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KQSNIK, Frances Magdalena, 1943- THE APPLICATION OF QUESTION STRATEGIES TO THE TEACHING OF CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM: A KALEIDOSCOPIC APPROACH. J The Ohio State U niversity, Ph.D., 1975 { Education, secondary

Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 4aioe

Copyright by

Frances Magdalena Kosnik

1975

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. THE APPLICATION OF QUESTION STRATEGIES

TO THE TEACHING OF CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS

IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM:

A KALEIDOSCOPIC APPROACH

DISSERTATION

Presented In Partial Fulfillm ent of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy In the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Frances Magdalena Kosnik, B.A., M.A.

* ft * * *

The Ohio State University

1975

Reading Committee: Approved By

Edward D. Alien Erika 8ourgu?gnon Roger T. Cunningham Advi ser College of Education Faculty of Humanities Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .

t owe thanks firs t of a ll to the members of my reading committee, who were always helpful, even when distance could have made communica­ tion d iffic u lt. These members include: Dr. Edward D. Allen, my adviser, who administers the remarkably flexible program which allowed me to delve into various fields to create the synthesis for this study;

Dr. Erika Bourguignon, whose perceptive guidance and gracious encourage­ ment never failed to provide the spark I needed to persevere; and

Dr. Roger T. Cunningham, who trusted me with unlimited access to his file s and allowed me to attend one of his questlon-strategies workwhops as a particlpant-observer.

As regards the application phase of the study, I want to thank the students of Class 7“28 (197^"75)* Pimlico Junior High School, who cooperated enthusiastically in this pioneering effort without ever knowing why. I am also grateful to Joann Mase, the friend In deed who produced the Illu strative photographs in Appendix D, and to GeorgIe

Mase, whose drawing of the web Is found tn Appendix C. In addition,

I wish to acknowledge Edward T. Hall and a ll the publishers who gave me permission to use excerpts or reproduce charts from their publica­ tions. Finally, I am grateful to Sharon Kelley, the typist, whose cheerful acceptance of a challenge enabled me to meet a dead-

11ne. 11 Throughout my work, I have been spurred on by the moral support of family, friends and colleagues, in this country and abroad. My former students, too, have had a share In my thinking and professional development as a teacher. My interaction with all of these individuals has shaped the learning experiences which made this study possible.

My hope is that as one result of these experiences this "kalei­ doscopic approach" w ill become a viable means of acquiring that knowl­ edge of others and of ourselves which we all desire.

t i t VITA

April 16, 1943 ...... Born— Baltimore, Maryland

1963 ...... B.A. (Secondary Education: French), Mt. St. Agnes College, Baltimore, Maryland

1963-64 ...... Asslstante d'angtals, Lycee de Saint-Cloud, Saint-Cloud, France

1964-65 ...... Mtddlebury College Program In Paris

1 9 6 5 ....'...... M.A. (French), Mlddlebury College

1965-7 1 ...... French teacher, Western High School, Baltimore, Maryland

1967 (summer)...... NDEA Institute for secondary teachers of French literature and civilization, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

1968 (summer) ...... Instructor of French, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Catonsvllle, Maryland

1970 (summer) ...... Study at the Instituto de Estudlos IberomerIcanos, S a ltillo , Mexico

1971 "72 ...... Foreign Language Department Head, Lake Clifton High School, Baltimore, Maryland

1972-74 ...... Student, and Teaching Associate, Department of Humanities Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1973 (summer) ...... Georgetown German Program, Salzburg, Austria; Study at the Uni vers I dad Interna clonal Menendez Pelayo, Santander, Spain

1974-75 ...... French and Spanish teacher, Pimlico Junior High School, Baltimore, Maryland

1975 ...... French teacher, Arbutus Junior High School and German teacher, Woodlawn Junior High School, Baltimore County, Maryland

fv PUBLICATION

"YOU Need a Foreign Languagel" Accent on ACTFL IV (September/November, 197*0

FIELDS OF STUDY

Studies In Foreign Language Education: Dr. Edward D. Allen Dr. Gilbert A. Jarvis Dr. Frank Otto

Studies In Anthropology: Dr. Erika Bourgulgnon

Studies In Curriculum: Dr. Paul Klohr Dr. John B. Hough Dr. Charles Galloway Dr. Jack E. Frymier

Studies in French: Dr. Pierre Astler Dr. Charles Carlut Dr. Walter MeIden

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS------I I

VITA ------.------Iv

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION------1

A. Problem, Rationale, Scope, and Limitations ------1 B. Outline of the Dissertation ------r ------6 C. Glossary of Terms------8 Notes to Chapter I ------11

I I . REVIEW OF LITERATURE: QUESTIONS------12

Introductory Statement ------12 A. Surveys of Teacher Questioning Behavior * ------13 B. Systems for the Analysis of Questions------18 C. The Effect of Higher-level Questions on Achievement ------24 D. Process Approaches to Teaching------— — 31 E. Discovery Learning: Definition and Rationale ------38 Addendum (Literature on question strategies relating to foreign language education ------.- 47 Notes to Chapter I I ------50

III. CULTURE: A POINT OF VIEW------64

Introductory Statement-- — ------64 A. Anthropological Literature —:- — 64 1. Culture as Macrocosm: the Whole ------64 2. Culture as Microcosm: the Parts------69 3. Cross-cultural Comparison------—------77 B. Literature: Foreign Language Education ------84 1. The Concept ------85 2. The Method ------91 C. Models for the Analysis of Culture ------— - - — 96 Concluding Statement — 102 Notes to Chapter I I I ------103 vl IV. THE KALEIDOSCOPIC APPROACH------113

Introductory Statement------— ------— 113 A. Content ------117 B. Method------125 C. Technique------128 D. Application in the Classroom------•------130 1. Introduction to Cross-culturalStudy------130 2. A Cross-cultural Illu stra tive Unit------132 Notes to Chapter IV ------160

V. SUMMARY, FEASIBILITY, AND IMPLICATIONS------162

A. Summary ------162 B. Feasibi 11 ty ------—------166 C. Implications for Further Development and Further Research ------171 Notes to Chapter V------178

APPENDIX'

A Materials pertinent to the technique of the approach: systems for the analysis of questions into categories 180

B Materials pertinent to the method of the approach: samples from process approaches to teaching------183

C Materials pertinent to the content of the approach: Hall's Map of Culture and Kosnik's Web of Culture based on Hall and Trager's analysis of culture------189

D Materials pertinent- to the pedagogical application of the approach: A-LM photographs, photographs of the maxi- and mini-wheels, culture capsule, and an Intermediate summary cognitive map ------192

E Materials pertaining to the feasibility of the approach in the secondary school classroom: transcripted excerpt of a discussion and b ib li­ ography of materials useful to teacher and/or students for the implementation of the approach applied to eating habits------213 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Problem, Rationale, Scope, and Limitations

Levl-Strauss calls Jean-Jacques Rousseau the Father of Anthro­ pology, for the author of the Confess ions discovered the principle of unconditional objectivity, as well as the procedures of anthropology:

"Man must fir s t come to know himself as 'another' before he can hope to think In terms of himself."^ Perhaps we In foreign language educa­ tion could also claim him for our own as the Father of the Teaching of

Culture: is It not commonplace for us to lis t, as ultimate goals for our students, knowledge of another culture and concomitant increased awareness of their own7

Yet how well do we teach culture? How many of our students acquire valid knowledge of the foreign way of life? How many of them ever reach the point at which, as a result of taking a foreign lan­ guage course, they think more objectively and perceptively about them­ selves as Americans? Or are they spoonfed with generalities— statements which are doubly detrimental, misleading them Into be­ lieving false stereotypes and starving their Intellectual capacity for productive thinking about the foreign culture? It is little wonder that they remain culture-bound ("A culture-bound Individual Is one

1 2 whose entire view of the world is determined by the value-perspectIves 2 he has gained through a single cultural environment" ), no matter what linguistic or communicative proficiency they ultimately attain.

Authors o f a report o f the National Commission on the Reform of Secondary Education (hereafter referred to as the "Kettering Report") speak of the "collapse of foreign language teaching."^ They seem to admit that study of a foreign language could contribute measurably to the International education of a student, yet they cite the drop in enrollment as testimony that foreign language teachers have failed to meet the challenge to provide this education. Asserting the necessity for students to gain "an emerging knowledge of [the] biological and social unity of the world,"'* they turn to the social studies field to fu lfill this function In the curriculum.^ They suggest that one com­ ponent o f such a curriculum be "enough anthropology to perm it an In ­ formed, private view of the extent to which men are alike and differ­ ent according to their cultures."^

While cross-cultural study can conceivably be a part of the social studies curriculum, the author believes that It is most ideally and profitably pursued In a foreign language classroom. Language, after a ll, Is an intimate witness to the lifestyle of a people; It pervades all of the activities in which they engage to meet.their needs.

Foreign language students, vicariously immersed in situations typical of the lifestyle of the foreign people, gain vivid exposure to both language and culture operating together. Why should the foreign lan­ guage classroom not be the place par excellence to examine a foreign culture and compare It with one's own in the most authentic way? The proof of the pudding lie s somewhere In the "how."

If the Kettering Report is correct, we must invent better modes of teaching the foreign culture In such a way that students gain greater awareness of how their own culture functions. More Is involved than knowledge of the content of a foreign culture. Students need to learn how to get th is knowledge as well as how to compare I t with th e ir own culture by a process that will be called in this study "cultural analysis." In fact, the term "culture," commonly listed with the four linguistic skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing as one of the goals of foreign language Instruction, could be modified to In­ clude this process, or skill, idea. It might be called "analyzing cross-culturally." Students who take a sequence of foreign language courses should learn how to analyze a foreign culture— to penetrate below the surface phenomena to a depth of understanding of how it functions.

The process might be compared to that used in the French method of explication de texte, which consists In examining a literary excerpt

In its parts In order better to appreciate the whole. Culture Is a macrocosm made up cf many microcosms. If a student could understand any one o f the microcosms, he would have an In-depth knowledge o f how the macrocosm functions. Such explication would require an approach to culture which is bias-free, so that stereotypes might be avoided.

I t would also demand real thinking on the part of the learner as he reaches below the surface to gain insightful knowledge. k

To teach the content and process of this skill is a complex a ffa ir. It involves two types of content: the basic knowledge possessed by an anthropologist of what culture is, how it operates, and how objective cross-cultural comparisons should be done—as well as

the specific knowledge of both the foreign and the American culture.

But equally as important, it implies an effective pedagogical applica­

tion, one which takes into account the process by which students acquire—and learn how to acquire—the content. To in itia te the pro­ cess requires a technique for e licitin g student thought, a technique

like that of question strategies.

An approach for meeting these needs of both teacher and stu­ dent Is proposed In this study—a synthesis of selective anthropological content, both general and specific, and the pedagogical application which best lends Its e lf to use in the foreign language classroom. The purpose is to give the teacher an approach for handling the teaching of culture. “Culture" Is understood to mean the d a ily -life patterns of a people, usually termed "small-c" culture In the literature of foreign language education. Sometimes foreign language teachers are

less prepared academically in this area than In that of “capita1-C" culture (history, geography, the arts). Yet If they had a guide on which to model their teaching of small-c culture, their thinking and planning might be facilitated.

Briefly stated, the objective of this study is to Invent an approach which incorporates:

1. a system of cultural analysis which is bias-free and

which might be used as a means to penetrate the content of both American and a foreign culture In a valid way;

2. a method of teaching it which.takes Into consideration

the processes of thinking whereby students might acquire

the content; and

3- a technique for el icitfng this thought on the part of

students.

These components determine the scope of this study. The approach could be applicable to any foreign culture, but illustration will be done with the French culture, since that is the major field of the author.

It might be useful at this point to delineate the limitations of the study. The most obvious lim itation for a foreign language class room is the use of English in the cross-cultural discussions. This use was fe lt to be necessary with beginning language students, for whom the approach was created, and with a group of whom It was tried out.

For the purposes of this study, teaching culture takes p rio rity over teaching language. In an advanced class both could be done simul­ taneously, but in a class of beginners, discussions in the native lan­ guage pre-empt a certain amount of class time from practice in the target language.

Furthermore, the results of using the approach have not been formally evaluated, either as to their cognitive or affective effects on students. The study is not conceived as sta tis tica l research, nor is it really a feasibility study, although it has been implemented in most of Its ramifications in a seventh-grade French class. Rather it is a conceptualization of a synthesis of content, method, and technique 6

A final limitation is related to the type of thinking involved.

This approach concerns acquisition of knowledge about a foreign culture primarily, and largely by an inductive process. Other methods of teaching culture, like the culture assimilator and mini-drama, assume knowledge of a certain amount of content and require the learner to use this knowledge to figure out a solution to a problem. The thinking

Involved is somewhat more complex than that required of a student here.

As a learner is taught by this approach, he performs the higher thinking operations of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, but he does so chief­ ly to acquire more content, and not to apply the knowledge to solution of a cultural dilemma.

B. Outline of the Dissertation

In Chapter II the literature on question strategies is re­ viewed. The topic is considerably more widespread than the scope of this work; therefore, the review has been narrowed down to include only the literature that is pertinent. This includes both empirical and th e o re tic a l a r tic le s re la te d to the method and technique o f th is approach. Besides the use of questions in the classroom and the effect of various levels of questions on achievement and the classification of questions Into categories, therefore, the following are examined: the use of questions in process approaches to teaching and the theoretical foundations of inductive teaching. An addendum includes a survey of the literature on the topic of questions which is available in foreign language education. 7

In Chapter III the anthropological theory on which this approach is built Is explained. Section A incorporates a selective

review of literature which emphasizes the functionalist interpretation.

Culture as macrocosm— the whole, and mlcrocosm--the parts, is also dis­ cussed. The significance and Importance of pattern, especially as a key to understanding the culture In Its entirety, are described. Men­ tion Is made of the process of culture change. Finally, the possi­ b ilities and procedures of valid cross-cultural comparison are made.

Section B surveys the extent to which these concepts are reflected theoretically and methodologically In the field of teaching culture In the foreign language classroom. Section C analyzes various models that have been proposed for the analysis of culture.

In Chapter IV the foreign language teacher is shown how to make content and process work together In teaching culture. With cer­ tain anthropological generalizations forming a basic structure of knowledge, the teacher learns how to portray the whole of culture In a maxt-wheel, as well as how to point out interrelationships of one particular pattern with the rest of culture In a mini-wheel. llMaxl" and "mini" facilitate the application to cross-cultural comparison.

The teacher also learns how to plan for the learning of the content by considering a method based on the th in kin g processes students must undergo, as well as a technique to e lic it thought—that of question s tra te g ie s . A sample u n it using th is method and technique on a body of content follows.

Chapter V includes a summary of the study, a description of the non-statistical findings it obtained with a group of the author's seventh-grade French students, and a discussion of the implications of the study for further development and future research.

C. Glossary of Terms

Although numerous terms are explained in the text, a section on terminology is fe lt to be necessary here in order to c la rify the words whose meaning may be ambiguous. Ambiguity is caused particularly when various authors use different terms for the same concept. An attempt has been made in this study to choose a single term (which may

Include more than one word) for a concept and to be consistent with its use. These definitions of terms have been made up by the author and are Intended to describe her understanding of them. The words are arranged by chapter, and in the order In which they occurred In the text.

Terms: Chapter 11 question: a statement, usually Interrogatory, which elicits an answer, question strategies: the various techniques of questioning based on

classification of questions into categories according to the

levels of thought they evoke, levels of thought: the hierarchical divisions of thinking, determined

by the amount of effo rt put forth by the thinker. According

to Bloom's taxonomy, knowledge, comprehension, and applica­

tion are higher cognitive levels. According to the Guilford

model, cognitive-memory and convergent operations define

narrow thinking; divergent and evaluative operations are

equated to broad thinking. If one compares the Bloom and

Guilford models, lower-level questions correspond to narrow thinking, and higher-level to broad. Lower-level or narrow

questions admit of only one correct answer, whereas higher-

level or broad questions have more than one possible answer

by their very nature, discovery learning: the process by which knowledge— facts, concepts,

or generalizations— Ts acquired by inductive reasoning, inquiry: the process by which a learner acquires knowledge by problem­

solving. This requires some prior acquisition of facts, con­

cepts, or generalizations relevant to the problem.

Terms: Chapter 111 pattern: an abstract term used to describe the essence of an activity

which is repeated in a particular culture and which has a

certain commonality each time. Manifestations of patterns,

sometimes called t r a it complexes, are concrete and/or

observable. For the purposes of pedagogical application,

any one of H all's systemic foci is called "pattern," of

the teacher may fit a pattern Into any one of these foci, web: a term used to describe the interrelationship of a particular

pattern with all the systems of culture, showing how the

totality of culture (macrocosm) Is reflected in any one

pattern (microcosm).

Terms: Chapter IV content: In this study, content is both general and specific, the

"general" referring to certain anthropological generaliza­

tions that form the basic structure of knowledge, the

" s p e d fid 1 referring to certain facts, concepts, and generalizations concerning the French or American cultures

and/or their comparison, method: the sequence of thought processes which the teacher con­

siders In planning the development of a unit, technique: the means used by the teacher to e lic it thought and dl

cusston, viz., question strategies. NOTES TO CHAPTER I

^Claude Levi-Strauss,' "Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Father of Anthro­ pology," UNESCO Courrler 16 (March 1963):10- 2 R. W. Brown et a l., "Developing Cultural Understanding Through Foreign Language Study: A Report of the MLA Interdisciplinary Seminar In Language and Culture," PMLA 68 (December 1953):1203- 3 The Reform of Secondary Education: A Report of the National Commission on the Reform of Secondary Education Established by the Charles F. Kettering Foundation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973):69-

Ib id ., p. 66.

Ib id ., p. 62.

Ibid., p. 66.

Ib id ., p. 65.

11 CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF LITERATURE: QUESTIONS

Introductory Statement

Since the time of Socrates, teachers have been using questions as a basic technique of instruction. The purposes of questions are manifold; Grolsser delineates them as follows:

1. To test a pupil's preparation for the lesson 2. To arouse interest 3. To promote understanding 4. To develop new insights 5. To develop ideals, attitudes, and appreciations 6. To strengthen or consolidate learning 7. To stimulate logical or critical thinking 8. To test for the achievement of objectives^

Since a ll of these purposes correspond to various aspects of the act of teaching, It Is not surprising that questions as a teaching tool have been the subject of innumerable studies. These include s ty lis tic 2 articles on the art of asking a good question (8atche1der et a l., 3 4 5 6 7 6 Burton, Laughlin, Ornsteln, Payne, Satlovir. Yamada, and Morgan Q and Schreiber ). They encompass the research done on the relative effects of prior or post-placement and number of questions on achieve­ ment (Frase,'0 Koran and Koran,'' Rothkopf and Bisbicos,'^ e tc .).

Other researchers have concentrated on the effects of varying amounts of "wait-timeM allowed a student a fte r a question is posed (Rowe,'^ 14 Morlber ). The relationship of questions to the affective domain has

12 been the object of s till different research (The Art of Questioning In

Engl ish.^** S itk o ff e t a l . , ^ W i t h a ll^ ) . Teacher, student, and parent training in questioning techniques, including the use of models as a - j g training device, has been the subject of other studies (Farley, Allen 19 20 21 22 23 e t a l . , B losser, Borg e t a l . , Cunningham, Manson, • Derhammer 2L 25 26 27 and Cormier, Claus, Zimmerman and P ik e , Henderson, e t c .) *

S ig n ific a n t as a l l these studies may be, they have been men­ tioned only in the Interest of placing this particular study In con­ text. Topics which are more relevant for this review of literature are .the following: surveys of teacher questioning behavior, systems for the analysis of questions, higher cognitive questions and their effect on thinking, process approaches to thinking, and the definition and rationale of discovery learning. These determine the sections Into which this review of literature is divided. An addendum Incorporating the contributions foreign language educators have made to the study of questioning In the classroom Is included at the end of this chapter.

A. Surveys of Teacher Questioning Behavior

Many studies examining the implementation of questions in the classroom indicate that teachers are not using questions to best advan­ tage. The oldest of these studies is probably that of Stevens, which dates from 1912. As a result of a survey of a number of classrooms,

Stevens came to the conclusion that teachers ask far too many questions leaving students little time to think, and neglecting individual differ ences in student needs: “The moment we admit that we ask from 75 to

175 questions In a class period, we commit ourselves as 'drivers1 of 28 youth instead of 'leaders1; d rill masters Instead of educators."

Unfortunately, this behavior has not changed radically since Stevens' study. In fact, Hoetker and Ahlbrand, who report research on ctassroom verbal behavior in the period from 1893 to 1963, sum up their review as follows:

The studies that have been reviewed, show a remarkable stab ility of classroom verbal behavior pattern over the last half century, despite the fact that each successive generation of educational thinkers, no matter how else they differed, has condemned the rapid-fire, question-answer pattern of instruction.^9

Studies of teacher questioning behavior have been made at both the elementary and secondary levels. Guszak examined this aspect of elementary reading teachers' behavior and concluded that these educators 30 tended to dwell on lite ra l comprehension of triv ia l facts. Mueller, who also made a study of elementary reading teachers' questioning be­ havior, found that her eight fourth-grade teachers "asked more cognitive-memory questions than any other kind, regardless of the level of the group, or the text used."^ Moyer's study seems to corroborate this conclusion, as he found in his "Exploratory Study of Questioning

In the Instructional Processes in Selected Elementary Schools" that teachers' questions and questioning practices do not effectively in- 32 volve pupils in critical thinking activities. Newcastle made a com­ parative study of second and fifth grade teachers' questioning and re­ sponding techniques. Her conclusions support those of both Guszak and

Moyer, that is, that "classroom interaction emphasizes clarification 33 of ideas, memory, and ratiocination." J Pate studied th irty elementary teachers' questions in order to determine whether there was a pattern of Inquiry to be found. Among other conclusions (including the fact 15 that the individual teacher does exhibit a pattern in the kinds of questions she asks, but that there is no apparent general pattern ex­ hibited by many teachers which is consistent throughout the school year), he discovered that teachers relied on the inquiry for student 3 L opinion as their chief divergent activity. Schreiber studied teachers* question-asking behavior in fifth-grade social studies classes, and discovered that the factual recall type question was the 35 most frequently used in this situation. Zimmerman and Bergan came to a sim ilar conclusion in th eir study of questions asked by early- education teachers:

The most striking finding to come out of the present study is the revelation of the Inordinate amount of emphasis placed on factual knowledge questions in early education. Intellectual operations other than cognition which many educators and psy­ chologists feel are vital to productivity in a changing society are not being stressed in teacher question-asking behavior. The pervasiveness of this finding is demonstrated by the fact that it applies to children from different socio-cultura1 groups from different regions of the c o u n t r y .

Among studies made in secondary education is that of Adams, whose sample included English and social studies teachers. While comparing the two groups of teachers, he discovered that social studies teachers used more memory questions and fewer evaluative, clarifying and neutral questions than English teachers; that senior high English teachers used more memory questions than junior high English teachers; that senior high social studies teachers used more ratiocinatIve questions and fewer memory questions than junior high social studies teachers; and that teachers in the present study used fewer memory questions than the teachers fn the 1912 study. All of these results 16 37 attained statistical significance. (Adams thus seems to contradict

Hoetker and Ahlbrand.)

Davis and Tinsley studied the types of questions asked by stu- dent teachers and their students in high school social studies class-* rooms. They found that both students and teachers asked more memory questions than a ll others combined. The next highest amount fe ll In the comprehension category, which Bloom describes as the lowest form of intellectual a c tiv ity . This study summarized data taken from forty- 38 four classes. A study by Bel lack and Davitz surveyed the behavior of fifteen teachers and 3^5 pupils In problems of democracy classes.

They found that teachers dominate classroom discourse by a ratio of

3:1 in terms of lines spoken, and 3:2 In terms of moves. The teacher structures the lesson, the pupil responds. The most frequent 39 Instructional-logical meanings involve fact stating. A third study done exclusively with social studies teachers is that of Tinsley, who surveyed questions asked by eighth and eleventh-grade teachers of Amer­ ican history. He found that questions demanding memory and evaluation were asked most frequently; questions demanding convergent thinking were asked next, followed (In order) by those requiring logical and 40 reflective thinking, and divergent thinking. A conclusion reported by Tinsley and Davis is as follows:

The questions planned by these social studies student teachers were characterized by little variety in opportunity for practice by secondary school students in thinking pro­ cesses and s k ills , nor did they demonstrate a difference in the opportunities provided in class discussions and tests. More­ over, no significant differences exist in opportunities for junior and senior high school students. Tinsley et a l. did another study of the cognitive objectives revealed

by classroom questions In "process-oriented" and "content-oriented"

secondary social studies programs. They found no significant d iffe r­

ence between programs in the average number of questions asked; they

also discovered that the most frequent types of questions among both

teachers and students were memory, Interpretation, and procedure ques­

tions. They found fin a lly that the teachers asked three times as many 42 questions as the students.

A study by Clements and Beittel spanned instructional levels,

Including first-grade, seventh-grade and college students. Although

"there was no analysis made of types of questions, interesting results

showed that across the board teachers rarely paused to give the student

a chance to think about answering; five per cent of the answers were

Interrupted by the teacher, and over half the questions elicited an- 43 swers of one-second's duration or less.

If teachers Include on their tests that type of content which

they consider most significant, it behooves educators to examine their

evaluative measures. P feiffer and Davis did just that in a study of

tests made by teachers for a ll ninth-grade courses during the 19&3~6b

school year at a junior high school. Results showed that in a ll pro- 4 4 grams at least half of a student's answers required only memory.

Other studies have been made of textbook questions. Upon

examining 3»526 reading comprehension questions, Cooke found that 55 %

were lite ra l comprehension questions, 26% inferential comprehension, 4c 10% appreciation, 6% reorganization, and 3% evaluation. Davis and

Hunktns examined textbook questions In history, geography, and a fused 18 approach. They found that the books emphasized the cognitive domain; that out of 732 questions, only one demanded that pupils use synthesis, and only two required evaluative thinking; and that In three textbooks LA "none of the questions studied required analytic thinking."

It seems from this review of literatu re concerning types of questions teachers actually do ask, that they are misusing, or even neglecting, one of the most powerful means they have of evoking thought.

i Their questions for the most part do not challenge the students’ a b ility to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate; the questions require only a minimal' intellectual effort. Studies done on teacher training in ques­ tion strategies show that when teachers are made aware of the possi­ bilities inherent In a system for classifying questions, they Increase the variety of their questions. In the next section various systems that have been proposed for analysis of questions are considered.

j B. Systems for the Analysis of Questions

A group of these systems is based on Bloom's taxonomy of educa- i tional objectives in the cognitive domain. This foundational exposi-

! tion of the hierarchy of cognitive skills needs no Introduction. Let i I us recall, however, the purpose as stated by Bloom, of the categoriza- i tion of the objectives. In essence Bloom says that an individual cannot survive with mere knowledge, he must possess intellectual j a b ilitie s and skills which enable him to apply that knowledge in new kl situations. T^ie i latter intellectual abilities and skills are repre­ sented by the higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy, which includes the | following six categories: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. 1I I I 19

Knowledge is primarily a recall phenomenon, but it includes

the a b ility to relate a question to what one knows in order to select

the answer from one's memory. Knowledge of specifics (terminology and

specific facts), of ways and means of dealing with specifics (conven­

tions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, and methodology) and of the universals and abstractions in a field

(principles and generalizations, and theories and structures) are all

Included.

The remaining categories are more directly related to the pro­ cess of thinking, where specific Information is less relevant. Compre­ hension, for example, involves understanding of what Is being commu­ nicated and includes the a b ility to translate (paraphrase), Interpret

(summarize), and extrapolate (conclude). The third category In Bloom's taxonomy is application of abstractions to concrete situations. Next

Is analysis, the process of breaking down a communication into its component parts; Inclusive are analysis of the elements, relationships, and organizational principles of a communication. The fifth category, synthesis, requires the learner to put together the parts of a whole, and may be evidenced in the production of a unique communication, pro­ duction of a plan or set of operations, and in the derivation of a set of abstract relations. Finally, evaluation involves judgments, in

terms of either Internal or external criteria.

One of the oldest and most well-known applications of Bloom's cognitive taxonomy to the analysis of question strategies is that of

Sanders, who modified the hierarchy to include seven types of

knowledge—alt applicable to the domain of social studies. He reduces the knowledge category to memory and divides the comprehension level

Into translation and interpretation.'*^

The work of Tinsley et a l., also in the domain of social studies, has been based on the taxonomy of Bloom with Sanders' modiflca tions. Their Teacher Pupil Question Inventory includes nine categories memory, interpretation, translation (of transformation), application, 51 analysis, synthesis, evaluation, a ffe c tlv ity , and procedure.

Jarollmek has also shown how to apply Bloom's taxonomy to questioning 52 In the social studies.

Much work In question strategies has been done by the Far West

Regional Laboratory for Educational Development. Their research and development have been made available to teachers for their own Improve­ ment In two mlnicourses. The aims of the f ir s t , developed by Borg,

Kelley, et al., are as follows:

1. To increase the proportion of incidents in regular class discussion in which teachers: —ask questions leading to pupil responses that are judged by a trained observer to require use of higher cognitive processes, such as explanation, evaluation, synthesis, generalization, and problem solving; — deal with Incorrect answers In an accepting manner, I.e ., without observable indication of displeasure, sarcasm, impatience, or annoyance; —use praise and attention to reinforce pupil responses; — pause at least five seconds between framing a question and calling for a pupil response; —redirect the same question to two or more pupils; — prcbe pupil responses, using the techniques of prompting, seeking further c la rific a tio n , Increasing pupil critical awareness, and refocusing the pupil's response. 21

2. To reduce the frequency of Incidence In regular class dis­ cussion situations in which teachers: —ask questions that evoke information only; —ask questions that are answerable with yest no, or a single short phrase; —repeat their own questions; —answer their own questions; — repeat pupil answers; — interrupt pupil response. 3. To decrease the proportion of teacher talk and increase the proportion of pupil participation during the discussion period.53

Despite Its length, this list Is quoted In Its entirety because of its

all-encompassing objectives, which are applicable in a ll subjects and at any level. The first minicourse gives teachers specific instruc- cj. tion In how to attain these objectives. Minicourse Nine, developed by Gall, Dunning, and V/eathersby, concentrates on the higher cognitive questions of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. These educators,

like Sanders, use Bloom's cognitive taxonomy, but with its Integral 55 six categories. A reprint of their summary chart of question types, which includes samples of questions, is included in Appendix A.

Morse and Davts report on another system which uses Bloom's taxonomy as a cognitive basis. Called the Quest ioning Strategies

Observation System, it provides for the categorization of each class­ room Interchange four times, according to its in itia tio n , the cogni­ tive level of the question, the response, and the reactions of the teacher.With regard to questions, it provides seven measures: question quantity, cognitive quantity, cognitive quality, tactical versatility, question success, and reaction quality.^ To analyze the cognitive level of a question, it uses the categories of Bloom's 22 taxonomy, with the addition of columns for affectivity (including

rO pupil opinion, attitudes, feelings and beliefs) and procedure.

Finally, Hunkins uses Bloom's taxonomy as the basis for his work

in questioning strategies and techniques In the social studies. In so doing, he combines on the one hand, the work of Taba in incorporation of facts, concepts, and generalizations, and the difference between process and content; and on the other, his own concept of the four functions of questions: centering, expansion, distribution, and 59 ordering. Centering is used to focus students' attention on a par­ ticu lar topic or aspect of i t . ^ While the center function can in­ clude questions from a ll the taxonomy's levels, "questions at the spe­ cific cognitive levels are used to direct the grouping of Information into meaningful combinations so that a focus or a limited number of foci result."*^ The expansion function Is aimed at increasing the depth of student thought, either on one level of the taxonomy, or at a higher cognitive level. It may also be used to lower the level, if 62 the teacher needs to go back and make further clarification. The distribution function refers to the number of students involved in 63 the lesson. The order function Includes questions for classroom management.

A second large group of questioning systems is based on

Guilford's structure of the intellect. Perhaps the most succinct and practically useful application of the forms of thought involved here has been made by Cunningham. He divides questions Into two main categories: narrow and broad. Narrow questions are used for: collecting information, verifying ideas and understandings of material. reviewing previously studied material, identifying, grouping and noting relationships. With this type of question, answers are pre- 65 dictable because there is a limited number of "right 11 answers.

Broad questions permit a variety of acceptable responses; thus, an­ swers are not predictable. These questions may be used to stimulate and guide interest In a new problem.^ Narrow questions are sub­ divided into cognitive-memory and convergent categories. Cognitive- memory questions are limited to the lowest level of thinking, calling for a reproduction of facts, definitions, or other remembered informa­ t io n .^ Convergent questions are broader than cognitive-memory be­ cause they require the student to explain relationships or concepts, to 68 compare or contrast. Broad questions are of the divergent and the evaluative type. Divergent questions require the student to organize elements .In a way not apparent before by predicting, hypothesizing, Co or inferring. The evaluative question provides opportunity for the student to judge, value, justify a choice, or defend a position.

Since It Involves use of the cognitive operations from a ll the lower levels, it is considered the highest c la s s ific a tio n .^ A copy of this category system is included in Appendix A.

The studies of the following authors also use these four cate­ gories of thinking: Gallagher and Aschner, who used it in th eir report on the analysis of classroom interaction;^ Peggy Amidon, who combined 72 It with the Flanders system; Edmund Amidon and Elizabeth Hunter, who incorporated categories of broad and narrow questions with the

Ftanders system, thus creating a new system containing both cognitive 24 73 and affective dimensions; Blosser, who changed the terminology some­ w hat;^ Derhammer and Cormier;Crumpand Meehan.^

These two systems— Bloom and Guilford—are the two major bases for analysis of questions Into categories. A third group of studies concerned with the breakdown of questions w ill be examined in section D of this chapter, as they are concerned primarily with the pedagogical application of the process dimension of teaching and only secondarily with the use of questions per se. Other systems of analysis of ques­ tions and/or mental processes which depart somewhat from the conception 78 of B.loom, Guilford, or the process group are those of Newcastle,

Smith et a l . , ^ Fuller,®^ English,®^ earner,®^ and Clegg et al.®^

Following this explanation of levels of questions, it is most appropriate to proceed to an examination of the research that has been done In the area of the effect of higher-level questions on achievement.

C. The Effect of Higher-level Questions on Achievement

In a review of the research on teaching behaviors related to pupil achievement, Rosenshine makes the following two conclusions:

1. No clear linear relationships have been found between the frequency with which the teacher uses certain types of questions and the achievement of pupils; and 2. The experimentally increased use of specified procedures or types of questions has not resulted in significantly increased achievement.

