert Ames, CIA’s national throughout all of its territory,” and will intelligence officer for the Near East, was “continue to press in negotiations for the found floating a mile off the coast of Lebanon, earliest possible total withdrawal of all still affixed to his severed hand. external forces.”6 The Shi’a group al-Jihad al-Islami, Islamic The administration hoped that a negotiated Jihad, claimed responsibility.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The National Security Council and the Iran-Contra Affair
    THE NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL AND THE IRAN- CONTRA AFFAIR Congressman Ed Jenkins* and Robert H. Brink** I. INTRODUCTION Early in November of 1986, newspapers in the United States carried the first reports that the United States government, in an effort to gain release of United States citizens held hostage by terrorists in Lebanon, had engaged in a covert policy of supplying arms to elements within Iran.' Later in that month, following a preliminary inquiry into the matter, it was revealed that some of the funds generated from those arms sales had been diverted to support the "Contra" 2 forces fighting the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. The events giving rise to these disclosures became known collectively as the "Iran-Contra Affair." Both elements of the affair raised serious questions regarding the formulation and conduct of our nation's foreign policy. In regard to the Iranian phase of the affair, the Regan administration's rhetoric had placed the administration firmly in op- position to any dealings with nations supporting terrorism, and with Iran in particular.' In addition, the United States had made significant * Member, United States House of Representatives, Ninth District of Georgia. LL.B., University of Georgia Law School, 1959. In 1987, Congressman Jenkins served as a member of the House Select Committee to Investigate Covert Arms Transactions with Iran. ** Professional Staff Member, Committee on Government Operations, United States House of Representatives. J.D., Marshall-Wythe School of Law, College of William and Mary, 1978. In 1987, Mr. Brink served as a member of the associate staff of the House Select Committee to Investigate Covert Arms Transactions with Iran.
    [Show full text]
  • Notes on Iran-Contra Investigation: Summary of Oliver North's Testimony, July 7-10 Deborah Tyroler
    University of New Mexico UNM Digital Repository NotiCen Latin America Digital Beat (LADB) 7-22-1987 Notes On Iran-contra Investigation: Summary Of Oliver North's Testimony, July 7-10 Deborah Tyroler Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/noticen Recommended Citation Tyroler, Deborah. "Notes On Iran-contra Investigation: Summary Of Oliver North's Testimony, July 7-10." (1987). https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/noticen/790 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Latin America Digital Beat (LADB) at UNM Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in NotiCen by an authorized administrator of UNM Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. LADB Article Id: 076375 ISSN: 1089-1560 Notes On Iran-contra Investigation: Summary Of Oliver North's Testimony, July 7-10 by Deborah Tyroler Category/Department: General Published: Wednesday, July 22, 1987 The main points of fired National Security Council aide Lt. Col. Oliver North's testimony before the House and Senate select committees are summarized below: * North said he did nothing in his 5-1/2 years on the NSC staff that had not been approved by his superiors. He protested the implications of others that he had been, as he put it, "a loose cannon on the gun deck of state at the NSC." "I haven't in the 23 years that I have been in the uniformed services of the USA ever violated an order, not one," he said. * Although no one explicitly told him so, he said, he "assumed" throughout that Reagan had known about all of his activities including the diversion of profits from the Iran arms sales to the contras.
