Index

A African body politic and purge elite Abbe Diamacoune, 114 domination, xxiii Abduction of girl-children, 155 African indigenous associational life, Abidjan Accord (November 30, 1996), xix 320 Africa-led International Support Abubakar, Abdusalami, 57, 198, 225 Mission to Mali (AFISMA), 312, Abuja Accord (August 1995), 195, 202 313 Abuja Accord (August 1996), 195 African organizations, 311 Abuja II Accord (effect in 1997), 196 African Union (AU), xxv, 2, 13, 17, Abusive-aggressive policing, 86 25, 35, 40, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 61, Access to education, xxvi, 17, 93, 94, 62, 65, 70, 71, 73, 131, 163, 165, 265 166, 192, 220, 225, 258, 267, Access to formal education, 89 311, 313 Accords (Foundiougne I, February African Union’s principle of non- 2005; Foundiougne II, December, indifference, 299 2005), 129 African Women’s Committee for Peace 2003 Accra Agreement, 198 and Development, the, 164 Accra Clarification (December 1994), African youth, 83, 92, 103 195 African Youth Charter, 95 Addictive substances, 88 Ag Bamoussa, 309 Affirmative action, 125 Agenda for Development (1994), 322 Afolabi, Babatunde, xvii, xviii, 21, 22 Agenda for Peace, 7, 234, 322 AFRC-RUF Coalition Government, Ag Mbarek Kay, 309 315 Ag Mohamed Najem, 309

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020 337 O. Akiba (ed.), Preventive Diplomacy, Security, and Human Rights in West Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25354-7 338 INDEX

Agre, Bernard, Cardinal (late), 232 Aristotle, xxi, xxvii Agricultural land-use, 137 Armed Forces of (AFL), 177, Ahmed Al Faqi Mahdi (Islamist 185, 186, 190, 191, 195, 196, fundamentalist), 9 209 Air Mano, 154 Armed Forces Revolutionary Council Akiba, Okon, xviii (AFRC), 163, 315 AkoNai,Ronke,xxi, 25 Armenians, 272 Akosombo Accord (September 1994), Army usurpation, xvii the, 195 Article 33 of the UN Charter, 294 Alao, Charles Abiodun, xxi, 25 Article 58 of the revised 1993 Albanians, 272, 276–278, 289 ECOWAS Treaty, 47 Al-Basir, Omar, 10 Articulate and pass legislation Alcohol and illegal drugs, 88 outlawing, 282 Algerian Peace Pact (May 4, 2006), Arusha Peace Process, 266, 268 320 Ascendant social status for religious Algiers Peace Agreement (February 16, leaders, 215 2015), the, 320 Association of Traditional Priests, 231, Alienation, 15, 78, 83, 85, 86, 102, 233 171, 175 Association Régionale des Femmes pour All-Liberia National Conference, 189, la Paix (ARFP), 133 191 Atlantic trade, 110 Al-Qaeda, xvi Atrocities of war, xxi Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb Attributes of mediation, 181 (AQIM), 240, 310, 314, 321, 328 Authority of the ECOWAS Heads of Ambivalence of the sacred, xxi State and Government, The, 49 Americo-Liberian advantaged elite, 24 Avoidance of war, 255 Amilcar Cabral of Guinea Bissau, 113 Azar, Edward, 4 Amnesty International, 9, 158 Anarchism, 176 B Animus, xxi Bad governance, 14, 52, 53, 79, 84, Annan, Kofi, 7, 28, 33, 37, 258, 296, 314 298, 323, 324, 330, 334 Bad government, xix, 46, 50, 79, 220, Annual Round-Table, 233 294, 296, 321 An outcast prone, xxi Badji, Sidy, 114 Ansar Dine, 9, 309, 310, 321 Bainouk, 137 Anti-corruption bulletins, 229 Balanta, 137 Antidotes to conflict, 46, 262 Bamako Ceasefire (November 1990), Anti-ICC chorus, 12 191 Antique port city of Zanzibar, 267 Banditry, 112 Anti-secularist, 239 Bangura, Zainab, 163 Arab Spring, 309 Banjul II, September 1999, 127 Arbitration, xv, 15, 182, 295 Banjul III, November 1999, 127 INDEX 339