In the comprehensive review of the literature which was undertaken for this study, the results have been found to be somewhat contra­ dictory, some positively supporting the view that the higher the cog­ n itive level of a question, the greater the achievement; some showing no correlation. 25

The bulk of the work tn this area has been done by Hunklns, who

tests the effect of questions on achievement and critical-th in kin g

a b ility . In an a rtic le dated January 1968 Hunkins describes a study made with eleven sixth-grade social studies classes, divided into two groups equated on the basis of IQ and reading scores. Both groups were designated to read certain passages in their textbook and to answer questions. Questions given to one group were of the knowledge variety,

requiring recall of items stored In the individual's memory. The other group was given analysis and evaluation questions, both of which sub­ sume knowledge. The conclusions were as follows:

1. The employment of high cognitive-1 eveI questions (analysis and evaluation) produced significantly greater scores in • social studies achievement than did low cognitive-level questions (knowledge). 2. Better readi ~ ‘ h conditions achieved higher than did poorer

In his analysis of the data, Hunklns suggests that student who had to answer the higher cognitive questions were required to use more "mental juggling" of the Information inbedded In the text, thus attaining 86 better retention of it.

In a lengthy report dated August of the same year, Hunkins de­ scribes another study done at the same level, aimed at measuring the

influence of analysis and evaluation questions on critical thinking as well as achievement In the social studies. His results corroborate those of the former study with respect to achievement, for as stated

in conclusion 6, "the employment of high-cognitive level questions

(analysis and evaluation) produced significantly greater scores in social studies achievement than did low-cognitive level questions

(knowledge)."®^ However, the use of higher-cognitive level questions 26

failed to produce significant differences either on knowledge, compre­

hension, application, analysis, or synthesis scores. Thus, critical

thinking ability was not positively affected by practice with higher-

level questions. The overall conclusion, as stated by Hunkins in his

summary, follows:

Pupils' use of analysis and evaluation questions in texttype materials did not produce significant differences in critical thinking when compared to their use of knowledge questions in texttype materia Is .88

In his discussion, Hunklns offers several possible reasons for the

failure of higher-level questions to produce greater critical-thinking

a b ility . It could have been due to inadequacy of the measuring instru­

ment, to the lack of class discussion, to the students' prior inexpe- 89 rience with higher-level questions; Hunkins concludes, however, that

it was probably due to the fact that critical thinking Is an ability 90 that cannot be taught,.but only improved. He concludes also, in

keeping with the Idea of a thinking hierarchy, that

Encouragement for the use of high-level questions is obtained from the fact that Treatment A pupils did significantly better than pupils in Treatment B with regard to the evaluation sub­ test. This result has many ramifications for, according to the Taxonomy, evaluation subsumes the categories of synthesis, analysis, application, comprehension, and knowledge.

Buggey followed up on Hunkins 1 work with second-grade children.

She avoided the possible interference of reading proficiency by having

the materials presented visually, and extended the treatment time to six weeks. There were three groups of children; one group received questions using 70% knowledge-level and 30% higher-level operations; another group received 30% knowledge- and 70% higher-level questions; a third group received a placebo treatment. Buggey found the 27 variable of level of questions to be significant in relation to social 92 studies achievement.

Tyler also worked with second-grade students In an experiment similar to Buggey's. There were three groups, two of which were given questions and the third, regular classroom instruction. The experimen­ tal treatment involved having one group respond to questions read to them by the teacher, the other to read the questions for themselves prior to responding. The results of this study also indicated that

"Children instructed with predominantly higher-level questions per­ formed at significantly higher levels regardless of method of question presentation than did children receiving regular classroom Instruc­ tion."93

A third study conducted in second-grade classrooms was made by

Measel and Hood, who gathered data In fifteen classrooms. They deter­ mined that there was a significant relationship between modes of teacher influence and use of cognitive levels, as well as between levels of teacher cognition and that of the pupils; this was true for 3k pupil response categories but not for pupil In itiatio n categories.

Ryan conducted an experiment with three groups of f if th - and sixth-grade social studies students. "Posttest and retention results

Indicated a superiority of high question and low question over control on low level understandings (p < .05) and a superiority of high ques- QC tions over control on high level understandings (p < .0 5 )." He con­ cludes that high level questions are more effic ie n t than low level questions for moving students toward low and high level under­ standings.9^ 28

In somewhat the same vein Is the study by M iller, who Invest!*- gated differential effects of directive and responsive teaching on pupil behavior. His sample Included seventh and eighth, grade pupils, to whom lessons in American economics were given. His discovery was that responsive teaching Is more effective than directive methods; both the attitudes and the achievement of pupils taught the former 97 way are higher.

Yost worked with seventh-grade science students, dividing his treatment groups according to type of instruction. Four groups com­ pleted programmed instruction on Newtonian mechanics and one served as a control. Three of the four treatment groups were given materials

Interspersed with questions of a different level of complexity for each; the fourth group was given a paragraph to read instead of the questions. Results showed that the groups given instruction achieved higher scores than the control group; furthermore, that the groups given questions had higher scores than the group with the paragraph; finally, "there was a significant (p<. 01) positive trend that de­ scribed the amount of change in achievement (relevant and incidental) 98 per unit change of question complexity."

In another experiment with science students and teachers, Ladd and Anderson analyzed teachers' questions according to their high or low level of Inquiry. They determined that teachers who ask more high-inquiry questions cause a greater change In students as measured by achievement. F values of this experiment were significant at the

.001 le v e l." 29

Boone did a study on the effect of higher level questions on reading comprehension. Group A was given high-level questions after the stories; group B was given knowledge questions; group C received no questions. Results of the test showed that a significant mean difference existed at the .01 level between Treatment Group A, which received the high-level question treatment, and control Treatment

Group C, which was given the no-question treatment. There seems to have been no significant difference, however, between Treatment

Groups A and B .'°°

Gallagher et a l. Investigated the productive thinking of gifted children at the junior and senior high school level In ten different classrooms. They found that regardless of the subject matter, certain types of questions were most prevalent; more than f if ty per cent of questions-asked in a class session were cognitive-memory; the second-most popular type was convergent thinking, with a much smaller percentage of divergent and evaluative thinking.'0* Their Important conclusion follows:

Expressive behavior in the classroom in both kind and amount of thought output seemed dependent on the teacher's style of question-asking, the sex of the student, the goals of the teacher in a given lesson, the composition of the class group, and the pattern of attitudlnal and personality characteristics of the student.*®^

Another study on gifted children was conducted by Martinson and Wiener. They Instructed teachers in higher cognitive questioning and found a significant improvement In open responses by students who were given more application, generalization, and synthesis questions by their teachers.*0^ 30

The remaining studies give negative, or at least noncommittal, results as to the relationship between higher cognitive questioning and i behavior. Rogers and Davis found in their experiment with elementary social studies students and studdnt teachers that while teachers' ques­ tioning behavior improved, the "(telat ionsh i p of teachers', behav.iors to pupil outcomes is not at all clear. Especially Is this evident with 104 regard to classroom questioning practices."

Allen tested the effects of advance organizers and level of questions on the learning and retention of written social studies m aterial. His results were different from those which had been pre­ dicted. He found that "memory question groups did better on memory learning subtests than higher order question groups, and these groups i did better than memory question groups on higher order learning sub- 105 tests." There was no evidence to support the contention of some that higher order questions would result in as good a retention of specific factual information as memory questions.

A study by Qulring with sophomore nursing students, given differing levels of questions in an auto-tutorial approach, determined that neither high- nor low-level questions had a significant influence 107 on cognitive achievement for the adult learner.

Perhaps there Is more Involved than the question, as Taba and . I Elzey affirm:

The level of thinking attained Is influenced not only by the nature of the single act by a teacher just preceding a given response. The level of thought attained seems to be determined by the whole pattern of transactions: the par­ ticu lar combination of focusing, extending, and liftin g ; the timing of these acts; th^ length of time spent on a par­ ticu lar focus, such as exploring specific descriptive informa­ tion before examining causes or attempting explanation; the distance between the mental operations of the students at the . moment from the level required by the teacher, and the points at which the teacher seeks information from students and gives I t . 108

Rosenshine also comments in the same vein that the ends a teacher seeks are more significant than the means, i.e., a particular teaching beha- vior. He quotes studies which indicate that the most successful teachers are not those who chose a certain behavior; they may rather be "selecting certain behaviors and avoiding others in order to achieve 109 particular cognitive ends." Thus, questioning behavior must be con­ sidered as one means to attain a specific cognitive end—thinking on the part of students. Process approaches to teaching, which w ill be considered in the next section, are particularly concerned with the stages of thinking through which a learner passes In order to acquire knowledge.

0. Process Approaches to Teaching

A common requisite of these methods Is involvement of the learner In the thinking process. As B artlett defines it , "Thinking...

Is not simply the description, either by perception or by re ca ll, of something which Is there, i t is the use of Information about something present, to get somewhere else."^^ Dewey outlines five steps In re­ flection: perceiving a d iffic u lty , finding and defining i t , suggesting a possible solution, developing the ramifications of the suggestion, and observing further to decide on the acceptance or rejection of the suggestion.^ This educator emphasizes the "forked-road" aspect of 112 it, which requires the thinker to become involved. In her article 3.2 on using questions to trigger thinking, Aschner also points out that

reasoning means reaching; not retrieving an answer.

In many process approaches to teaching, questions are used as a technique to evoke thought. Taba, for example, who makes a basic distinction between process and content learning, Implies that the levels of thinking attained by a class are determined by that of the 11*1 questions asked by the teacher. The objectives of her curriculum are four: basic knowledge; thinking; attitudes, feelings, and sensi­ tiv itie s , and academic and social s k ills . The knowledge domain consists 115 of basic concepts, generalizations, and facts. Thinking likewise in­ volves three levels:

a) Concept formation, or the ways in which students can Inter­ relate and organize discrete bits of Information to de­ velop abstract concepts (e .g ., the concepts of cultural change, of interdependence, and of standard of living) b) Inductive development of generalizations, or the ways by which students interpret data and make inferences that go beyond what is given d irectly In the data. c) Application of principles, or the ways In which students use acquired knowledge—facts and generalizations—to ex­ plain new phenomena, to make predictions, and to formulate hypotheses.1

(Discussion of the other objectives is omitted because, while basic to Taba's scheme, they are not relevant to the purposes of this study.)

Both the planning of content and the planning of learning experiences are essential to the development of an adequate curriculum.

In her theoretical discussion of content, Taba delineates con­ cepts, main Ideas, and specific content in that order; but In the class­ room students start with specific instances and then develop the main 118 Idea. As students learn content, they should also increase their 119 thinking capacity. Two kinds of learning experiences are essential: 33

"( 1) learning experiences which represent the intake of new information and the assimilation of that information into existing concepts and

(2) learning experiences which require students to reorganize what has 120 been learned already and to express it in a new way." The hoped- for outcome of this approach is a more independently-thinking learner.

A sample of how process and content are combined in Taba-created

learning experiences is reproduced in Appendix B.

The role that thinking plays In a process approach to teaching

is also well-defined in a latter edition of Taba's 1967 handbook:

1. Thinking involves.an active transaction between an Individual and the data with which he is working. Data become meaning­ ful only when an individual performs certain cognitive opera­ tions upon such data. 2. The a b ility to think cannot be "given" by teachers to students. Effective thinking depends on the richness of content, the processes used, and the in itia l assistance provided in the development of such processes. 3* All school children are capable of thinking at abstract levels, though the quality of individual thinking differs markedly. k. All subjects offer an appropriate context for thinking. 5. Precise teaching strategies can be developed which w ill en­ courage and improve student thinking . '^1

Also reiterated is the crucial role played by questions in such an approach: "In a curriculum which places considerable emphasis on the quality of the process that students use in constructing generaliza- 122 tlons and Inferences, questions play a key role."

In another study concerning thinking In elementary school children Taba et a l . focus on the development of thought, stressing its 12“? sequential order (concrete before abstract). It is essentially a process approach, providing for Inductive development of concepts about concrete phenomena before having students make generalizations 34 about them. As In Taba's previously-discussed work, thought is divided

Into three stages: concept formation, Interpretation of data, and 124 application of data.

Concept development Is the basic cognitive task upon which all others are based. It consists in the processes of "the differentiation of the specific properties of objects or events," "grouping," and 125 "labelIzing or categorizing." In the classroom, d ifferen tiation Is usually elicited by an enumeration question; grouping Is performed d ifferen tly according to different bases; and labeling requires making 126 decisions about what to put under a particular category. Inter­ preting data requires the student to assemble concrete Information, ex­ plain or give reasons for certain events, relate different points of 127 information, or formulate a generalization or an Inference. In the third cognitive task two operations are Involved: predicting, and establishing the parameters by which the prediction's validity Is verified. This third category permits much more divergence than either I oft of the others. Its chief importance lies in its value for transfer of knowledge.

Taba's biggest pedagogical innovation is probably the teaching strategy of cognitive maps. These must be two In number in order for the teaching to be adequate: a map of the process and one of the con- 129 tent. The relative importance of "giving" content versus e lic itin g seeking on the part of the students is well-stated as follows:

Consideration of the importance of autonomy in cognitive processes and of the "action" principle of developing cognitive structure suggest that distinguishing what a teacher needs to give and what he needs to seek is one important facet of 35

teaching strategies. If the development of autonomy in thinking Is an important objective, the “seeking" functions of teaching assume greater importance than those of giving. For students to develop their conceptual structures by their own efforts and to master the methodology of doing so, the usual teacher's role must be reversed. Instead of being a fount of information he

needs to become an adroit guide of the learning p r o c e s s . '30

The way to guide students Is through questions. “The role of questions

becomes critical and the way of asking questions far the more Influen- 131 tla l teaching act." Questions can have various functions, according

to Taba. They can be used to accommodate Individual differences In per

ceptlon and to create "stepping stones" from one mode of thinking to 139 another. Thus, questions must be used in the same sequence as the

cognitive map.

In the particular practical study which these educators did with students, they found that by answering questions based on a double

cognitive map, students became better able to differentiate data and 133 make Inferences. The study also showed that an adequate emphasis on concrete operations of thought Is a necessary prerequisite to the ability to think formal ly.^**

The emphasis on process as opposed to content influenced also

the work of Manson, who developed a process/knowledge matrix combining

six categories of a process dimension: remembering, understanding,

solving, analyzing, synthesizing, and judging, with three categories 135 of the knowledge dimension: facts, concepts, and generalizations.

Applied to geography, the result fs a matrix which may be examined

In Appendix B. Shrable and Minn is' scheme also emphasizes the process aspect,as does Fraenkel.^^ 36

Educators at the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory have

written a program of development of higher level thinking abilities In

which they emphasize the relationship of process to content: "Process

cannot be effectively applied except as ft operates on a body of sub- 138 ject matter." J The structure of knowledge in this program Includes 139 factual data, concepts, and generalizations. The learning process

related to this hierarchy of knowledge Includes the recall of previously-

acquired data; the translation or organization of specific data

according to concepts; the interpretation and statement of relation­

ships, generalizations, information, and principles; and the applica­

tion of knowledge to new situations, so that the learner learns how to 140 function independently. Their Instructional model consists of three

major cognitive tasks: concept diagnosis, interpretation of data, and 141 applications of knowledge. Questions are used to help students

attain the objectives In all three aspects.

Briefly stated, "the process Is one of asking students to

analyze specific information, combine elements and move to a higher

level of abstraction, then combine those abstractions and move to s till | X|2 higher level abstractions." Learning experiences are not one-

dimenslonal, but Include knowledge, skills, attitudes, and cognitive

processes. Concept diagnosis involves processes of lis tin g , grouping, t f. 3 and labeling. Interpretation of data Includes the processes of

open-memory questions, focusing-memory questions, interpretation ques-

tlons, and inclusive-interpretation questions. Processes associated with the application of knowledge are exploration, focusing and sub- 145 stantiation, interpretation, summarizing, the ve rifica tio n . A copy 37 of the model may be found in Appendix 6. (Needless to say, these educators seem to owe a great debt to Taba.)

A most interesting volume on the development of in itia l cogni­ tive sk ills has been published by the Institute for S taff Development in Miami, Florida. Although, like the other process approaches which have been discussed, it is not specifically a manual on question stra­ tegies, It provides a system for moving from the perceptual to the con­ ceptual which should prove useful to those building models for question strategies and in fact, provides suggested questions In each category.

Its categories Include: observing, recalling, noticing differences, ordering, grouping, concept labeling, classifying, concept testing,

Inferring causes, Inferring effects, inferring feelings, concluding, generalizing, questioning, anticipation, and making choices. These are organized In a hierarchy of units. Unit one focuses on attending, or attention-training skills, calling the attention of children to the 146 diversity and complexity of that which surrounds them. Particularly relevant here Is the statement on comparing and contrasting, where the authors explain the importance of a child's holding in his mind simul- 147 taneously, several bases for comparison. Unit two combines the skills developed In Unit one (observing, recalling, noticing differ­ ences and noticing similarities) with the child's past knowledge and

Judgments. Focusing on sk ills which are basic to the processes of clarification and conceptualization, this unit requires two kinds of questions: "one to elicit responses which reflect the thinking skill and a second, usually a 'why do you thtnk' question, to e lic it 38 |i,8 explanations or support for the Ideas." Unit three s k ills , con­ cerned with the process of inference-making, require a higher cognitive 149 level. Basically, the hierarchy suggested In both the Bloom tax­ onomy and the Guilford model is followed, but here the sk ills are very clearly broken down and defined. Relevant also are interesting dis­ tinctions made In content form between concrete, representational, and symbolic objects.^® The resulting table of mental processes paired with questions and content form is found in Appendix B.

E. Discovery Learning: Definition and Rationale

Process systems a ll seem to have inductive teaching as their theoretical base—that is, students are led.to "discover" the facts, concepts, and generalizations that they learn. Bruner defines "dis­ covery" as "a matter of rearranging or transforming evidence In such a way that one is enabled to go beyond the evidence so reassembled to 191 additional new Insights." Jones distinguishes between this method and that of Socrates. The latter forced students to come to certain 152 conclusions through a series of ingenious questions, whereas dis­ covery teaching is

...a teaching process through which a student is Induced to feel (I) that he "sees" something— a mathematical fact or relationship—that he had not perceived previously, and (2) that this perception was not directly told, given, or dis­ played to him by another p e r s o n . ^53

Gagne seems to take discovery learning a step further in his discussion of enquiry, or problem-solving, through which a student

"begins with a careful set of systematic observations, proceeds to design the measurements required, clearly distinguishes between what 39

is observed and what is inferred, invents Interpretations, which are

under ideal circumstances b rillia n t leaps but always testable, and 154 draws reasonable conclusions." He adds significantly, however, that

a student must have met certain pre-requisites before he is able to

engage in such productive thinking. These pre-requisites are: {1) the

ability to apply generalizations to other situations; and ( 2) the

a b ility to distinguish when hypotheses can be applied to new situa- 155 tions. In other words, the student must begin problem-solving with

some knowledge of the principles according to which it can be accomp­

lished, if he expects to be at all successful. " It is surely wrong to

believe that the student can think without knowing these prin- 156 / ctples." Gagne asserts that knowledge of such principles cannot all 157 be attained by the process of enquiry Its e lf. Thus, problem­

solving Is a more sophisticated act of thinking than that Involved in

the actual acquisition of principles of generalizations, and, while discovery may be an essential method of instruction, it is not equiva­

lent to enquiry:

The construction of a response by a learner, something that happens nearly every step of the way in the process of learning, Is what usually has been called discovery. In contrast to this, enquiry is the terminal thinking process we want the student to be able to engage in, aftgS he has taken all the necessary pre­ vious steps in learning. ^

The hypotheses a student Is allowed to offer as solutions to problems

should not be random, but plausible ones, based on some definite knowl- edge . ' 59

Gagne's concern seems to be with some ultimate capability on

the part of the student, one which he attains after acquiring the facts 40 and concepts he needs to support generalizations, Whether this be by discovery, by guided teaching, by practice, by d rill, or by review.

Thus, discovery learning and enquiry are not the same. Ausubel, on the other hand, seems to equate problem-solving with discovery learning:

Overemphasis on developing problem-solving a b ility would ultimately defeat its own ends. It would leave students with in­ sufficient time In which to learn the content of a discipline; and hence, despite their ad.eptness at problem-solving, they would be unable to solve simple problems Involving the application of such content.

In another article, Ausubel's diatribe against discovery learning becomes even more vehement. He reports on results of students subjected to the discovery method in science:

[They] learned precious l i t t l e subject matter and even less scien tific method from the procedure. The unsophisticated scientific mind is only confused by the natural complexities of raw, unsystematized empirical data, and learns much more from schematic models and diagrams; and following lab manuals In cookbook fashion, without adequate knowledge of the relevant methodological and substantial principles involved, confers about as much genuine appreciation of sc ien tific method as putting on a white "lab" coat and doing a TV commercial for Roll-Aids. 162

Ausubel does concede, however, that prior to adolescence, discovery may be justifiable for both cognitive and motivational factors and that furthermore, it has some justification for adults or adolescents who 163 are relatively unsophisticated In a given discipline. Otherwise, however, given time lim itations of school programs, discovery learning 164 is not an e ffic ie n t method of instruction, according to Ausubel.

Nor does It "necessar1ly lead to more orderly, Integrative and viable 165 organization, transformation, and use of knowledge." The following statement explains the conditions under which discovery learning Is justified; it is quoted because of Its relevance to this approach: The discovery method can be used most effectively when the learner Is In the concrete stage of logical operations and Is dependent both on concrete-empirical props and on a preliminary phase of intuitive, subverbal Insight for the learning of complex abstractions. It can also be advantageously employed in the early stages of teaching older Individuals a d iffic u lt new discipline In which they are as yet very unsophisticated.

The writings of a number of social studies educators have been

concerned with the discovery method and enquiry. In perusing them,

the distinction made by Gagne between discovery of facts, concepts,

and generalizations as a method of Instruction (that advocated by Taba,

among others) and problem-solving Im plicit In the enquiry approach w ill

be remembered.

Sanders equates discovery with Inquiry but distinguishes them*'

from Inductive teaching. In pure discovery the teacher provides l it t l e

guidance, whereas In directed discovery, exposition Is combined with 167 discovery. The la tte r method, however, Includes other thinking pro­

cesses besides the inductive, that Is, "classifying and organizing

data, making comparisons, drawing inferences, drawing inductive con- 168 elusions, and making value judgments."

Ryan also distinguishes between discovery, Inductive, and de- 169 ductive teaching. One premise of inductive teaching, through which

the learner "proceeds from a group of specific understandings toward

the development of a more general understanding,"^^ is that students

become involved In generating and analyzing data; like an anthro­

pologist, for example, the student can become a participant-observer and describe

...th e behavior of various members of the family at the dinner table (where do people sit? what is eaten? who talks the most7 what are some of the topics discussed? at what time of the day Is the meal eaten? how long does the meal take? how is behavior the same for all members of the eating groups? how is it different ?)"171

Ryan suggests that we should begin to publish textbooks which pose con­ tinual questions rather than offer findings, which serve as data sources 172 or.data banks. In a later publication, Ryan and Ellis reiterate the usefulness of the inquiry technique for teaching the concept of en- culturation.*^

Ryan's plea for "data banks" seems to have been answered at least partially by Joyce and Joyce. Using Murdock's categories (Murdock developed a system for cultural analysis which w ill be discussed in

Chapter IN ) and Information about the Pueblo and a New England commu­ nity, these authors produced data banks which students consulted to answer questions of an anthropological nature about the two cultures.

One major finding was that while students were able to describe the culture adequately, their discussions were rather unconceptual in H i nature. It was suggested that ways of teaching them to organize 175 their knowledge be explored, and that the questlon-stimulator is an effective device.

Another data-based method was written by authors of the Anthro­ pology Curriculum Study Project. Their chief goal was to approach

"knowing" as knowiedge-makers do, using some of the raw data available to the latter.The method Is Inductive, and includes a phase en- 1 78 title d "Approaching the unfamiliar from familiar ground" as well as 179 the expected steps Involving student generation of speculations.

In a ll, "emphasis is upon analysis of data for understanding, rather 1 80 than upon the acquisition of information for its own sake." Students are asked to contrast the data-based Inferences they make about a l8 l particular society with those made earlier about a different society. 182 Inquiry has also been discussed by Fenton, Masslalas and 183 184 Sprague, and Suchman. In addition to his work In teaching science at the elementary school level, the la tte r summarizes the results of various empirical studies which have tested the superiority of learning

by discovery; he found that:

a) exploitation, manipulation, and mastery are intrinsically motivating; b) a reinforcing sense of power and self-confidence comes from successful autonomous discovery, and c) the strategy of data intake and processing has an important effect on the productivity and depth of discovery.

The work of Kersh was probably Included In Suchman's assessment of this first assertion, since it tends to focus on the motivation as­ pect. Indeed, Kersh1s work d istin ctly suggests that "the superiority of the discovery procedure may be better explained in terms of motiva- 186 tion than in terms of understanding." In an early experiment Kersh worked with a group of college students to determine whether the

"adequacy of meaning" was a sufficient explanation for the superiority of learning by discovery. -Through the results of a retention test that took place four weeks after the Initial learning, as well as of the

initial test, It was concluded that the trend of superior scores by

the "learning-by-discovery" group was due more to this group's con­

tinuing the learning process after the initial period, than to the 1 fi7 superiority of the meaningfulness of the learning of this group.

A subsequent experiment with high school students supported these

In itia l results. Three groups were taught two rules of addition with a programmed booklet. Then one group was given some help In discovering the explanation; a second group was taught the explanation

In a programed booklet, and the third group was given no further in­ struction. The conclusion was as follows:

The contrasting directed treatment groups were superior In learning rate and immediate recall, but the "no help" group was superior in terms of retention and transfer after a period of approximately one month of the learning period. No evidence was produced to indicate that the no’ help group understood the rule better, instead, an explanation was offered in terms of practice. On the basis of a subjective analysis of the subject's comments written on the retests and reported to the experimenter, It was concluded that the learners were motivated to continue the learning process or to continue practicing the task after the formal learning period. 1“°

Thus, it seems to be not necessarily true that the actual method of learning by discovery Is superior to learning by other means; only

Insofar as it may be more motivating can It be considered to have cer­ tain advantages, at least according to this report.

One empirical study corroborated the motivational results of discussion. Wheeler and Ryan investigated the effects of cooperative and competitive classroom environments on the attitudes and achievement of elementary school children in the area of social studies. Two groups worked with the same content, but one worked in groups, the other Independently. The cooperative group liked social studies more, but did not score stgnlfIcantly higher in achievement, although both cooperative and competitive groups scored higher than the control 189 group.

Other empirical findings seem to tndlcate that benefits other than the purely motivational can accrue from using an inquiry approach.

These are the results of Sprague (teachers tend to ask more questions 190 and use student ideas more in Inquiry classes), Scott (elementary h5

classes taught conventionally were more bound by manifest attributes 191 than the classes subjected to the Inquiry method), Elsmere (his

inquiry group was superior to the conventionally-taught control group

both In the learning and retention of historical facts and in that of 1 92 problem-solving a b ilitie s ), and Butts (he found a sim ilar problem- 193 solving result to that of Elsmere).

Needless to say, Inductive versus deductive teaching presents a

controversial issue, since the merits of each have not to ta lly been

resolved. Dewey long ago emphasized their correlative Importance,

however: "A complete act of thought Involves both inductive and de- | gif ductive reasoning," and

Systematic regulation of Induction depends upon the possession of a body of general principles that may be applied deductively to the examination of construction of particular cases as they come up.*95

Hunt and Metcalf, furthermore, distinguish between inductive and re­

flective teaching. The latter has both inductive and deductive | elements. It Is perhaps in this vein that exploration needs to be

undertaken. In this study, the approach is largely inductive, yet

deductive elements enter in when, for example, the teacher states a

generalization and requires students to analyze it .

More about the application of this theoretical basis w ill be

found In Chapter IV, where teachers w ill be shown how to make ques­

tions work effectively for them as a technique according to a system of question strategies. They w ill learn how to e lic it student

thought by questions of varying levels, including those of the higher- cognitive variety. Finally, a method incorporating this technique with cross-cultural content and based on process approaches to teaching and discovery learning w ill be outlined. Thus, this review of literature w ill serve as background for understanding the technique and method of the approach. It would not be complete, however, without a section on questions in the foreign language classroom. These studies are grouped in an "Addendum" because of their miscellaneous nature. ADDENDUM

There are few articles on questions which have been written with Foreign language educators tn mind. These few are Included here, not because they have a bearing on this study, for the relevance of most of them is only minimal; but to Indicate how much work In this area needs to be done by foreign language teachers.

All four of the articles are basically concerned with the obvious problem of content versus coding: students may have Ideas but be inadequately prepared linguistically to express them. Hornsey proposes "Mr. Best's ladder" to help the teacher control the d iffic u lty of the questions, so that linguistically the answers are not too de- 197 manding of the students. Kirch reiterates the importance of not asking a student a question for which he does not have the linguistic 198 preparation; he lists a "keyword" order for question difficulty: alternative or echo type, yes-no, who, what, when, where, how, and why.19*

Harrell discusses the question in foreign-language teaching, again primarily from the linguistic point of view. Her a rtic le differs from the previous two in its clear emphasis on the question in real communication.^® A topic of discussion should provide focus for questions of a general, specific, and Individual nature, the latter applying to the individual. Some of the functions of questions are 48 201 "to orient, involve, pace, pinpoint, dramatize, and individualize."

When a student begins to read, questions may become not only ju stified

for their elicitation of pattern practice, but also for their content,

both as regards the text and personal application of the text to the 202 learner. The usefulness of the question becomes even more pronounced

with advanced language classes, where students are given the opportu- 203 nity for self-expression and self-development through questions.

In the last of the articles, Hurman discusses the oral exploita­

tion of a text. He makes an interesting distinction between the dif­

ficulty inherent in this exercise and that of an ordinary conversa­

tional one. In the la tte r, there Is one input (the listener) and one

output (the speaker). But in discussing a text there are two inputs

(the text and the question), and the output (the pupil) acts as a 204 catalyst between the two. The pupil does not control either the

text or the question, but must control the semantic content of the

response. He Is active in the response, where he had been passive in 205 receiving the information contained in the text and the question.

Since this step may be d iffic u lt, the teacher should fa c ilita te the expression as much as possible, progressing from "purely derivative

language" to "the use of spontaneous language In the expression of 5q£ the speaker's own ideas." Questions which require the student to

give implicit information are by their nature more difficult than 207 those which demand expticlt information given in the text. Hurman also proposes a category system based on hierarchy of d iffic u lty and 208 on which questions could be based. ! 49 I Murphy has written a dissertation In the area of the contribu- j tlons of social studies methodology to foreign language teaching. He suggests that a taxonomy of questions be created especially foil foreign

language education. He seems to imply that the linguistic Itenis which are taught should be selected as they are needed for critical thinking and the discovery of sociocultural knowledge. 209 He urges that 210 greater use of questions be made in the foreign language classroom.

His own suggested hierarchy Is based on Bloom's taxonomy; however, he i omits illu stration of questions specifically in the higher-level cate- 21 1 gories because of their linguistic difficulty. He concludes as follows:

What Is clearly needed In the Immediate future is an exten­ sive commitment of funds to the development of concrete socio­ cultural materials recorded In the foreign country in specific life situations and organized around basic sociocultural con­ cepts or analytical questions.2^2

This challenge is hereby accepted. However, the emphasis w ill not be on the development of new re alia, but rather on better use of already-avatlable photographs, cultural artifacts, etc. The real i need Is for improved ways of working with realia so that foreign i language students become truly aware of cultural patterns. Th^ con­ cept of "pattern" and of the literatu re which has appeared concerning i the teaching of this concept In the foreign language classroom w i11 be treated in Chapter I I I . NOTES TO CHAPTER I 1

^Philip Groisser, How to Use the Fine Art of Questioning (New York: Teachers Practical Press, 1964), p. 6. 2 Howard T. Batchelder, Maurice McGlasson, and Raleigh SchorlIng Student Teaching. In Secondary Schools (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp. 174-5.

William H. Burton, The Nature and Direction of Learning (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1929), pp. 469-477. L Richard L. Laughlln, "On Questioning," Educational Forum 25 (May I96l):48l-2.

**Al1en C. Ornsteln, "Tips for Teachers: Do's and Don't's in Asking Questions," Chicago Schools Journal 46 (February 1965):214-16.