    [Show full text]
  • Islam in Process—Historical and Civilizational Perspectives Yearbook of the Sociology of Islam Volume 7
    Islam in Process—Historical and Civilizational Perspectives Yearbook of the Sociology of Islam Volume 7 2006-12-06 16-23-03 --- Projekt: T491.gli.arnason.yearbook7 / Dokument: FAX ID 00fb133402603594|(S. 1 ) T00_01 Schmutztitel.p 133402603618 Yearbook of the Sociology of Islam Edited by Georg Stauth and Armando Salvatore The Yearbook of the Sociology of Islam investigates the making of Islam into an important component of modern society and cultural globalization. Sociology is, by common consent, the most ambitious advocate of modern society. In other words, it undertakes to develop an understanding of modern existence in terms of breakthroughs from ancient cosmological cultures to ordered and plural civic life based on the gradual subsiding of communal life. Thus, within this undertaking, the sociological project of modernity figures as the cultural machine that dislodges the rationale of social being from local, communal, hierarchic contexts into the logic of individualism and social differentiation. The conventional wisdom of sociology has been challenged by post-modern debate, abolishing this dichotomous evolutionism while embracing a more heterogeneous view of coexistence and exchange between local cultures and modern institutions. Islam, however, is often described as a different cultural machine for the holistic reproduction of pre-modern religion, and Muslims are seen as community-bound social actors embodying a powerful potential for the rejec- tion of and opposition to Western modernity. Sociologists insist on looking for social differentiation and cultural differ- ences. However, their concepts remain evolutionist and inherently tied to the cultural machine of modernity. The Yearbook of the Sociology of Islam takes these antinomies and contradic- tions as a challenge.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction Chapter 1
    Notes Introduction 1. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1970). 2. Ralph Pettman, Human Behavior and World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975); Giandomenico Majone, Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in the Policy Process (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 275– 76. 3. Bernard Lewis, “The Return of Islam,” Commentary, January 1976; Ofira Seliktar, The Politics of Intelligence and American Wars with Iraq (New York: Palgrave Mac- millan, 2008), 4. 4. Martin Kramer, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in Amer- ica (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2000). 5. Bernard Lewis, “The Roots of Muslim Rage,” Atlantic Monthly, September, 1990; Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations,” Foreign Affairs 72 (1993): 24– 49; Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996). Chapter 1 1. Quoted in Joshua Muravchik, The Uncertain Crusade: Jimmy Carter and the Dilemma of Human Rights (Lanham, MD: Hamilton Press, 1986), 11– 12, 114– 15, 133, 138– 39; Hedley Donovan, Roosevelt to Reagan: A Reporter’s Encounter with Nine Presidents (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 165. 2. Charles D. Ameringer, U.S. Foreign Intelligence: The Secret Side of American History (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990), 357; Peter Meyer, James Earl Carter: The Man and the Myth (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), 18; Michael A. Turner, “Issues in Evaluating U.S. Intelligence,” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 5 (1991): 275– 86. 3. Abram Shulsky, Silent Warfare: Understanding the World’s Intelligence (Washington, DC: Brassey’s [US], 1993), 169; Robert M.
    [Show full text]
  • Amunowruz-Magazine-No1-Sep2018