Banjul Joint Statement (December Bratten, Michael, 223 1990), 191 Brigandage, 112 Banjul Plan of Action, 56 British Amphibious Ready Group, The, Banjul Process, 127 317 Bargaining failures, 178 British commandos, 228 Bargaining theory, 115 British paratroopers, 157 Barrows, Adama, 12, 120 British Special ‘Paratroop’ Forces, 318 Basilica of Our Lady of Peace at Bryant, Gyude (Chairman of Liberia), Yamoussoukro, 229 153, 198 Bayelsa State government’s Capacity Bulgarians, 272 Acquisition Program (CAP), 90 Bunche, Ralph (ONUC field director), Beardsley, Kyle, 179 304 Belgian colonial rule, 300 Bureaucratic corruption, 5, 16, 49, 52, Belgian law, 305 282, 283, 314 Belgian paratroopers, 300 Burundi, 11, 265, 266, 272, 287, 328 Berchovitch, Jacob, 180 Berlin Conference (1884), 136 C Biagui, Jean-Marie Francois, 114, 129, Cacheu, 114, 115 147 Cadre Casamancais, 122 Biological determinism, 4 Cahill, Kevin, 3, 30 Bissauan Casamancais, 137 Calabar city of , 158 Blair, Tony (British Prime Minister), Camara, Dadis (Captain), 62, 63 202, 314, 316, 317 Camaraderie (esprit de corps), 112 Blind revenge, 269 Campaign for Good Governance Boigny, Houphouet, 191, 192, 199, (CGG), 166 229 Canada, 217, 268 Boko Haram, 15, 24, 218, 235, 239, Canalization of cultures and the people, 240 109 Boko Haram militants in Nigeria, The, Capital city of , 136 314 Capital intensity, 124 Boley, George, 196 Carnevale, Peter, 179 Booh-Booh, Jacques-Roger (Cameroo- Carrot and stick, 178, 183 nian General), 269 Casamancais, xviii, 23, 108, 111, 114, Border police control and customs 117, 121, 122, 125, 126, 128, police procedures, 282 136, 138, 139, 146 Bornu, 239, 240 Casamancais belief systems, 124 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 272, 273 Casamancais Exceptionalism, 137 Botswana, 16, 19 Casamancais regionalists, 121 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 7, 32, 258, Casamancais youths, 109, 139 259, 261, 275, 285, 296, 298, , xviii, 108–116, 118–139 322, 333 Casamance conflict, 109–111, 113, Brahimi Report, 299, 323 120, 129, 131, 137, 149, 151 340 INDEX

Casamance region, 20, 107, 110, 123, Colonial anger, 126 127–129, 134–137, 145 Colonial policy of discrimination, 126 Catholic Cardinal Yago, 231 Colonial rule, 107 Cattle-owning (Tutsi), 264 Comite Regional de Solidarite Celestial reward, 215 des Femmes pour la Paix en Center for International Crime Casamance (USOFORAL- Prevention (CICP), 281 meaning hand-in-hand in Jola), , 314 134 Central Mosque in Kano, 237 Committees for the Defense of the Cesar Atoute Badiate, 118 Revolution (CDR), 268 Chambas, Mohamed Ibn, 19 Common ECOWAS currency, 51 Child soldiers, 82, 96, 155 Common market, 153 Christian Association of Nigeria Community of Sahel-Saharan States, (CAN), the, 242 The (CEN-SAD), 62 Christian Charismatic and Pentecostal Community of Sant’Egidio, 130 rallies, 216 Community practices, xix Christian organizations, 217 Community virtue, xix Christian Women’s Initiative, 161 Compaore, Blaise, 57, 63, 159 ‘Christmas Coup’, 231 Comparative analyses of human Church World Service (CWS), 226 security, 257 Chutzpah, xxi Compromise, 180 Citizenship, xxiii Compulsory education, 22 Civil and human rights, 94 Conakry Accord (October 23, 1997), Civil/Political Rights (CPR), 14 320 Civil service jobs, 90 Concerned Christian Community of Civil society, 90 Liberia (CCCL), 226 Civil war in Liberia (1989), 155 Conciliation, xv Clausewitzean conventional under- Conde, Alhassane, 63 standings of war, 177 Conditions for peace, 255 Clientelistic patronage networks, 186 Confidence building, 280 Climate change, 7 Conflict and Peace: Article 17, 95 Cluster of war-induced traumas, 111 Conflict-elimination equation, 220 Coercive power, 179 Conflict prevention, 280 Co-factor of conflict, 7 Conflict-prone face of religion, 219 Cold War, the, 293 Conflict-prone Northern Nigerian city Collective grievance, 121 of Kano, 217 Collective of Religious Confessions for Conflict risks, 65 National Reconciliation and Peace, Conflict transformation, 5, 7 The, 233 1960 Congo Crisis, 296, 318 Collective responsibility to protect Congo Crisis, the, 258 (RP2), 2 Congolese National Army, the, 299 Colonel Joseph-Desire Mobutu, 306 Congo province of Kasai, the, 299 INDEX 341