^Stanley L. Payne, The Art of Asking Questions (Princeton, N.J. Princeton University Press, 1951), PP- 8, 17* 70, chap. XIV. 7 I. David Satlow, "120 Questions About Your Questioning Tech- nqlue," Business Education World 49 (February l969):20-22. o Soshlchi Yamada, "A Study of Questioning," The Pedagogical Seminary 20 (June 1913)t 169, 172-4, 177- g Jack C. Morgan and Joan E. Schrelber, How to Ask Questions (Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, [969), pp. 4-6. (ED 033 887)

^Lawrence T. Frase, "Effect of Question Location, Pacing, and Mode upon Retention of Prose M aterial," Journal of Educational Psychology 59 (August 1968):244-249-

*^Mary Lou Koran and John J. Koran, J r., "D ifferential Response to Question Pacing In Learning from Prose" (Chicago: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association [AERA], April 1972). (ED 062 096) 12 Ernst Z. Rothkopf and Ethel E. Bisblcos, "Selective Fact 11- tatlve Effects of Interspersed Questions on Learning from Written M aterials," Journal of Educational Psychology 58 (February 1967): 56- 61. 51

^Mary Budd Rowe, "Science, Silence, and Sanctions," Science and Children 6 (March 1969):11-13. 14 George Moriber, "Walt-Time In College Science Classes," Science Education 55 (July 1970:321-28. 1 5 The Art of Questioning in English: Using Oral English as a Means of Communication in Developing Attitudes, Interests, and Values (Los Angeles City Schools, California: Division of Instructional Planning and Services, 1968), p. xiv. (ED 033 930)

'^Seymour S itkoff, Lavon Harper Whitehouse, and Frank Hodgson, The Art of Questioning in Science, Summary and Implications (Los Angeles City Schools, California: LACS-1B-EC-131, 1967), pp. 14, 16-19- (ED 013 221)

^John Withal 1, "The Development of the Climate Index," Journal of Educational Research 4g (1951-2);93”99* 18 George Thomas Farley, "Increasing the Cognitive Level of Classroom Questions: An Application of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Object Ives," Dissertation Abstracts, 29/9** A (1968), p. 1150 (Univer- sity of Massachusetts). 14 Dwight W. Allen, Frederick J. McDonald, and Michael E. J. Qrme, Effects of Feedback and Practice Conditions on the Acquisition of a Teaching Strategy (1966). (ED 013 79*0 20 Pat E. Blosser, "A Study of the Development of the S kill of Effective Questioning by Prospective Secondary School Science Teachers" (Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1968). 21 Walter R. Borg et a i., "Videotape Feedback and Microteaching In a Teacher Training Model," Journal of Experimental Education 37 (Summer 1969) :9-16. (ED 009 **^3) 22 Roger T. Cunningham, "A Descriptive Study Determining the Effects of a Method of Instruction Designed to Improve the Question- Phrasing Practices of Prospective Elementary Teachers," Dlssertation Abstracts, 29/10-A (1968), p. 3491 (Indiana University). 23 Gary Allan Manson, "The Effects of Immediate and Postponed Observer Feedback on the Acquisition of Higher Order Questioning Skills by Prospective Teachers," Dissertation Abstracts 31/07-A, p. 3393 (University of Washington). 24 John L. Derhammer and William H. Cormier, "The Effects of Training on Increased Use of and Correlation between Higher Order Classroom and Test Questioning Behavior" (Chicago: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Educational Research Association, April 5, 1972). (ED 073 051) 52

25 Karen E. Claus, Effects of Modeling and Feedback Treatments on the Development of Teachers"1 Questioning Skills (Stanford, California: Stanford Center for Research and Development In Teaching, Technical Re­ port No. 6, June 1969 (. (ED 033 081) 26 Barry J. Zimmerman and Earl 0. Pike, "Effects of Modeling and Reinforcement on the Acquisition and Generalization of Question-asking Behavior," Child Development 43 (September 1972):892~907. 27 Kenneth B. Henderson, "Uses of Subject Matter," in Language and Concepts in Education, ed. Bunnie Othanel Smith and Robert H. Ennis, (Chicago: Rand McNal ly, 1961), pp. 43~58. 28 Romiett Stevens, The Question as a Measure of Efficiency ?n Instruction: A Critical Study of Classroom Practice, Contributions to Education Series, no. 48 (New York: Teachers College, Columbia Univer­ sity , 1912), p. 5. 29 James Hoetker and William P. Ahlbrand, J r., The Perslstance of the Recitation: A Review of Observational Studies of Teacher Ques­ tioning Behavior (St. Ahn, Michigan^: Centra 1 MIdwestern" Regiona 1 Educa- tlonal Laboratory Occasional Paper Series, no. 3, 1968), p. 19. (ED 036 511).

^°Frank J. Guszak, "Teacher Questioning and Reading," Reading Teacher 21 (December 1967):230, 233. 31 Doris E. Mueller, "Teacher Questioning Practices In Reading," Reading World 12 (December 1972):139. 32 John Richard Moyer, "An Exploratory Study of Questioning in the Instructional Processes in Selected Elementary Schools," Disserta­ tion Abstracts, 27/01A (1965), p. 147 (Columbia University). 33 Helen Newcastle, A Study of Teachers' Classroom Questioning and Reading Techniques (1970)/ abstract. (ED 079 260) 34 Robert T. Pate, "Inquiry Patterns In Elementary Teaching," Final Report, (Wichita, Kansas: Wichita State University, September 1969; U.S. Office of Education, Bureau of Research DHEW Grant OEG-6-9“ 008041-0048), abstract. (ED 034 738) 35 Joan Emilia Schreiber, "Teachers' Question-asking Techniques In Social Studies," Dissertation Abstracts, 28/02-A (1967), P* 523 (University of Iowa). 36 Barry J. Zimmerman and John R. Bergan, "Intellectual Opera­ tions in Teacher Question-Asking Behavior," Merr111-Palmer Quarterly 17 (January 1970:24-25.

^Thomas Howard Adams, "The Development of a Method for Analysis of Questions Asked by Teachers in Classroom Discussions," DissertatIon 53 Abstracts, 25/05., p. 2809 (196**) (Rutgers University, The State Univer­ sity of New Jersey). OJJ O.L. Davis, Jr. and Drew C. Tinsley, "Cognitive Objectives Revealed by Classroom Questions Asked by Social Studies Student Teachers" (New York: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the AERA, Feb. 1967), abstract. (ED Oil 87**) 39 ■^Arno A. Bel lack and Joel R. Davltz In collaboration with others, "The Language of the Classroom," In Teaching: Vantage Points for Study, ed. Ronald T. Hyman (Phila.: J.B. Llpplncott, 1968), p. 93* **0 Drew Chitwood Tinsley, "A Study In Planning: Questions to Guide Discussion and Testing by Secondary School Teachers of Social Studies," Dissertation Abstracts 29/02A (1968), p. 505 (University of Texas at Austin). 41 Drew C. Tinsley and 0. L. Davis, J r., "Questions Used by Secondary Student Teachers to Guide Discussion and Testing in Social Studies: A Study in Planning," Journal of Teacher Education 22 (Spring 1971 ):6 2 . 42 Drew C. Tinsley, Elizabeth P. Watson, and Jon C. Marshall, "Cognitive Objectives Revealed by Classroom Questions In 'Process- Oriented' and 'Content-Oriented' Secondary Social Studies Programs" (Minneapolis: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the AERA, March 1970), abstract. (ED 040 895) 43 ^Robert Donald Clements and Kenneth R. B elttel, "Question Types, Patterns and Sequences Used by Art Teachers In the Classroom" (University Park, Penn.: Penn. State University, 1964), abstract. (ED 003 069) 44 Isabel P feiffer and 0. L. Davis, J r ., "Teacher-Made Exams: What Kind of Thinking Do They Demand?" National Association of Secondary- School Principals Bulletin 4§ (September 1965): 8 . 45 ^Dean Albutt Cooke, "An Analysis of Reading Comprehension Ques­ tions In Basal REading Series According to the Barrett Taxonomy," Dissertation Abstracts 31/12-A (1970), p. 6467 (Cornell University). (ED 064 672)------46 0. L. Davis, Jr. and Francis P. Hunkins,"Textbook Questions: What Thinking Processes Do They Foster?" Peabody Journal of Education 43 (March 1966): 288 . 47 'Benjamin Bloom, ed., et a l., Taxonomy of Educational Objec­ tives: The Classification of Educational Goals: Handbook I: Cogni­ tive Domain (New York: David McKay Company, 1956), pp. 40-41.

I b id ., pp. 201-4.

^ Ib id ., pp. 204-7* 54 ■^Norris M. Sanders, Classroom Questions: What Ktnds7 (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), p. 3.

■’'‘Tinsley et a l., "Cognitive Objectives," abstract. 52 John Jarolimek, "The Taxonomy Guide to Differentiated Instruc­ tion," SociaJ_Educat£oni 26 (December 1962) :467. 53 Walter R. Borg, Marjorie L. Kelley, et a.i., The Mini Course: A Microteaching Approach to Teacher Education (Beverly H ills, California: Macmi 11an EducatTona)SErvices, inc., 1970), p. 229* '56 Walter R. Borg, Marjorie L. Kelley, and Philip Langer, Mini­ course: Effective Questioning: Elementary Level Teachers Handbook (BeverlyHills, California: Macmillan Educational Services, Inc. for the Far West Regional Laboratory for Educational Research and Develop­ ment, 1970).

^Meredith D. Gall, Barbara Dunning, and Rita Weathersby, Mlnlcourse Nine: Higher Cognitive Questioning: Teachers Handbook (Beverly H ills, California: Macmillan Educational Services, In c .fo r the Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development, 1971), pp. 12-16.

■*^Kevln R. Morse and 0. L. Davis, J r., The Questioning Strategies Observation System, Report Series no. 35 (Austin: University of Texas at Austin, May 1970), pp. 3-7.

57lbtd., pp. 9-10.

58lbld., p. 5. 59 Francis P. Hunklns, Questioning Strategies and Techniques (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972), p. 78.

60lbid-, p. 79.

61 Ib id ., p. 81.

62lbld., pp. 82 - 3 .

63lbld., p. 86.

6N b id ., p. 87.

83Roger T. Cunningham, "Developing Question-Asking S kills," in Developing Teacher Competencies, ed. James Welgand (Englewood C liffs, New' Jersey: PrentTce-Ha 11, 1971), pp. 86-7-

66lbid., p. 88. 55

67lbid., pp. 90-1.

68Ibid. * pp. 93-4.

Ibid., pp. 96-7.

701bId ., p. 99.

7^James J. Gallagher and Mary Jane Aschner: "A Preliminary Report on Analyses of Classroom Interaction," MerrI11-Palmer Quarterly 9 (1963) ’ 138-I94.

7^Peggy Amidon, "An Analysis of Teacher Questions" (Los Angeles, California: Paper delivered at the annual meeting of the AERA, February 1969)* p. 3.

^Edmund Amidon and Elizabeth Hunter, "Verbal Interaction In the Classroom: The Verbal Interaction Category System," pp. 141-149 in . Interaction Analysis: Theory. Research and Application, ed. Edmund J. Amidon and John B. Hough, with an Introduction by Ned A. Flanders, Addison-Wesley Series in Education (Reading, Massachusetts: Addlson- Wesley Publishing Co., 1967)- 7k Blosser, p. 74. 75 ^Derhammer and Cormier, abstract.

7^ClaudIa Crump, Self-Instruction In the Art of Questioning (Unpublished program for pre- and in-service teachers In social studies), Response 65*

77Sister T rin ita Meehan, C ritical Reading and Teachers' Ques­ tions in Theory and Practice (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University, School of Education, Occasional Papers In Reading, Vol. I l l , May 1970). (EC C55 7*2) 78 Newcastle, abstract.

79B. Othanel Smith et a t ., A Study of the Strategies of Teaching (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois, Collegie of Education, 19^7; U.S. Office of Education, Bureau of Educational Research, Proj. No. 1640).

®^Donald E. Fuller, "The Question: What to Ask?" in The Growing Edges of SEcondary English: Essays by the Experienced Teacher Fellows at the University of Illin o is 1966-67, ed. Charles Sukor, John Sawyer Mayher, and Frank V. D'Angelo (Champaign: National Council of Teachers of English, 1968), pp. 51”65- (ED 026 374) 56 81 Joseph C. English, Employing Behaviors in a Teaching Strategy: "Quadrilateriallzing in the Cognitive Domain" (n.d.). (ED 080 506) 82 Richard L. Carner, "Levels of Questioning," Education 83 (May 1963):546-50. 8? Ambrose A. Clegg, Jr. et a l ., "Teacher Strategies o f Ques­ tioning for E licitin g Selected Cognitive Student Responses" (Los Angeles, California: Paper delivered at the annual meeting of the AERA, February 1969). (ED 031 455) 8 I1 Barak Rosenshine, "Teaching Behaviors Related to Pupil Achieve­ ment: A Review of Research" in Research Into Classroom Processes, ed. Ian Westbury and Arno A. Bel lack (Columbia, New York: Teachers College Press, 1971), p. 84.

^Francis P. Hunkins, "The Influence of Analysis and Evaluation Questions on Achievement in Sixth-Grade Social Studies," Educational Leadership 25 (January 1968):330-

86lb ld ., p. 331. 87 Idem, "The Influence of Analysis and Evaluation Questions on Achievement and Critical Thinking in Sixth-Grade Social Studies," Final Report (Washington, D.C.: Office of Education, Project no. 7-1-005 Grant No. OEG-4-7-071005“3030, August 1968), p. 65. (ED 037 38*0

881 bid., pp. 79-80.

89lb id ., p. 111.

901 b id ., p. 112.

9 I lb id ., p. 113-14. 92 L. JoAnne Buggey, “A Study of the Relationship of Classroom Questions and Social Studies Achievement of Second-grade Children" (Chicago: Paper presented at the 1972 AERA Convention), pp. 4-5. 93 June F.-Tyler, "A Study of the Relationship of Two Methods of Question Presentation, Sex, and School Location to the Social Studies Achievement of Second-grade Children" (Chicago: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the AERA, April 1972), abstract. (ED 065 185) 94 Wes Measel and Darlene W. Mood, "Teacher Verbal Behavior and Teacher and Pupil Thinking in Elementary School," Journal of Educa­ tional Research 66 (November 1972):99.

99Frank L. Ryan, "Differentiated Effects of Levels of Questions on Student Achievement," Journal of Experimental Education 41 (Spring 1973):63. 57

96lb id ., p. 66.

■^George L. M iller, "Collaborative Teaching and Pupil Thinking," Journal of Teacher Education 17 (Fall 1966):350- qp Michael Yost, J r., "The Effect on Learning of Post Instruc­ tional Verbal Responses to Questions of Differing Degrees of Complexity" (Washington, D.C.: DHEW Bureau of Research, Aprit 1970), abstract. (ED 045 391)

•^George T. Ladd and Hans 0. Andersen, "Determining the Level of Inquiry In Teachers' Questions," Journal of Research in Science Teaching 7:4 (1970):398-99.

^^Stanley Malcolm Boone, "An Investigation of the Effect of Higher Level Questions on Reading Comprehension," Dissertation Abstracts 32/08-A, p. 4480 (University of Washington).

James J. Gallagher et a l., "Productive Thinking of Gifted Children In Classroom Interaction" (CEC Research Monograph Series B, no. B-5, 1967), abstract. (ED 026 758) 102 James J. Gallagher, "Expressive Thought by Gifted Children in the Classroom," Elementary English 42 (May 1965):568. 103 Ruth A. Martinson and Jean Wiener, "The improvement of Teaching Procedures with Gifted Elementary and Secondary School Stu­ dents," Final Report (Washington, D.C.: DHEW Contract 0EC-4-6-061244- 8948, June, 1968), abstract. (ED 024 185)

^^Virglnia M. Rogers and 0. L. Davis, J r., "Varying the Cogni­ tive Levels of Classroom Questions: An Analysis of Student Teachers' Questions and Pupil Achievement in Elementary Social Studies" (Minneapolis: Paper delivered at the convention of the AERA, March 1970), p. 13.

Ian Allen, "Some Effects of Advance Organizers and Level of Questions on the Learning and Retention of Written Social Studies Material." Journal of Educational Psychology 61 (October 1970):335*

106 lb id ., p. 336.

^^Julia Dianne Quiring, "The Effects of Questioning Level and Feedback Timing on the Achievement of Sophomore Nursing Students Using an Auto-tutorial Approach," Dissertation Abstracts 32/08-A (1971), p. 4251 (University of Washington).

1 nQ Hilda Taba and Freeman F. Elzey, "Teaching Strategies and Thought Processes," Teachers' College Record 65 (March 1964):533~34.

109^Rosenshine, p. 92. 58

^ ^ S ir Frederic B artlett, Thinking: An Experimental and Social Study (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958), p. 7A.

***John Dewey, How We Think (Boston: D. C* Heath, 1910), p. 111.

1121 b id ., p. 11, 115 Mary Jame McCue Aschner, “Asking Questions to Trigger Thinking," NEA Journal 50 (September 1967) :***»• 11A Hilda Taba, Teachers1 Handbook for Elementary Social Studies: Introductory Edition (Palo Alto, California: Addison-Wes1ey Publishing Co., 1967), p. 1A3.

1,5lbid., pp. 7-8.

I16lb id ., p. 9.

l l 7 lbfd., p. 12.

1l8 lb ld ., p. 26.

119lb id ., p. 28.

I20lb ld ., p. 29. 121 Hilda Taba et a l., A Teacher's Handbook to Elementary Social Studies (Reading, Massachusetts! Add i son-Wes ley Publish! nig Co., 1971), p. 123.

I22lb id .,

^29Hi1da Taba, Samuel Levine, and Freeman F. Elzey, Thinking in Elementary School Children (San Francisco: San Francisco State College, 196A; Cooperative Research Project No. 157*0, P- 22.

12S b id ., p. 30.

125lb id ., P- 31. 126lb id ., pp. 31-32.

127,b id ., pp. 32-33-

1281 b id ., p. 3*».

l29.b id ., P- 52.

190lb id ., P* 53. ,91lbid. 59

132 Ibid., pp. 54-55.

133 Ib id ., p. 171. 134, Ib id ., p. 175.

^33Gary Manson, "Classroom Questioning for Geography Teachers," Journal of Geography 72 (April 1973):28-29.

'^Kenneth Shrable and Douglas Minnls, "Interacting in the In­ terrogative," Journal of Teacher Education 20 (Summer 1969):203.

^3^Jack R. Fraenkel, Helping Students Think and Value: S trat- egles for Teaching the Social Studies (Englewood Clif.fs, N.J.: Prentlce- Hall, 1973).

^3®John A. McCollum and Rose Marie Davis, Instructor's Manual: Development of Higher Thinking A b ilitie s (Portland, Oregon: Commercial- Education Distributing Services for the Northwest Regional Laboratory, 1972), p. 111.

I39lb ld ., P* 1.

|lf0Ib id ., P- 2.

lif| Ibid., P. 93.

U 2 lb ld ., P. 98.

l43lb ld ., PP. 210-212.

lW lb1d., PP. 319-320.

1/|5lb ld ., P. 482. * ^BAS1CS (BuiIdlng and tlve Skills) Participant's Manual (Miami, Florida: Institute for Staff Development, 1973), p. TJI

147Ib id ., p. 37. 148 Ib id ., p. 67. 149 Ib id ., p. 139.

150 Ibid., pp. 10-11.

^Jerom e S. Bruner, "The Act of Discovery," Harvard Educational RevIew 31 (Winter 1961):22. 60 I 52 P h ilip S. Jones, "Discovery Teaching— from Socrates to Modernity," Mathematics Teacher 63 (October 1970):503.

1531 bid., p. 505.

^^Robert M. Gagn

155 Ib id ., p. 147. 156 Ib id ., p. 148.

157 Ibid. 158 Ib id ., p. 149.

159 Ib id ., p. 150. i An ,wwLee S. Shulman, "Psychological Controversies In the Teach­ ing of Science and Math," Science Teacher 35 (September 1968):37-

^^Davld P. Ausubel, "In Defense of Verbal Learning," Educa­ tional Theory 11 (1961):23- 162 Idem, "Learning by Discovery: Rationale and Mystique," National Association of Secondary-School Principals B u lletin 45, no. 269 (1961):2I.

I63lbid., p. 24.

16NbId., p. 25.

165lbid., p. 42.

166lb id ., p. 54. 167 Norris Sanders, "Changing Strategies of Instruction: Three Case Examples" in Social Studies Curriculum Development: Prospects and Problems, National Council for the Social Studies Yearbook, ed. Dorothy McClure Fraser, 39 (1969):140.

168lbid.

^^Frank L. Ryan, Exemplars for the New Social Studies (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hal1, 197!), pp. 28-29.

170lbid., p. 29.

1711 b id ., p. 35-

172lbld., p. 75. 173 Frank L. Ryan and Arthur K. Ellis, Instructional Implications of Inquiry (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hal 1, 197*0* P* 8. r I 74 Bruce R. Joyce and Elizabeth H. Joyce, Data Banks for the Social Studies (1970), p. 31. (ED 055 932)

175lbid.

176lb id ., p. 37. 177 ' ' Two-Way Mirror: Anthropologists and Educators Observe Them­ selves and Each Other (Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association, 1972), p. 14. 178 Anthropology Curriculum Study Project: Teacher Service M aterials, vo l. 1 (Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Assoc Ia- tlon, 1972), p. 15.

179 1bId. , p. 31.

l80fb id ., p. 111.

^ Two-Way M irro r, p. 201. 1 On Edwin Fenton, "Inquiry and Structure" (Cleveland, Ohio: Address delivered at the 46th Annual Convention of the National Council for the Social Studies, November 1966).

Byron G. Massialas and Nancy F. Sprague, "Teaching Social Studies as Inquiry: A C lassification," Social Education 38 (January 1974): 10-19. 184 J. Richard Suchman, "Inquiry Training in the Elementary School," The Science Teacher 27 (November 1960):42-47*

*8*Mdem, "Inquiry Training—Building Skills for Autonomous Dis­ covery," Men*HHj^PaJmt^ (July 1961):151. 186 Bert Y. Kersh, "'The Adequacy of Meaning' as an Explanation for the Superiority of Learning by Independent Discovery," Journal of Educational Psychology 49 (October 1958):290.

187lb id ., p. 292. 188 Idem, "The Motivating Effect of Learning by Directed Dis­ covery," Jouniaj_of_Educat2onaJL_Ps^cholo2^ 53 (1962) :66. 189 Ronald Wheeler and Frank L. Ryan, "Effects of Cooperative and Competitive Classroom Environments on the Attitudes and Achievement of Elementary School Students Engaged in Social Studies Inquiry A c tiv itie s ," Journal of Educational Psychology 65 (December 1973):402. 62

Nancy Fret tag Sprague, "Inquiry Dialog in the Classroom" (New York: Paper presented at the annual convention of the AERA, February 1971), abstract. (ED 049 143) iqi Norvai C. Scott, Jr., "The Strategy of inquiry and Styles of Categorization," Journal of Research in Science Teaching 4 (September 1966 ):153- 192 Robert T. Elsmere, "An Experimental Study U tilizin g the Problem-Solving Approach In Teaching United States History," Bui let in of the School s of Indiana 39 (May 1963)51 36.

^99DavId P. Butts and Howard L. Jones, "Inquiry Training and Problem-Solving in Elementary School Children," Journal of Research In Science Teaching 4:1 (1 966 ): 2 1 —27-

' 9 **Dewey, pp. 79"80.

195 lb id ., p. 93-

^9 ^Maur!ce P h illip Hunt and Lawrence E. Metcalf, Teaching High School Social Studies (New York: Harper and Row, 1 968 ), pp. 98-99- 1 97 A. W. Hornsey, "Mr. Best's Ladder: Question and Answer Work In Foreign Language Teaching," English Language Teaching 26 (Feb. 1972): 132.

^9®Max A. Kirch, "On the Art of Asking Questions," Die Unter- richtspraxls 2 ( 1969 ): 39 -

l 99 lb id ., p. 40.

2®®0ol1y D. H arrell, The Question as a Technique in Foreign Language Teaching (ERIC Focus Reports on the Teaching of Foreign Lan­ guages, no. 26, 1971), p» 2. (ED 056 624)

2011b1d ., p .3.

202ibid., p.4.

203Ib id -, p. 5 - 204 J. D. Hurman, "Oral Exploitation of a Text: from Learning Difficulties to Teaching Materials," Audio-Vlsuaj Language Journal, XII (Spring 1974):41.

205lb id ., p. 42.

206lbid.

207lbid.. p. 45. 63

208lb id ., pp. *»6-47.

2®*^Joseph A. Murphy, "The Contributions of Social Studies Meth­ odology to Foreign Language Teaching" (Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1968), p. 67.

210lb id ., p. 91.

2111 b id ., P. 157.

212lb id ., p. 181. CHAPTER I I I

CULTURE: A POINT OF VIEW

Introductory Statement

The theoretical basis for the author's technique and method of teaching culture In the foreign language classroom has been discussed

In Chapter I I . This chapter Is intended to explain the theory behind the approach to content. It will Include sections on the anthropologi­ cal literature which deals with the definition of culture, pattern, the

Interrelationship of patterns, and cross-cultural comparison; on the literature In foreign language education which is relevant to this approach; and on systems or models for analyzing culture. Thus, to some extent, the chapter contains an additional review of literature.

Yet It Is a selective review, emphasizing functionalist theory, which seeks to explain culture In its observable aspects as opposed to its underlying themes or values. This chapter will In fact furnish a structure of knowledge on which the pedagogical application of the approach is based.

A. Anthropological Literature. 1. Culture as Macrocosm: the Whole

Fundamental to the anthropological approach to culture seem to be elements of organization, pattern, learning, behavior, and artifacts.

These elements are echoed in numerous definitions of culture given by

6k 65 anthropologists. Benedict, for example, calls culture "a more or less consistent pattern of thought and action."* The classic definition is that of Kroeber and Kluckhohn:

Culture consists of patterns, explicit and Im plicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, Including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ( I.e ., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other as conditioning elements of further action.2

According to both of these definitions, culture has concrete and abstract aspects. In another publication Kluckhohn is even more explicit about the abstract nature of culture: . "Culture Is like a map. . . .A culture Is an abstract description of trends toward uni­ formity in the words, deeds, and artifacts of a human g r o u p .W h it e criticizes Kroeber and Kluckhohn for the abstractness of their point of view and warns of the danger of emphasizing concepts which exist only in the mind of the anthropologist and which exclude the external world. To do so lessens the scientific authenticity of anthropology.

White predicts that "anthropology will again revert to defining culture in terms of concrete, objective, observable things and events In the L external world." In this vein, he also questions the vague nature of

Kroeber and Kluckhohn's definition of value, and practically excludes

It from the anthropologist's consideration: "Value has been so identi­ fied through usage with the subjective and the imponderable that we 5 doubt if It can--or w ill—ever be usable as a scientific term." This is perhaps an extreme position, but in view of the excesses committed

In the realm of stereotypes, it is a refreshing point of view, and, 66 although values w ill not be omitted entirely from this study's concerns, ail generalizations will be based on the observable.

Among social anthropological theorists, some advocate the study of society as systems of action, and others explain it as systems of meaning.^ in its emphasis on the concrete, the former Interpretation would seem to echo White's position. In fact, a whole school of thought

In anthropology takes the action approach, seeking to define how social phenomena operate functionally, as opposed to how they originated his­ to ric a lly . The chief proponents of functionalism have been Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown. Both belong to the British school of social an­ thropology, whose approach, Eggan says, needs to be adopted,^ but they manifest somewhat different emphases nevertheless.

Malinowski begins with basic human needs, postulating that culture exists to satisfy them:

Man has, first and foremost, to satisfy all the needs of his organism. He has to create arrangements and carry out ac tivitie s for feeding, heating, housing, clothing, or pro­ tection against external enemies and dangers, physical and animal, or human.°

Thus, function Is defined as "the satisfication of an organic impulse g by the appropriate act," and need is "the system of conditions In the human organism, in the cultural setting, and In the relation of both to the natural environment, which are sufficient and necessary for the survival of group and organism."^ From the satisfaction of these needs derive new cultural needs, which impose upon man and society a different type of determinism.^ Beattie criticizes Malinowski's ex­ clusive preoccupation with individual needs, for, according to him and 67 others, It Is the way in which men work together to satisfy these needs 12 that gives them their cultural significance.

RadclIffe-Brown, himself considerably influenced by Durkheim,

has had probably more influence than Malinowski on the actual method of anthropologists In recent years. Both he and Durkheim emphasize the concrete nature of anthropological study. Durkheim states very clearly,

"La premiere regie et la plus fondamentale est de conslderer les fa lts 13 sociaux comme des choses." ("The f ir s t and most fundamental rule is to view social acts as things.") The method, like that of the natural 14 sciences, is Inductive. In fact, Radcliffe-Brown defines social anthropology as "the purely Inductive study of the phenomena of culture, aiming at the discovery of general laws, and adapting to its special subject matter the ordinary logical methods of the natural sciences.1 ..15

Like White, these two anthropologists seem opposed, therefore, to starting with consideration of values.

Traiter des phenomenes comme des choses, c'est les tra ite r en q u a ilte de data qui constituent 1e point de depart de ]a science. . . .Ce qui nous est donne, ce n'est pas I*idee que les hommes se font de la valeur, car elle est inaccessible: ce sont les valeurs qui s'echangent reellement au cours des relations economiques.1°

(To treat phenomena as things is to treat them as data which constitute the point of departure of science. . . .What Is given to us is not the idea that men have of value, because this is inaccessible: it is the values which are exchanged in reality In the course of economic interaction.)

Durkheim insists on the role of the senses in the discovery and de­ scription of phenomena, a role in which the mind must remain free of a ll preconceived notions.'7 68

Emmet makes this comment: "The functional approach . . . is likely to appeal to the sociologist, since it enables him to study activities In terms of their observable consequences, rather than in 18 terms of their presumed purposes." Though there is a certain causal­ ity Implied in the use of the term function, this causality is not meant to explain why a particular behavioral phenomenon exists; such an explanation would be historical. Instead, it is viewed teleologi- cally insofar as It concentrates on the contribution this phenomenon 19 makes to the maintenance of the system. It is not necessary that the participants of a culture be aware of this causal nature of their activities._, . ^ . 20

Functionalism sometimes has the adjective "structural" pre­ fixed to it. This seems to be due to the recurring nature or patterning of the phenomena understudy. Levy explains that, depending on one's point of view, the same empirical phenomenon may be considered either a structure or a function. "A functional requisite. . .is a general­ ized condition necessary for the maintenance of the unit with which 21 It is associated." Also, "a structural requisite. . -Is a pattern

(or observable uniformity) of action (or operation) necessary for the 22 continued existence of the unit with which It Is associated." Par­ sons also associates structure with patterning, and function with the 23 dynamic aspect of culture. Beattie explains the difference as follows:

When we speak of function we refer to the causal implications of certain kinds of events for other kinds of events considered, as systems. When we speakof structure we are attending to the formal, enduringaspects of whatever it Is that is said to have ^ a structure. So structure is a much wider concept than function. 69

In an encyclopedia a rtic le , Levy defines structural-functional analysis

as the answer to three empirical questions: (1) What observable pat­

terns (structures) are there In the phenomena being studied7 (2 ).What

functions have been performed as a result of these structures? and 25 (3) What functions are observable in terms of a given structure?

This distinction beyween structure and function parallels that between

pattern and concrete manifestations of It . As such, it Is an appropri­

ate transition to the following discussion on the elements of culture.

2. Culture as Microcosm: the Parts

The array of terms used to describe these parts is extensive

and can be somewhat confusing. The division which has been accepted

most widely is perhaps that of Linton, who defines culture elements

as "the distinguishable internally coherent responses or groups of 26 closely Interrelated responses which make up a culture." These

culture elements, according to Linton, have four aspects:

form: "the sum and arrangement of the component behavior patterns

of a tra it complex";

meaning: "the associations which any society attaches to a trait

complex";

use: "the expression of its relationship to things external to

the social-cultural configuration"; and

function: "the expression of Its relation to things within that 27 configuration."

Form and meaning are the passive qualities of a tr a it complex, use and 28 function its dynamic ones. ("Culture elements" seem to be equated with " tra it complexes.") "The tr a it complex Is presented to the society 70 as a definite entity which is incorporated into the configuration by 29 the attachment to it of use* meaning* and function." The tr a it com­ plex Is in turn composed of traits: "the individual acts and objects 30 which constitute the overt expression of a culture." Whiting as well

specifies that a culture trait includes both material and behavioral events.^*

Two further observations should be made with reference to the components of culture. The first has to do with the relationship be­ tween complexes and needs* for* as the functionalists maintain* culture complexes exist to satisfy needs. Linton makes an important statement

In this regard:

Clear-cut, one-to-one relationships between needs and com­ plexes are extremely rare. In nearly all cases* it is evident that a particular complex contributes toward the meeting of several needs, while each need is met, at least In part, by several different c o m p l e x e s . 32

This statement gives a fir s t glimpse of the interrelationship of com­ plexes, which w ill be examined under the rubric of patterns.

The other observation concerns expansion of the concept of function. Merton distinguishes between manifest and latent functions:

"the first referring to those objective consequences for a specified unit (person, subgroup, social or cultural system), which contribute to its adjustment or adaptation and were so intended; the second re­ ferring to unintended and unrecognized consequences of the same 33 3A order." Closely connected with and derived from meaning, both types of function help to explain meaning. One might even equate manifest functions with explicit culture, and latent functions with 39 implicit culture. There is also a parallel to be drawn with 71 36 Goodenough's phenomenal and ideational behavior. All of these an­

thropologists would seem to agree that the observable must be analyzed

if It is to be understood completely.

In contrast with the systems which emphasize the observable are those which seek to explain culture through its themes or values. Chief 37 proponents of these aspects of culture are Opler and Parsons. Appli­ cation of their theory to foreign language education has been made by 38 Nostrand. The reader is referred to the la tte r's work for further clarification. At any rate, this approach Interprets culture first as systems-of-meaning. Here, the action approach Is advocated and w ill be implemented in the classroom.

Trait complexes do not exist tn isolation. In fact, as Gill In states, "In all cultures certain traits and other aspects are function­ a lly linked together in such a way that the absence of one element may 39 well render Inoperative the other elements linked to It ." Further­ more, it Is In the patterning of these tr a it complexes that humans are 40 able to predict each other's behavior and interact automatically.

As Hall puts it , "Man is programmed by culture. I f he weren't, he 41 could not talk or interact at a ll."

Wlssler makes this distinction between tr a it complex and pattern: "If we should liken trait complexes to building materials, then the plan of the house to be b u ilt of them would correspond to the 42 pattern of a culture." In other words, tr a it complexes seem to be the concrete manifestation of the abstraction which anthropologists call pattern. G ill in echoes this dichotomy In his distinction between the a c tiv ity aspect (the learning and performance of customs) and the 72 patterning aspect (the way customs and patterns are constructed and connected to g e th e r).^ White would perhaps equate tra it complexes with the ac tivity aspect or concrete manifestation, and the pattern with the concept that exists in the anthropologist's mind. In the view of the author, both are necessary components of a view of culture, since tr a it complexes achieve their significance only through the repetitive nature that pattern provides.

A word might be added on the process of conceptualization which one makes of a pattern, for, obviously, in th eir performance, some

Idiosyncratic differences will enter in. Kroeber and Kluckhohn explain this problem very clearly:

The problem of pattern is the problem of symmetry, of con­ stancies of form irrespective of wide variations Jn concrete de­ tails of actualization. So far as biological and physical possibilities are concerned, a given act can be carried out, an Idea stated, or a specific artifact made in a number of differ­ ent ways. However, in a ll societies, the same mode of disposing of many situations Is repeated over and over. There Is, as it were, an inhibition alike of the randomness of trial and error behavior, and of responses that are merely functional. A de­ terminate organization prevails. ^

In this vein, Wallace asserts, somewhat surprisingly, that it is not necessary for every participant in a stable socio-cultural system to 45 have the same "map" of the system.

Many a social subsystem simply w ill not "work" i f a ll par­ ticipants share common knowledge of the system. It would seem therefore that cognitive non-conformity may be a functional de­ sideratum of society. (•••) For cognitive nonuniformity sub­ serves two Important functions: (I) it permits a more complex system to arise than most, or any, of its participants can comprehend; (2) It liberates the participants in a system from the heavy burden of learning and knowing each other's motiva­ tions and cognitions.^® 73

This Is an interesting viewpoint, but certainly, participants in a cul­ ture must have some common ground of meaning, even i f , in fact, this ground is probably broadening a ll the' time. Commenting on the changing cultural patterns of the United States, Oswalt observes that it is now less easy to distinguish patterns. "It is not so much that each indi­ vidual follows a unique course, sharing l i t t l e with anyone else, but rather that the variety of acceptable alternatives makes patterns so . 47 • gross as to negate much of their identity and their pertinence." As w ill be seen, this is a phenomenon which seems to be taking place not only Intra- , but also cross-culturally, as the boundaries of difference between patterns are slowly (of not so slowly!) being erased.

