International Journal of Geo-Information Article The Influence of Map Projections on People’s Global-Scale Cognitive Map: A Worldwide Study Lieselot Lapon *, Kristien Ooms and Philippe De Maeyer Department of Geography, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; [email protected] (K.O.); [email protected] (P.D.M.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 24 February 2020; Accepted: 22 March 2020; Published: 26 March 2020 Abstract: Map projections are required to represent the globe on a flat surface, which always results in distorted representations of the globe. Accordingly, the world maps we observe in daily life contexts, such as on news sites, in news bulletins, on social media, in educational textbooks or atlases, are distorted images of the world. The question raises if regular contact with those representations of the world deforms people’s global-scale cognitive map. To analyze people’s global-scale cognitive map and if it is influenced by map projections, a short playful test was developed that allowed participants to estimate the real land area of certain regions, countries, and continents. More than 130,000 people worldwide participated. This worldwide dataset was used to perform statistical analyses in order to obtain information on the extent that map projections influence the accuracy of people’s global-scale cognitive map. The results indicate that the accuracy differs with the map projection but not to the extent that one’s global-scale cognitive map is a reflection of a particular map projection. Keywords: map projection; cognitive map; cartography 1. Introduction Developing a cognitive map requires spatial knowledge, which humans achieve by moving in and through space, and as well via observing maps, imagery, 3D models, virtual reality, etc. Through experiences and processes of learning this spatial knowledge evolves over time. As Montello [1] states geographers are interested in how these different media influence the nature of acquired knowledge. In this paper we aim to focus on one of these possible influencing media: the map and, in particular, its map projection. To what extent do map projections impact the development of the global-scale cognitive map? 1.1. Map Projections and Their Controversy A large number of map projections are developed by mathematicians or cartographers to represent (a part of) the globe on a flat surface. However, all distort the earth’s representation in specific ways: through angles, areas, distances, or a combination of these three elements. For decades, cartographers and mathematicians have expounded upon these distortions. For instance, at the end of the 19th century, Nicolas Auguste Tissot characterized local distortions due to map projections by a mathematical contrivance, named the Tissot indicatrix [2]. Moreover, map projections are designed with a particular purpose. For example, the Mercator projection was designed for navigation, the Robinson projection as an attempt to find a compromise for distortions, the equal-area Gall–Peters projection as counter-reaction to the area-distorted but well-known and frequently used Mercator projection (Figures1–3). ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, 196; doi:10.3390/ijgi9040196 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, 196 2 of 19 ISPRSISPRS Int.Int. J.J. Geo-Inf.Geo-Inf. 2020,, 9,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 22 ofof 1919 FigureFigure 1. 1. MercatorMercatorMercator mapmap map projection with asas overlayoverlay thethe TissotTissot indicatrix.indicatrix. Figure 2. Gall–PetersGall–Peters mapmap projectionprojection withwith as overlay the Tissot indicatrix. Figure 2. Gall–Peters map projection with as overlay the Tissot indicatrix. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, 196 3 of 19 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19 Figure 3. 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