Congo Republic, 300 Dallaire, Romeo (UN Forces Com- Conseil of National Islamique de Côte mander), 258, 268–270, 272, d’Ivoire, 230 285, 287 Context-specific knowledge, 178 December Massacre, 228, 239 Continental Early Warning System Deep grievances, 86 (CEWS), 65 Defense and Security Commission, 49 Controversial and unusual election, Delta State Government, 91 157 Demagogues, xv 2005 Convention on Small Arms and Demobilization-Disarmament- Light Weapons, 50 Reintegration (DDR), 89, Cooperative security, xvi 262 Cordier, Andrew (UN’s American field Democratic education, xvii representative), 304 Democratic equality, xix Côte d’Ivoire, 228 Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cotonou Accord (June 1993), 193 219 Council of Congolese University Stu- Democratic rights and freedom, 108 dents (College des Commissaire), Demographic shift, xviii the, 306 Denmark, 217 Council of Indigenous Akan Religious Dense social networks, 87 Priests, 233 Deputy President William Ruto, 12 Council of the Wise, 21, 46, 49 De-sacralize, xix Council on Foreign Relations, 79 De Souza, Marcel A. (ECOWAS Countervailing militarized structures, Commission leader), 19 87 Destruction of the sacred forest, 124 Covert communication surveillance, 16 Destructive weapons of war, 2 Credibility leverage, 178 Diamond rich areas of , Creole language, 136 156 Crime prevention, 281, 282 Diatta, Kamougue, 116 Criminal entrepreneurship, 82 Diouf, Abdou, 110, 116, 122, 126–129 Criminal gangs, 82 Diplomacy, 175 Criminalizing drug-trafficking, 282 Diplomatic leverage, 177 Criminal organizations, 82 Disarmament, Demobilization and Crisis of youth, 82 Reintegration (DDR), 164, 226 Croatia, 272, 273 Disarming of landmines, 133 Cross-border problems, 109 Discriminatory policies, 109 CSI refused to join the Forum, 231 Disenfranchised youth, 80 Cultural ornamentation, 134 Disenfranchisement, 78 Cultural, political preferences, 178 Disgruntled youth, 92 Curative, 22 Dispensing (jungle) justice, 15 Displaced populations, 86 D Disputes emanating from “misunder- Dalai Lama, The, 4 standings”, 182 342 INDEX

Divisive ethnic tensions, 15 ECOWAS Forces joined French Djibo, Salou, 61 Troops, 9 Doctrinal and philosophical ECOWAS International Conference, (mis)understandings, 222 51 Dowd, Robert, 217 ECOWAS Mediation Guideline Drug abuse treatment, 282 (EMG), 47, 54 Drug-trafficking origination, 281 ECOWAS of States to an ECOWAS of Dyfan, Isha, 166 People, 50 Dynamic inter-play of give-and-take, ECOWAS policy on refugees, 17 264 ECOWAS Protocol on Democracy and Dysmorphic defects in temporal Good Governance, 60 authority, xxi ECOWAS Protocol on good gover- nance, 46 ECOWAS refugee policy, 17 E ECOWAS Special Envoys, 57 Early warning mechanisms, 47 ECOWAS Youth Council, the (EYC), Early warning system, 46 93 Economically depressed countries, 94 ECOWAS Youth Entrepreneurs and Economic and social rights, 16 Empowerment Program, the Economic Community of West African (EYEP), 93 States (ECOWAS), 2, 45, 79, 131, 176, 187, 220, 225, 320 Educational infrastructures, 89 Economic Community of West Ehhardt, David, 217 African States Monitoring Group Eliagwu, Jonah Isawa, 235 (ECOMOG), 24, 49, 156, 227 El-Zakzaky’s Islamic Movement of Economic development, xvi Nigeria (IMN), 238 Economic incentive, 138 Enforceable and justiciable, 16 Economic inequities, 125 Enrichment of individual life, xxiii Economic marginalization, 14 Environmental quality, 110 Economic planning, 45 Envoys, 21 Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights Equality and access to material (ESCR), 14 resources, 220 Economic union in West Africa, 47 Erosion of access to basic living, 86 ECOWAS Commission, 49 Escalations of youth violence, 86 ECOWAS Conflict Management Ethiopia, 217 Mechanism, 14 Ethnic cleansing of the early 1990s, ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Frame- 255 work (ECPF), 3, 6, 50, 79, 92, Ethnic cleavages run parallel, 223 201 Ethnic-culturally divided societies, 180 ECOWAS Conflict Preventive Ethnic differences in Nigeria, 222 Framework (ECPF), 6 Ethnic hatred, xxi ECOWAS Executive Secretary (Abbas Ethnicized discrimination, 222 Bundu), 193 Ethno-religious, 18 INDEX 343