The notion of patterns includes not only the internal patterning of one particular tr a it complex, with its form, meaning, use, and func­ tion, which, through repetition, is understood by participants In a specific way; It Includes also the Interrelationship or coordination of 48 cultural systems. In fact, It derives its full significance from this interrelationship, forming a "web" of culture, Kluckhohn's "blue­ p r in t." ^

Various anthropologists have discussed and Illustrated this

Idea of the interrelationship of patterns. Perhaps the earliest de­ scription is that of WIssler, who explains precisely, If somewhat at length:

The Ojibway Indians.. .were observed to use wild rice for food and this was correctly set down as a trait of their cul­ ture. Yet, each member of the trib e did not snatch his rice food directly from the plant as do the birds, but received it as the end of a cycle of a c tiv itie s In which he, as an indi­ vidual, played a varying part. Thus, though the plant is wild, some care was given the plots where it grew; later, the plants were tied in bunches to discourage rice-eating birds, then the rice was gathered, cured, hulled, wihnowed, stored, cooked, and eaten. Incidentally, some of it was exchanged and some given away. The many processes involved required techniques of various complexities and special appliances. But that is not a ll, for intimately bound up in the whole are property rights, labor obligations, etiquette, methods of keeping time, and a number of special religious observances, prohibitions, and taboos. It is thus plain that i f we arrive at an adequate notion of the wild rice tr a it , we must see it as a complex of many processes, a ll of which bear a functional relation to the end to be achieved.50

Wissler further explains that each trait-complex has a continuous dis­ tribution radiating from a center, and that trait-complexes tend to 51 adhere, "suggesting that they are linked in some way." (What Wissler calls "trait complex" will be called web, or interrelationship of pattern, in this study, since the term "trait complex" has already been used to refer to the concrete manifestation of a particular pattern.)

Wissler mentions the connection with functionalism long before

Malinowski wrote his theoretical Interpretation of culture, and in­ deed the la tte r seems to echo the former's words. After a l l , as

Radcliffe-Brown remarks, "The functional method of interpretation rests 52 on the assumption that a culture is an integrated system."^ Thus,

Malinowski says very cleary,

The fu n ctio n alist.. .would Insist that in describing a fork or spoon we must also supply the information on how they are used, how they are related to table manners, to convivial Ism, to the nature of cooked viands and dishes, and to the layout of such apparatus of commensalism as tables, plates, table­ cloths, and napkins.53

Firth says elsewhere that "A good way of . . . impressing upon

[elementary students] the conception of the Interrelatedness of In­ stitutional elements is to take a simple material object . . . and 75 dissect out for them the complexity of social relationships, of an

economic, p o litic a l, and ritual order, involved in its manufacture,

technical use, and display."'***

Emmet shows how functionalism explains society as a unified

whole, within which the institutions contribute to the maintenance of

unity by their separate functions. "[The] assumption of an ordered

context means that if we say that x has a function, we are in fact

saying more than that x, has the consequence y_. It has the consequence

^ w ith in a system the efficiency or maintenance of which depends 57 ( Inter ai la) on To sum up, as Bock says, "Every part of a cul- rO ture is ultimately related to every other part."

Almost any pattern has an al1-pervasIve influence on the whole of culture. Hall explains, for example:

There are those who say that the fact that the French school system also follows a highly centralized pattern couldn't possibly have any relationship to the layout of offices, subway systems, road networks, and the entire nation, but- I could not agree with them.59

Head makes the following statement on Interrelationship:

Careful analysis of the habits and practices of a people shows that the traditional behavior practised between parents and children for example, is systematically related to prac­ tices which obtain between employer and employee, audience and speaker or actor, teacher and pupil, etc., and that the way In which a dwelling house is perceived is related to the way In which one's own body is perceived, with varying degrees of specificity, elaboration, and intensity. This systematic or patterned quality of culture is a function of the integrated character of human beings.

It is evident that If culture is an interrelated set of pat­

terns, changes In one pattern will automatically result in changes in another.^ Honigmann reports an interesting study of a small village 76 in Austria, where dairy farming has been replaced by a cooperative 62 dairy, and in which the change proceeded as a whole.

Various theories of cultural change have been offered. Parsons imputes changes, whether they come from within or without the cultural system, to a change in the value system.^ According to Goldschmidt, on the other hand, change is due to technological evolution: "It is technology that progresses, it is man's capacity to produce that 6k evolves." Goldschmidt lis ts five concomitants of technological change:

.1) ‘ It Increases the carrying capacity of the land; the popula­ tion increases and larger social aggregates are In constant Interaction; 2) Technological development.. .a 1 lows for increasing seden­ tariness; 3) Technological advancement Increases the total goods avail­ able to the population; k) Technological advancement fosters the division of labor and the separation of economic and social functions; 5) Technological development enables man to have increased amounts of social leisure, i.e ., the opportunity to engage In activities that do not In themselves satisfy the creature needs of the population. 5

I t seems clear from Goldschmidt's description, whatever view one takes of his stand on Its origin, that change crosses and affects the path of many patterns.

Foster maintains that cultures change by. borrowing:

An overt form from one culture often Is not perceived in the same fashion by members of another, but is perceived in such a way that it can be reinterpreted to conform to their own patterns of meaning and yet retain essentially its original function. '

Linton also has an explanation to offer of cross-cultural change:

One of the most important factors In connection with the diffusion of cultural elements is that they transfer from one society to another almost exclusively in terms of their form. 77

In other words, the borrowing society copies particular pat­ terns of behavior as it apprehends them, usually without under­ standing their original culture context. The assignment of new meanings is one of the most important aspects of the integrative process. in this way, new elements can be made in te llig ib le to the members of the receiving society and can be adjusted to its existing values.”®

These discussions serve to underline the previous description of the components of a tr a it complex and show how change can be analyzed according to how It Influences each component. As Chapter IV w ill fur­ ther clarify, Hall and Trager's description of the formal, Informal, and technical aspects of culture provides further explanation of change from the point of view of components of culture.^ In sum, then, just as one must look at the components of a pattern or tr a it complex as well as the interrelationship of patterns In order to understand cul­ ture, so must one also proceed to understand culture change.

3. Cross-cultural Comparison

How are teachers to Implement Rousseau's dictum that man must first come to know himself as other before he can really know himself?

The method must lie in the domain of cross-cultural comparison; This is Indeed the chief preoccupation of anthropologists: "L*anthropologie soullgne d'abord 11 Importance de 1'etude des ressemblances et des d lf- ✓ 70 # ferences entre les groupes humaines." ("Anthropology emphasizes fir s t of a ll the importance of the study of the sim ilaritie s and d iffe r­ ences of human groups.") For a cue to a method, the school of func­ tionalism can be consulted. Paradoxically enough, according to

Goldschmidt, Malinowski insisted that every culture be understood on its own terms, thereby making cross-cultural comparison an impossi­ b il i t y . ^ Yet in his work Malinowski does state: "The functional 78 theory . . . claims to be the prerequisite for fieldwork and for the comparative analysis of phenomena In various cultures. it Is capable of yielding a concrete analysis of culture into institutions and their 72 aspects." Obviously, however, analysis of one culture by appltca- 73 tion to It of the patterns of another must be avoided. As Levy warns, "Comparative analysis .is often frustrated by the fact that the im plicit or e x p lic it concepts used for sim ilar purposes may have quite different referents In the case of work on different societies by 7k different or even the same scholars." Whiting gives essentially the same caveat: "Actions which are formally Identical may have quite different meanings in different societies. . . .[But] cross-cultural comparison requires equivalence In meaning rather than formal equiva­ lence."^

Since meaning derives from function, It is here that the point of departure must be taken. Ford offers a description of the frame of reference provided by functionalism:

[One] attempt to provide a frame of reference for comparative purposes u tilize s the consequences of a c tiv itie s as the basic means of identification. This classification may be In terms of the Immediate effects of behavior, as in satisfying a drive or motive or providing stimulation, but more usually i t Is in terms of long-range consequence, as in satisfying some basic need of a people. These long-range goals are in part derived from re­ quirements for survival — the supplying of food and water, shelter, and the lik e —and correspond to such motivations as hunger, th irs t, sex, fear, and anxiety. Additional requirements for group survival, such as control of aggression within the society, may be added to the lis t of such goals. In addition, it may be further assumed that beyond providing the bare essentials of existence, surviving societies have developed, some to a greater degree than others, ways of achieving what may be termed aesthetic, recreational, intellectual, and spiritual goals. Given these essential and other universal goals and needs, ?t is deemed possible to equate, for comparative purposes, much i f not a ll of human a c tiv ity . One may speak, for example, of social control, 79 educational, economic, procreational, political, religious, a rtis tic and other ac tivity systems, and compare these from one society to another.76

Brislin et al. suggest one empirical method for getting in­ side two cultures for the purposes of comparison. That is to ask a set of questions relevant to both cultures, then some that are rele­ vant only to each particular culture. The answers to the questions will yieldthe meaning of the construct that both cultures share, the

Idiosyncratic meaning of it in each culture, and a derived etic or point of comparison which "manifests those aspects that are common and 77 specific to each culture as well as to their Interrelation." His method parallels very closely that suggested by Berry, which because of its complete applicability to this study I quote in full:

1. Aspects of behavior may be compared only when functional equivalence of the behaviors can be demonstrated. 2. a) Existing descriptive categories and concepts can then be applied to these behaviour systems In a tenta­ tive way (imposed e tic ); b) these must then be modified to the extent that they become an adequate description from within the system (emic); c) shared categories can then be used to build up new categories valid for both systems (derived etic) and can be expanded (If desired) until they constitute a universal. 3. Instruments and techniques can then be devised, based upon the derived etic or universal, and satisfying the require­ ment of conceptual equlvalences.

We propose to apply this method to the analysis of the webs which patterns create as microcosms of culture, as well as in examining the

Interrelationship of patterns as they weave together the macrocosm of the total culture. A discussion of the terms emic and etic wl11 be the key to entry into authentic cross-cultural comparison. 80

It has been indicated that Malinowski emphasized the indispen- 79 sability of describing the culture from a native's point of view.

Goodenough reiterates the importance of the connection of emic and etic with function: “The emic entities in different cultures (and languages) that we equate with reference to an appropriate set of etic 80 concepts . . . are so equated by virtue of some kind of function."

Trlandis and MaTpass suggest that both approaches, emic and etic , be 8| used, whereas Sturtevant seems to stress the emic: "The nature of learning and of communication implies that a culture consists of shared classifications of phenomena, that not every etic difference Is emic.

But it should be emphasized that an emic analysis refers to one society, to a set of interacting individuals. Cross-cultural comparison 82 involves the comparison of different emic systems."

The pioneer in the emic-etic distinction is Pike, who used the terms to define the difference in linguistics between phonemics and phonetics, but applied these distinctions as well to the description of cultural behavior. His study is significantly entitled: Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior.

According to Pike, emic and etic standpoints are not a dichotomy, but must be used in complementary fashion If the picture of culture is to be complete—somewhat like focusing with different lenses simul­ taneously:

Through the etic "lens" the analyst views the data in tacit reference to a perspective oriented to all comparable events (whether sounds, ceremonies, a c tiv itie s ), of a ll peoples, of a ll parts of the earth; through the other lens, the emic one, he views the same events, at the same time, in the same context, in reference to a perspective oriented to the particular function of those particular events in that particular culture, as it and ft alone is structured. The result is a kind of "tri-dimensional understanding" of human behavior Instead of a " fla t" e tic one. ...E tic and emic data do not constitute a rigid dichotomy of bits of data, but often present the same data from two differ­ ent points of view.®3

The etic approach to cultural description entails an a priori

set of categories which the investigator applies to a culture. Since

he is Interested in generalized statements about the data, he begins

by classifying all comparable data from all the cultures in the world,

Into a single system, and then, working according to a set of c rite ria

for classifying types of data, "studies, Identifies, and describes" any new data from the culture under investigation in terms o f. this^ ’■ 8 h data. The criteria may be selected by the investigator with or without reference to some known emic system, but they are applied with out such reference. The units of behavior may be classified according

to their physical characteristics only', or according to the elements of meaning or purpose contained in them. 8 5 The etic approach Is thus prestructural "In that It is used specifically as a first approach toward reaching an analysis of the emic structure of that language or cultural, i system." ..86

In such cases, the analyst chooses from among various possible etic general classifications that one which experience leads him to believe will allow him in the early stages of his analysis to come as close as possible to an emic result with the least effort.

An emic investigation begins within the culture. "It is an attempt to discover and to describe the pattern of that particular

language or culture in reference to the way in which the various elements of that culture are related to each other in the functioning of that particular pattern, rather than an attempt to describe them in 82 reference to a generalized classification derived in advance of the 88 study of that particular culture." The emic approach is a structural one, In which it is assumed that human behavior is patterned. "The goal of the emic approach is to discover and describe that behavioral system 87 with its structural units and structural classes of such units."

(Could he be referring here to tr a it complexes or patterns and webs of culture?!)

The etic approach is further qualified as "external" or "alien" since the investigator looks in, as it were, from the outside; the emic apprpach on the other hand is "internal" or "domestic" since the in- 90 vestigator works from within the system. The emic approach is by Its nature more wholistic than the e tic . The la tte r can be used to study one aspect of behavior in different cultures simultaneously without considering the whole of any one of them. "An emic approach. . .should never in theory be completely satisfied with the analysis of even the smallest b it of data from a language until the entire language—and the entire culture—has been analyzed, since the emic analysis of the part 91 depends upon its relation to the whole." An etic approach can be satisfied with description of physical characteristics of an event, whereas an emic approach must also refer to its distributional char­ acteristics. Etic criteria are more absolute than emic, which are relative to the culture.

Which approach is "better"? Both have value, which Pike de­ scribes in these paragraphs:

The etic approach to behavior is of especial value, fir s t, In giving to a beginning student a broad training as to the kinds 83

of behavior occurring around the world, so that he may be the more prepared to recognize quickly the different kinds of events observed, and to help him see slight differences between similar events. Second, during this process he may obtain a technique and symbolism ( . . . ) for recording the events of a cul­ ture. Third, even the specialist, coming from one culture to a sharply different one, has no other way to begin it's analysis than by starting with a rough, tentative (and inaccurate) etic description of it. No matter how skillful an emlcist he may be, he can complete his emic description only after the analysis is complete—not before—and that analysis must be begun by re­ cording data etical.ly in terms of his prior experience (sys­ tematic training, or unclassified knowledge gained in terms of his own culture). Fourth, I I .the analyst may not choose (...) to make a complete emic study of each local culture or dialect.(The italics are those of the author.)

The value of emic study is, fir s t, that it leads to an under­ standing of the way in which a language or culture is constructed, not as a series of miscellaneous parts, but as a working whole. Second, it helps one to appreciate not only the culture or lan­ guage as an ordered whole, but It helps one to understand the in­ dividual actors in such a life drama—their attitudes, motives, Interests, responses, conflicts, and personality development. In addition, it provides the only basis upon which a predictive science of behavior can be expected to make some of its greatest progress, since even statistical predictive studies w ill In many instances ultimately prove invalid, except as they reflect samplings and classifications which are homogeneous.

Finally, while the classifications of an etic approach are

created by an investigator, those of an emic approach are discovered ah by him. Pike describes a "wheels within wheels" emic analysis of qc behavior structure, according to his thesis that "human behavior must be analyzed as consisting of various simultaneous structurings 96 of Its activity." In this analysis, each emic unTt consists of

three modes: feature, manifestation, and distribution. These corre­

spond somewhat to Linton's form, meaning, use, and function. It w ill

perhaps be helpful, however, to review them here Insofar as they

might clarify Linton's terminology. 84

1. The feature mode of an emic unit of a c tiv ity w ill in general be viewed as comprised of simultaneously occurring Identifi- cational-contrastive components with its internal segmenta­ tion analyzed with special reference to stimulus-response features (including purpose or lexical meaning, where rele­ vant) . 2. The manifestation mode of an emic unit of activity will often be viewed as comprised of nonsimultaneously occurring physical variants (or nonsimultaneous components), with its internal segmentation analyzed with special reference to the hierarchy of the mechanisms of its physical production. 3- The distribution mode of an emic unit of activity will be seen as comprised of relational components, including its class membership and its spot functions, with Its internal segmentation analyzed in reference to its spot distribution (including reference to choice of emic alternatives, where relevant).97

It seems to this author that Pike's feature mode includes the common criterial attributes which make it possible to conceptualize Linton's

"form," as well as some aspects of meaning insofar as these pertain to function. The manifestation mode seems to indicate the process, or deroulement of the event, not particularly exploited by Linton; the distribution mode has to do with meaning, use, and function.

It is through such analysis of particular microcosmic behavioral events or tr a it complexes that one can come to a valid description of the interrelationship of these events within the macrocosm of culture.

"Wheels within wheels" will be derived both microcosmically and macrocosmleally.

B. Literature: Foreign Language Education

In this section of the study, the foreign language education literatu re w ill be examined according to how i t reflects the point of view of culture which was established in the first part of this chapter. 85

1. The Concept

On the whole, foreign language educators seem to have accepted an anthropological definition of culture "with a small c." Allen and

Valette, for example, define culture as "the behavioral patterns or

q o lif e styles of a people." Brooks, one of the fir s t to have adopted this approach to culture, calls it "the belief and behavior patterns 99 of a language community—any community." He elaborates the idea as follows:

What is Important In culture is what one Is "expected" to think, believe, say, do, eat, wear, pay, endure, resent, honor, .laugh at, fight for, and worship, In typical life situations, some as dramatic as a wedding, as a court trial or a battlefield, others as mundane as the breakfast table or the playground or assembly line.*® 0

It Is clear, as Nostrand notes, that "A verifiable statement about a small part of a foreign population, such as that people of the middle class within given regions, at a given point in time, be­ have thus and so, is far more valuable than the unverifiable, sweeping generalizations one usually hears.Authors of an Alameda County publication also discuss the re la tiv ity of cultural tra its to social 102 class and age. For the purposes of this study, however, It w ill be assumed that there are certain cultural patterns that are distinc­ tive ly French, versus others that are typically American, regardless of "class," age, or economic background. A viable way for teaching these patterns needs to be found, a way which avoids the "sweeping generalizations" of which Nostrand speaks. Further refinement of patterns along class lines can be developed later. 86 Among foreign language educators, just as among anthropologists, there seem to be two theoretical approaches to culture: on the one hand, there are those who emphasize the action approach, such as that advocated by Malinowski and the functionalist school, and on the other, some foreign language educators seem to emphasize the approach of cul­ ture as systems of meaning. Chief proponent of the la tte r Is Nostrand, whose succinct explanation of his point of view seems worthy of quoting:

Two areas in a sociocultural fabric prove especially rich in the sort of generalization that helps one to explain, interpret, and predict, within a wide range of behavior. These two areas in the value system of the culture, and its assumptions (many of them held unconsciously most of the time) concerning the nature of man, society, and the human situation.. . .Together, the two cate­ gories of values and assumptions make up the "ground of meaning": the habitual behavior patterns which very nearly determine what the bearer of the culture will perceive, how he will classify and structure his perceptions, and to a lesser but still signif­ icant extent, his thought processes and emotional reactio n s.... A culture's ground of meaning can be organized compactly under "main themes" of a culture at a given moment.1^3

Nostrand proceeds to outline a model based on the twelve themes of

French culture. Ladu develops the Nostrand idea and applies it both 104 to French and Hispanic culture. These theoretical interpretations are less appropriate to this study than those of the foreign language educators who emphasize an action approach. Their work w ill now be examined, among that of others, as I t applies to the components of culture.

Lado's explanation of form, meaning, and distribution parallels with some difference the delineation by Linton of form, meaning, use, and function. Lado admits that each act of behavior in a culture is unique, and while actually made up of differing elements, is recognized by persons partaking of the culture as essentially the same acts of

behavior. For example, breakfast in the United States may consist of 105 juice, cereal, and coffee—or of bacon and eggs. In other words,

the functioning units of behavior are composed of substitutable

elements, in the Alameda County publication, these are referred to as 106 allocults of a behavioral culteme. There are enough possible ele­

ments within each unit of behavior to constitute form, meaning, and

distribution each time.

The form of a cultural pattern Is functionally defined. For

example, breakfast is the meal one eats upon arising, but It may con­

sist of various elements, depending upon whether it Is taken in the morning or, for someone who works at night and sleeps during the day,

in the evening. Meanings "represent an analysis of the universe as

grasped In a culture," and may be multiple, including both primary and

secondary meaning. Thus, breakfast has a primary meaning of sustenance whereas a secondary religious, health, or economic meaning may also

be attached to it. Distribution concerns the ways the units are dis­

tributed In patterns. These involve time, space, and positions In re­

lation to other units.

Beaujour and Ehrmann have also touched upon the parts of a cultural unit in their discussion of the semiotics of culture.

Semiotics, defined as the study of signs, calls upon the foreign lan­ guage educators not only to "translate" lite ra lly the words involved

In a cultural explanation, but to fill In the gaps In translation, so

that the full meaning Is evident to the learner. Meanings are both 108 explicit and implicit. In order to acquire knowledge of them, we 88

i need to study cultural data from four different angles: (1) factual and statistical information about institutions; (2) attitudes and be­ liefs; (3) raw documents such as interviews, pictures, and ads; and 109 (I») functions, the study of which unifies all the others.

The study of functions shows that institutions have a meaning only within their system. The contrastive method helps the student to understand that the same institution in two different cultures may fu lfill two different functions. . . .On the other hand, two different Institutions can have similar functions in two different cultures.

Reboullet explains how the complete meaning of a cultural phenomenon may necessitate explanation of a double function.

The concept of pattern seems universally acceptable to foreign language educators. Mead comments that the real contribution of anthro­ pologists to foreign language teaching is their assertion that the rest 112 of human behavior Is sytematic, just as language is systematic.

Most of the concern seems to be with the Interrelationship of patterns.

Numerous allusions to the latter have been made In the lite r ­ ature. Lewald asserts, "A cultural event is often meaningless or at least misleading without being placed and evaluated within its proper II? context." Debyser suggests, "Au niveau 2, les fa Its de c iv ili­ sation dolvent commencer a s'ordonner sinon en un systeme, du moins ! dans une vision organisee."'^ ("At the second level, the facts I about culture must begin to take form, if not In that of a system, at laast In that of an organized vision.") According to Seelye, culture j n i$ a "system of patterns." Seelye adds In another publication:

When an individual attempts to satisfy a basic need, he I usually has to employ many interacting cultural patterns.... It Is important to plot the interactions of several topics, so ; that the student can see how things f i t together.. . .The 89

particular aspect of the target culture which In itia lly motivates a given student Is of l i t t l e importance as long as some of the questions inspired by the interest area lead to a discovery that cultural patterns interact and that they are used by people to satisfy universal needs.

Wylie is of the same opinion: "We must insist on the fact that culture

is a whole made up of interrelated parts."'N ostrand says similarly: 118 "A sociocultural system Is a whole whose parts color one another."

Glaude explains very clearly:

Culture Is a structured discourse; in the culture of the country, every item means something only in relation to all other Items; and no item means something by Its e lf. There is no way of understanding these discrete items as representative of another culture; one must organize the discrete Items.

Ladu also advocates that teachers present the material in an organized 120 fashion. Varela-Ibara describes how this fact of life affects the nervous system:

A complete understanding of the nature of thought would en­ ta il a complete understanding of the functioning of the nervous system of the individual, the social system in which he lives, his language, and his a b ility to combine and extend p a t t e r n s .

E llio tt speaks of the chains formed by cultural elements that extend 122 in multidimensional directions. Finally, Taylor and Sorensen state:

All patterns of regular, socla Ily-approved behavior within the cultural system shared by members of a society more or less influenced all the other patterns of the system. The result Is to produce a consistent, in te llig ib le world in which the in­ dividual can carry on a psychologically meaningful existence.'?3

Most foreign language educators seem to advocate cross- cultural comparison as an aspect of teaching culture. Seelye points out, however, that Nostrand appears not to do so in one publication, and he makes a comment on the matter as follows: 90

It is Important to present the view that what the target individual does makes sense, that the efficacy of a given cul­ tural pattern depends on how it fits into the complex whole of a culture.. . .One should not lose sight of just what the func­ tional significance of a behavioral pattern is in terms of a more abstract value or theme. ^

However, Nostrand does explain elsewhere that the foreign language classroom should be the place where the learner compares his newfound knowledge about the foreign culture with that which he possesses of 125 his own. The authors of the Alameda County publication also in­ sist that the method be comparative and suggest that the teacher should "make the student more aware of his own culture, make him expose and analyze his own covert behavior to equip him better to 126 contrast his culture with that of the target culture."

In the course of teaching cross-cultural comparison, however,

It is Important to avoid falsifying cultural elements by teaching them out of context. Rivers, quoting Pike, explains how etic and emic distinctions determine how teachers can approach the teaching of cul- 127 128 ture. Brooks advocates teaching the culture "from within";

Abbey agrees:

Only through the holistic approach of anthropology can... p itfa lls be avoided. By studying individual cultures as dis­ crete entities, the learner can see the relation between the various patterns of behavior within each culture.

Since cultural patterns form the basis for both the native and target cultures, teachers must learn to perceive them if they are to teach valid cross-cultural comparisons. 2 . The Method

It Is not necessary here to explore a ll the methods that have been devised for teaching culture, but only those which have some affinity with the approach of this author, that is, those which concen­

trate on culture as a system of action, in particular in its patterning aspect, and which investigate the technique of questioning.

Taylor and Sorensen fir s t proposed the technique known as the culture capsule, which permits exposition of one particular contrastive aspect of a foreign culture and shows how It is meaningful within that culture. The method involves creating a number of these capsules so 130 that the customs make "concatenated sense." The capsule is a script describing the particular contrastive feature, which is supple­ mented by visuals and real la. The presentation Is followed by a dis­ cussion including both rhetorical and "open-ended" questions. It is suggested that teachers keep each capsule In a shoe box for ready con­ sumption by the students.

M iller has recently published a compilation of culture capsules which discuss various differences between the American and French cul­ tures, Including a description of both the American and the French ways

His categories are five: food and drink, human relationships, distinc­ tive traits, transportation, and institutions.*^ An activity sheet for students is intended to involve them more thoroughly in the expe­

rience.

Meade and Mora in have invented the concept of a culture cluster which consists of three or four culture capsules followed by a simula­ tion, a ll focused on one particular cultural theme. One example 92

illustrates Un Marlage Campagnard, and Includes the following format:

Culture Capsule I: La Ceremonie c iv ile Culture Capsule II: La Ceremonie religieuse Culture Capsule M l: Le Repas de noces Culture Capsule IV: Les Differences entre un martage mondaln et un marlage campagnard Simulation: Un marlage campagnard Discuss ion'32

Nostrand's Influence seems evident, as Meade and Morain Include dis­

cussion of cultural attitudes involved in the performance of these be­

havior patterns; here these include emphasis on system and formal

structure, Importance of la fam llle and le foyer, and humor.

. Elkins, Kallvoda and Morain have provided both for listening

comprehension practice and cross-cultural teaching in their audio­

motor unit. The technique Involves acting out a particular cultural

event In response to a tape which describes it. This method provides

the opportunity for witnessing an event and observing the cultural

differences as they take place. Thus, the student learns to recog­

nize the event as a microcosm of culture; the suggested discussion

stimulators, moreover, provide opportunity for the teacher to expand

the topic across the web of culture. The enumeration of reasons for

the use of iced drinks on an American picnic versus non-iced drinks

on a European outing, for example, include gastronomic interests, 133 health concerns, and technological considerations. It Is suggested

that questions be distributed to small groups for discussion, following which the large group summarizes. Culture capsules may be used to

focus In on a particular aspect of the topic.

Morain reports on a Weiss contribution which seems somewhat

similar in concept: 93

{The sequence] begins with the student cutting a picture of a j refrigerator out of a German catalogue, moves through discussion of space, privacy, and distance concepts, and ends with students drawing Inferences about the effect of climate on German art and literature. With the guidance of a skilled cultural Inter- !. preter, there is a beautiful logic in this progression from Ice­ box to a rt.'3^ i Willard and Willard use a somewhat more amplified approach which aims to capture the French en situation. In the Complements

that accompany th eir basic text, Nous les Jeunes, they cover the

following topics:

cars (Paris motor show), means of transportation (some geography), two young people in the Latin Quarter (they buy postcards of some of the most famous monuments, cigarettes, stamps, a ticket of the National Lottery, a woman's magazine...), the postal ser­ vice, the Radio-Tel evi si on National Center, young people and music, the subway, a fashion presentation, high school sports, French sports buffs, cuisine and gastronomy (some geography), Issuance of the National I.D. card, letters to the editor (demonstrations, strikes, road safety, diet), the political system (general elec­ tions), a visit of a car factory, an Interview of labor union leaders by two young people, a young married couple's housing problems, one day in the life of two women, Paris in August (vacations), newspapers and magazines. 35

The amplitude of the description in these Complements makes them some- what more justified anthropologically than culture capsules. Complements i incorporate facts as they might be reported in a data analysis, wher|eas culture capsules are summary statements of behavior. {

Authentic documents can be used also in the foreign language I classroom, according to two accounts. One emphasizes the "slice of Ii life " aspect provided for in an unadulterated account. Watson says that

through I t an informant answers an anthropologist's questions, while at the same time providing a context for the answer and a glimpse into 136 other aspects of culture. Somewhat remini scent of the Beaujour-Ehrmann approach, Pincas explains a "cultural translation" method which aims to capitalize on

the socio-cultural structures, that is, patterns, within which words 137 have their meaning. Pincas takes quotations from an English literary

text and explains in three columns how the cultural pattern illustrated

therein operates in England and in Culture X, the context of the people

learning English as a second language. It. is definitely a contrastive method, as exercises for students include "finding words whose meaning varies according to the cultural context in which they are used." The procedure In two stages Is as follows:

The firs t is the selection by the teacher of a short passage from the reader. The class looks for the cultural items in the passage. Skill In identifying a cultural item as such Is the basis of the exercise. When the items and the words which depend on them have been listed, the class considers each one in turn and tries to determine Its relatioh to the native culture, is it the same or different? How is it different? How do the two languages differ bebause of the cultural difference?

In the second stage, the passage is rewritten to conform to the native culture of the students. The reason for the method is appropriately

relevant to our alms. Pincas explains that it Is not enough for stu­ dents to note the differences between their own and other cultures, which they w ill always do from the framework of their own selves. It

Is also important to advocate objective analysis of both the native and target cultures to that they can be judged equally on a non- normative basis. By knowing how, the teacher "can develop an open 138 mind rather than a closed one."

Also significant with reference to methodology are those approaches which use questions as a strategy. Seelye speaks of the 95 process of inquiry as being more desirable than the acquisition of sundry facts.139 He also suggests using questions to make students 140 perceive the relationships among patterns. Authors of the Alameda

County publication advocate use of questions to bring the covert into the open about the student's native culture before he compares it with 141 that of the target culture. The whole culture capsule concept, 1 42 furthermore, is based on inductive reasoning processes. Taylor and Sorensen, moreover, suggest using questions to present a culture capsule by having students answer questions requiring them to observe cultural differences or having them ask questions requiring a yes or 143 no answer from the teacher.

Other foreign language educators who advocate a research approach include PI 1 let, who urges that it be implemented even at the 144 FLES level. Jorstad suggests that questions be used with reference to ads from newspapers or magazines. She proposes the following steps

In a technique:

1. Find an ad. 2. Write questions: a. that w ill motivate the student to read the ad, or towant to find out more about the product being sold. b. that w ill force the student to read the ad or to look at it closely to find information In it . These w ill be factual questions which the student can answer only if he digs into the text. c. that will force him to form some Initial generalizations about the people or country In question. 3. Ask the student what further information he must have before he can form a true and valid generalization about the culture. What you are trying to do is to make him sensitive to the fact that initial generalizations may be faulty because of In­ sufficient knowledge. 4. Lead the student to discover where he can find more informa-..- tion which w ill help him to refine his tentative hypothesis. 96

Jorstad credits Seel ye as a source for this idea. Indeed Seelye sug­ gests a very similar technique for his "mini-media" units. According to Seelye, students should learn through generating hypotheses that there is no one correct hypothesis, and that this sort of statement must be constantly refined. He adds that the generalization should be based on empirical evidence.

Another advocate of the process approach to learning about culture is Jenks, who proposes library projects whereby students are

Instructed to find the answers to questions. (Significantly, he notes also that the teacher should use one of the several cultural models, outlines, or guides that present categorizations of socio-cultural topics when preparing problems.He outlines models of suggested i J18 steps in the solving of the problem. Jenks also proposes data- gathering techniques to be performed by students in the country on l4q location.

C. Models for the Analysis of Culture

In the remainder of this chapter, various models which have been proposed for the analysis of culture w ill be examined. One of the most extensive is that of Murdock, who bases his classification on the assumption that any one element of culture.may have seven facets upon which to be classified. These seven facets.are: (1) a patterned activity, I.e., "A customary norm of motor, verbal, or implicit (covert 1 of ideational) behavior"; (2) the appropriateness of such an ac tivity under certain circumstances such as time or place; (3) the particular subject of the behavior; (4) the object toward which the 97 behavior is directed; (5) some means external to both the subject and the object of behavior; (6) the purpose of the a c tiv ity ; and (7) the 151 result of the activity. The resulting outline for examining a cul­ ture has a total of 888 categories.

Hall derives one hundred categories from ten primary message systems. The c rite ria upon which.these ten forms of human ac tivity were chosen are the following:

A. Rooted In a biological activity widely shared with other ad­ vanced living forms. It was essential that there be no breaks with the past. B. Capable of analysis in Its own terms without reference to the other systems and so organized that it contained isolated components that could be b u ilt up into more complex units, and pa radox i ca11y C. So constituted that it reflected all the rest of culture and was reflected in the rest of culture.152

The Primary Message Systems are: Interaction, Association, Subsistence,

Bisexuality, T e rrito ria lity , Temporality, Learning, Play, Defense, and

Exploitation.

Interaction is a primary characteristic of all life: to “inter­ act with the environment is to be alive, and to fa il to do so is to 153 be dead." Association, which has Its roots in the joining of two cells, is the basis for the structuring of societies. Subsistence has to do with the nutritional requirements of man and the way in which these are met In a particular society. Bisexuality is the answer the human race has invented to meet the need of a mixed genetic background.

