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The Influence of Map Projections on People's Global-Scale

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The Influence of Map Projections on People's Global-Scale International Journal of Geo-Information Article The Influence of Map Projections on People’s Global-Scale Cognitive Map: A Worldwide Study Lieselot Lapon *, Kristien Ooms and Philippe De Maeyer Department of Geography, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; [email protected] (K.O.); [email protected] (P.D.M.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 24 February 2020; Accepted: 22 March 2020; Published: 26 March 2020 Abstract: Map projections are required to represent the globe on a flat surface, which always results in distorted representations of the globe. Accordingly, the world maps we observe in daily life contexts, such as on news sites, in news bulletins, on social media, in educational textbooks or atlases, are distorted images of the world. The question raises if regular contact with those representations of the world deforms people’s global-scale cognitive map. To analyze people’s global-scale cognitive map and if it is influenced by map projections, a short playful test was developed that allowed participants to estimate the real land area of certain regions, countries, and continents. More than 130,000 people worldwide participated. This worldwide dataset was used to perform statistical analyses in order to obtain information on the extent that map projections influence the accuracy of people’s global-scale cognitive map. The results indicate that the accuracy differs with the map projection but not to the extent that one’s global-scale cognitive map is a reflection of a particular map projection. Keywords: map projection; cognitive map; cartography 1. Introduction Developing a cognitive map requires spatial knowledge, which humans achieve by moving in and through space, and as well via observing maps, imagery, 3D models, virtual reality, etc. Through experiences and processes of learning this spatial knowledge evolves over time. As Montello [1] states geographers are interested in how these different media influence the nature of acquired knowledge. In this paper we aim to focus on one of these possible influencing media: the map and, in particular, its map projection. To what extent do map projections impact the development of the global-scale cognitive map? 1.1. Map Projections and Their Controversy A large number of map projections are developed by mathematicians or cartographers to represent (a part of) the globe on a flat surface. However, all distort the earth’s representation in specific ways: through angles, areas, distances, or a combination of these three elements. For decades, cartographers and mathematicians have expounded upon these distortions. For instance, at the end of the 19th century, Nicolas Auguste Tissot characterized local distortions due to map projections by a mathematical contrivance, named the Tissot indicatrix [2]. Moreover, map projections are designed with a particular purpose. For example, the Mercator projection was designed for navigation, the Robinson projection as an attempt to find a compromise for distortions, the equal-area Gall–Peters projection as counter-reaction to the area-distorted but well-known and frequently used Mercator projection (Figures1–3). ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, 196; doi:10.3390/ijgi9040196 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, 196 2 of 19 ISPRSISPRS Int.Int. J.J. Geo-Inf.Geo-Inf. 2020,, 9,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 22 ofof 1919 FigureFigure 1. 1. MercatorMercatorMercator mapmap map projection with asas overlayoverlay thethe TissotTissot indicatrix.indicatrix. Figure 2. Gall–PetersGall–Peters mapmap projectionprojection withwith as overlay the Tissot indicatrix. Figure 2. Gall–Peters map projection with as overlay the Tissot indicatrix. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, 196 3 of 19 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19 Figure 3. RobinsonRobinson map map projection projection with with as as overlay the Tissot indicatrix. For decades, the political significance significance of maps has been discussed, including the Mercator projection as aa constructionconstruction ofof aa EurocentricEurocentric world world view view [3 [3]] and and whether whether maps maps can can become become a meansa means of ofempowerment empowerment and and serve serve only only the intereststhe interests of elites of elites in society. in society. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, all maps all serve maps some serve interest, some interest,regardless regardless of their creators.of their creators. Since mapmakers Since mapm areakers not machines are not machines but humans, but mapshumans, reflect maps objective reflect objectiverealities andrealities subjective and subjective elements thatelements are inevitably that are inevitably influenced influenced by human by shortcomings. human shortcomings. Moreover, Moreover,because maps because have maps a certain have amount a certain of amount scientific of authenticity scientific authenticity that is often that not is questioned often not questioned [4,5], such [4,5],shortcomings such shortcomings and map distortions and map distortions must be considered must be considered while analyzing while andanalyzing using maps.and using maps. 1.2. The The Mercator Mercator Effect Effect The ways to represent the earth are innumerable.innumerable. The best-known is most likely the Mercator projection, designeddesigned in in the the 16th 16th century century by the by Flemish the Flemish Gerardus Gerardus Mercator. Mercator. It is a cylindrical It is a cylindrical conformal conformalmap projection, map projection, preserving preserving the angles asthe they angles are as on they the globe.are on the The globe. projection The projection method was method especially was especiallyvaluable for valuable maritime for navigating, maritime navigating, because the becaus directione the of direction a line between of a line two between locations two on locations a map is theon asame map direction is the same that direction has to be that followed has to whilebe followed navigating while [6 navigating,7]. [6,7]. However, thethe MercatorMercator projection projection is muchis much debated debated because because of its of particular its partic distortionsular distortions that inflate that inflatethe areas the toward areas toward the poles. the Due poles. to theDue widespread to the widespread and longtime and longtime use of this use map of this projection, map projection, it is argued it isthat argued the cognitive that the cognitive map of people map of might people be might most similar be most to similar this distorted to this distorted map projection, map projection, which is whichreferred is to referred as the Mercator to as the eff ect.Mercator Due to effect. the specific Due to area the distortions specific area of the distortions Mercator projection, of the Mercator several projection,scientists argue several that scientists this projection argue influencesthat this proj theection shape influences and structure the ofshape an individual’s and structure cognitive of an individual’smap. Moreover, cognitive the familiarity map. Moreover, with the Mercatorthe familiar projectionity with may the haveMercator an impact projection on the may geographical have an impactknowledge on the and geographical cognitive map knowledge of individuals and cognitive [8,9]. Although map of the individuals misuse of the[8,9]. area Although distorting the Mercator misuse ofprojection the area has distorting been debated Mercator intensely projection among thehas cartographic been debated community intensely for among decades, the for cartographic a long time, communityit remained afor commonly decades, usedfor a maplong projectiontime, it remained in textbooks, a commonly wall maps, used atlases, map projection etc. At the in instigation textbooks, of wallsome maps, scientists atlases, and the etc. National At the Cartographic instigation Association,of some scientists compromise and mapthe projectionsNational Cartographic came into use Association,in the 1980s [compromise10], which are map still projections the primary came projections into use used in the in 1980s textbooks [10], andwhich atlases are still for the world primary maps projectionstoday. Despite used the in shift textbooks toward otherand atlases projections for wo in educationalrld maps today. materials, Despite the Mercatorthe shift projectiontoward other was projectionsstill used by in national educational news materials, agencies the up untilMercator recently, projection e.g., VRT was NWS still used (Flemish by national Radio andnews Television agencies upBroadcasting until recently, Organization). e.g., VRT NWS (Flemish Radio and Television Broadcasting Organization). Moreover, with the development of web map servic serviceses in in the beginning of of the the 21st 21st century, century, a new variant is now commonly consulted: the Web Mercator projection. Despite some mathematical differencesdifferences between the Mercator and the Web Mercator projection, visu visually,ally, on a global scale, these two map projections are indistinguishable [11]. [11]. This This Web Web Mercator projection is appropriate for web mapping becausebecause of of the the simpler simpler calculations, calculations, continuous continuous panning panning and zooming and zooming to any area to regardlessany area regardlessof the location of the or scale,location and or fixed scale, north and direction. fixed no However,rth direction. this choiceHowever, can alsothis bechoice questioned can also since be questionedglobal-scale since web mapsglobal-scale are often web consulted
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