Ethno-religious fears, 221 Formed (May 1991) in Guinea- Ethno-religious strife, 24 Conakry, 156 European settler community, 305 Former Côte d’Ivoire President European Union, 278 Laurent Gbagbo, 9, 222, 229, 232 Evolutionary value, xxiii Former US President Jimmy Carter, Exceptionalism, 110 192, 199 Exchange of cannabis for arms, 119 Forum des Confessions Religieuses Côte Exclusivist ideology of Hutu identity, d’Ivoire, 231 268 Foundation for Justice and Development Ex-combatants, 89 Initiative, 11 Exit option for young people, 94 Founding women’s group, 166 Expansion of employment, 280 , 217 ‘Explosive Remnants of War’(ERW), Free exercise of their citizenship rights, 133 276 Externalities of conflict, 109 French-supported Forces Armees Extremes of commercial exploitation Rwandaises (FAR), 265 for profit, 124 Front Nord (Northern Front), 114 Extremes of religious fanaticism, 223 Front Populaire Ivoirien (FPI), 229 Extremist Hutu Power faction, 268 Front Sud (Southern Front), 114 Fulani, 310 F Fundamental characteristics of Façade of a rock-solid , 138 religion-based conflict, 221 Facebook, 16 Fundamentalism as Boko Haram, 204 Facilitator, 266 Factors dictating human preference for peace, xxiii G Faith-based, cultural and educational Gaddafi, Muammar, 159, 184 institutions, 96 Gao (MUJAO), 310 Favorable ‘in-group’ biases, 180 Gartner, Sigmund, 180 Fears of ethnic discrimination, 276 “Gbagbo has blood on his hands”, 232 Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 278 Gbarnga, 190 Federation of Muslim Women Gbeho, Victor James, 19, 52 Associations of Sierra Leone, 227 Gbowee, Leymah, 161 Femmes Africa Solidarite, 164 Gendarmerie corps, 126 First RPF military move (October 1, Gendarmerie Royale of Senegal, 121 1990), 265 Gendered prejudice, xix Food insecurity, 82 Gender-inclusiveness and promotion of Food producing-agriculturalist (Hutu), the human rights of women, 154 264 General Abdusalami of Nigeria, 60 Formal employment, 82 General David Richards, 316 Formation of legitimate government, General Robert Guei, 231, 232 284 General Yakubu Gowon, 222 344 INDEX

‘59er Generation’, 265 Habyarimana, Juvenal, 265, 267–269 Genocidaires, 269 Hague, The, 11 Genocidal conflict in , 13 Haldun Canci, 222 Genocide, xv, 27, 255 Hamburg, David, 255 Genocide in Rwanda, xxii Hard power, 178 Genocide in the Balkans and Rwanda, Hate-filled graffiti, 124 2 Heady student activism, 221 Germany, 217, 225 Hearts and minds, 317 Ghana, 217, 225 Henrico Ural, 84 Gibson, Myrtle, 160 Higher law, xx Gio and Mano ethnic origins, 184 Hobbes, Thomas, 175 Gizenga, Antoine, 307 Homelessness, 125 Gligorov, Kiro, 26, 273–275, 283 Horrendous human cruelty, 155 Global humanitarian agency, the, 226 Hostage-taking, 157 Global humanitarian obligations, xvi Houphouet, Boigny, 228 Global justice, 10 Human development, 110, 220 Global system of states, 1 Human dimension, 280 Global trade in illegal arms, 79 Humane governance, 126 Good offices, xv, 182, 267 Human rights, xvi Government of Siaka Stevens, 86 Human rights corpus, 13 Government of Sierra Leone, 89 Human rights of refugees, 17 Grant amnesty to all active maquisards, Human security, 45 128 Human security risks, 77 Grassroots organizations, xvii Human society, 124 Graybill, Lyn S., 227 Hutu compatriots, 264 Grebo Defence Force (GDF), 224 Hutu supremacist syndrome, 263 Greenstock, Jeremy (British Ambas- sador), 318 50/50 Group in Sierra Leone, 167 I G5 Sahel (Burkina Faso, Mali, Ideology of Hutuness, 264 Mauritius, Niger and Chad), 204 Ikelegbe, Augustine, xviii, 22, 98 Guaranteed long-term durability, 179 Illegal diamond trade, 156 ‘Guerrilla to Governor’, 284 Illegal exploitation of mineral resources, Guinea independence October 1958, 156 62 Illiterate and acquiescent masses, 269 Guinean National Council for Democ- Imam Koudous Kone (CNI), 232 racy and Development (CNDD), Imam Muhammed Movel Ashafa, 241 63 Imam Tidiane Ba, 231 Impartiality, 311 Impose stiffer sanctions on Guinea- H Conakry, Sierra Leone, Côte Habyarimana government, 268 d’Ivoire and Burkina Faso, 226 INDEX 345