Territoriality (space) and temporality (time) help man to define him­ self. Learning Is important as an adaptive mechanism. Play includes humor. Defense Includes religion, war, law enforcement, and medicine. 98

Exploitation Is the extension man makes of his body to u tiliz e the environment.: *. 154

Taylor and Sorensen propose a model upon which to base culture capsules, so that while analyzing one element at a time, the student eventually derives a unified picture. The categories in this outline are: technology, economy, social organization, p o litical organization, world view (religion and philosophy), esthetics, and education. As with Hall's system, the order In which the categories are derived is significant: here one starts with the concrete and proceeds to more abstract considerations. There Is even a subcultural category In­ cluding biological, geographical, and historical elements. The model given In this a rtic le is based on Mexican culture specifically, unlike those of Hall and Murdock, which are not geared to one particular cul­ ture. The categories are subdivided Into precise topics which lend themselves to an observational, data-gathering process. One category's subdivisions are included for the purpose of example:

I I . Technological category A. Food-getting and using 1. Cultivation and the major crops 2. Preparing, serving, and eating typical foods B. Shelter-Housing (the patio form, barred windows, fronting on street) C. Clothing 1. Forms: rebozo, serape, blouse, no shoes, broad-brim hat, etc. 2. Age, class and ethnic significance of costume D. Toots 1. Human or animal power, not power machines, typical 2. Hand crafts and equipment being replaced by industry E. Transportation 1. Ass, oxen, humans most common 2. Increasing auto, bus, rail and a ir travel 3 . Regionalism as related to transportation155 99 Brooks lists ten categories: symbolism, value, authority, or­ der, ceremony, love, honor, humor, beauty, and spirit.As opposed

to those of Hall and Murdock, these seem to be a posterior? categories, which one discovers upon examining the culture and which one imposes as a pre-requisite for examining the culture further. It seems that

Nostrand's Emergent Model is based on a sim ilar philosophy. Nostrand

looks for patterns In the "feelings, beliefs, and thought process" of 157 members of the target culture. It Is assumed that certain ingre­ dients are characteristic of a culture bearer's behavior. The proce­ dure Is to combine experience of the people's way of life with descrip­ tive knowledge about the people, so that the resulting study Is ex- 158 amlned experience of the foreign culture.

Nostrand based his model on Parsons' four levels of societal organization: the human organism, the personality, social relations, and the culture patterns. Nostrand, however, combines the f ir s t two levels into one and adds a fourth category, the ecology. The most basic "knowledge about" mentioned above can be summarized under three headings: Values, Traits, and World Picture. "These three elements of a sociocultural system summarize the concrete manifestations 159 collected into the remainder of the Inventory." They are the "ground of meaning" according to which members of the foreign culture live their lives. All the concrete manifestations of the foreign culture are some­ how contained within these categories. Furthermore, If one adds to the value of the culture the tra its and assumptions of fact which are necessary in order to understand the value, one arrives St the culture's main themes. "These themes, with their Interaction of mutual support 100 or co n flict, are probably the most concise of a ll descriptive knowledge that is true-to-fact enough to be useful."^® This themal system is based on the sociological model of Opler. Each culture has its own themes, and no culture has more than twelve.

The twelve themes of French culture, according to Nostrand, are the follow!ng:

1. The art of living: enjoyment of the lif e style one has chosen 2. intellectuality and "etre ralsonnable" 3. Individual Ism and civil liberty (Including acquisitive ambi tIon) 4. Realism and good sense (including health care and sensitivity to material conditions and conveniences) 5. Law and order (including retributive justice, "la justice repressIve") 6. Distributive justice (Including an increasing humanitarian concern and sensitivity to the deteriorating environment) 7. Friendship 8. Love 9. Family 10. Religions 11. The quest for community (within a subculture), and loyalty to a province or region 12. Patriotism and its object, "la patrle."

Once the tra its (habits of reaction and of procedure— including cognitive style—which are not markedly valued or disvalued) and world-picture (assumptions of fact) are described, the rest of the model provides a framework for examining the concrete manifestations of the culture. Other topics listed under culture in addition to themes, traits, and world-picture are: verifiable knowledge, art forms, language, and para-language and kinesics. Topics listed under society are: the family, religious institutions, economic-occupational institutions, political and judicial institutions, the educational in­ stitutions, the intellectual-esthetic institutions, leisure and 101 recreation, the mass media, stratification and mobility, social pro­

prieties, status by age group and sex, ethnic, religious and other 162 minorities, and interpersonal and inter-group conflict. The sub­

system called cross-cultural environment is included within the others.

The ecology includes these topics: exploitation of physical resources,

exploitation of plants and animals, demographic control, health care

and accident protection, settlement and te rrito ria l organization, 163 travel and transportation. There is also a subsystem devoted to

the individual: Integration of the personal Ity for self-control and

purposeful action; Integration at the organismic level; Intrapersonal 164 variability; Intrapersonal conflict, and interpersonal variation.

One final model is that of Jenks. Called the enculturation

schema, It Is based upon the process of human growth and development.

Jenks believes that culture learning Is not thematic but that one

learns values through religion, environment, and experience. “What, where, when, how, and from whom cultural learning occurs constitutes 165 the basis for enculturation." 3 In his model he categorizes topics

commonly found in other models (e.g., humor, friendship, etiquette,

etc.) under the subdivisions of religion, experience, environment, and emotion. Admittedly, one topic can be classified with more than one of the subdivisions, and Jenks does so. There is thus some attempt

to show how a given cultural topic can be interrelated with others.

Jenks1 chief concern Is that the “soul" of living not be missing from

the foreign language classroom.'^ He also wants students to realize

that the process of enculturation is universal to the extent that all 168 individuals are subject to It. 102 An a rtic le which does not propose a new model but uses that of

Hall was written by Troyanovlch. In It he specifies contrasting German

and American cultural patterns. The article gives ten thoughtful

listings of the ramifications of each primary message system.16 9

Concluding Statement

Application of a model for the analysis of culture will be a

significant part of the pedagogical phase of this study. Also impor­

tant to remember from this chapter w ill be the concepts underlying

the action approach to the theoretical interpretation of culture.

Among the techniques that have been examined, the culture capsule is one that to some extent reflects this theory, since it describes some observable aspect of culture. Yet as it is now implemented, it

focuses on only one cultural difference. it would derive even more

Impact if it were placed within a framework of total cultural analysis.

A new attempt at a holistic application w ill follow In Chapter IV. NOTES TO CHAPTER I 11

^Ruth Benedict, The Patterns of Culture (Boston: Houghton- M tfflin Co., 193*0, p. *51 2 A. L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture: A C ritical Re­ view of Concepts and Definitions (New York: Random House, Vintage Books, 195 2 ),p .iW .

9CIyde Kluckhohn, Mirror for Man (New York: Whittlesey House, 19*9), p. 28. 4 Leslie A. White, "On the Concept of Culture" In Theory In Anthropology, ed. Robert A. Manners and David Kaplan (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1968), p. 18.

5 lb ld ., p. 19.

^John Beattie, Other Cultures (New York: The Free Press, 196*), p. *9.

^F. Eggan, "Social Anthropology and the Method of Controlled Comparison," American AnthropologIst 56 (195*):7*5. o Bronislaw Malinowski, A S cientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays (Chapel H ill: University of North Carolina Press, 19**), pp. 37-38.

9 lb id ., p. 83.

,0 lb ld ., p. 90.

11 Ib id ., p. 38.

^Beattie, p. 57*

^9EmI!e Durkhelm, Les Regies de la methode soclologlgue (Paris, France: Presses unI vers 1taI res de France, 1950), p. 01 1* / A. R. RadclIffe-Brown, Method in Social Anthropology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958) , p. 7~*

l5lbid., p. 25.

103 104

^Durkhelm, p. 27.

^ I b id ., p. 43. 18 Dorothy Emmet, Function, Purpose and Powers: Some Concepts In the Study of Indl viduaIs and Societ ies (London: Macmi Han, 1972), p. 93. 19 Ib id ., p. 103 and Beattie, p. 53*

^Beattie, p. 53* 21 Marlon J. Levy, Jr., The Structure of Society (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1952), p. 63.

22lbfd., p. 63.

23Talcott Parsons, "An Outline of the Social System," In Theories • of Society: Foundations of Modern Social Theory, 2 vols., ed. Talcott Parsons et a l. (New York: Free Press, 1965), 1:36. 2k Beattie, p. 60. 25 International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968 ed., s.v. "Functional Analysis: I. Structural-Functional Analysis," by Marlon J. Levy, J r ., p. 22. 26 Ralph Linton, The Tree of Culture (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956), p. 33. 27 Idem, The Study of Man (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936), pp. 403-4.

28Ib id ., p. 404.

291bId-, pp. 403“5-

30lbid., p. 397.

3*John W. M. Whiting, "The Cross-Cultural Method" in Handbook of Social Psychology, 2 vols., ed. Gardner Lindzey (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1954), 1:527.

Linton, Study, pp. 414-15. 33 Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1949)» p- 65.

"Sk Linton, Study, p. 419.

33Edward T. H all, The Silent Language (Greenwich, Conh.: Fawcett Publications, Inc., 1959)» p* 65. 105 36 Ward H. Goodenough, ed., Explorations In Cultural Anthro­ pology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), p. 11.

^M orris Edward Opler, "Themes as Dynamic Forces In Culture." American Journal of Sociology 51 (Nov. 1945):198-206; idem, "Some Recently Developed Concepts Relating to Culture," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 4 (1948):107“22; idem, "Component, Assemblage and Theme in Cultural Integration and Differentiation," American Anthro­ pologist, 61 (1959):955“64; idem, "The Themal Approach in Cultural Anthropology and Its Application to North Indian Data," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 24 (1968):215~27; Parsons, "An Outline of the Social System" in Theories of Society.

^Howard Lee Nostrand, ed., Background Data for the Teaching of French (Seattle: University of Washington, 1967). (Part A, "La Culture et la societe francaise au XXe siecle," ED 031 964; Part B, "Exemples 1 Itte ra i res," ED031 989; Part C, "Contemporary Culture and Society In the United States," ED 031 990).

^John G ill in, The Ways of Men: An Introduction to Anthropology (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1948), p. 519^ 40 Kurt Lewin, Resolving Social Conflicts, ed. Gertrud Weiss Lewin, with a Foreword by Gordon W. All port (New York: Harper and Row, 1948), passim; Pertti J. Pelto, The Study of Anthropology in Raymond H. Muessig and Vincent R. Rogers, eds., Social Science Seminar Series (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. M errill Books, 1965)» p. 42; Radcliffe-Brown, p. 174; George Foster, Traditional Cultures and the Impact of Technological Change (New York! Harper and Row, 1962), p. 19.

^Edward T. H all, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City, New York: Doubteday and Co., 1966), p. 96. 42 # Clark WIssler, Man and Culture (London: Geo. C. Harrap and Co., 1923), p. 73.

i*3Gi 11 in, p. 475. 44 Kroeber and Kluckhohn, p. 332.

45 / Anthony F. C. Wallace, Culture and Personality (New York: Random House, 1961), p. 31.

^ Ib ld ., p. 40. 47 ' Wendell H. Oswalt, Understanding Our Culture, An Anthropo­ logical View (New York: Holt, R'inehart' and Winston, 1970), pp. 134“5•

i#8GI 11 In, p. 475.

^Kluckhohn, Mlrror, p. 18. 106

■^Wfssler, pp. 51~52.

^Ibid., pp. 63 and 73. CO RadclIffe-Brown, p. 40.

■*^Ma1Inowsk i , p. 119. qL Beattie, p. 59.

^Raymond Firth, The Work of the Gods in Tlkopla, London School of Economics: Monographs in Social Anthropology, nos. 1 and 2 (London: The Athlone Press for the University of London; New York: Humanities Press, 1967)» p. 1. 56ldem, "Alms, Methods and Concepts in Social Anthropology," in The Teaching of Anthropology, ed. David G. Mandelbaum, Gabriel W. Lasker, and Ethel M. Albert (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1963), p. 135.

^Emmet, p. kj.

^ P h ilip K. Bock, Culture Shock (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), p. 67.

^ H a ll, Language, p. 138. 60 Margaret Mead, ed., Cultural Patterns and Technical Change, Tensions and Technology Series (New York: UNESCO, 1953), p- TT

^*Pelto, p. 70. 62 John J. Honigmann, "Survival of a Cultural Focus" In Ward H. Goodenough, Explorations, p. 290.

^Parsons, pp. 73-7^.

^Walter Goldschmidt, Man1 s Way (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1959), p* 108.

65lb id ., p. 115.

^Foster, p. 63.

^®Linton, Tree, p. ^5.

^Edward T. Hall, Jr. and George L. Trager, The Analysis of Culture (Washington, D.C.: Pre-publication edition, 1963), p. 20. 107

Paul Mercler, "Anthropologie soclale et culturelle," In Ethnologle generate, a volume published under the direction of Jean Poirier, Encyclopedic de la Pleiade, no. 24 (Paris: Editions Galllmard, 1968 ), p. 887.

^'waiter Goldschmidt, Compara11ve Func 1 1ona 11sm (Berkeley: II. of California Press, 1966), p. 8 , cited by John W. Berry, "On Cross- Cultural Comparability. 11 International Journal of Psychology 4 (1969): 120.

^Malinowski, 175 -

^Kroeber and Kluckhohn, p. 347- 74 Levy, Structure, p. 2.

^**John W. M. Whiting, "The Cross-Cultural Method" in Readings In Cross-Cultural Methodology, ed. Frank W. Moore (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1961 ), p. 295.

^ C le lla n S. Ford, "On the Analysis of Behavior for Cross- Cultural Comparisons," In Cross-Cultural Approaches: Readings in Com­ parative Research, ed. Cl el Ian S. Ford (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1 967 ), p. in ^Richard W. Brislin, Walter J. Lonner, and Robert M. Thorndike, Cross-Cultural Research Methods (New York: John Wiley and Sons,1973), pp. 27-28.

^®Berry, p. 125- 79 Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western P acific, with a preface by Sir James George Frazer (New York: E. P._ Dutton and Co., 1932), p. 25. 80 Ward J. Goodenough, Description and Comparison In Cultural Anthropology (Chicago: Aldlne Pub. Co., 1968), p. 122. 81 Harry C. Trlandis and Roy S. Malpass, Field Guide for the Study of Aspects of Subjective Culture, Illinois Studies of the Econ­ omically Disadvantaged, Technical Report no. 4 (1970), p. 13* (ED 072 146) 82 W. C. Sturtevant, "Studies In EthnoscJence," In Transcultural Studies In Cognition, a special publication of the American Anthropo- ogist, ed. A. K. Romney and R. D. D'Andrade, 1964, 66 (pt. 2):3 , p. 103-

8^Kenneth L. Pike, Language In Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior (Glendale, California: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1954), p. 12.

8N b ld ., p. 8. 108

85lbid., p. 9.

86lbid.

87lbid.

88lb id ,, p. 8.

89lbid.

901 b id ., p. 10.

91 Ibid.

92lb ld ., p. 11.

93 Ib id ., p. 88.

9**Ibid., p. 20.

" i b i d . , p. 32.

96lb id ., p. 40.

97Ib id ., p. 36.

98Edward 0. Allen and Rebecca M. Valette, Modern Language Class- room Techniques: A Handbook (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovlch", 1972), p. 245. 99 Nelson Brooks, "Culture and Language Instruction," Teacher* s Notebook In Modern Foreign Languages, Spring 1966 (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World), p. 2.

^®®ldem, "Teaching Culture In theForeign Language Classroom," Foreign Language Annals 1 (March 1968):211.

^Howard L. Nostrand, "Describing or Teaching the Sociocultural Context of a Foreign Language and Literature" in Trends In Language Training, ed. Albert Valdman (New York: McGraw-HI H," 1966), p. 15.

1 0 7 Cultural Understanding: French, Level I (Hayward, California: Alameda County SchooY Department, 1971)» p- 10^ 103 ^Nostrand, Background Data, pp. 2-3. in li Tora Tuve Ladu, Teaching for Cross-Cultural Understanding, Foreign Language Curriculum Series Publication No. 414 (Raleigh, N.C.: State Departmentof Public Instruction, 1968). 109

^^Robert Lado, Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers, with a Foreward by Charles C. Fries (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1968), p. 111. 106 ^ ^Cultural Understanding^ p. 15*

107Lado, p. 113- 10S Michel Beaujour and Jacques Ehrmann, "A Semlotic Approach to Culture," Foreign Language Annals 1 (December 1967):IS^'55-

109lb id ., p. 157.

110lbld.

^A n d re Reboullet, "Pour un enseignement comparatlf en c iv ilis a ­ tion" ("Toward the Teaching of Culture on a Comparative Basts"), Le Francals dans- -r - . le monde 81 (1971):67* 112Mead, Margaret, "Culture in Foreign Language Teaching: The Anthropologist's Point of View," in Lado et a l., Report on a Conference on the Meaning and Role of Culture In Foreign Language Teaching, (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, School of Languages and Lin­ guistics, 1961), p. 9. (ED 038 076) I 1 3 H. Ernest Lewald, "A Tentative Outline of Problems In the Knowledge, Understanding, and Teaching of Cultures Pertaining to the Target Language," Modem Language Journal 52 (May 1968):307. 114 Francis Debyser, "L'enseignement de la c iv ilis a tio n : contenu culturel du ntveau 2" ("Teaching C ivilization : Cultural Context at Level II"), Le Francals dans.le monde 73 (1970):23.

Ned Seelye, "Performance Objectives for Teaching Cultural Concepts," Foreign Language Annals 3 (May 1970):566 (abstract).

^^Idem, "Teaching the Foreign Culture: A Context for Re­ search" in Jerald R. Green, ed ., Foreign-Language Education Research: A Book of Readings, vol. 11 of Robert C. Lugton, General Editor, Lan­ guage and the Teacher: A Series In Applied Linguistics (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1973)* p p .,77, 79. 117 Laurence Wylie, "The Cultural Content In Foreign Language Teaching," In Lado, Report, p. 33. II p Howard Lee Nostrand, "Empathy for a Second Culture: Motiva­ tions and Techniques?' In Responding to New R ealities, vol. 5, The ACTFL Review of Foreign Language Education , ed. Gilbert A. Jarvis (Skokie, 111.: National Textbook Co. in conjunction with the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages), 197**), p. 273* 110 ^^Paul M. Glaude, Foreign Language Instruction In New York State for the 1970's: "The Culture Quest ion" '~(0M~ahoma C1 ty, Oklahoma: Casady School; Albany, New York State Education Department, 1970)* p. 2. (ED 041. 507)

l20Ladu, p. 3.

^^Jose L. Varela-Ibara, "In tu itiv e Thinking in Foreign Language Learning," Hawaii Language Teacher; 13 (Feb. 1971):5 (ED 063 815)

122 Jacqueline C. E llio tt, "Language and Culture in Harmonious Performances" (Chicago: Speech presented at the annual, meeting of the Illin o is Foreign Language Teachers Association, Nov. 9, 1971), P« 6. (ED 061 848)

Darrel Taylor and John L. Sorensen, "Culture Capsules," Modern Language Journal 45 (December 1961): 350-1. 124 H. Ned Seelye, "Analysis and Teaching of the Cross-Cultural Context," in Foreign Language Education: An Overview, Britannica Re­ view of Foreign Language Education. voTI 1 (Chicago: Encyclopedia BritannIca, Inc., 1968, p. 63, ed., Emma M. Birkmaier.

^**Nostrand, Background Data, Part 111, p. 2. (ED 031 990) 126 Cultural Understanding, p. 20.

127 Wllga Rivers, Speaking In Many Tongues: Essays in Forelgn- Language Teaching (Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Publishers, 1972), "p'p. 41 - 2. 128 Nelson Brooks, Language and Language Learning: Theory and Practice, with an introduction by William Riley Parker (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., I960), p. 86.

*2^Karin L. Abbey, "Social Studies as Social Anthropology: A Model for ESL Curriucla," TESOL Quarterly 7 (September 1973):251 *

^^Taylor and Sorensen, p. 350.

^ J . Dale M iller and Maurice Lolseau, Culture Capsules, New World Culture Series (Salt Lake City, Utah: Culture Contrasts Company, 1974), p. MI.

^^Betsy Meade and Genelle Morain, "The Culture Cluster," Foreign Language Annals 6 (March 1973) = 332.-

^^Robert J. Elkins, Theodore B. Kalidova, and Genelle Morain, "Teaching Culture Through the Audio-Motor Unit," Foreign Language Annals 6 (October 1972):66. in Gerhard H. Weiss, "The Language Teacher—An Interpreter of Culture," Die UnterrIchtspraxis 4 (Spring 1971):36—^2, quoted in Genelle Morain, "Cultural Pluralism," in Dale L. Lange, ed., PIural1sm in Foreign Language Education, The ACTFL Review of Foreign Language Education, voi. 3 (Skokie, 111.: National Textbook Co., 1973).

^ “\James R. Willard, "Socio-Cultural Elements Vital to Language Study," ERC Reports 10 (September 1973): 14.

^^Karen A. Watson, "A Rhetorical and Sociolinguistic Model for the Analysis of Narrative," American Anthropologist 75 (Feb. 1973):243.

^^Anita Pincas, "'Cultural Translation' for Students of English Language and Literature," Language Learning 13:1 (1963). P* 16.

138lb id ., pp. 21, 22, and 25.

'^Seelye in Green, p.79.

'^ H . Ned Seelye, Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Educators (Skokie^ 111.: National Textbook Company, 1974), p. AO.

141 Cultural Understanding, p. 20.

lit2M iller, p. v ii. 143 Taylor and Sorensen, p. 353-

^Roger Pi 1 let, "Culture in FLES; French" In Charles Jay and Pat Castle, Editors, French Language Education: The Teaching of Culture In the Classroom (Springfield, 111.:' Office of Public Instruction, 1971), p. 23. 1 Helen L. Jorstad, "The Use of Newspapers and Magazines in the Second-Language Classroom" (ditto distributed at the ACTFL Conven­ tion workshop, Denver, Colorado, Nov. 1974).

^^Seetye, Teaching Culture, pp. 124-5.

^^Frederlck Jenks, Planning to Teach Culture: An Instruc­ tional Manual (Detroit, Michigan: University Publications, Advancement Press of America, 1972), pp. 17“18- 148 Frederick L. Jenks, "Conducting Socio-cultural Research in the Foreign Language Class," in Essays on the Teaching of Culture, ed., Howard B. Altman and Victor E. Hanzeli (Detroit, Michigan: Advancement Press of America, Inc., 1974), pp. 104-5-

fi*9lbld., p. 113 ff. 112

^°George P. Murdock: Outline of Cultural Materials (New Haven: Human Relations Area Files, Inc., 1961)» p. x x l. |bId.

152Hall, Language, p. 45-

1531 bid., p. 46.

t5SbId., pp. 46-60.

^ “’Taylor and Sorens n, p. 351*

^^Brooks In Foreign Language Annals, p. 210.

^^Nostrand, Background Data Part I , p. 6.

158Ibid., p. 2. 159Howard Lee Nostrand, "The 'Emergent Model* (Structured Inventory of a Sociocultural System) Applied to Contemporary France," The American Foreign Language Teacher 4 (Spring 1974), p. 24.

l60lbld.

161 Ibid., p. 25.

162lb ld ., pp. 25-27.

163 Ib id ., pp. 27 and 40.

' 6i*lbld., p. 40.

planning, p. 30.

166lb id ., p. 42-3-

167Ibid.* p. 41.

188 Ibid. '«John Troyanovtch. '^ e rtc a n Meets Ge™an7 CuUura1 Shock in the Classroom," Die Unterrichtspraxls 5 (Fall 1972). 07 79 CHAPTER IV

THE KALEIDOSCOPIC APPROACH

Introductory Statement

The examination of question strategies and anthropology from a theoretical point of view can be related In a specific way to an approach to teaching culture in the foreign language classroom.^ This approach is kaleidoscopic In that it combines method, technique, and content and can be applied repeatedly with differing but related bodies of content. The method aspect delineates stages of thinking through which students pass as the learning takes place; these stages proceed from the simple to the more complex. The technique capitalizes on the possibilities inherent In question strategies for evoking various levels of thought. Method and technique are used on a body of spe­ c ific content—actually two bodies of content: American and French cultural patterns. The choice of content Is based on the anthropo­ logical structure of knowledge which was explained in Chapter I I I , and the analysis of the content Is handled with the help of Hall's 2 "map of culture." A unit Illustrating cross-cultural comparison of

French and American eating habits Is Included in this chapter. This choice of topic seems particularly appropriate In view of the fact that eating Is so central to the French culture.

113 114

The pedagogical ju s tific a tio n of the approach lies in the use of the known to fa c ilita te access to the unknown, for American foreign language students are not to ta lly Ignorant of culture. They know their own culture through personal experience of it . That is, they act in cultural patterns like all men. If, like most men, they are unaware of the patterned nature of their actions, or that one action is related to another, they can be made so aware, and ultimately use this newly- acquired awareness for the purposes of cross-cultural comparison. To make them aware of their own culturally-patterned actions and the

Interrelationship of these patterns in an authentic, emic way is the challenge.

H all's map of culture provides an objective scaffolding for this entry Into the analysis of both French and American cultures.

The student Is fir s t introduced to a French cultural pattern; then he

Is immediately questioned on the pattern that f u lf ills the corres­ ponding need In the United States. In so doing, he describes the pattern in a ll its complexity using the categories. This discussion anchors the relevant ideas about the structure of American culture in the learner's mind so that he has a basis on which to compare the structure of corresponding but differing French patterns. Proceeding from the organized known to the unknown is thus the pedagogical rationale behind this approach to the teaching of cross-cultural comparison.

The anthropological rationale lies in the explanation which has been made of etic and emic and of how they are used. To get in­ side a culture one needs a system. This system should be void of bias., as "genuine comparison Is possible only If nonculture-bound

units have been Isolated."^ Kluckhohn explains further: "Valid cross-

cultural comparison could best proceed from the Invariant points of

reference supplied by the biological, psychological, and sociositua-

tlonal 'givens' of human life." Yet this is not so easy. Berry, in

fact, criticizes Kluckhohn's simplistic viewpoint, declaring that his

'"solution1 Is our probleml"^ Berry accuses Kluckhohn of begging the

question with reference to psychological universals and urges rather

that Goldschmidt's method be adopted.^ Goldschmidt advocates cross-

cultural comparison on the basis of functions, i.q ., "a) the work-jobs

requisite to the fulfillment of the biologically-based (and their cul­

tural derivatives) of the population for survival, and b) the organiza­

tional devices necessary for the preservation of collaborative action 7 demanded by these work-jobs." This biological base seems fundamental to cross-cultural comparison because it eliminates cultural bias.

H all's system was selected for this approach because being g biologically based, it seems the least biased of all the models re­ viewed In Chapter 111. Furthermore, it is adaptable to an approach which seeks to define not only pattern, but also the Interrelationship of patterns In a web of culture. The language student—a fledgling anthropologist of the target culture— is given the opportunity to learn how to use the system by fir s t examining his own idiosyncratic culture.

In so doing, he acquires the knowledge that a cultural pattern is re­ lated to the whole of culture. At this point he Is ready to use this knowledge to analyze the foreign pattern which f u lf ills the same need

(as functionalists maintain, one can only compare cultural patterns 116 that have functional equivalence). He thereby realizes that while the

French, for example, have the same needs, there are differences in the ways the needs are satisfied in form, meaning, and distribution; yet these are interrelated in France, as in the United States.

The approach is largely inductive, for both pedagogical and anthropological reasons. To explain the latter justification first:

Induction Is the method of anthropologists, at least of the function­ a lis t school. It is just as important for students to learn the pro­ cess of this discipline as the content of a particular culture, since the la tte r Is subject to change. Students should learn how to learn about a culture so that they can keep their knowledge up-to-date, as well as apply this process to any culture they might become interested

In studying.

Pedagogically, induction is justified chiefly because it allows students to think at various levels, both concrete and abstract.

Furthermore, while research on the effectiveness of higher-cognitive questions is admittedly contradictory, there is enough evidence to In­ dicate that the positive benefits outweigh the negative. Finally, a deductive approach would seem to necessitate discussion of abstract anthropological principles, a factor which would detract from the vividness of the kind of knowledge to which students w ill be exposed.

And as noted at the end of Chapter I I , the total teaching act ts a factor in the effectiveness of the technique. In the integrated approach proposed here, it would seem that this technique would be viable, and its results most beneficial. 1,7

I A. Content

i There are two types of content involved in the approach. One is of a very general nature, the structure of knowledge which was explained

In detail in Chapter 111. This structure consists in the following anthropological generalizations:

1* All men have the same biological needs.

2. Culture exists to satisfy man's needs: societies are systems-

of-action whose activities have the function of fulfilling

these needs.

3- Man's needs are fu lfille d In patterned ways which may be

observed.

li. Each pattern is a complexity whose full significance can be

understood only by analyzing Its relationships with all

systems of culture, as well as Its formal, informal, and

I technical aspects; it follows that a change in one pattern

w ill cause a change in its relationship with a ll the systems

; of culture.

5. To understand cross-cultural differences, one must start with

i two patterns having functional equivalence and examine them

; from the Inside of each respective culture.

It Is with these generalizations in mind that the teacher plans the second area of content, that of specific American and French cross-

i cultural differences.

|H all's grid provides a convenient etic entry into both cul- i tures, an entry which is followed up by an emic analysis. In order better to understand how to do this analysis, it is necessary now to i iI i | 118 explain the derivation of the grid, as well as Its possibilities for expansion. The grid is composed of ten Primary Message Systems crossed with each other. Hall and Trager explain how they derived them as fo 11ows:

The activities of living matter are functions neither of chance nor of design, but of direct and dynamic interaction of the organism with its environment. This interaction is special­ ized or limited by the presence of other organisms of the same kind, in associ at ion. The total complex of organisms engages in a search for the means of subsistence. Subsistence produces growth, and the perpetuation of the species is then carried on by means of the various types of reproductive activity. All these interactions and their specializations take place in terms of delimited territories and at cyclically determined times. . Up to this point what we have said Is true for all living organisms on earth, plant or animal. For animal organisms there are further kinds of specialization. At the lower levels, these may be summed up as a general kind of protective adaptation. With the development of the neocortex in the vertebrates, learn 1ng be­ comes Increasingly Important as an adaptive mechanism, primary to perpetuation. (...) Among mammals and birds perpetuation activities are further broken down to give a series of activities that may be called play, with perpetuation specialized into what may be called defense (of the individual and the group). These higher animals also practise exploitation (use of materials) in constructing lairs, nests and the like. The primates, especially the anthropoids, begin to elaborate the latter Into something approaching art!faction.^

These ten categories are the basic focal systems of culture.

Every one might be described with relation to each of the o th e rs;^ the Interrelationship may be shown in a sort of grid, or map of cul­ ture. (See Appendix C for a reproduction of this grid.) In the re­ sulting two-dimensional system, each primary focus is ‘'crossed11 with a secondary focus (the adjectival counterpart) to yield a series of basic focal systems (the focus crossed with Its e lf) and of systemic

foci (the focus crossed with any other of the fo ci).

Cultural interrelationship can be observed In this table com­ posed of one hundred blocks (numbered 0 to 99), as well as some rather bizarre but fortultious phenomena. The activities to the left

of a diagonal line formed by the basic focal systems are group-related

those to the right have to do with individuals only. Also, related

activities often appear next to each other In the table. Finally,

each systemic focus can be crossed again with the ten primary foci for

further refinement of the analysis. In fact, “ It Is In the te rtia ry

elaborations that the differences between cultures really begin to

stand out in their most striking manner."^ In this way Hall and

Trager fu lfill their efforts "to create a framework by means of which

it would be possible not only to keep the various levels of culture

separate, but which would show cultural events In their proper rela­

tion to each other and In such a way that behavior across cultural 12 boundaries could be equated."

By adding ten primary foci, ninety systemic foci, and nine

hundred tertia ry systems obtained by elaborating each systemic focus, one arrives at a figure of one thousand possible ramifications of a

culturological analysis. But even this does not exhaust the possi­

bilities. Each of the thousand divisions can be multiplied by three, 13 for every elaboration has formal, Informal, and technical aspects.

The formal aspects, determined by tradition , "have to do with the establishing, learning, protection, and perpetuation of the unques- 14 tloned way to behave." The informal aspects are learned by observa­

tion and imitation without any pressure to conform. Technical sys­

tems, specifically examined and subject to change, are transmitted 15 from old to young In a conscious, exp licit way. 120

The allusion made earlier to Hall and Trager's explanation of culture change now becomes clear:

The formal systems and formal aspects are those that change most slowly: they are deeply embedded in every culture, and are tied up with the strongest emotions. The informal systems and aspects may be d iffic u lt to change in so far as they remain unstated and are taken for granted; their emotional charge, more- over, Is less, or even absent. The technical aspects and sys­ tems change most quickly, being most e x p lic It.. . .The evolution of culture has proceeded in this order: the original circum­ stances of human existence— informal—became, with acquisition of greater s k ill and knowledge, technalized, and gave rise to proto-cultures; these came to be accompanied by informal adapta­ tions and further technical elaborations; then arose new and special formal systems, and the process continues over and o ver.’®

* The formal systems are related most basically to the core sys­

tems: communication, society, work, and the sexes. The informal sys­

tems In turn correspond to the orientational: place and time. The

technical are most fundamentally tied In with the expressional systems.

The three aspects of culture Involve differing degrees of d iffic u lty

In description. Since the formal is largely unstated, It is perhaps

the most difficult to describe. The technical, on the other hand, is

relatively easy to describe, being overt by its very nature. The hardest aspect to describe is the Informal, since it has to do with areas "that involve reactions to circumstances that cannot be changed 17 or are conceived as unchangeable— that are givens as it were." Thus, man has little control over the time cycles and various territorial givens, but with the expressional systems (learning, play, defense, 18 and exploitation), he gains greater freedom to manipulate.

Hall and Trager's system provides the framework through which

this author proposes to analyze a functionally-equivalent cultural

pattern in a two-step process, that of the American followed by that 121 of the French. Any pattern can be f i t Into the grid, where It appears

as a systemic focus. This is perhaps an arbitrary classification,

but the blocks in the grid do lend themselves to this type of pigeon­

holing since they comprehend the totality of culture, at least etically.

(Emically, the refinement comes out of the analysis combined with the

technique.)

A graphic representation of the analytic possibilities inherent

in a pattern can be useful in planning. A web seems to be a functional

and useful format for the teacher to follow. (See Appendix C.) After

deciding on the pattern to be taught and matching it up with a systemic

focus, the teacher "crosses" this systemic focus with each of the ten

systems of culture, thereby obtaining the tertiary elaborations of

which Hall and Trager speak. These tertia ry elaborations can then be

further analyzed Into formal, informal, and technical components.