    AMU NOWRUZ E-MAGAZINE | NO. 1 | SEPTEMBER 2018 27SEP. HAPPY WORLD TOURISM DAY Taste Persia! One of the world's most ancient and important culinary schools belongs to Iran People of the world; Iran! Includes 22 historical sites and a natural one. They 're just one small portion from Iran's historical and natural resources Autumn, one name and a thousand significations About Persia • History [1] Contents AMU NOWRUZ E-MAGAZINE | NO. 1 | SEPTEMBER 2018 27SEP. HAPPY WORLD TOURISM DAY Taste Persia! One of the world's most ancient and important culinary schools belongs to Iran Editorial 06 People of the world; Iran! Includes 22 historical sites and a natural one. They 're just one small portion from Iran's historical and natural resources Autumn, one name and a thousand significations Tourism and the Digital Transformation 08 AMU NOWRUZ E-MAGAZINE NO.1 SEPTEMBER 2018 10 About Persia History 10 A History that Builds Civilization Editorial Department Farshid Karimi, Ramin Nouri, Samira Mohebali UNESCO Heritages Editor In Chief Samira Mohebali 14 People of the world; Iran! Authors Kimia Ajayebi, Katherin Azami, Elnaz Darvishi, Fereshteh Derakhshesh, Elham Fazeli, Parto Hasanizadeh, Maryam Hesaraki, Saba Karkheiran, Art & Culture Arvin Moazenzadeh, Homeira Mohebali, Bashir Momeni, Shirin Najvan 22 Tourism with Ethnic Groups in Iran Editor Shekufe Ranjbar 26 Religions in Iran 28 Farsi; a Language Rooted in History Translation Group Shekufe Ranjbar, Somayeh Shirizadeh 30 Taste Persia! Photographers Hessam Mirrahimi, Saeid Zohari, Reza Nouri, Payam Moein,
    [Show full text]
  • Michael Ledeen, the Neoconservatives, and The
    Hugh B. Urban such conservative think-tanks as the American Enterprise Institute and 321.64:321.7 the Project for the New American Century, counting among their ranks politicians and militarists including Paul Wolfowitz, Donald Rums- feld, and Dick Cheney, as well as such intellectuals as Irving Kristol, HUGH B. URBAN William Kristol, and (until recently) Francis Fukuyama. Despite their many ideological, cultural, and socioeconomic differences, these two factions have come together in the current White House and have found common ground in the policies of George W. Bush. Indeed, Bush represents a kind of structural link or ligament that helps tie these two, otherwise very different factions together: He embodies the MACHIAVELLI MEETS THE RELIGIOUS ideals of piety, morality, and family values that appeal to his strongest RIGHT: MICHAEL LEDEEN, THE base of popular support among evangelical Christians, while at the same time embracing the aggressive militarism and nation-building NEOCONSERVATIVES, AND THE POLITICAL agenda promoted by the Neoconservatives. The result is what David USES OF FUNDAMENTALISM Domke has called a kind of „political fundamentalism,” that is, „an in- tertwining of conservative religious faith, politics, and strategic com- munication.”5 In this essay, I will expand Domke’s notion of political funda- Americans are a free people, who know that freedom is the right of mentalism by examining what I will call the political uses of funda- every person and the future of every nation. The liberty we prize is not mentalism6—that is, the strategic manipulation of religious beliefs, America’s gift to the world, it is God’s gift to humanity ..
    [Show full text]
  • Project the Farsi/Persian Communities In
    IMMIGRANT COMMUNITY CAPACITY AND ENGAGEMENT (ICCE) PROJECT THE FARSI/PERSIAN COMMUNITIES IN LONDON A FORUM FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS PRESENTED BY: JOHN HOWARD SOCIETY OF LONDON AND DISTRICT FARSI / PERSIAN • Three countries speak Persian: • Western Persian (Persian, Iranian Persian, or Farsi) is spoken in Iran • Dari (Dari Persian, Afghan Persian, or Dari) is spoken in Afghanistan • Tajiki (Tajik Persian) is spoken in Tajikistan IRAN HISTORY OF IRAN . The official name of Iran is the “Islamic Republic of Iran” . ‘Persia’ was historically the common name for Iran (it was called Persia until 1935) . Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations . Iran means “the land of the Aryans” Politics . The revolution of Iran was in 1979 by Ayatollah Khomeini . Before the revolution, Iran was a constitutional monarchy. The country was ruled by the Royal Government of Reza Shah Pahlavi . After the revolution, the Iranian government system became the Islamic Republic and its national day is the 12th Farvardin (1st of April) . The Iranians choose their own president. The election is carried out once every four years. Each president serves a four-year term and cannot serve more than two consecutive terms . The president uses the media to announce to the country the government’s plans and programs . The president has some say in the level of media freedom and political openness . Iran was at war with Iraq (1980-1988) for 8 years. The roots of the war lay in a number of territorial and political disputes between Iraq and Iran . The Iranian people