Improve relations of state and society, International Humanitarian Law, xvi 126 International law about “permissible Impulses and temptation for revenge, use of force”, 2 180 International Negotiations Network Incarceration, 125 (INN), 192 Incentives, 221 International rights norms, xvi Incessant regional conflicts, 21 International sanctions, 226 Independent Islamic State of Azawad in International summit, July 12, 1992, the North, the, 310 266 Independent National Patriotic Front Inter-Religious Council of Liberia of Liberia (INPFL), 184 (IRCL), 225 Industrialized society, 95 Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone Infinite distress, xxiv (IRCSL), 227 Inherent and inviolable rights, xvii Intolerant clerics, xxi Inherent superiority, 265 Inverted morality, xv In Larger Freedom, 324 Islamic International Foundation, 233 Insignia of manhood, 88 Islamic Shari’a Law, 236 Institutionalization of Ivoirite, 230 Israeli LIAT Finance and Construction Integrated Criminal Justice Informa- Company, 319 tion Data-Base, 282 Issoufou, Mahamadou, 61 Intellectual underpinnings of “just war Italy, 217 doctrine”, 2 Ivoirien Catholic Church, 233 Intense labour protests, 221 Ivoirien Constitution, 232 Interfaith Council of West Africa Iyad Ag Ghali, 309, 310 (CIRAO), 233 Inter-faith Mediation Center (located J in Lagos), 242 Jalloh, Agnes (President of the NPFL Intermediary activity, 181 women wing), 159 International Contact Group, 198 ‘Jama’at ahlis Sunnah lid Da’wat wal International Contact Group for Jihad’ (‘people committed to Liberia (ICGL), 176, 225 the propagation of the Prophet’s International Contact Group on teachings and Jihad’), 239 Guinea (ICG-G), 62 Jammeh, Yahya, 12, 119 International Contact Group on Sierra Joao Bernardo (Nino) Vieira, 117 Leone, 202 John F. Kennedy Profile of Courage International crimes and crimes against Award, 161 humanity, 9 Joint Project on Policing and Human International Criminal Court (ICC), 9, Rights, 282 10 Joking statements, 125 International criminal network, 156 Jola Casamancais, 113, 119, 122, 124, International Criminal Tribunal 125, 130, 133, 136, 139, 144, Hearings, xv 151 346 INDEX

Jola (Diola), 22 1964 land reform policy (Loi sur le Jola indigenes, 139 domaine), 123 Jola resistance, 23 Lansana Conte (Guinea), 153 July 1999 Lomé Accord, 157 Lartey, Benjamin D. (General Secretary Just War Doctrine, xvi of the Liberian Council of Churches), 225 Last resort, The, 8 K Lavalie, Elizabeth, 163 Kaabu/Kaabu Kingdom, 135 Lawless, xxi Kaba Hadji Saran Daraba (President), Legitimate interrogation, 126 165 Leopoldville, 299 Kabbah, Ahmad Tejan (Sierra Leonean Lewis, Agnes Taylor (Second Vice President), 153, 157, 227, 228, President), 165 315, 316, 318, 333 Lewis, Peter, 223 Kabonketoor, 134 Liberia, xv, 153 Kabu, Quebu, N’gabo, 135 Liberia National Transitional Govern- Kadayifci-Orellana, 179 ment (LNTG), 194 Kagame, Paul (RPF Second-in- Liberian Council of Churches, 225 Command), 266, 267 Liberian Inter-Faith Mediation Kaleidoscope of knowledge, xxiv Committee (IFMC), 188 Kallon, Isatu, 159 Liberian Mass Action for Peace, the, Kamei, Peter (General Secretary of 161 YMCA Liberia), 226 Liberian National Transitional Kasavubu, Joseph, 304 Government, the, 202 Katanga’s Moise Tshombe, 307 Liberians United for Reconciliation Keen, David, 177 and Democracy (LURD), 224 Keita, Sundiatta, 110 Liberians United for Reconstruction Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta, 11 and Democracy (LURD), 197 Kidal (Ansar Dine), 310 Kigali Airport, 268 Liberian War, 224 King, Martin Luther, Jnr., 4 Liberian Women Initiative (LWI), 162 Kinyarwanda, 264 Lifting the quality of life among North Koroma, Jonny Paul, 228, 315 Macedonians, 280 KOSIMO Project, The, 13 Limb-cutting, 155 Krahn minority, 186 Linas-Marcoussis Accord (LMA), the, Kromah, Alhaji G.V., 193, 194, 196, 232 212 Locally displaced persons (LDPs), 78 Lomé Accord (July 17, 1999), 320 Lomé Agreement (February 1991), L 191 Lake Kivu, 272 Lome Peace Accord of May 1999, 314 Land mines, 110 Looting, 112 Land reform policy, 123 Low-intensity conflict, 219 INDEX 347