In planning this etic web, the teacher should keep in mind

that the basic focal systems correspond to formal, informal, and tech­

nical elaborations which are specified in the grid; thus, in crossing a systemic focus with each of the ten systems of culture, the follow­

ing might be used as an outline, which is essentially that of the web:

Systems of Aspects: Culture: Formal Informal Technical

0 Interact ion/ Vocal KinesIcs Language Olnteractional qualifiers (Communicat ion)

lAssociation/ Class Caste Government lOrganizational (control sys­ (Society) tems)

2Subsistence/ Formal work Maintenance Occupations 2Economic (Work) 122

3Bisexual tty Hasc. vs. Fem. Sex Sex 3Sexua1 (biological) (t echnologlcal) (The Sexes)

t*T errito rlality/ Formal space Informal space BoundarIes ^Territorial (Space)

STemporal i ty/ Sequence Cycles Calendar STemporal (Time)

6Learnlng/ Rear! ng Informal Education 6lnstructtonal learning (EnculturatIon)

7Play/ Fun Playing Games 7Recreattonal (Recreation)

8Defense/ Forma I de­ Informal de­ Technical de­ 8Protective fenses fenses fenses (Protection)

9ExploItation/ Contact with Motor habits Technology 9Exploitatlonal envlronment (Material Systems)

When applied as In the illu s tra tiv e unit to the use of foods,

resources, and equipment (that is, the systemic focus under which the

pattern of eating habits seems to fitl), the analysis might yield the

following etic framework:

USE OF FOODS, RESOURCES, AMD EQUIPMENT

Systems of Aspects: Culture: Formal Informal Technical

0 Interact ion/ The kinds of " The gestures Vocabulary asso­ 0 Interactional "vocal quali- which accom- ciated with (Communication) fters which are pany eating eating; formules permi tted: de poiItesse whispering, laughter, etc. 123

{Association/ The groups with Differences in Organization of a 10rganizational 1y whom one par­ eating habits meal: courses, (Society) takes of food according to coordination with one's caste or beverages, etc. kin Table etiquette

Control of the quality of food served in restau­ rants

2Subsistence/ The work (quan­ The how of The occupations 2Economic tity and marketing and of cook, waiter, (Work) quality) In­ cooking and all those who volved in the produce and serve preparation of food food Cost of food

3Bisexual Ity / Roles or non­ Differences In Indication of 3Sexual roles of male quantity and kitchen roles (The Sexes) or female In quai ity of (who does the the kitchen what men and cooking, etc.) and at table women eat fn magazines, advertising, etc. kTerrttori a]Ity/ Specific areas Exceptions Provision made for ^Territorial for cooking that may be eating and dining (Space) and eating: made to the areas in house how much they general rule plans can overlap according to circumstances— eating out, for examp 1e

STemporali ty/ Specific times Seasonal d iffe r­ Fixed hours of STemporal for cooking and ences in foods stores, factories, (Time) eating, in­ schools, etc. to cluding length accommodate eating of time habits

6Learning/ The teaching Quantity and The teaching and 6lnstructiona1 and learning quality of learning of cooking (Enculturation) of cooking learning that and eating habits and eating takes place in schools, home as people economics courses, eat: accept­ etc. able topics of conversation 124

7Play/ Esthetic as­ Picnic foods Cooking contests 7Recreat ional pect of meals (Recreation) The role that Relative Im­ eating plays in portance of the leisure sensory pleas* hours of the ure in eating people: d a lly , and on the occasion of entertaining guests

8Defense/ Connection be­ The relative Measurement of 8Protect1ve tween health value placed calories (Protection) and eating on eating wel1 habits In the society Taboos, religious or otherwise, against certain foods: sins of omission and com­ mission

9Exploi tat Ion/ What must be Food and Recipes; existence 9Exp1oitatIonal served hot or drink avail* of convenience or (Material cold, sweet or able In the frozen foods Systems) sour, etc. environment Types of utensils How food i s for cooking, grown and serving, and harvested eating

This e tic analysis of a pattern provides a convenient framework on which a teacher can base questions whose aim w ill be to bring out the emtc content of each particular culture. The emic content, therefore, develops through interaction with students in the classroom.

If one calls the content a "cognitive map," as Taba suggested, one- half of it would consist of this etic framework; the other half would include the actual facts, concepts, and generalizations pertaining to native and target cultures which would come out of the culture lessons.

In formulating plans for teaching this content to students, the teacher 125

follows a method and technique which w ill be examined in sections B and

C of this chapter.

B. Method

The methodology for teaching the specific content is based on

three process approaches that have been examined tn Chapter II: those of Taba, especially the idea of "maps"; of the Northwest Regional

Laboratory, whose procedure is sim ilar to the Taba approach; and of the

Florida system of BASICS, which was intended for developing in itia l

cognitive skills and moving from the perceptual to the conceptual. In a ll, a specific order in the development of thought that is Inductive or process-oriented is followed, in the belief that thereby students will ultimately learn "how to learn" or at least how to question them­

selves about a foreign culture. The method incorporates a process map corresponding to the content map which was outlined in the preceding

section.

Both Taba and the Northwest Regional Laboratory postulate

that the development of thought involves the examination of facts, the

learning of concepts, and the making of generalizations both by inter­

pretation and application to new situations. (Taba in fact proposes a relevant method for developing generalizations by means of compar­

isons. Two situations are each studied from the standpoints of facts, observations, discrimination, relevant information, and generalizations.

These are related, compared, and contrasted to produce new generaliza- *9 tions.) It is useful to relate this facts-concepts-general izations approach to the mental processes as outlined in the BASICS system and 126

'by Bloom (the la tte r also chosen by the authors of the minicourse in 20 question strategies ):

TABA BASICS BLOOM

Facts Observing Comprehension Reca111ng KnowI edge Noticing differences Comprehens ion Noticing similarities Comprehension

Concepts Ordering Grouping Concept labeling ApplIcat Ion Class ify i ng Concept testing

(Inferring causes (Inferring effects ( Interpretat ton (Inferring feelings Analysis (Concluding (Generalizing Generalizations (Questioning Synthesis (Applicat ion (AntIcIpating (Making choices Evaluation

This threefold listing provides a convenient schema for dia­ graming the thought processes through which foreign language students pass In th e ir largely Inductive analysis of American and French culture.

The teacher, who has made a preliminary analysis of the cultural pat­ tern In the formal, informal, and technical aspects of Its relation­ ships with the others according to H a ll's system, leads the students through these mental processes by questions of various levels.

The students learn facts, concepts, and generalizations per­ taining to American or French c iv iliz a tio n as they examine and "dis­ cover" cultural data. (The more abstract generalizations pertaining to anthropological theory are basic assumptions which are im p licit in the teacher’ s design— ultim ate rather than immediate goals.) The mental processes through which students pass could be classified eith er according to the BASICS analysis or the Bloom taxonomy. The author chose to use both, incorporating the features of each which are adapt­ able to this approach. The BASICS breakdown of mental processes in­ volved Is helpful in learning facts and concepts about a foreign cul­ ture. This system was intended, the reader will recall, for children with difficulties in going from the perceptual to the conceptual; it is thus appropriate for students who in their Initial contact with the foreign culture are undergoing some of the same processes. On the other hand, the mental processes required to learn generalizations are just as well classified under the higher levels of the Bloom taxonomy, particularly as these are explained in Mini course Nine; the terminology of the BASICS levels which correspond to these (Inferring causes, etc.) tends to be somewhat confining.

Thus, we are le ft with this type o f outline which might be likened to Taba's "process map," specifying the mental processes through which students are led to think about the foreign culture:

Facts Observing Recal1Ing Noticing differences Noticing similarities

Concepts OrderIng Grouping Concept labeling Classifying Concept testing

Generalizations: Interpretat Ton Analysis (Synthesis ApplicatIon (Evaluat ion 128

This process is followed primarily in reference to the foreign culture.

The thinking which students are led to do about their own culture is somewhat more telescoped since they are assumed to have acquired a certain amount of knowledge about It.

C. Technique

The technique for elicitin g thought and consequent discussion consists in questions of various levels. In fact, questions serve as the bridge between the content and process maps. Through questions, the mental processes become actualized, at the same time that the con­ tent Is articulated. The Bloom taxonomy is used as an outline of ques­ tion strategies, and particularly the useful adaptation of It made by the Far West Laboratory. It seems to parallel more than any other system the mental processes which the approach is trying to foster.

Students learn or are made aware of facts by answering ques­ tions asking them to observe, recall, notice differences or similar­ ities. These questions belong to the realms of knowledge (by recall of facts or observations, or definitions, using the words "who?"

"what?" "where?" "when7" "why?"—when the reason Is given, or "de­ fine") or comprehension (requiring students to give descriptions, state main Ideas, or compare).

Questions through which students learn concepts seem most appropriately grouped under those of application. Through ordering, grouping, concept labeling, classifying, and concept testing they learn to identify the criterial attributes of the components of cul­ tural patterns which are typically French and to distinguish them from their American counterparts. 129

The interpretation of generalizations may best be classified under the process of analysis, for here the student must identify motives or causes (a mental process elicited most often by the question

"why?" where the cause is not given), make inferences (by concluding or deriving by reasoning), or find evidence to support principles or generalizations. (This illustrates one use of deduction within an in­ ductive approach.)

When applying generalizations that they have made, students are engaged In one of two mental processes— synthesis or evaluation.

Through the process of synthesis problems are solved, predictions are made, or original communications are produced. Questions a student might be asked in this category are: "1. Can you think up (a title for this drawing)? 2. How can we solve (this dilemma)? 3. How can we improve (our experiment)? 4. What w ill happen (now that we've landed on the moon)7 5. What do you predict would happen ( i f this lake were to run dry)?"

Through the process of evaluation the student gives his opinion about issues or judges the v a lid ity of ideas, the merit of problem-solution, or the quality of art and other products. In other words, he is asked whether he agrees with a statement and what his 21 opinion is on the matter.

The reader w ill recall that questions asking the student to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate are higher-level questions, to which more than one answer Is possible. Since this type of question is a powerful stimulus to thought, it is most desirable, provided that stu­ dents base their answers on some type of previously-acquired facts. 130 concepts, or generalizations. It would be a waste of time for them to invent answers without this basis. Also, there is no great d i­ chotomy in use between generalizations of interpretation or applica­ tion. Either type may be elicited through questions in random order as f i t the occasion.

What the author's approach involves basically is applying these question strategies in the order of facts, concepts, and gen­ eralizations to lead students to the specifics about American and

French culture which fill out the content map previously outlined.

The behavioral objectives for any particular unit would require stu­ dents to state certain facts about the cultural pattern, to classify data according to concepts they w ill have acquired, and to hypothe­ size or apply generalizations. In acquiring knowledge about one par­ ticu lar pattern or slice of lif e (the microcosm), the student also learns to understand the to ta lity of culture (macrocosm) because each microcosm contains the macrocosm In a smaller version.

In the remainder of this chapter, the application of question strategies in eliciting facts, concepts, and generalizations will be used to teach the content map whose etic outline has already been made. Here, content w ill meet process 1

D. Application In the Classroom

1. Introduction to Cross-cultural Study

In order for students to be able to use Hall's system of cate­ gories, they must understand the anthropological principles upon which it is built (anthropological generalizations 1, 2, and 3)• It thus seems appropriate as an Introduction to speak in general terms with students about what culture is. They may ask, as the author's students did, why they are doing this in French class. Yet the foreign language classroom is indeed the ideal place for such a discussion,.for relevant data are there to be used. Furthermore, language Is one of the systems of culture. Finally, it seems pedagogically ju stifiab le to incorporate this knowledge into cross-cultural comparison, using what the student knows about his own culture as a stepping-stone to the new knowledge.

Before one even mentions a particular culture, students should be made aware of the universality of mankind as witnessed In their common biological needs (anthropological generalization number one).

This author chose to teach it by using an ape comparison. The follow­

ing analysis question was put to the students: What are sim ilarities and differences between the actions of man and ape? The purpose of the question was to e lic it from the students a lis t of the activities of man which f u lf ill his needs, as opposed to those of the ape. This was done with a seventh-grade French I class, whose lis t remarkably paralleled that of Hall—a system, it w ill be remembered, which is based on the biological needs of man.

The next step in the structure of knowledge (anthropological generalization number two) would require the teacher to focus in on the definition of culture as systems-of-action. Here another analysis question: What were some of the d iffic u ltie s the firs t human beings

had in meeting their biological needs?— Is followed by an evaluation one

In your opinion, did it become easier or more d iffic u lt for man to f u lf ill these needs as time went on? 132

Finally, students need to have some idea of the patterned nature of human activity (anthropological generalization number three).

The following synthesis question might lead them to think about the necessity for patterned action, which makes it possible for individuals to get along as a group: What would the world be like i f every person had not only his own language, but a different way of meeting his basic needs?

These three generalizations (the first three in our structure of knowledge) might be taught in one class period, or spread out over a number of days, depending upon the a v a ila b ility of time and the teacher's Inclination. In view of the fact, however, that cultural analysts is only one of the skills to be taught in a foreign language classroom, and that time Is therefore lim ited, it seems more expedient and appropriate to continue the build-up of the anthropological struc­ ture of knowledge (anthropological generalizations four and five) with direct reference to the cultures in question, and as soon as possible.

2. A Cross-cultural Illustrative Unit

A unit built around any pattern might consist of the following sections (the chief mental operations which are to be called Into play are Indicated in parentheses):

I. Introduction of the French pattern (observing)

I I . Discussion of the American pattern (the entire gamut of mental operations)

III. Culture capsules

A. The French pattern: teacher-written (knowledge)

B. The American pattern: student-written (all mental opera­ tions) IV. Cultural artifacts: the French pattern i (A. Concept-1abeling, classifying, concept-testing) j (B. Ordering, grouping) i V. Discussion bf French dinner habits (knowledge; comprehen­ sion, especially noticing differences and similarities; analysis; synthesis; evaluation)

A. Questions for class discussion

B. Questions for library research

VI. Applicatlon of the generalizations learned to another situation

A. French vs. American

B. French vs. French

VII. (Optional: to be done where appropriate) Application of the procedure to one cultural a rtifa c t

VIII. Review: Summary of comparative content maps

I This format was chosen because It follows the order of mental operations

("process map") described previously. Students must learn facts and I concepts before theiy can generalize, and they must learn the general iza-

I tions before they can apply them in new situations. In the course of learning facts, concepts, and generalizations about either culture, the I students w ill acquire the fourth part of the structure of knowledge—

i the complexity of patterns as derived from its interrelationship with i ! the totality of culture; their formal, informal, and technical aspects; I and the cause-effeot relationship of all of this with change. By en-

! gaging in cross-cultural comparison of the patterns, they will learn | the final anthropological generalization, that is, that patterns must have functional eqt Ivalence if they are to be compared cross-culturally. 134 It was mentioned previously that one justification for doing

cross-cultural comparison in the foreign language classroom is that

anthropological data are intricately woven into any linguistic situa­

tion. Textbooks are full of possible jumping-off points for analysis.

Teachers, too, usually have a supply of realia which they are constantly

renewing. It was the choice of this author for the purposes of this

study to use materials readily available to a ll teachers rather than

her own slides or other cultural artifacts. This is by way of example,

to fa c ilita te teacher access to the illu s tra tiv e materials and to show

what can be done without making another trip to France. Yet it is hoped

that teachers w ill be encouraged to use these Illustrations as mere models for their own original analyses and cultural units.

The IIlu s tra tiv e unit is based on comparative eating habits, which fits most appropriately into H all's systemic focus number twenty- nine: the use of foods, resources, and equipment. The content map outline yielded by the analysis of this pattern has been included In

Section A of this chapter. It is fir s t Introduced to the students (as

Part I of the cross-cultural unit) through a picture of a French family at the dinner table. (The photograph, taken from page 8 of A-LM French:

Level One, New Second Edition, Is reproduced In Appendix D.)

Since this is the in itia l student contact with the pattern

and corresponding web, the teacher's approach needs to be simple. In

fact, the fir s t step Is comparable to that of the BASICS program (whose

Intention is to lead children from perceptual to conceptual operations), whereby students are asked to answer questions requiring them to ob­

serve, nothing more. Even though this is the introduction to a pattern, 135

and the students may not be aware of It , the questions are already

spanning the cultural web contrived by the Interrelationship of this

pattern with the other systems of culture.

The following is a lis t of questions based on the photograph,

with indication as to the system with which the pattern is being

crossed. Since the questions here serve merely to Introduce the cross-

cultural unit, they are of a somewhat superficial nature, requiring

answers that may be gleaned by mere observation, and a few by in­

ference. Only the cultural systems that can be observed in the photo­ graphs are Included here. Most of the questions are of the knowledge or comprehension variety, except those that require Inference: these

belong to the analysis level. (A number of "probing" questions are added to Induce students to expand answers.)

Exploitational What are these people doing? What is being eaten? drunk?

Territorial Where ts this scene taking place? How do you know?

Recreational Are the people doing anything besides eating?

Exploltational What kinds of objects are on the table? Are there any you don't recognize?

Organizational What Is the position of the hands of the people partaking of this meal? Is It uniform? Whose hand position differs?

Instructional If this latter individual is a guest, what might he be learning as he partakes of this scene?

interactional Describe the facial expressions of those partaking of the meal.

Sexual Are there any evident differences in the roles of men and women in this scene? 136

The next step is to clue students in on the patterned nature of the questions they have been answering. Following the introductory discussion, students are already aware of the ten basic areas of human activity (as delineated by H all), areas which satisfy man's primary needs. The relationship of needs to each other is best explained in two stages: the firs t is the derivation of the basic and systemic foci through intersection of man's primary needs with each other; the second stage involves showing how the systemic focus, which is obtained by the intersection of a primary with a secondary focus, or two needs with each other, is a tertiary system or patterned activity whose full im­ pact and significance can be understood only when it in turn Is crossed with the ten cultural systems.

For the purposes of demonstrating the firs t stage to the stu­ dents, that of the "whole," or macrocosm of culture, the author plotted

Hall's grid on a double wheel, each divided into ten color-coded sec­ tions. The primary and secondary message systems constitute the sec­ tions, and are color-coded as they correspond one to the other. For example, interaction and the Interactional are overlapping orange slices; play and the recreational are overlapping green sections. The basic and systemic foci which are obtained by crossing the primary and secondary message systems are written in order around the bottom wheel.

They thus form ten concentric rings. The cone systems are closest to the center, followed by the orientational, then the expressional.

Windows are cut In the top wheel so that when it is turned one can see the tertiary or systemic foci which result from the Interaction of the two systems. By twirling the top wheel students can see in a 137

color-coded way how the Interactional, organizational, economic, sexual,

territorial, temporal, instructional, recreational, protective, and j exploitational aspects of any of the primary systems form categories ! into which any pattern of any culture could f i t . Since the whole of i culture is depicted on this wheel, it is called the "maxi-wheel i The second stage involves the Interaction of one particular pattern with each of the ten systems of culture to form a microcosm.

This interrelationship is depicted on a mtni-wheel, color-coded to

i match the maxi-wheel. The teacher might explain and show thiis wheel

In two -steps—the first limited to the crossing of the pattern with i each of the ten systems, and the second diagraming the formal1, Informal, and technical aspects of each interrelationship, much as outlined in

the "web," discussed In Section A. The la tte r explanation, which can be quite complex, should be saved until the students are sufficien tly sophisticated anthropologically to comprehend it. That does not mean, however, that the teacher should not use it in planning the questions.

Students can be given the benefit of the knowledge without having to j wrestle with the terminology. i (The wheels, maxi and mini, are found in Appendix D, as they

look photographed. The actual wheels are too large for inclusion in the dissertation.)

The next part of the unit involves the analysts of thje Amer­

ican pattern which is the functional counterpart of the French pattern that has just been introduced. Since the students are now fa m iliar wi th

the wheels, the teacher can once more point out on the maxi-w leel to

remind the students, as they answer the questions, of the interrelation- 138 ship of the pattern with all systems of culture. in keeping with what was discussed above about the possible confusion that could be caused by Introducing students too soon to formal, informal, and technical ramifications of a pattern, It is recommended that the teacher hold these In reserve during the in itia l discussion of the American pattern, concentrating only on the actual Interrelationship phenomenon.

A photo of Americans at dinner could be used but Is not neces- sary, since the students are fam iliar with the eating habits of Amer­

icans, at least of those they know and whose life they share. Besides, a picture might be somewhat Inhibiting, if the photographed partic­ ipants belonged to a different social stratum and manifested d iffe r­ ences in their performance of the pattern from that of the students.

The following is a lis t of questions that might be asked rela­ tive to American eating habits, as directly contrasted with those

Illustrated in the photograph of the French family discussed earlier.

The majority of the questions emphasize the process of noticing simi­ larities and differences, but others of Bloom's categories are used also; it is assumed that students have at their command enough facts and concepts about American culture to be able to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate. The question categories are listed, as well as the cultural system whose interrelationship is being discussed.

Organizational (knowledge): Do Americans ordinarily eat salad on a dinner plate like the French? Where Is the salad placed on an American table? When is it eaten? Exploitational (comprehension): Describe the contents of a salad in the United States, as well as various salad dressings. (evaluation): Could these dressings be called con­ venience foods, in your opinion? 139

(knowledge): Is bread eaten with dinner a ll the time in the United States? (analysis): Why not? (comprehension): Describe the typical American loaf of bread. (knowledge): How is bread eaten, plain or with a spread on !17 Protective (evaluation): What is your opinion of the butter- margarine controversy? Organizational (knowledge): Where is bread placed on an American table? Exploitational (comprehension): Describe the typical contents and organization of a dinner in the United States. (analysis): How is this related to what is eaten earlier in the day7 (knowledge): What is usually drunk with meals? (analysis): Why are these beverages chosen, as opposed, for example, to at cholic beverages? Organizational (knowledge): Do adults and children drink the same thing? Exploitational (comprehension): What objects on this French table would not be found on an American table? (analysis): Why don't Americans usually use cloth . napkins? (evaluation): Which are nicer, in your opinion, paper or cloth napkins? plastic or cloth tablecloths? Organizational (knowledge): Do American families eat together usual1y? (analysis): Why or why not? Territorial (knowledge): Where do they eat? (analysis): Why is eating In the kitchen different from eating In the dining room? Temporal (knowledge): What is the American dinner-hour? How about on Sunday? (analysis): What factors determine the time at which Americans have dinner? (comprehension): How do Americans spend the evening hours following dinner? Recreational (evaluation): Is the pleasure aspect of eating im­ portant to Americans, in your opinion? (analysis): What might this pleasure aspect consist in? Instructional (knowledge): How many families do you know who watch television during the evening meal? (synthesis): If television did not exist, would the dining habits of Americans be different? (evaluation): Would Americans be better conversation­ alists if there were no television? f 40

Instructional (comprehension): How do most American women learn to cook? (evaluation): How important is it for an American woman to be a good cook?. Sexual (knowledge): Do American men share in the preparation of food? Temporal (application): What percentage of time is spent, on the average, in the preparation of the evening meal? How about the noon meal? Exploitational (analysis): How Is this affected by what is avail­ able to the consumer in terms of con­ venience foods? refrigerator-freezer space? (evaluation): In your opinion, Is this a cause or effect of advanced technology? (synthesis): How would our dinner habits be d iffe r­ ent if there were no convenience foods? no refrigerator or freezer? Protective (evaluation): Which is the most important factor, as far as you as an American are con­ cerned, in the choice of what is eaten—health, pleasure, cost, or the amount of trouble to prepare? Economic (application): What percentage of the family budget Is spent on food? (Make an estimate based on families that you know.) Territorial (analysis): What functions do fast-food chains serve in the American economy? Recreational (knowledge): How often do Americans entertain guests at dinner? is this the usual way of entertaining guests? (analysis): Why or why not? (comprehension): Describe the alternative ways Amer­ icans have of entertaining guests. Organizational (analysis): How does the presence of a guest change dining habits? (comprehension): What rules of etiquette is one expected to observe in our country, including position of the hands? (evaluation): How strict are these rules, in your opinion? Interactional (knowledge): What are some of the polite phrases that recur at the table?

This enumeration of questions could continue indefinitely, in proportion to the teacher's imagination as well as the time available.

It Is suggested that one final summary question be posed having to do with change, so that students appreciate culture not as a static but 141 as a dynamic force. The question, a comprehension one, might be phrased as follows: What aspects of American eating habits have changed within your lifetime? An analytic follow-up might be: How and why did it change? A synthetic question would ask: Can you predict what changes might be made in the future? Here any of the elaborations of culture crossed with the pattern in question might be called into play.

Later, as the students learn to refine their concept of pattern and web into formal, informal, and technical aspects, their thinking on change w ill be even more productive.

Before students can discuss a French cultural pattern in de­ t a il, they need more information. The culture capsule, which has been defined in the review of foreign language education literature dealing with the teaching of culture, is a convenient technique for conveying this Information. The danger inherent in using culture capsules— summaries of behavior which are particularly susceptible to gross gen­ eralizations and stereotyping— in isolation and Indiscriminately has always disturbed this author. Yet when placed within the context of total analysis of a cultural pattern, they acquire more validity.

A sample culture capsule which might be used In the unit at this time may be found In Appendix D.

One change suggested here in the format o f. the culture capsule

Is that the students themselves be allowed to write the American counterpart, basing it on their own personal experience and eventually using the mini-wheel of culture as a guide. The teacher might then list the idiosyncrasies in each student's discussion, as well as the sim ilarities, so that the class could witness firsthand how they 142 experience cultural patterning In their daily lives, patterning which

Is present despite some differences. (The teacher might thereby learn

something about the students' lives!)

The fourth section of the unit consists of an exposition of

relevant cultural a rtifa c ts , again with the purpose of informing stu­ dents of facts they need to know about French culture, providing them also with the occasion to form concepts. In the matter of eating habits, not only foods but also eating and perhaps cooking utensils are both significant. Here visuals are important; magazine pictures and recipe books as well as the prepared dishes themselves might be

used In teaching the fir s t group of artifacts; a French department store catalog Is useful with the second group. Teacher and students will engage in the following activities, both of which involve the mental operation of application, whose ramifications are more spe­ c ific a lly delineated in parentheses:

IA. (Concept-label 1ng, classifying, concept-testing) List the kinds of . . . which are commonly served in France. a. hors-d'oeuvre b. potage c. plat principal d. dessert IB. (Ordering, grouping) Opder and group these pictures into suitable menus for 1e dejeuner, 1e diner. Make your own menu for each meal. 2A. (Concept-1abeling, classifying, concept-testing) List the different kinds of . . . used in France and how they are used. a. silverware b. dishes c. glassware 2B. (Ordering, grouping) Set the table for 1e petit dejeuner/le dejeuner/le dTner in France. (Students draw pictures or use the objects if avail­ able. 143 This section Is heavily linguistically oriented, involving the vocabu­

lary which is related to the concepts being developed. At this point

the teaching of culture and the teaching of language share objectives.

Now that students have been exposed to some of the factual

knowledge and concepts they need to know about a particular French

cultural pattern, they should be ready to make generalizations. The

teacher prepares questions calling for the higher mental operations,

based on the etlc content map cited earlier. These questions are

higher-order, for here students are truly generalizing. Here also the

French version of the map acquires its second, or emtc, half—for stu­

dents and teacher use it with the questions to get inside the web of

a particular French cultural pattern. Hall's twenty-ninth category,

the use of foods, resources, and equipment, Is again crossed with each of the ten primary message systems.

Students are perhaps ready at this point for step two of the mint-wheel, which incorporates discussion of the formal, informal, and technical aspects of the web. Students do not necessarily have to be introduced to the terminology, but in answering the questions, they are, at least unknowingly, assessing the covert, in-between, and overt aspects of culture. As It Is cumbersome as well as confusing, always to be pointing out the formal, informal, and technical cate­ gories during the course of the discussion, the teacher might do well

to save explanation of this analytical breakdown for a summary period,

to be done prior to the summary questions.

In these summary questions, students can gain some appreciation of how culture changes. As Hall and Trager explain, change is more likely along the overt, or technical, fringes of the pattern. The formal, or core, elaborations of a pattern are less susceptible to change. The informal aspects have less of an emotional attachment and, though difficult to pinpoint at times, because they operate out- of-awareness, they change more rapidly than the formal. The summary questions can be used to synthesize the students' knowledge of facts, concepts, and generalizations about the pattern with their new aware­ ness of the formal, Informal, and technical aspects of culture.

It w ill be noticed that In order to convey necessary Informa­ tion, the teacher sometimes makes a statement before asking a ques­ tion. Also, some questions are followed by an asterisk. In elabor­ ating the unit at this point, certain questions are more suitable for research than class discussion. This research might be done in the library (sources that might be consulted are listed in Appendix E) or through Interviews with native Informants or those who have personal experience of the French culture. The level of question is indicated in parentheses. All of these questions are asked about the original picture of a French family around the dinner table. (A-LM French

Level One, Revised Edition, p. 8) In order to demonstrate the break­ down of aspects, the questions are rather arbitrarily grouped here under the systems of culture. In actual practice it would be more natural for the teacher to follow an order like that of the earlier discussion of the American pattern. This order seems more random, but is actually more logical because it elicits better-connected thoughts. The Use o f Foods, Resources, and Equipment.

T e rrito ria lly considered a. Formal (analysis): Why do French families eat dinner around a table in the dining room? Why don't they eat in the kitchen? b. Informal (synthesis): What are some of the circumstances under which they might hot eat in the dInIng room? (knowledge): *How often do French families eat out? (analysIs): What might be some reasons why this Is not done more frequently in France? c. Technical (analysts): What can you conclude about the typical house plan of a French home with respect to the provisions made for eating and cooking?

Temporally considered a. Formal (analysis): Why do French families have dinner later than Americans? (knowledge): *How long does dinner usually last In France? (synthesIs): What consequences might this have on evening a c tiv itie s in France? c. Technical (synthesis) What changes in French lif e would occur i f a ll factories, offices, stores, and schools went on the system of journee continue? (analysis): Why has this system not caught on more universally? b. Informal (knowledge): *What are some seasonal changes in the types of food eaten in France? (knowledge): *What possibilities exist for pre­ serving food In France so that they can be enjoyed in the off-season? (analys is ): Why hasn't this been developed more in France?

Organizationally considered a. Formal (synthesis): If French families ordinarily eat together at least once, often (almost always on weekends) twice a day, what effects might this have on family life? (analysis): What circumstances make it easier for a ll to be present, even teen-aged chiIdren? (evaluation): Would it be easy or d iffic u lt for them to introduce a stranger into their midst, if they are used to spending so much time together? U 6

b. Informal (analysis): Despite the fact that class and caste differences seem to be more marked in France than in the United States, eating habits across class-caste lines are not markedly d ifferen t. What are some reasons for this7 c. Technical (svnthesis): You know about the division of the meal into courses and about the wines which must be chosen with the food in mind. What analogy could you make to describe this custom, which allows for much diversity in unity? (evaluation): What is your opinion of this way of eating7 (synthesis): How might a French person react if one served him cheese or salad f ir s t , as Is sometimes done In the U.S.? (comprehension): ^Describe the system whereby the quality of foods in restaurants is regulated. Is this done by a govern­ mental or a private agency7

Interact tonally considered a. Formal (evaluation): In your opinion, would the French laugh more or less at mealtime than Americans? c. Technical (knowledge): In our dialog and sk it, we learned a number of the expressions which are used consistently at the table as formules de politesse. Which ones can you name? b. Informal (comprehension):Examine pictures of French families eating (A-LM French Level I , New Edition, pp. 13"16 of supplement) and describe which of the gestures made at the table are different from Amer­ ican gestures. (synthesis): What meaning might they convey?

Recreationally considered b. Informal (synthesis): Which one of the persons at this table (A-LM p. 8) is probably a guest? (analysis): Why do you think so? (analysis): The French seem to use the dinner hour as a frequent occasion, for enter­ taining guests. Why might this be so? a. Formal (knowledge): *lt Is said that the appearance of food in France is just as important as Its taste in deriving pleasure from i t . By examining pictures in recipe books of French cooking, make a lis t 147

of the trues used by French chefs to enhance the appearance of a dish. (analysi s): Why is this concern for appearance a logical aspect of eating customs in France? (evaluation): In your opinion, to what extent does the time the French spend in eating contribute to the sensory pleasure they take in it? Which is cause, and which, effect? c. Technical (knowledge) Vlnd out whether cooking contests are held in France. (synthesis) I f a cooking contest were held In France, what would be probable c rite ria by which an entry were judged? b. Informal (knowledge): ^What kinds of foods are served at picnics or parties? on holidays?

Exploltationally considered a. Informal (analysis): We have studied the types of dishes that would be served as various courses in France, as well as the possible accompanying beverages. What could you conclude about the French agri­ cultural system from what is served at the table? (comprehension): *PIck a wine or cheese and trace it through the stages of its production. b. Technical (comprehen­ *Review some French recipes and make sion) : a lis t of the type of base (butter, o il, e tc .), spices, and sauces used. (applIcatfon) Classify them according to region of origin. (evaluation): How elaborate is the preparation of food in France in your opinion? (synthesis): How would a Frenchman react to the food served in an American fast-food chain? (knowledge): *What kind of stove is used in France? cooking utensils? serving utens11s? (synthesis): What changes would be made in the cooking and serving apparatus If the cooking were more simplified? c. Formal (synthesis): How important is it to the French that the noon meal be a hot one? (analysis): What kinds of concessions have to be made by the French to preserve this tradition? (synthesis): How would a French person react to the American cold-if-any lunch tradi­ tion? 148

Economically considered: * a. Formal (knowledge): Find out what percentage of th eir In­ come the French spend on food. (analys1s) What does this figure te ll you about the importance of eating in France7 A (comprehensIon) How has inflation affected the per­ centage of income spent on food in the average French family? b. Informal (synthesis): Given the quantity and quality of time trad itio n ally spent on cooking in France, what might be the reaction of the French housewife to convenience or frozen foods7 (knowledge): Do these exist In France? (analysts): How much work, both in cooking and shopping, would they save her? (analysis): What might be some of the-reasons why the French housewife might react favorably to them? unfavorably? c. Technical (knowledge) Find out what standards cooks and waiters have to meet In France before finding gainful employment. (synthesis) How much prestige would these types of employment In France enjoy?

Sexually considered: a. Formal (synthesis): Tradition dictates that ft Is the woman who cooks and serves the meal in France, and that this is done twice a day. What would have to change before the French woman could become liberated from this tradition? c. Technical (comprehen­ *According to what you observe in ad­ sion) : vertisements in French magazines, Is there any evidence of changing male- female roles In the matter of food preparation? b. Informal (comprehen­ *Are there any differences In the sion) : quantity and quality of what men and women eat or drink In France?