    [Show full text]
  • Download Tour
    Iran Food Tour Available from: January 1, 2021 To December 31, 2021 Tour Destinations: Tehran to Tehran Duration: 11Days Tour styles: Style Culinary Cultural Historical Code: PICU Tour route: Tehran Rasht Qazvin Kashan Isfahan Yazd Shiraz Bandar Bushehr Tehran Tailor made Tour highlights Shopping at Rasht Bazaar, one of the biggest local markets with a thriving atmosphere where they sell fresh and colorful vegetables, fish, and homemade pickles. Learning about the mouthwatering sweets of Iran like the Gaz nougat in Isfahan, brittle Sohan of Qom, and Baghlava in Yazd. Learning to cook chili and tasty Ghaliyeh Mahi (fish stew) in Bushehr, the city of spicy cuisines and southern music! Visiting the top attractions of Iran including the glorious Persepolis, Naqshe Jahan Square and the lush Persian gardens. What you need to know about this tour Charazterized by the fragrance of saffron, spices, and aromatic herbs, Iranian culinary is one of the most delicious and rich cooking styles in the world and this rich food culture comes from the abundance of agricultural products, the diversity of climate, culture and rituals, and also the connections with neighboring countries. From north of Iran to south, as you note changes in climate and culture, the magic of Iranian culinary and cuisines change too. On our 11-day Iran Food Tour, we have tried to cover the major culinary cities of Iran so that you can learn about the most diverse styles and highlights of Iran culinary including kebabs, stews, rice, seafood, and sweets at local cooking classes or taste them around dining tables with local families, along with exploring the top historical and cultural highlights of Iran.
    [Show full text]
  • Cultures of Food and Gastronomy in Mughal and Post-Mughal India
    Cultures of Food and Gastronomy in Mughal and post-Mughal India Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg vorgelegt von: Divya Narayanan Erstgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Gita Dharampal-Frick Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Hans Harder Heidelberg, Januar 2015 Contents Acknowledgements............................................................................................... iii Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………… v Note on Transliteration………………………………………………………… vi List of Figures, Maps, Illustrations and Tables……………………………….. vii Introduction........................................................................................................... 2 Historiography: guiding lights and gaping holes………………………………… 3 Sources and methodologies………………………………………………………. 6 General background: geography, agriculture and diet…………………………… 11 Food in a cross-cultural and transcultural context………………………………...16 Themes and questions in this dissertation: chapter-wise exposition………………19 Chapter 1: The Emperor’s Table: Food, Culture and Power………………... 21 Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 21 Food, gender and space: articulations of imperial power………………………... 22 Food and the Mughal cityscape………………………………………………...... 35 Gift-giving and the political symbolism of food………………………………… 46 Food, ideology and the state: the Mughal Empire in cross-cultural context……...53 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...57 Chapter 2: A Culture of Connoisseurship……………………………………...61 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….
    [Show full text]
  • Les Appellations D'origine Et Les Indications Géographiques
    Les appellations d’origine Appellations of origin Las denominaciones de origen No 47 Les appellations d’origine Année 2018 / Year 2018 / Año 2018 Publication du Bureau international Publication Date: February 10, 2005 de l’Organisation Mondiale de la Propriété Intellectuelle No 39 - Janvier 2011 Fecha de publicación: 10 de febrero de 2005 Appellations of origin Nos 838979 - 839219 Publication of the International Bureau of the World Intellectual Property Organization No. 39 - January 2011 Las denominaciones de origen Publicación de la Oficina Internacional de la Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual No 39 - Enero de 2011 ISSN 0253-8180O OMPI 2011 PUB: 105 Les appellations d’origine Publication du Bureau international