Low intensity profile, 110 Mary Brownell, Liberian activist, 162 Low-key communal conflicts, 77 Masiaka, 318 Lt. Toumba Diakite, 62 Mass living standard, xxiv Lucrative underground market, 227 Mass movements of people, 94 Lungi Airport, 317 Mass poverty, 109 Mass unemployment, 221 Matabeleland, 10 M Meanings of community, xxiii Madam Moumouna Ouattara (Burk- Measurement and mis-measurement of inabe Ambassador to Ghana), intensity, 110 159 1999 Mechanism, 55 Mahatma Gandhi, 4 1st Mechanized Brigade, the, 317 Majority Wolof, the, 139 Media component of the ECPF, 16 Major peace conference in Rome Mediated settlement, 180 October 13-14, 2013, 130 Mediation, xv, 97, 175 Makeni, 318 Mediation and Security Council, The, Malicious merchants in society, 96 49 , xvi, 110 Mediation Facilitation Division (MFD), Mallam Kasimu Rimin Tawaye, 237 54 Mancagne, 137 Mediation process, 177 Mandatory Acquisition Program Mediator, 178 (MAP), 90 5-Member ECOWAS Standing Mandingo, the, 137 Mediation Committee, 48, 189, Mandinka, 122 192 Mane, Ansumane, 117 50-member Neutral Military Observer Manjak, 137 Group I (NMOG-I), 267 Mano River Union (MRU), 23, 153, Membership of the ICGL, 225 155 Middle East and in North African Mano River Women’s Peace Network (MENA), 94 (MARWOPNET), 59 Migrant labor, 95 Mansa Musa, 135 Militarized approach to enforcing law 50-man strong Indonesian Heavy and order, 86 Engineering Army Corps, 274 Military Operation SERVAL (January Manufactured hatred, xxiii 11), 312 Maquisards, 115 Ministry of Interior’s Department of Marc Sommers, 85 Faith-based Organizations, 233 Marginalization by the majority, 276 Minor, Grace, 159 Marginalized Casamancais, 108 Minority grievances, 275 Marginalized citizenry, 121 (Mis)perception, 221, 243, 244 Marginalizing the youths, 22 Miss World Crown (2001), 235 Marwa, Muhammad, 240, 241 2002 Miss World Pageant, 235 Marx, Karl, xxi Miss World Silver Bird Production, 235 348 INDEX

Mitigate human suffering, 216 National Patriotic Front of Liberia Mobilization, 221 (NPFL), 156, 184, 187 Moderate Hutu, 263 National Patriotic Reconstruction Mona Wureh, 160 Assembly Government (NPRAG), Monrovia Mass Action for Peace, 161 190 Montenegro, 272 National unity policy, 122 Moral Re-Armament, 188 NDDC’s Technical Aid Corps (NTAP), Moral suasion, 10 90 Mouvement des Forces Democratique Ndongo, Oumar, 23 de la Casamance (MFDC), 109 Negligent official policies, 80 Movement for Democracy in Liberia Negotiation, 176 (MODEL), 197, 224 Neoliberal constitutionalism, 5 Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Network of Women Parliamentarians Africa (MUJAO), 310 and Ministers (NWPM), 167 Mugabe, Robert, 10 Neutrality, 182, 296, 311 Muhammadu Bello Masaba of Bida, Neutrality and big palaver in the cold 238 war era, 301 Multi-national fighting troops, xvi New normal configuration of Muscular peacekeeping, 176 abnormalities, 77 Museveni’s National Resistance Army Nicephone Soglo, 199 (NRA), 265 Niger Delta Development Commission Museveni, Yoweri, 10, 267 (NDDC), 90 Muslim Congress, 227 Niger Delta experience, 87 Muslim marabouts, 216 Niger Delta Job Creation Program and Muslim organization, Conseil Superieur Conflict Prevention Initiative, 91 Islamique de Côte d’Ivoire (CSI), Niger Delta of Nigeria, 78 230 Niger Delta turmoil, 80 Mutually hurting stalemate, 179 Nigeria, 217, 225 “My Share of the Sacrifice for Peace and Nigerian civil war, 222 Reconciliation in Côte d’Ivoire”, Nigerian lady Agbani Darego, 235 233 Nigerian National Commission for Refugees, the, 78 N Nigerian Red Cross, The, 236 National , 139 Nigerian Supreme Council for Islamic National Commission for Democracy Affairs (NSCIA), 242 and Human Rights (NCDHR), Nigeria’s counter-insurgency strategy 163 from ‘military centric’, 235 National law review committee, 282 Nigeria’s national task force on National Movement for the Liberation Combating Illegal Importation of of Azawad (MNLA), 309 Goods, Arms, Ammunitions and National Muslim Council of Liberia, Light Weapons (NATFORCE), 79 225 Nigeria’s Niger Delta, 86 INDEX 349