Protectively considered: ' A a. Formal (comprehension): How doss food consumption in France coincide with nutritional require­ ments? b. Informal (synthesis): Would taste or health considerations be more important to the French in their choice of food? (analysis): If food preparation is so elaborate, why does overweight not seem to be a big problem in France7 149

(synthes i s ): What consequences would this have on a dieting industry in France? * (knowledge): To what extent is alcoholism a problem in France? c. Technical (knowledge): *What kind of food-packaging is prac­ ticed in France? (analys1s): Why isn't it more elaborate? (analysis): What might be some of the reasons for the preference of bottled over spigot water in France?

Instructionally considered a. Formal (analysis): What could you conclude about the relative difficulty of learning how to cook In France compared with the United States? What would be some of the reasons? Is there a difference in the meaning of the verb "cook" in the two countries? b. Informal (analysis): What part does mealtime play in the education (taken in its broad sense to mean everything that is learned) of a French child? (synthesis): What might be some common topics of conversation at meals in France? c. Technical (comprehen- *Describe the kinds of home economics s ion): courses available in French schools, (application): What part do such courses play in the curriculum?

Summary questions How might any of the aspects of the (synthesis): use of foods, resources, and equipment have changed since the present French grandparents were growing up? Remember that they probably occurred in the technical stratum of culture. If it were possible to do so, how would you verify this? (evaluation): What aspects of French eating habits would you like to see adopted in this country? (synthesis): How would the other elaborations of American culture have to change to accommodate your proposed changes7

The teacher may find in using these questions that there are too many, or simply that certain ones are more fruitful than others for discussion. It seems expedient in either circumstance to be flexib le according to one's circumstances, Including time available and 150 particular student Interests, and to change the order when necessary.

A summary content map of some of the cross-cultural information that might be generated from discussion evoked by this one photograph

(A-LM, p. 8) is included In Appendix D.

To know generalizations is to be able to apply them In new situations. The students are probably ready at this point for some application of generalizations, yet this should be done gradually. One transitional activity would be to examine the same pattern with some differing foci. This author did so with a new photograph. At this point, since the students have examined both American and French pat­ terns separately, they are asked to do more direct comparison, at least during the fir s t stage. During the second stage, internal comparison

(French vs. French) is pursued. The picture used In this dl.scussion

Is again taken from A-LM French Level I , New Second Edition, p. 9**; this picture is reproduced In Appendix D. The reader w ill note that here the opening questions give unity to the discussion. Also, some of the questions that earlier might have been categorized as analysis or synthesis are not classified as knowledge or comprehension, since students have learned the information necessary to respond to them.

Part VI: Section A: French vs. American

Introduction (application): Based on this photograph, which of the patterns of our maxi-wheel would best f i t here in the center of our mini-wheel 7 (analysis): This cafeteria Is obviously in France. Why could it not be an American school cafeteria? Discuss this from the standpoint of each of the divisions of culture. 151

Exploitational ly considered a. Formal (knowledge): It Is apparent from the photograph that these students are used to getting a hot meal at noon. How common is this in American schools? (comprehension) What are the other alternatives an American student has? (analysIs): What compensates for a cold tunch in the United States? b. Informal (knowledge): What is being eaten7 Would American students be served a sim ilar cut of meat at noon? (knowledge): What is being drunk? What would be the ordinary American beverage? . (knowledge): How much choice of a menu is there in France? in the United States? c. Technical (comprehen­ What differences do you notice about sion) : the utensils being used by these students, as opposed to those which would be in evidence on an American table? (knowledge): From what you know of French eating habit.*, how would each one be used?

Temporally considered a. Formal (comprehension): What Is the difference in the amount of time allotted in the school schedule for the noon meal in the two countries? c. Technical (analysis): What differences would this make In the total school schedule? b. Informal (knowledge): During what seasons of the year would this be In operation?

T e rrito ria lly considered c. Technical (analysis): How is the architectural plan of a school affected by the need to eat during the school day? a. Formal (synthesis): Given the differences in scheduling, what might be some of the differences In the amount of crowding or the types of problems created by crowding In the school cafeteria in the two countries? b. Informal (synthesis): How would lif e in the countries be different If there were no provision made In schools for cafeterias?

(N.B. A transcription of the student discussion evoked by the la tte r

question with the author's students Is found in Appendix E.) 152

Organizationally considered b. Informal (evaluation): To what extent is democracy of educa­ tion a reality in the United States, so that students really get a chance to associate with others from d iffe r­ ent socio-economic backgrounds? (synthesis): To what extent is this true in France? a. Formal (evaluation): To what extent do students wish to associate with those of different backgrounds in the United States, in your opinion? (synthesis): To what extent might they wish to do so In France? c. Technical (analysis): What Indications do you have in the picture that this is a multi-course meal? What other indications are there of differences In etiquette ob­ served among French students as opposed to that of American students? (evaluation): In your opinion, which seems to re­ quire more effort on the part of the students, American or French etiquette?

Interactionally considered a. Formal (comprehension): Describe the type of communication and vocal qualifiers that seem to be being used in this photograph. (comprehension): How would this compare with the decorum of the average American high school student? b. Informal (comprehen­ What differences In gestures are sion) : noticeable here among these French students at table? c. Technical (synthesis): How might the differences In gestures and etiquette affect the language of students, both in the, United States and in France? (i.e ., What types of polite phrases would be needed7)

Economically considered c. Technical (comprehen­ Compare the cost of a school-cafeteria sion) : meal In the two countries. (knowledge): How is it subsidized? b. Informal (analysis): Why would the amount of work of a French mother be more affected than that of an American mother by the availability of a school lunch pro­ gram? a. Formal (analysis): What differences in skills would the cooks in French cafeterias have to have as opposed to those in American cafeterias? 153

Sexually considered • a. Formal (knowledge): This is evidently an all-boys' group in France, which, while no longer prevalent^ sti 11 exists in some schools. How prevalent is non-coeducation in our country? (synthesIs) What differences might the presence or absence of the opposite sex make in the language used at table? topics of discussion? etiquette? (evaluat ion): Would these differences be more marked in France or in the United States, in your, opinion? b. Informal (comprehen­ Might there be any differences in the sion) : type or quantity of food served in an a ll boys' school? (evaluation): Could this be an advantage? c. Technical (synthesis): Recently, g irls were able to gain admittance both in France and In the United States to schools that had tra­ ditionally been for boys only. What predictions can you make about the changes to come In the future in these institutions?

Instructionally considered a. Formal (synthesis): How might a student's comportment at the table reflect what he has been taught at home? (evaluation): In your opinion, would this influence be stronger among American or among French students? b. Informal (synthesis): What types of learning might these students be engaged in as they partake of the noon meal? (evaluation) Would they learn more or less than their American counterparts? c. Technical (knowledge) To what extent Is table behavior regulated by the school in the United States? (synthesis) To what extent might it be done so in France? (synthesis) What percentage of what is learned In school takes place in the cafeteria in France? In the U.S.?

Recreationally considered a. Formal (evaluation): Do the French students seem to derive more or less pleasure from their cafe­ teria experience than American students in your opinion? 154

(analysis); What kind of pleasure? b. Informal (evaluation): To what extent does the cafeteria experience in the United States serve a recreational, as well as a nutri­ tional, function? (synthesis): To what extent might it do so in France? c. Technical (knowledge): How much time is le ft over for games or organized recreation at noon in France? in the United States?

Protectively considered a. Formal (comprehension): Compare the relative importance of the dejeuner in the daily nutrition of a French student and that of an American student. (Include food and drink.) (analysis): What factors determine this? b. Informal (analysis): What are the inconveniences the French school system has to suffer in order to allow for this custom? (synthesis): How would the American system's attitude have to change to allow for it? c. Technical (comprehen­ What are comparative precautions taken sion): to keep food, utensils, mapkins, etc. sanitary in French and American schools?

Summary question (synthesis): What d iffic u ltie s might an American student have adjusting to the French student's dejeuner and vice versa?

At this point the student has been given two opportunities to f i l l In the emic cross-cultural content map. To make his French analysis even more complete, it seems appropriate to give him the opportunity to do an intra-cultural comparison. Here the formal- informal -technical considerations are abandoned since they have been previously developed, and questions are focused in just on the general cultural area. Comparison is implied in a ll the questions, yet since there is more than one answer for a ll, they are higher-cognitive ques­ tions. If the students had already been exposed to the answers, how­ ever, they would be lower-level (especially comprehension) questions. 155

Section B: French vs. French

Introductory question If a French student had the chance, (synthes is ) : would he prefer having his dejeuner at school or at home? Discuss this from the standpoint of each of the cultural systems:

Terri torial (comprehension): How are the two places (dining room at home and cafeteria in school) d iffe r­ ent?

Temporal (comprehension): Whose schedule besides the individual student's Is involved? (analys is ): How would the mother's schedule be affected? Exploitational (synthesis): What might be some differences In what is eaten?

Economical (analys i s ): What would be the economic ramlfica tions of having to go home versus staying at school?

Interactional (synthesis): What might be some differences in the types of language used at table In school and at home?

Organizational (synthes i s ) : What would be the corresponding effects on family life of the two different territories for having the noon meal? also on peer-relationshlps?

Recreational (analysis): What would be the advantages of either choice Insofar as having fun is con­ cerned?

Sexua1 (synthes i s ): Might eattng at home vs. not eating at home have an effect on a student's relationship with the opposite sex? on a French mother's activities? 156

Instructional (synthesis): What might be some differences in what Is learned at table In school and at home?

Protective (analysis): Since the noon meal Is the most im­ portant meal of the day in France, what precautions must a French mother take In meal-planning if her children eat at school?

Summary question If you were a French student, which (evaluation)! system— lunch at school or lunch at home—would you prefer, and why?

In the final section of this unit on the eating habits of the

French, the teacher might make an icing-on-the-cake conclusion based on one particular a rtifa c t, and show how it can give a complete picture of the cultural patterning simply by being analyzed through the ten message systems. Let us take, by way of example, the most basic a r ti­ fact of the French system of nourishment: le pain. This section of the unit wi 1J involve a somewhat condensed version, or mini-unit, of what has preceded.

The teacher shows pictures of French bread, as it looks on display in boulangeries, as It Is carried in the street, as it Is placed on the table. If possible, the teacher also brings a loaf of the authentic version to class. This time French Is used as the lan­ guage of communication, as It might be done with classes who are ad­ vanced in language sk ills. The gamut of question categories and ques­ tion levels is run. In true kaleidoscopic fashion, the systems are

Introduced as they unfold in close relationship to each other; at times they are re-introduced to portray another facet of the pattern. 157

Section V II: A Cultural A rtifact: le pain franca!s

Exploitationally considered ^ / r /* (comprehension): Decrivez les dlfferentes varletes du pain franca!s. (analys!s): Pourquol y en a-t-11 tellement? (comprehension): En quo! le pain franca is d iffe r e -t-Il du pain amerlcaln typique7

Tempora11y cons Idered (knowledge): Combien de fois par semalne dolt-on acheter du pain en France pour qu’ il soit bien frais?

Economically considered (analys is) Le menagere francalse se donne-t-elle alors plus ou molns de mal pour fournir cet aliment a sa famllle que la menapere^amerIcaIne? (comprehension) La menagere francalse fait-elle'a la mat son plus ou molns souvent du pain que la menagere amerlcalne? (evaluation): D'apres vous, le metier de boulanger a u ra lt-il plus ou moins de prestige en France qu'aux Etats-Unls7

T e rrito ria lly considered (knowledge): Ou est-ce qu'on achete du pain en France? aux USA?

Protectively considered (comprehension): Comparez la mantere d'emballer le pain en France et aux USA. (analysts): A quo! ces differences de coutume tlennent-elles?

Exploitationally considered (knowledge): Combien de fois par jour mange-t-on du patn en France? aux USA? Comment? ( i.e ., avec quo!?) (analysis): En quo! peut-on comparer le pain franca is a un out II de table?

Organizationally considered (knowledge): Ou met-on le pain pendant qu'on le mange en France? aux USA?

Exploitationally considered (analyst s): Quelles differences de^service de table et d'appareils menagers en r'esul tent? 158 Protectively considered (applIcation): Quel pourcentage de 1'a 1imentation journaliere le pain occupe-t-il en France? aux USA7

Interactionally considered (comprehensIon): Expliquez le dicton francais: "Bon comme le pain"? (evaluation): Pourrait-on en dire autant aux USA, a votre avis?

Instructionally considered (analysis): Comment un enfant francais apprend-il a estimer le pain? (applIcat ion): Qu‘est-ce qui remplit cette fonction aux USA?

Recreationally considered (comprehension): Quel rble le pain jo u e -t-il dans les piques-nlques en France et aux USA?

Summary questions: (synthesis): Comment la vie en France s e ra lt-e lle differente s'il n'y avait pas de pain? Comment la vie aux USA s e ra lt-e lle differente si le pain amertcan ressemblalt au pain francais? (evaluation): Lequel des deux pains preferez-vous? Pourquoi?

As a final summary a c tiv ity , the teacher might have the students fill in with emic details the content map on eating habits outlined e a rlie r, making systematic comparisons of American and French d iffe r­ ences, much like-the one in Appendix D but including the entire unit's discussion.. This w ill test what students have learned of content. The ultimate proof of whether or not they have learned the process could only be observed when they did another unit, covering a totally differ­ ent pattern, and perhaps on th eir own. It has yet to be seen how much practice students need before they acquire the s k ill of analysis.

This cultural unit could probably be critic ize d from the stand­ point of what it leaves out as well as what It contains, for it focuses In on one cultural pattern in great d e ta il, pre-empting time from others.

Yet the thoroughness of the analysis allows the student to glimpse the macrocosm in the microcosm and, If the objectives are met, provides him with a process by which he can increase his own knowledge. jFurthermore, it is not intended that the content be as orthodox as that which would be supplied by a trained anthropologist working in the field. One of the strong points of the approach is that it e lic its thought on the part of the students. Although this thought may at times be erroneous,

(and the teacher should correct it as much as possible!), tfie process

Is as important as the content. Besides, the content emphasis Is not on specifics, important as these may be, but on the framework which provides both teacher and student a means of getting inside the culture to see a particular pattern in all its ramifications. Further dis­ cussion of the feasibility and Implications of the approach will be made In Chapter V. NOTES TO CHAPTER IV

In this chapter It seems unnecessary to document sources for the approach which have already been cited. It Is assumed that the reader has read Chapters II and III and'Is fam iliar with these names. The added sources, of course, w ill be referenced as usual. 2 H all, Language, 17**-5-

^Clyde Kluckhohn, "Universal Categories of Culture," in A. L. Kroeber, ed., Anthropology Today (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 507.

^ Ib id ., p. 521. c Berry, p. 121.

6lbld., pp. 121-2. 7 . 'Goldschmidt In Berry, p. 121. 8 Hall and Trager, Analysis, p. 6. (The Analysis of Culture, co­ authored by Hall and Trager, is a pre-publication edition upon which much of The Silent Language is based. In the text, this author con- slstenly refers to the map of culture published in The Silent Language as H all's system or grid, whereas In re a lity Trager probably is respon­ sible for some input Into it. This seems both inevitable and justifiable In view of the fact that Hall singly published The Silent Language. This author apologizes, however, to Trager for any failure on her part to give him due credit.) g Ib id ., pp. 7-8. 1°lb id ., p. 12.

11 Ibid., p. 17. 1 2 .,. , Ib id ., p. 3.

^ Ib id .» pp. 15-16.

^ Ib id ., p. 19-

160 161

^Ibid., pp. 19-20. l6 lb id ., p. 20.

17Ib id ., p. 3^.

Ib id ., p. 35. t9Taba et a l., Handbook (1970 » P* 91**

20Gall et a l., p. 12.

21lb ld ., p. 261. CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, FEASIBILITY, AND IMPLICATIONS

A. Summary

In Chapter I the need for more effective cross-cultural teach­ ing In the foreign language classroom was evoked as the rationale for this study. This need has been publicized in such documents as the

Kettering Report. It Is fe lt above all by foreign language teachers, who want to know how to teach the fifth s k ill, that of analyzing cross- cultural ly. The objective of this study was to invent an approach to teaching this sk ill which would combine a bias-free system of cultural analysis with a method and technique of using it In the classroom.

The system might be used as an etic entry Into the American and the foreign cultures, which would then be analyzed emically to obtain an authentic picture; the method would have to account for stages of thought through which students would pass in order to meet this objec­ tive; questions could be used as a technique because of their proven a b ility to e lic it thought. The approach would lend its e lf to cross- cultural comparison with any foreign way of lif e , but would be Illu s tra ­ ted for the purposes of the study with the French culture. In addi­ tion to an explanation of the problem, rationale, and scope of the study, Chapter I contained a description of the limitations of the

162 163 study, an outline of the dissertation, and a glossary of terms.

In Chapter 11 the use of the question in the classroom was examined, especially as a stimulus for thought at different levels.

This review included an enumeration of various systems for classifica­

tion of questions according to thought levels. A number of these em­ phasize the process approach, which Implies that the method used by a student to arrive at an answer is just as significant as the answer i t ­ self. Empirical results of studies on the use of higher-cognitive ques­ tions were found to be somewhat contradictory, Indicating that the total teaching act is a greater factor In achievement than one specific be­ havior. Then some statements about the processes involved in thinking were summarized. A discussion of discovery learning and an addendum on questions in the foreign language classroom concluded the chapter.

In Chapter ill a particular point of view of culture was de­ scribed, a view emphasizing the more concrete "systems-of-action" approach over the abstract consideration of values, culture as "systems- of— meaning." This interpretation is that of the school of functional­

ism, which describes culture as a systematic way of fu lfillin g man's organic needs and uses a concrete, inductive method to study the sys­ tem. Han's needs are fulfilled In patterns of actlvtty of trait com­ plexes, which have form, meaning, use, and function. The meaning of a pattern is derived from its functions, usually multiple, which are related to the whole of culture. To understand pattern in all its ramifications, then, one must look at the interrelationship of patterns, or web of culture. Culture change may be better explained also by following this route. This theory serves as a guide to any valid 164 method of cross-cultural, as well as in tra-cu ltu ral, comparison. For

behavior must be described emically, that is, from within the system, i as opposed to e tic a lly — from without. Each tr a it complex or pattern

can be described this way, as well as the interrelationship, or web,

it forms with other systems of culture. It can best be understood by

being analyzed in its relationships to these other systems. In doing cross-cultural research, only patterns with functional equivalence can

be compared valid ly.

In the second part of Chapter I 11, the writing of foreign lan­ guage educators in the area of teaching culture was summarized. Some

follow the systems-of-meaning approach; others advocate a systems-of-

action approach as an alternative way of entering into the foreign cul­

ture emically, at least as emically as possible. It has been proposed

that a cultural event be analyzed according to Its form, meaning, and

function, and that the interrelationship of patterns be studied from within a culture. Various techniques, such as the culture capsule, the culture cluster, and audio-motor unit, and the inquiry approach i were reviewed, as well as models providing bases for cultural analysis. i I In Chapter IV the kaleidoscopic approach of the authoi— a i j synthesis of content, method, and technique—was described. The intro­ duction explained the pedagogical rationale behind the approach, which

takes advantage of the fact that students have some knowledge of cul­

ture. It also considered b rie fly the anthropological ju s tific a tio n i for cross-cultural analysis, a task made possible by the etic-emic distinction. 165

The content aspect of the approach Is divided Into two areas.

One is an anthropological structure of knowledge, which includes aware­ ness of what culture is and of how it organizes man's existence Into patterns. Patterns are both observable and interrelated, and have formal, informal, and technical aspects. This structure forms the theoretical foundation and system for the other area—specific know­ ledge about the two cultures being compared. H all's map of culture is proposed as the ideal system for obtaining specific knowledge about a culture. It is used by the teacher to plan the content of the culture unit by analyzing two functionally equivalent patterns into their formal, informal, and technical aspects.

The method or main teaching procedure is the process of in­ duction, often called the discovery method. Facts must be learned be­ fore concepts, and concepts before generalizations. These three stages in the acquisition of knowledge dovetail with mental processes in an order of increasing complexity. Certain processes which are partic­ ularly appropriate for passing from the perceptual to the conceptual were combined with categories from Bloom's taxonomy in the cognitive domain to make a theoretical hierarchy which the teacher can follow

In planning a unit.

The technique chosen for the implementation of the method is that of question strategies. Questions are directly related to the thought process they evoke, and they can be classified according to their cognitive level. Combined with the steps suggested by the method, they can provide the teacher with a means of eliciting thought and thereby fa c ilita tin g the acquisition of cross-cultural knowledge. 166

An Illu s tra tiv e unit on French and American eating habits

showed the teacher how to combine content, method, and technique. It

suggested the teaching devices of maxi-wheel to depict the macrocosm,

and mini-wheel, the microcosm of culture. It provided a variety of

ac tivitie s for learning facts, concepts, and generalizations about the

French cultural pattern and comparing it wi th the functionally equiva­

lent American one. in order to make the analysis as emic as possible,

the student was even asked to compare Idiosyncrasies within the French

pattern itself, and learned to do a whole cultural analysis based on one artifact.

B. Feasibility

Although this was intended to be not a fe a s ib ility study, but a conceptualization, the illustrative unit was taught in a fairly

integral version to a class of seventh-grade French students. These

students were following a normal sequence of language learning which combined the course guide with A-LM French Level I , New Second Edition.^

it might be appropriate here to discuss some positive and negative aspects of the approach as seen from a practical point of view before

reviewing Its implications for further study or research.

A very real positive contribution of the approach is that of a guide for planning. In fact, the teacher has three frameworks or models on which to rely: the unit outline, which furnishes a variety of a c tiv itie s ; H all's "map of culture," which has been converted into maxi- and mini-wheels; and the model of question categories such as

that of the Far West Laboratory— a ll of which can serve as inspiration

for ideas. In using these three aspects in combination the author was 167 able to plan a systematic unit on the comparison of American and French eating habits, and in the process, learned something about the act of making cross-cultural comparisons. In other words, the three-cornered approach, which comes to resemble a kaleidoscope in its unity in di­ versity when it is applied to a number of patterns, can be used as a means of planning and learning for the teachei— a feasible and pro­ ductive device.

Like most approaches being tried out for the firs t time, it had certain flaws. The author was unsure, for example, of how much to do deductively and how much inductively; sometimes the phrasing of the questions was less clear than desirable; and at firs t the sheer com­ plexity of trying to work as a unit with three systems proved mind- boggling! Yet the students seemed to take to it with enthusiasm.

Some of the discussions were taped, and a transcription of an excerpt of one of them is included in Appendix E.

From the cognitive point of view, the students responded per­ ceptively and actively to the questions, both on the American and French cultures. They showed themselves capable of performing higher cog­ nitive operations in answer to questions. Since these questions by thetr very nature invite more than one possible answer, teacher talk was greatly reduced in favor of student talk. For the most part, the students had many Ideas and were not hesitant about voicing them.

(The teacher learned a lot about the students in the process 1) Motiva­ tionally, also, the approach seemed to have great positive aspects.

Some of the students who did less well in the language-learning part of the class outshone their classmates during the dfscusssion times and 168 were quite enthusiastic about this opportunity to share ideas.

To implement the approach requires not only preparation time but also some prior training for the teacher, who must be familiar with the levels of questions as well as the kinds of interrogatory phrases as­ sociated with each level. Working through a programmed manual such as that of Gall et al. should provide sufficient training for a start; much is learned through experience and tria l and error.

Furthermore, the teacher needs to be thoroughly fam iliar with the culture whose language is being taught—a knowledge based on per­ sonal experience whenever possible as well as on thoughtful reading of selected words. A brief lis t of those which might be helpful to a

French teacher is given in Appendix E. This knowledge must necessarily be kept current, as changes are constantly occurring. Yet one must not overemphasize the requirement of a specified background, since the approach Its e lf gives the teacher ideas on where to look for informa­ tion not already possessed.

The problems encountered in the author's personal use of the approach are worthy of consideration. The time element was probably the hardest to overcome. The discussions that we are advocating, while most fru itfu l In seeming outcomes, both cognitive and affective, require a proportion of class time that may not be in harmony with the goals of the course. At the elementary levels of language learning these discussions are necessarily conducted in English and pre-empt time from the target language. Perhaps, especially ?n view of the

Kettering Report, we need to rethink our linguistic goals and give higher priority to those pertaining to cross-cultural comparison. On 169 the other hand, perhaps a way could be found to unite this approach with the teaching of the language its e lf. Further discussion of this possibility will follow in the implications section of this chapter.

Another "problem" the author encountered lies in the nature of the higher-level questions. When a question calls for more than one answer, the teacher wants to encourage a ll pertinent answers, of course.

Yet sometimes a student may give a "s illy " or irrelevant answer. What

Is the teacher to do? Although the purpose of the questions is to e lic it thought from students, It should be, after a ll, guided thought.

The students should have some premise on which they are basing their answers. For example, by the time they are asked an analysis, synthe­ sis, or evaluation question, they should know enough of the facts, con­ cepts and generalizations that are necessary in order to make an in­ tellig ent response. If not, the teacher has a duty to intervene to give valid ity to the discussion; ?t seems pointless to allow students to babble on without saying anything of substance. In addition, the teacher must often Interpret and summarize student remarks (this does not mean repeat the answer!) to keep the discussion on the track. It may happen also, of course, that the teacher simply does not know the answer to a question (students w ill come up with some of their own, too!). In that case, the professional thing to do is to table the discussion of that point until the Information is located.

A further consideration comes tn the area of fle x ib ility .

As the author and her students worked with this approach, sometimes a provocative unplanned question would creep into the discussion. At other times a planned question seemed to lead nowhere. Either situation is a challenge. Encouragingly, experience teaches a lot,

with this approach as with any other. After working with the culture

wheels for a while, one becomes more adept at recognizing areas of

greatest productivity tn content, for discussion, and at fielding un­

anticipated questions. It is important to follow up on an unanticipated

question i f It can be productive, and sometimes those prove to be the

most productive. For example, as the author's students discussed the

"where" of eating habits crossed with bisexuality, the question came up

as to the changes that would have to be made in boys' schools If g irls

were admitted. The group took advantage of the opportunity to discuss

these changes "around the wheel," considering every system of culture.

(Exploi tationally, the addition of girls' bathrooms was seen to be a

necessity!) Flexibility, as well as prior planning, is a key to

success.

Finally, a word might be added about the group size. The

author's class was rather small (twenty) for a public school situation.

Needless to say, this was a great advantage. While the discussions might have been more beneficial for each participant had the group been

even smaller, practical considerations, not the least of which was the

author's own inexperience with the approach, led her to teach the whole

group with it. She thus avoided the possible confusion of a class

division. However, with a larger class, the discussions could be done

with smaller groups, divided however seems best for the particular

situation. The idea is to get all students thinking and sharing their

thoughts with the others. 171

The greatest incentive for any teaching method or approach Is a student's saying, "When are we going to do that again?" This author heard that question more than once in the course of implementing this approach, as she desperately tried to develop materials to keep up with the studentsl More convincing to the specialists, however, would probably be empirical proof of the approach's positive benefits cog- nitivety and affectively. Since the author did not test the results, she can only surmise that these students learned something about French eating habits and became more aware of their own eating patterns, as well as the ramifications of these on all systems of living. She can only In tu it that they became less culture-bound in both knowledge and attitude through the discussions and other a c tiv itie s . The empirical aspect, missing thus far, w ill be discussed in the next section.

C. Implications for Further Development and Future Research

Any area—content, method, or technique—of this approach could have been pursued in its e lf with fru itfu l results. The author chose to combine several areas into a synthetic approach because she was in­ trigued by the combinational effects that could thereby be derived.

However, in discussing the implications of this study for future work, one must consider the areas in themselves as well as In combination.

Furthermore, any of them or a ll might be combined with a fourth area, that of linguistic development in the target language. Possibilities for expansion of the study are endless in almost any of these direc­ tions. 172

In the realm of question strategies combined with teaching the four linguistic skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing the target language, for example, l i t t l e has been done. Almost any of the areas enumerated in the introduction to Chapter II could furnish ideas for productive research. One area would be in teaching reading comprehension. At present it is debatable whether questions should be given to the students before or after they read a passage, or whether, on the other hand, they should be intermittent. Research would provide some answers which might be pertinent to teaching w riting, also.

tn the domain of the oral s k ills , research should be done on the amount of time (called "wait-time") that should be given to students before calling on them to answer. This seems especially significant tn a foreign language class, where processes of both thinking and coding would be involved. Question strategies could also make contributions to research in the area of communicative competence. After a l l , when one asks students higher cognitive questions, one Is requiring them to think original thoughts, which are much more interesting but more difficult to code than those evoked by often-insipid questions. Also, the problem of how much error to allow without inhibiting linguistic progress could be tested In conjunction with question strategies.

The content of the questions need not be cultural, as it was In this study. It could be literary or conversational in nature. If the questions were asked In the target language, the students would have to be more advanced lin g u istically than the seventh-graders with whom the author worked on this study. Nevertheless, such approaches to coding in the target language at an advanced level should be the subject of

experimentation. In fact, several noted foreign language educators

have indicated the need to investigate this area of pedagogy, which is

beyond the drill level of language acquisition. Jakobovits would

perhaps not even wait until basic proficienty had been acquired.^

Rivers states, perhaps more re a lis tfc a lly ,

More recent methods have worked out techniques for developing the lower-level manipulative skill while leaving the student un- practlced in the making of decisions at the higher level....We need to give more thought to effective ways of Inducing language behavior at the second level.^

The object would be to enhance the learner's coordinate bilingualism-,,

for he w ill code his pre-verbal thought directly into the target lan­

guage. Belyayev describes succinctly this "second stage" in language

learning and gives a rationale for it:

The second stage is that of dlrect (or non-translating) learning, because its characteristic is the establishment of a direct link between the foreign language and thought, as a result of which the need for translation disappears.5

The basic defect of our present method of language teaching is that pupils are taught knowledge about a language more than they are taught to think in it , as a result of which the main atm of teaching Is often not attained. In other words, pupils are principally taught the forms of a foreign language without atten­ tion being paid to the fact that practical mastery of these forms is only possible if they are directly linked with students' thought processes.

Much attention has been paid recently to the connection between

thought and language. Brooks quotes Vygotsky's outline of phases of articulation from consciousness to thought to speech to w riting.^

Asher reports on the work of Lado In this area and reacts to it this way: "Perhaps the ideal strategy is to acquire the linguistic code as 0 incidental learning to thought processes." Asher also proposes that 174 we teach the student how to ask questions In order to prepare him for 9 divergent thinking.

tn the area of cultural content, also, much work needs to be done. How much easier the job of "analyzing cross-cultural1y" would be if teachers had access to data banks such as those described by

Joyce and Joyce,^ or to the type of comparative analysis of societal characteristics of Bourguignon and Greenbaum.^ This type of content would ideally be kept up-to-date and would include sta tis tica l informa­ tion which would be difficult to obtain otherwise. Perhaps eventually

It could also be made available directly to students who might be doing individual projects in cross-cultural comparison. Data from all countries whose languages are commonly studied in the United States should be included. An attempt could possibly be made therein to dis­ tinguish between class or regional differences in cultural pattern so that the cross-cultural comparisons would attain greater consistency and valIdlty.

In the area of culture also, research on the types of cultural materials which best lend themselves to cross-cultural comparison might be done. The unit in this study made use of photographs which were available to the teacher in the textbook she was using; it also in­ cluded some consultation of recipe books and a department store catalog for examination of cultural a rtifa c ts . But other sources such as a foreign film, a comic strip, an advertisement, a child's report card— should be examined for their merit as means of entering Into the foreign culture. Gall notes that a teacher's use of fact versus thought question depends to an extent on the type of materials to which they 175

have access and that it seems somewhat less d iffic u lt to write higher 12 cognitive questions on primary sources.

The approach its e lf needs empirical ju s tific a tio n , both cogni­

tive and affective. The author would like to obtain measurable answers

to the following questions: To what extent is the approach emic?

Does it enable the learner to acquire an unbiased picture of the for­

eign culture? ( i.e ., How true a picture does one get from the "observ­

able11?) How much greater Is a learner's awareness of the cultural

patterning In his own life as a result of his thinking about cross- cultural comparisons? How much more cognitive knowledge of the foreign •

culture can he gain through the approach? To what extent do his

thinking skills and knowledge of the process of cultural analysis trans­

fer to a situation where, on his own, he must take the in itia tiv e to do

the comparing? To what extent does his attitude change toward the

foreign culture and toward his own? What Is the influence of the evaluative questions In this regard? To what extent would his culture shock be lessened I f he were Immersed in the foreign culture as a par­

ticipant following these analyses? To what extent does the presumed

improved motivation affect his achievement linguistically in the tar­ get language? Each of these questions could be the subject of an em­ pirical study, and hopefully, a ll w ill be answered some day.

It has been mentioned that the ideal use of this approach would combine It with the teaching of the language its e lf. A textbook series based on another synthesis— that of this approach and the best methods

for learning language—needs to be written. One feature of Hall's sys­

tem that would be distinctly favorable in this regard Is the inclusion 176

of language in the guise of "interaction" within the ten divisions of

culture. The linguistic components could be developed in conjunction

with the cultural in an ever-widening kaleidoscope of facets, rooted in

the wheels of culture. Perhaps also a simplified terminology could be

found for the wheels, for as Dienes and Jeeves maintain, "The final

test of whether a child understands a structure ts his a b ility to han­

dle that structure and not his ability to verbalize It in adult fash- 13 ion." This new synthesis has yet to be made. Maybe some day it w ill

appear, providing the student with the opportunity which Nelson Brooks

would wish for him:

Sometimes I think of lif e as a statue that can be seen by the uni lingual from one position only, but It has an additional meaning for the bilingual who can observe It from two d ifferent vantage points.*^

In the meantime, it Is hoped that this study will offer teachers

at least one way to answer the challenge of the Kettering Report, re­

sulting not simply in an increased foreign language enrollment— not merely In an academically-Improved student population— but especially

in a more self-aware Individual. Cognitively, the approach has the

potential to lessen the mindlessness of which Stlberman accused our

schools.*^ Affectively, It could cause positive attitudinal changes,

I f it Is true that "Thinking and involvement with teachers in a cooper­

ative educational effort lead a student to feel good,"'^ and that

teachers who provide opportunities for students to think are aware that

their charges are "meaning makers" rather than empty buckets.'^

(There is said to be some correlation between cognitive and affective 18 stimulation. ) Most importantly, however, as Raths has shown, the thinking occasions which the student is given should help him attain 19 greater maturity. In keeping with Rousseau's suggestion, the student will know himself better if he sees himself as another. So be it. NOTES TO CHAPTER V

*Audio-Lingual Materials: French, New Second Edition (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1974)- 2 Mlnicourse Nine. 3 Leon A. Jakobovits, Foreign Language Learning: A Psycholin- gutstlc Analysis of the issues (Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1970), pp. 25-26. tl ■ Rivers, pp. 16 and 18. 5 B. V. Belyayev, The Psychology of Teaching Foreign Languages, trans. Dr. R. G. HIngley (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963), p. 23.