de l’Organisation Mondiale de la Propriété Intellectuelle (OMPI) Appellations of origin Publication of the International Bureau of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Las denominaciones de origen Publicación de la Oficina Internacional de la Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual (OMPI) Année 2018 / Year 2018 / Año 2018 No. 47 Administration : Service d’enregistrement Administration: Lisbon Registry Administración: Registro de Lisboa Lisbonne WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZACIÓN MUNDIAL DE LA ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA ORGANIZATION (WIPO) PROPIEDAD INTELECTUAL (OMPI) PROPRIÉTÉ INTELLECTUELLE (OMPI) 34, chemin des Colombettes 34 chemin des Colombettes 34, chemin des Colombettes CH-1211 GENEVA 20 (Switzerland) CH-1211 GINEBRA 20 (Suiza) CH-1211 GENÈVE 20 (Suisse) (+41) 22 338 91 11
    [Show full text]
  • Highlights: Trip Overview
    Highlights: Trip Overview: St. Thaddeus Monastery Iran is truly one of the worlds beautiful countries, not just in nature but in its culture and variety of ethnic groups inhabiting Masuleh Village it. Compared to trekking in other countries in the region, Iran Alamout Castel offers better serviced trekking routes making trekking easy and Persepolis (UNESCO World Heritage Sites) comfortable. Trekking in Iran has captured the imaginations of Services: mountaineers and explorers for more than 1000 years. The B / B, H / B, F / B (Based on Your Choice) lifestyle and habits of the inhabitants of the mountain regions Hotels: has not changed for generations, the village people offer a 3 Stars, 4 Stars, 5 Stars or Camp huge sense of hospitability and welcome trekkers and (Based on The Program) mountaineers alike. 2nd floor, NO 40, Shahid Beheshti Ave, Tehran, Iran Tel: +98 21 88 46 07 55 / +98 21 88 46 09 78 Fax: +98 21 88 46 10 32 Email: [email protected] / [email protected] www.pitotour.net Day 1: Pre reserve symbol of Iran high up in the the Arasbaran forest near Kaleybar City. It was also one of the last regional Day 2 Tabriz: Morning arrival Tabriz, meet the Guide and strongholds to fall to Arab invaders in the 9th Century. transfer to the Hotel. After that drive to Jolfa Border, to O/N in Kaleybar visit two of the best churches in iran. St Stepanos Monastery and St. Thaddeus Monastery. The Saint Day 5 Kaleybar - Sareyn: Drive to Sareyn through Ahar. Thaddeus Monastery is an ancient Armenian monastery Sareyn, is a city and the capital of Sareyn County, in located in the mountainous area of Iran's West Ardabil Province, Iran.
    [Show full text]
  • The Achaemenid Heartland: an Archaeological-Historical Perspective 933
    CHAPTER FIFTY The Achaemenid Heartland: An Archaeological - Historical Perspective Wouter F.M. Henkelman 1 Geographical, Climatic, and Chronological Setting Though the Achaemenid heartland in a strict sense corresponds roughly to the modern Iranian province of F ā rs (ancient P ā rsa, PersV), its immediate cultural and historical context comprised parts of the provinces of Esfah ā n, Y ā zd, Kerm ā n and B ū š ehr, as well as Kh ū zest ā n, where a Neo - Elamite kingdom existed until c.540 or 520 BC . An Iranian presence was noticeable on Elam ’ s northern and eastern borders from the 7th century BC onward and Elamite culture provided a critical impulse for the early Persians (Henkelman 2008a ). When Darius I (522 – 486 BC ) transformed Susa into a principal Achaemenid residence (c.520 BC ), he confi rmed Elam ’ s special status and de facto made it part of the empire ’ s core. In fact, the bipolarity of lowland Kh ū zest ā n and highland F ā rs had characterized successive Elamite states from the 3rd millennium onward (Amiet 1979 ; Potts 1999 ; Miroschedji 2003 ; for other parts of Achaemenid Iran, see Boucharlat 2005 ). In physical terms, the area comprises the southern Zagros range of northwest– southeast - oriented valleys, ending in larger intermontane plains (the Kū r River basin, including the Marv Da š t with Persepolis); the B ū š ehr province coastal plains (and further east?); and the Kh ū zest ā n alluvial plain. As the ancient coast- line extended further northwestward than it does today, only higher Kh ū zest ā n is relevant here, roughly the area north of Ahw ā z (Gasche 2004, 2005, 2007 ; Heyvaert and Baeteman 2007 ).
    [Show full text]