Nolte, Insa, 83 Operational rear-military dissident Non-binding manner, 181 soldiers, 111 Non-cooperation, 178 Operation Barras, 318 Non-refoulement, 17 Operation Basilica, 318 Non-state actors, 94 Operation Gabou, 117 Nordistes, 125 Operation Palliser, 317 Normative institutions of international Opium of the people, xxi governance, 1 Ordinary citizens, xxiv Normative leaders in civic minded Organizational behavior, 166 organizations, xxii Organization of African Unity (OAU), Norms of conflict resolution, 1 267 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Organized criminal networks, 79 (NATO), the, 278 2007 Ouagadougou Agreement, 232 Northern Nigerian cities, 234 Ouedraogo, Kadre Desire, 19 North Macedonia, 272, 274 Oumar Ndongo, xix North Macedonia-Kosovo border, 278 Outcast minority, 85 North Macedonian territorial borders, Over-investment, 124 273 Ntaryamira, Cyprien (Burundian colleague President), 268 P Nyak (stranger or settler in Senegal), Pacifists and non-violent protagonists, 125 4 Nye, Joseph, 178, 179 2002 Pageant, 235 Panshekara district, 237 “A parade of nudity”, 236 O Para-military culture of irresponsibility, OAU Special Representative (Rev. 187 Canaan Banana), 193 Para-military group, Interahamwe, 268 OAU Summit in Abuja (June 1991), Part VIII of the UN Charter, 312 267 Pastoral Communiqué, 229 Obote, Milton, 265 “Pastor and Imam Project”, 242 Observation and Monitoring Center, Pastor James Nurayn Wuye, 241 51 Peacebuilding, xvi, 4, 110, 223, 262 Observation and Monitoring System Peacebuilding initiatives, 6 (OMS), 18 Peace conference, 233 Odukoye, Opeyemi, 222 Peace education, xvii, 65, 90 Official contempt for the Jola tradition, Peace efforts, 127 124 Peace enforcement, 205 Ojo, Adeleye, 240 Peaceful conflict settlement, 181 Okwri Rabwoni, 89 Peacekeeping, 259 “One who damns and curses, the”, 240 Peacemaking, 259 Operational prevention, 3, 6 Peace process, 183 350 INDEX

Peace summit, 231 Presidents Gregoire Kayinbanda Peace Talks at Akosombo in Ghana (1962-1973), 265 (4th of June, 2002), 225 Prevention, 176 Pentecostal Christians, 217 Preventive action, 7 Pentecostal Reverend Kortu Brown was Preventive deployment, 26 the Managing Director of CCCL, Preventive diplomacy, 3, 4, 45, 92, 226 257, 295 People-centered zeal, xxiv Preventive peacekeeping, 259 ‘People centric’, 235 Preventive war, 8 5-person council of state, 194 Priestesses of the forest grove, 134 Peul (Fulani), 137 Priestesses, The, 133 Pew Research Centre, 217, 219 Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, 299 Police high handedness, 86 Primordial cause, xv Political amnesty, 157 Princen, Thomas, 182 Political and Humanitarian Affairs, 280 Prince Yormie Johnson, 184 Political destiny, xxiii Priorities of the conflictual parties, 179 Political elites, 96 Private material gains, 221 Political rights, 16 Private motives, 221 Political will, 257 Privileged Hutu clients, 264 Politicization of identity, 231 Profane, xix Pope Johannes Paul II, 229 Professor Amos Sawyer, 190 Popular resistance, 107 Progressive governments appreciate Port Loko, 318 good citizenship, xxiii Portuguese corruption of Mansa Proliferation of newer pro-women (Conqueror) Sama Coli, 135 organizations, 167 Post-Arusha de-briefing session in Prolonged MRU wars, 155 Dar-es-Salaam, 268 Prolonged violence, 180 Post conflict peacebuilding, 178 Promotion of community health, 280 Post conflict rehabilitation, xvi, 294 Promotion of economic growth and Poverty, 79 social progress, 220 Power equation, 180 Pronounced transformations, 1 Power-sharing government, 266 1981 Protocol on Mutual Defense Prefecture of Ruhegeri, 266 Assistance, 48 Prerequisites for successful peacekeep- Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for ing, 259 Conflict Prevention, Management, President Ahmadou Toumani Toure Resolution, Peacekeeping and (ATT), 311 Security, 48 President Jawara, 199 “Protracted Social Conflict” theory, 4 President Mobutu, 267 Province’s premier Moise Tshombe, President Olusegun Obasanjo, 316 300 President Pierre Nkurunziza, 11 Province of South Kasai, 302 President Samuel Doe, 184 Psyche of the maquisards, 121 INDEX 351