6lbid., p. 37.

^Nelson Brooks, "The Meaning of Bilingualism," Foreign Language Annals 2 (March 1969):305. Q James J. Asher, "Implications of Psychological Research for Second Language Training," in Dale L. Lange and Charles J. James, eds., Foreign Language Education: A Reappraisal, The ACTFL Review of Foreign^ Language Education, vol. k (Skokie. 111.: National Textbook Co., 1972), p. 172.

9lbtd., p. 177*

Joyce and Joyce, Data Banks.

'^Erlka Bourgulgnon and Lenora Greenbaum, Diversity and Homo­ geneity: A Comparative Analysis of Societal Characteristics Based on Data from the Ethnographic Atlas, Occasional Papers in Anthropology, rTo. j (Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Research Foundation, 1968 ). 12 Meredith D. Gall, "The Use of Questions In Teaching," Rev Iew of Educational Research 40 (December 1970):713• 13 Zoltan Paul Dienes and Malcom Alexander Jeeves, Thinking In Structures, Psychological Monographs on Cognitive Processes, vol. 1, with a Foreward by Sir Frederic C. Bartlett (London: Hutchinson Educational, 1965)* p. 96. 178 179

^Brooks, "Meaning," p. 305-

^Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom (New York:' Random House, Vintage Books, I970)V p* 8 l.

'^William Glasser, Schools Without Failure (New York: Harper, 1969), p. 81. '^Neil Postman and Charles Welngartner, Teaching as a Subversive Activity (New York: Delacorte Press, 1969), p. 92.

^The Art, p. xlv.

^Louls E. Raths, Teaching for Thinking—Theory and Applica­ tion (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. M errill Books, In c .: 1967), p• ix. APPENDIX A

Materials pertinent to the technique of the approach: systems for the analysts of questions Into categories.

180 181

SUMMARY CHART OF QUESTION TYPES

Question Type Student Activity Examples

Knowledge Recalling facts or observations. 1. Who? Recalling definitions. 2. What? 3. Where? 4. When? 5. Why? (if cause is given.) 6. Define (the word gubernatorial).

Comprehension Giving descriptions. t. Describe {what happened in our experiment). Staling ntairt iJeas. 2. What is the main idea (of this paragraph)? Comparing. 3. How arc (these two countries) alike? How are they different?

Application Applying techniques and rules to 1. I f (Bill has *t9 cents), how many (8-cent bal­ solve problems that have a single loons) can he buy? correct answer. 2. What is (the latitude of Moscow)? 3. Classify, (these poems as ballads, sonnets, or odes). «

Analysis Identifying motives or causes. 1. Why (did the Bat-Poel write poem*)? Making inferences. 2. Now that we've studied this, what can we eon- Finding evidence to support etude about (life in Germany )? generalizations. 3. KVwr docs this tell us about (the author's atti­ tude tuwurd war?) 4. What evidence can you find to support (the principle that air expands when heated)?

Synthesis Solving problems. 1. Can you think up(a title for this drawing)? Making predictions. 2. How can we so/ve (this ditcmma)? Producing original communications. 3. How can we improve (our experiment)? 4. What wilt happen (now that we’ve landed on the moon)? 5. What do you predict would happen t if this lake were to run dry)?

Evaluation Giving opinions about issues. 1. Do you agree (with Kathv )? Judging the validity of ideas. 2. Do yitu believe (that this is the best way to Judging the merit of problem- ptocccd)? solution. 3. Do you think (that it is right to execute con­ Judging the quality of ail and victed murderers)? other products. 4. W/ut is your opinion (on this mattcri? 5. Would it be better (to do it this way i? * 6. Which (painting) do you tike?

System for the analysis of questions according to Bloom's taxonomy, re­ print of p. 261 in Min?course Nine: Higher Cognitive Questioning: Teacher s Handbook by Meredith D. Gall, Barbara Dunning, and Rita Weathersby (Beverly H ills , California: Macmillan Educational Services F?r West Labora*ory for Educational Research and Develop-’ ment, 1971). with permission of publisher. 182

Broad

Divergent

Recall Predict Judge

Identify- J Name Hypothesize Value Observe I

Yes or No Designate Infer Defend

Reconstruct

System for the analysis of questions according to Guilford's model, reprint of chart, p. 103 in "Developing Question-Asking Skills'.1 by Robert T. Cunningham, in Developing Teacher Competencies, pp. 81-130, edited by James Welgand (Englewood C liifs , N.J.: Prencice-Ha11, 1971), with permission of publisher. APPENDIX B

Materials pertinent to the method of the approach: samples from process approaches to teaching.

183 184

Figure 7 Grade 1: Family Living Sequence and Function of Learning Experiences Main Idea IV: Families arc supported in different ways.

Conchriion

, ( DitO!oy: syr-bol of fa'rer**^

Applfcotion, synthesis I 26+ Fe

Grouping, generalization, differentiation / ^ ^ TypcsVfv.orq Chert ■

Extension, reinforcement . [ 9 - !3. V;oiit cf fathers j Prepare booklet f ------Extension o f information J, II 8* V* VrOfh Mvrr, of1 ffoli'i Preoore booklet

Generalization I 6*7. Difference; in \Qritc*s | Discuss

Reinforcement, extension of information [ J . jtor-es of Chart Extension tn Other v.orke^i j Read Specification y (^ 3 , Woy QMpIt ^ofk ~] Pcnlomrne, identify with

Classification [ 2, Peoo e tf-ho v.srh | Chart

Identification l . Belle needs — »vhy Diagnosis C does a family need r-oney? 7 Discuss Opener

1 * Functions o f Learning 2, Learning Experiences 3. Class Activities Experiences //.eons of Lccrnirg

Reprint of p. 32 In Teachers1 Handbook for Elementary Social Studies: Introductory Edition by Hilda Taba (Palo Alto, California: Addison- Wesley Publishing Co., 1967)* with permission of publisher. 185

It the concept 'Ihrethold' Assess the validity of the Judging sufficiently preciie to friction of distance permit measurement? principle by comparing it with 'the real world.' Develop a procedure Formulate several testable through which you could hypotheses deriving from .Synthesizing teach the idea of ‘a nested the assumptions of central hierochy' to high school place theory. students. Outline tha form of "If Ihcre were no Great scientific exploration used lakes, Chicago would stiil Analyzing in developing central bu a large city." Whet place theory. assumptions seem ta be implicit in lhal statement? Given a population distri­ How would a reduction in bution mop and the transport costs affect the assumptions of central range of a good? Solving place theory, construct the most probable urban hierarchy. Explain what it meant by Draw a graph shewing the Understanding *es nested hierarchy.* relationship between 1 threshold level and range of a good. The originator ol Slate the definition af list the assumptions of Remembering central ploce theory 'range ef a good.' central place theory. wo* ...... Facff Conoplt Ctnt'alirnlioiii THE KNOWLEDGE DIMENSION FIG U R E 1 A Process/Knowledge Matrix

Reprint of chart from p.' 29 in "Classroom Questioning for Geography Teachers" by Gai;y Manson, Journal of Geography 72 (April 1973): 2*1-30, with permission of the National Council for Geographic Educa­ tion. 186

Overview of the Processes

INSTRUCTIONAL itOBKL

Cognitive Task Operations

Concept Diagnosis A series of questions which results In diagnostic data. Incus cti unit, exercise In analysis of relationships.

Interpretation of Data A series of questions which results in Che discovery of principles, general­ izatio n s and inferences from d if f e r ­ entiating the data, relating points Co each other, determining cause and e ffect and going beyond what Is given.

Knowledge OtgHiiixud by Conceptual Categories co

Generalizations

A pplication of Knowledge A question or s e rie s of questions which requires the application of previously discovered knowledge to a new situation.

Reprint of p. Sk In Development of Higher Level Thinking A b ilitie s . Instructor's Manual by John A. McCollum and Rose Marie Davis (Portland, Oregon: Commercial-Education Distributing Services for the Northwest Regional Laboratory, 1972), with permission of the Northwest Regional Laboratory. 187

CONTENT FORH

c*>——•unfatlll.tr

Saoplc qu<*ii«mfti CL - CbU’tv lu c OB - Wrtf aw 6 W ;h ijcu notice about c u t Rt. - Recalling HL - tfutC HiJ ycu itc on cm vilit to tie. bakrAtjt DF * Kotldflj; D i/ftrcncsi OF - tffctf{Mtntr a \c (ncj£ 4C f*c vnvift+-AV4l O t i c tc&vte a “C cf£{* Stt * n o tic in g S im ila r it ie s SH - ate 4one ftaic ate attUf

OA • Ordering OR - Km »vjid wit em itjt K uc toefclit t-'ic Heavftlf uvirt fine aid tilt Lighten .'ictcf

Ot • Grouping CR - Mich cl These Icft'tiJ Tf3C-fT:Ji b.'fiwse Utcy ate atilt -in erne lit'.:L ct- Jteti. c. g. clip, iaye, pencil, • (U U U , Auhbe.lt.lfi-li, e ft.I U - Concept U btllni U - Mat itouttf tie a seed iutc jet lP.it gRoup el thingiT'tcAatjcm, pdieiCi, pUntl, Uc.l

CT - C l u i l f T i n i CF - tfliAt dc lieu ice in out a tea tieit tcufd bt caticd "tiving ttungi'f

TS - Concept T ritlng TS - II eat pet nall-it »?« ticnstinitcixd o| bf.tc* and t-.-iiifc, la-uid he itiei he a w a t b itr

CS - Enforcing Ciutci CS - My.(fa wu then''. pecpte captic.id eii

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Copjrlght @ 191) b , INSTITUTE TON STAIF OrvtLORIFXT

Reprint of p. 10 in BASICS______Participant's Manual (Miami, Florida: Institute for Staff Development, 197*0, with perm I ss i on of the Institute for Staff Development. 188

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CopyclKht @ 1173 by LtiFllTUrt. TON STAFF Ci.VLrniMLttT

Reprint of p. II In BAS ICS Participant's Manual (Miami, Florida: Institute for Staff Development, 197*0, with permission of the institute for Staff Development. APPENDIX C

Materials pertaining to the content of the approach: Hall's Map of Culture and Kosnlk's Web of Culture based on

Hall and Trager's analysis of culture.

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I N T ER ACT t ON ALl*Y TECH N iCALbV *•* (tanguice)

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WEB of CULTURE APPENDIX D

Materials pertinent to the pedagogical application of the approach: A-LM photographs, photographs of the maxi- and mini-wheels, and culture capsules.

192 Diner in a French home

Reprint of photograph, p. 8 In A-LM French: Level I . New Second Edition (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 197*»), with permiss of publtsher. 19*»

Maxl-wheel of Culture Close-Up: Systemic focus #29 (Use of Foods, Resources, and Equip ment) as Shown on the Maxi-Wheel, of Culture 196

Mini-Wheel of Culture, as applied to systemic focus #29 (Use of Foods, Resources, and Equipment).

N.B. This is not shown to scale. The mini-wheel Is actually about

half the size of the maxi-wheel. 197

CULTURE CAPSULE: MEALS IN FRANCE

Most French people eat only two real meals a day. Since break­ fast is quite small, It is not considered a meal as such. Consisting of coffee (either nofr or cafe au la lt)» tartlnes de pain beurrees

(slices of buttered bread) with or without jam, or croissants

(crescent-shaped rolls) and brioches (an egg-flavored bread) on special occasions, It is sufficient to tide one over until the dejeuner (noon mea1).

The d6jeuner, fir s t real meal of the day, Is served at noontime.

Families traditionally gather together for this purpose, and there is a two-hour break at school to allow students time to get home for It , or, I f that is not possible, to have a ful1-course meal at school. The custom Is losing ground In large cities , where many factories and businesses are adopting the journee continue, which allows workers only one-half hour for lunch. This prevents fathers and mothers who work from making the trip home for lunch. Yet the tradition of a family gathering at noon s t ill seems entrenched in the provinces, and certainly during vacation time and on weekends families observe the custom.

The dejeuner Is a multi-course meal. It begins with hors-d‘oeuvre

(such as carottes rapees, oeufs durs a la mayonnaise, sardines, e tc .), followed by a meat, fish, or poultry dish and vegetables (the la tte r served either separately or with the main dish, sometimes as part of

the sauce); then salad is served, usually on the same plate, which has 198

been cleaned with the ever-present bread. (Bread accompanies a ll

courses escept dessert, and is placed on the table rather than on a

bread plate.) Salad is followed by cheese and fru it or other dessert.

Wine is the usual beverage, though children drink water; often bottled

water is used. Coffee is served after the meal, and on Sundays a.

liqueur, may be consumed after that.

Dinner Is not served until 7=30 or 8:00 p.m.. To satisfy the

hunger which may arrive a t.4:00 in the afternoon, children have a

special snack called the gouter, consisting of more tartines, or

cookies and chocolate. If adults join them, they usually have tea

at this time of day. Many men indulge in an a p e ritif at the neighbor­

hood caf& or bar before going home for dinner.

Dinner, like the dejeuner, is served in courses. It usually

begins with soup, followed by some sort of protein dish—either meat

again, though often cold at night, or eggs, and a vegetable. Salad may or may not follow, but there Is usually cheese and a dessert.

This usually ends food consumption for the day. If the French desire anything before bed, it w ill usually he an herb tea, called

tisane, but nothing further is eaten as a general rule.

Questions:

1. Describe the French petit-dejeuner. Why is i t not considered a fu 11 mea1?

2. How does the French dejeuner d iffe r from our lunch? Discuss both its importance and its contents.

3. Describe the gouter. What function does it f u l f i l l in a French child's life? 199

A / 4. How is the French d1ner different from the dejeuner?

5. How would American snack foods fare in France?

CULTURE CAPSULE: Meals in the United States

Using the above as a model, describe American eating habits. 200

SUMMARY CONTENT MAP: INTERMEDIATE

These are some of the facts, concepts, and generalizations stu­ dents would be expected to "discover" during the cross-cultural dis­ cussion evoked by the photograph of a French family at dinner used in the Illu s tra tiv e u n it. I t is thus not the unit content map, which

Includes eating at school, but an Intermediate one. Nor Is discussion of change summarized here, since that is largely speculative.

It is suggested that before using cross-cultural questions with the students, the teacher test them for productivity by making one of these summaries. The author found, for example, that In trying to answer the questions herself the really significant conclusions became more clear, making it possible subsequently to take better aim with the ques­ tions. The cultural information is categorized according to the systems of culture, but it Is difficult if not impossible to avoid crossing categories within a discussion because of their interrelationship. The reader may therefore expect some mixing of systems.

Expioltational

Americans eat saiad with the main dish, or perhaps as a f ir s t course, though the meal is not usually served In a series of courses.

Bottled salad dressings are common, and are appreciated because of the 201 convenience and variety (in terms of taste as well as number of calories) they provide. These dressings are popular despite the fact that they cost more than the homemade kind. In fa c t, American housewives probably don't know how to make dressing.

Bread is not always eaten with dinner, but is often replaced by some other starchy food such as potatoes, ric e , or noodles (often coming out o f a box). Bread Is eaten, however, at breakfast, and often in a sandwich at lunch. When bread is eaten at dinner, It is usually spread with butter or margarine, and is typically placed on a bread plate. On formal occasions a butter knife may be provided. Many Americans prefer margarine to butter, not because of cost, but for health reasons; they seem willing to make do with less flavor for better health. Also, there are low-calorie margarines, which are becoming popular; Americans, who get little natural exercise, have to watch calories In order to maintain their proper weight.

Dinner Is a hot meal, which is necessary because lunch is usually cold. Meat and vegetables are the usual fare, sometimes followed by dessert. Children usually drink milk; adults often have coffee, some­ times with the meal. Alcoholic beverages are o rd in arily reserved for special occasions; they are fairly expensive and not considered a necessary accompaniment to food.

Organ izat tonal

Napkin rings are not ordin arily found in the American home, for paper napkins are preferred to cloth, for the sake of both convenience and 202 sanitarfness. Furthermore, Americans seem to like to dispose of things when they have served their purpose: witness the proliferation of garage sales. A cloth tablecloth is usually reserved for special occasions; instead, place mats or plastic cloths are used. Etiquette

is rather informal; expediency is important.

American families usually eat dinner together, but often jobs, either those of parents or children, keep part of the family away.

Families do not ordinarily eat lunch together, except perhaps on Sunday.

Territorial

The place for eating can vary considerably. Usually breakfast

is taken In the kitchen, and dinner may be eaten there or in the dining room. The kitchen Is the more expedient place, as It is convenient to the stove, and Americans don't seem to mind the informality of the situation. Lunch is often eaten away from home. Inexpensive and con­ venient fast-food chains make It easy for Americans to "eat out" often, but restaurants are expensive.

Temporal

Americans usually have dinner about 5:30 or 6:00. As lunch Is a light meal, they are ready to eat at this time. Factories and offices close at about 5:00, and children who have been home from school for a couple of hours are hungry by this time. Since dinner does not last long, there is much time between it and bedtime for evening activities.

Americans often use this time for do-it-yourself chores, watching tele­ vision, etc. Since they finish eating so early, snacking is common, and there are many varieties of snack foods available. 203

Recreational

Meals in the United States fu lfill the primary function of pro­ viding nourishment; the pleasure aspect of enjoying food and the com­ pany of those present is often relegated to a minimal position, especially when fam ilies watch television as they eat dinner.

Instructional

When they cook, most American women follow recipe books, having

learned the basic principles of cooking at school in a home economics course, or sometimes from th e ir mother. However, real cooking is often

reserved for special occasions, as many women work and serve foods that are easy to prepare, including convenience foods. American technology has developed these as a result of the needs of the housewife, and it has been possible to meet these needs because of the advanced stage of technology.

As far as what is learned at the table through conversation and observation is concerned, this is probably minimal, since mealtime is comparatively short, and since some families watch television at this time. Much might be learned If the program is educational, such as the news. This varies, however, from family to family.

BIsexuali ty

It is becoming acceptable for the man of the house to help with cooking and cleaning up, as with other chores. This change is caused somewhat by the economic necessity of the woman's working, but other factors enter in. Many women have degrees and self-fulfilling jobs that 204 they are not willing to give up In order to do housework. It is less an economic than a psychological necessity that they work. The man of the house Is usually willing to accept thisfact and the consequence that he must help with the chores.

Economic

American women (or men) usually engage in some preparations for breakfast, though even here convenience foods and diet substitutes are available. Lunch Is prepared with a minimum of effort, and the amount of dinner preparations depends somewhat on time available, expected presence of a guest, special occasions, and so forth . As elaborated above, American technology has made convenience a part of most fam ilies' patterns of preparing foods. These cost more than the home-cooked variety, but the convenience makes it worthwhile.

Protection

Science reminds Americans constantly of the Importance of food in staying healthy. As a resu lt, technology has developed low-fat and low-calorie substitutes for various foods. Americans seem willing to sacrifice some of the sensory pleasure ofthe flavor of foods In the interests of staying well and thin.

Interactional

The language associated with eating In the United States would include vocabulary relevant to technological innovations, such as "TV dinner," and "frozen foods." When cooking is done, the vocabulary is fa ir ly international in content, as Americans have adopted a number of 205

dishes from a ll over the world. Polite phrases at the table tend to be

minimized, perhaps because of the expediency of the meal.

FRENCH

Terri toria1

Breakfast is the only expedient meal of the day In France; in

fact, It is not really considered a meal, and may be taken at a small

table in the kitchen rather than in the dining room. The dejeuner and

dtner are ordinarily eaten around the dining room table. Parents and

children often come home for lunch, and have to make the trip back to

school or work for the afternoon session. If the dejeuner is not at

home but at school or in a restaurant, it is also taken there at a

table, and not at a lunch counter. Sometimes people don't have time

for a meal at noon, however, and have a sandwich at a cafe, where they may s it at the bar. Fast food chains are not unheard of in France, but

are much less p ro lific than in the United States. When people eat out,

It Is usually In a restaurant. Those, especially workers, who eat at

the same restaurant every day, are often allowed to keep their same weekly cloth napkin In a cubby-hole in the restaurant, which serves some what as a home away from home.

Other occasions on which the French might not eat lunch at

home would be on the occasion of picnics, where In contrast to elaborate

home meals, food tends to be rather simple, consisting of bread and

cheese, or pate, and wine. 206

Temporal

The noon meal begins between noon and one o'clock, and may last

an hour or longer, depending upon the occasion. Businesses, including

banks and stores, usually close between 12:00 and 2:00 to allow the

French to observe this custom. School breaks for two hours at noon.

Thus, the school or working day ends later, and dinner is pushed back

to 7:30 or 8:00. The exception is that some factories are on a system which permits workers only one-half hour for lunch. The sacrifice in

time seems to be worthwhile to the French, probably since the meal fu l­

fills , more than the function of nourishment. It is an important social gathering.

Since dinner is so late, evening a c tiv itie s such as those enjoyed by Americans (sports, do-it-yourself chores) seem to be less popular, or else they jre performed before dinner. Theater, movies, and other a c tiv itie s begin at a later hour. Since dinner ends so late, unless they are going out to some specific function like a movie or play, the

French tend to stay at home for the remainder of the evening, and may engage in games, watch television, listen to records, or read. Students usually have a considerable amount of homework to complete.

As far as changes In available food are concerned, the French are probably less used to having seasonal foods a ll year long than

Americans. Accustomed to daily shopping, they have only comparatively

recently come to rely on refrigeration to answer a need for keeping foods

longer. The older French housewife tends to mistrust frozen foods, and certainly most of the French prefer fresh foods. They have not had a 207

need for better packaging because of foods being bought daily. They have

been w illing to accept the inconvenience of daily shopping in order to

preserve the freshness and flavor of foods.

Organizational

Families tn France spend a relatively large amount of time to­

gether at the table; this adds to their togetherness, and probably makes

it harder for them to accept a newcomer in their midst. (This depends,

however, on the newcomer. A bond of friendship can be established quickly if there is a mutual Interest and attraction to each other.)

Since the society is less mobile, family togetherness tends to continue

throughout the lives of the French. Another contributing factor Is

the economic dependence of the children on their parents. Part-time jobs, while beginning to become available, are not very prevalent. Since

longer school hours and school year would make it d iffic u lt for students

to hold jobs, they spend more time at home and remain dependent upon

their parents longer than American children, for instance.

French etiquette dictates that meals are served in courses, and

an elaborate serving apparatus has been developed. There are glasses,

for example, that are suitable to drinking only one special kind of wine, and are not used for serving another kind. The courses follow a

ritual sequence, and are accompanied by wines that complement the food.

(Even in schools this ritual is observed, and one sees a double plate on the tables to accomodate multiple courses.) Rich and poor alike seem

to follow this ceremonious way of eating. In contrast to the American 208 custom, French etiquette dictates that hands be kept in view and not in one's lap.

Interact ionai

Food vocabulary in France tends to be somewhat elaborate, in accordance with the elaborate preparation and serving of food. Meals one has enjoyed previously are often discussed at the table. A popular expression to say at the start of a meal is "Bon appetlt!" which serves as the opening of the overture to the symphony. Since conversation is an important accompaniment to meals, and a great part of their recrea­ tional aspect, a considerable amount of communication takes place at mealtime, by vocal qual Ifiers (laughter, etc.) and gesture as well as words.

Recreational

Meals serve a recreational as well as a nutritional function in

France. There is great pleasure taken in both the appearance and taste of food; besides this, discussion of all sorts of topics is common.

Sometimes the French watch television as they eat, but more often they share ideas with each other. It is popular to entertain guests at dinner, and the French housewife is probably more ready to do so since she Is used to cooking daily for the family.

Exploi tat tonal

The French agricultural system provides a great variety of products for the table, and since the emphasis in France Is on freshness, an elaborate marketing system has been developed. Abundant vineyards 209 make wines readily available, at a relatively Inexpensive price, and these are used in cooking as well as at the table as the accompanying beverage. Cheese Is also offered in many v a rie tie s , and bread is served at every meal. Since the bread is not doctored up with preservatives,

It must be purchased d a ily .

The French are used to moderation in quantity—for example, the plate-sized steaks served in the United States for one person would be unheard-of In France—yet the quantity Is so enhanced by creative cooking, especially sauces, that the preparation is more important than the food itself. ' Fast-food chains have not been developed to a great extent in

France not only for technological reasons; they just cannot s atisfy the

Frenchman's habitual craving for well-cooked food. Also, the noon meal is ordinarily a hot one; the French would probably react with distaste to a cold lunch, unless it were a necessity caused by circumstances.

Economically

Food is an important part of the budget in France, where people are less used to saving money to own a house or car than in the United

States. They have seen the deprivation of war, and are more inclined to value the immediate pleasure that can be derived from eating than from saving for an uncertain future. (This Is not to say that they don't save, merely that they are willing to spend money on food.)

As far as the amount of work involved in the preparation of food is concerned, and the shopping required, this is not considered such an inconvenience, and at any rate, the importance of eating well makes it worthwhile. 210

Sexually

The woman o rd in arily does the shopping and cooking in France.

Even I f she Is employed, the time schedule of the French family allows for this. Roles are changing somewhat, however, with the influence of

"women's lib" movement gaining ground, even in France.

Protective

French food tends to be very healthy since It consists mostly in fresh foodstuffs and dairy products. The French people snack much less than Americans and therefore tend to eat less sugar and starch.

They have less of a weight problem for this reason, and also because they usually get more natural exercise In the form of walking than Americans.

This Is a consequence of people owning fewer cars; but in France cars are usually not an absolute necessity for transportation. instruct ional

Since food preparation is more elaborate, it requires more In- struct ion. Ordinarily girls learn from their mothers, but home economics courses In schools are quite Intensive. When cooking, Frenchwomen probably rely less on recipe books and more on what they have learned from mother or grandmother, as well as the inspiration of the moment.

Much in the way of Infonnal instruction goes on at mealtime.

Conversation is an a rt that is learned at the table in France, and the

French are usually fairly articulate thanks to this practice. Of course, much of what Is shared at the table depends on the p articu lar educa­ tional background and interests of the family. In addition, children 211 learn how to conduct themselves at the table according to rules of

French etiquette. 212

Dejeuner in a French lycee

Reprint of photograph, p. 94 in A-LM French: Level I , New Second Edition (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1374), with permission of publisher. APPENDIX E

Materials pertaining to the feasibility of the approach in the secondary school classroom: transcripted excerpt of a discussion and bibliography of materials useful to teacher and/or students for the implementation of the approach applied to eating habits.

213 214

TRANSCRIPTION OF A DISCUSSION EXCERPT

The following discussion ensued in the author's seventh-grade

French class, with reference to just one of the higher-level questions listed In Chapter IV, i.e ., "How would lif e in the [two] countries be different if there were no provision made in schools for cafeterias?"

The excerpt has been edited to avoid "uh's," ramblings, and awkward phrasing, but is essentially recorded as i t took place.

Teacher: How would lif e In France be different I f there were no

cafeteria In School?

Student 1: Well, they [the students] wouldn't have a chance to

communicate that much. They ta lk a whole lo t at the table.

Student 2: They'd have an e a rlie r dinner because If they don't eat

lunch, they'd have to have something to f i l l them up

earlier. Then they'd have a heavier breakfast, too.

Teacher: Would they necessarily not eat If there were no cafeteria?

Student 3: No, they wouldn't because they would go home and eat, I

guess. They would go home and have lunch, but it wouldn't

be the same because you know they talk to one another, so

I guess It wouldn't be the same.

Student 4: But when they had cafeterias, they were losing their cus­

toms— they had a custom of coming home to eat for lunch

and having a ful1-course meal. And it's better when they 215

come home, so that they can see their fam ilies. . . .

Student 1 : If they didn't have a cafeteria it would bring them closer

to their parents if they had to go home for lunch.

Teacher: What would happen in our country If there were no cafeteria?

Student 3 It would be-hectic, 'cause it's bad enough with them.

Everybody's packed in on different shifts.

Student 5 Plus in America most people work further away. . . . i t

would be too much for them to go home because they'd have

to commute more.

Student And It would cost. . .you would need more bus tickets, and

it would cause tr a ffic jams, and there would be another

rush hour.

Student 3 There would be more cutting classes and hooking school,

'cause once they leave, they won't come back.

Teacher: In other words, our pattern of eating at noon. . .crosses

the lines of culture — [ I f changedj it would upset buses,

transportation, your relations with your family, well,

maybe not upsets them, but at least changes them.

Student 6 Lunch hour would have to be longei— instead of fifteen

minutes, an hour.

Teacher: So that would affect the time allowed for lunch, too.

Good!

Student 3 One thing though. . .French people are used to coming home

sometimes, but Americans are used to eating in the school,

so it wouldn't be as much of a change for the French as it

would be for us.

Teacher: Very good observation 216

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

EATING HABITS OF THE FRENCH

This bibliography Is not intended to be exhaustive, but an in­ dication to the interested teacher of sources for some of the informa­ tion that might be needed to execute the unit on eating habits. Only sources pertaining to the French culture are included, since it is assumed that the American teacher and students know the comparable information about eating habits in the United States. Sections of this bibliography include pedagogical manuals intended for teacher use only, texts for student use, and general reference materials for the teacher's and/or advanced students' use. The ordering In each section is qualitative, starting with the most useful. The sources listed in the Alameda County publication, which is considered an indispensable source of information, are not repeated here.

A. Pedagogical Manuals

Cultural Understanding: French, Level I. Hayward County, California: Alameda County School Department {22k West Winton Avenue, 3k5kk), 1971.

Includes specific Information pertaining to patterns of daily living in France (eating habits, pp. 35- 36, *»2-50) and an extensive bibliography, pp. 88 - 89 , on French culture. 217 Le Francais dans le Monde: Revue de 1'enselgnment du francais hors de France (available from French Book Guild, 36 West 61st Street., New York, New York 10023).

Appearing eight times per year, this journal often has pedagogical articles on teaching culture which contain Informa­ tion about culture as well.

B. Student materials

1. Textbooks

M ille r, J. Dale and Loiseau, Maurice. Culture Capsules. New World Culture Series. Salt Lake City, Utah: Culture Contrasts Company (2550 East 3370 South, 8A109), 197**.

Contains short culture capsules In English contrasting French and American cultural a rtifa cts and patterns. Each culture capsule Is accompanied by a c tiv itie s for students and Illu s tra tiv e drawings. Pertinent to eating habits are pages 1- 22.

Carduner, Jean and Carduner, Sylvie. L'Amerique d'aujourd'hui vue par les Francais. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hal1, 1968 . ?

Articles by French authors reacting to American eating habits are found on pages 43~56.

Bouraoui, H. A. Creaculture, I and 2. Philadelphia, Pa.: The Center for Curriculum Development, 1971.

Chapter 23 of Volume 2 contains a description of the im­ portance of the table in France.

2. Periodicals

Scholastic Magazines (90*t Sylvan Avenue, Englewood C liffs , N.J. 07632).

La Vie (National Textbook Company, 8259 Niles Center Road, Skokie, Illin o is 60076).

3> Materials with audio-visual supplement

Culture Supplement to A-LM French, Level I : New Second Edition (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 197*0.

Has color filmstrips of the pictures In the supplement, cassette tapes, and an activity book. 218

Toute la Bande (Scholastic Magazines, 904 Sylvan Avenue, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.).

A series of thirteen films on life in France, whose glimpses of eating habits may be commented upon, even though these may not be the particular subject of a film .

C. General reference materials

1. Books

Girod, Roger and ^Grand-Clement, Francois. Comment Vivent les Francais. Selection ped.agog ique"* international. Paris: Hachette (79, Bd. Saint-Germain, 6e) , 1966 (copyright by Sveriges Radio) and 1969 (published by Hachette).

Although this book is now dated, it contains an excellent compilation of facts, especially statistical information, a teacher would need to know about daily life in France. Material pertaining to food Is found on pages 35*37. In addition, there are sections detailing differences between various strata of society as well as differences between country and city life.

D'Amecourt, M. and Germain, Nicole. Savoir-vlvre. Collection En- cyclopedte Pratique, directed by Raymond Charette. Montreal: Les 'Editions de 1‘homme (1130 Est, rue de la Gauchetiere, 132), 1969.

French table etiquette is treated in detail on pages 13*26.

Claudian, Jean. "L'AIimentation." In La France et les Francais. Encyclopedic de la Plelade, no. 32. Volume published under the direction of Michel Francois, of the French Institute. Paris: Editions Galllmard, 1972.'

Has a chapter on nutrition which is a very complete tre at­ ment and includes statistics on the changes in dietary habits of the French, as well as changes across class and occupational lines.

Panorama de la France. Le monde contemporaln. Paris: La Docu­ mentation fran^alse (31, qua! Voltaire, 7e) , 1966.

A complete treatment of cultural and social institutions in France with many statistics.

Carroll, Joseph T. The French: How They Live and Work. New York: Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1968a.

Though dated, this source contains much of the information of a descriptive nature which a teacher would need to know in order to discuss patterns. 219

La Vie francaise a' travers les ages. Paris: La Documentation franqaise, 1962 .

Is an interesting historical and pictorial treatment, and includes photographs and engravings which illu s tra te changes in agricultural and shopping patterns.

La Cuisine Francaise. The Cultural Services of the French Embassy, n. d.

Contains a short history of French cuisine and a descrip­ tion of various regional specialties.

Crubellier, Maurice. Histofre culturelle de la France XlX-XXe siecle. Paris: Armand Colin (103 Bd. St.-Michel, 5e) * 197A.

Contains some information on innovations In eating habits.

Tocqueville, Alexis Charles Henri Maurice Clerel de, Democracy in America. Specially edited and abridged for the modern reader by Richard A. Heffner. New York: New American Library, 1956.

A most perceptive analysis of American culture by a nineteenth-century French statesman. Though not specifically concerned with eating habits, it is an indispensable reference, in the opinion of this author, for a ll teachers of American- French cross-cultural understanding.

2. Periodicals

El le

Real Ites

3. Miscellaneous

Cookbooks, especially authentic French cookbooks

Film: "Four Families" (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959)

Though somewhat dated, this film gives a comparative picture of family life in India, France, Japan; and Canada. LIST OF REFERENCES

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