Psycho-analytical approaches, 4 Regional uniqueness, 137 Public Information Units of the Rehabilitation programs, 282 UNPREDEP mission, 280 Reid, Lindsay, 177 Pulaar, 122 Relevance of culture, 124 Purposes and Principles of the UN Religion in truth is “Janus-faced”, 244 Charter, 1 Religious bigotry, xxi Religious freedom, 25 Religious organizations, 25 Q Renders peacekeeping, 258 Qadiriyya, 218 Repatriation of all refugees, 266 Quattara winning the presidency, 232 Repression and official violent Questions of human rights, 220 interventions, 87 Quiwonkpa (Army Chief), 186 Republic of Guinea, the, 163 Research Group in Democracy and R Social and Economic Development Radicalized Islamist groups, 221 of Côte d’Ivoire (GERDDES-CI), Radicalized youths, 85 the, 231 Radio Democracy of Freetown, 163 Resolution 1160, 278 Rapacious government leaders, 85 Resolution 912 (1994) of 21 April Rassemblement des Republicaines 1994, 270 (RDR), 230 Resource allocation, 180 Rational choice, 181 Resource-induced conflict, 80 Rawlings, Jerry, 52, 195, 199 Resource-laden problem, 180 Ray Block, 180 Resource war in West Africa, 156 Rear-guard responsibilities on Responsibility to Protect (R2P), 296, prevention, 225 299, 324 ‘Rebel’ incursion, 267 Restitution, 10 Rebelliousness among youth groups, Restoration of peace in Liberia, 52 86 Restorative justice, xxi Rebuilding war-torn infra-structures, Restorative social programs, 22 46 Retaliatory military force, 8 Recompense, 10 Retributive justice, xxi Reconciliation, xxi, 223, 294 Reverend Canaan Banana, 199 Red Sunday of December 18, 1983, Reverend Father Augustin Abbe 120 Diamacoune Senghor, 113 Reffel Victoria, 159 Revivalism, 234 Reflection Group for Peace in the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), Casamance (RGPC), 130 156, 314 Reformist Islamist movements, 218 Right of “hot pursuit”, 8 ‘Refugee Warriors’, 265 Ripe for resolution, 179 Regional Economic Community Rise and prolongation of conflict, 220 (REC), 47 Risk multiplier, 7 352 INDEX

Rituals of the mystical bath, 133 Second colonization of the Casamance Role of civil society, 282 by the government of the Wolof , Roling, B.V.A., 13 125 Romas (Gypsies), 272 Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld, Rome Conference, the, 130 295 Root causes of a conflict, 178 Secular , Azawad, 309 Roots of social violence, 86 Security, 175 Rothchild, Donald, 180 Security Council Resolution 2071 Rule of law, the, xvii (October 3rd 2012), The, 311 Ruthlessness, 187 Security Council Resolution 872 Ruth Sandro Perry (Chairperson of (1993), 269 the new National Transitional Security Council Resolution Government), 195 S/Res/842, 1993, 274 Rwanda, 26, 256, 257 Security Council, The, 295 Rwandan in-egalitarian society, 264 Security dilemma, 276 Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), 265 Security risks and liabilities in the Rwandese citizens, 272 Casamance, 111 Rwandese patrons, 264 Security sector reform, 178, 262 Rwigyema, Fred (charismatic military Self-defense, 8 commander), 266 Self-definition and self-determination, 109 S Self-inflicted catastrophe, 224 Sacred groves, 133 Senator Joseph Ileo, 304 Sadio, Salif, 116 Senegalese Government, 109 Sagna, Leopold, 116 Senegalese Government’s Residential Salafi Islamists, 218 Housing Development Program, Salim, Salim Ahmed, 185, 267 the, 123 Sall, Macky, 110, 120, 130–132 Senegalese tricolor flags, 120 Sanctity of rights, xxiii Senghor, Leopold, 122 Sandline Incorporated, 315 Senghor’s National Socialist Party, 122 Sankara Madrassa of Timbuktu, 135 Separatist emotions, 109 Sankoh, Fonday, 156, 157, 199, 202, Separatist movement of Southern 227, 314, 315 Senegal, xviii Sanogo, Ahmadou (Captain), 311 September Massacre, 62 Sardonic thoughts, xxi Serbia, 272 Saudi-educated Sheikh, Jafar Adam, Serbs, 272 237 Serer, 122 ‘Scramble for Africa’ (1881-1914), 136 Sesay, Kadi, 163 Secessionist emotions and revolutionary Settlement, 175 temper, 121 Sexual abuse in the Sierra Leonean war, Secession of mineral-rich Katanga 158 province, 300 Shari’a family law, 238 INDEX 353

Shekau, Abubakar, 239 Songhai, 310 Sherman, Theresa Leigh (First Vice Songhai militia (Gando Isa), 310 President), 165 Soninke, 122 Shi’ite Muslims, 218 Soro, Guillaume, 222 Shia Muslims, 218 South Africa, 217, 235 Siegel, David, 180 South African Supreme Court, 12 Sierra Leone, xv, 153 Spain, 225 Sierra Leonean conflicts, 296 Special Court for Sierra Leone, 10 Sierra Leone Army (SLA), 85, 315 Special Criminal Court for Sierra Leone Sierra Leone Islamic Missionary Union, (SCSL), 198 227 Special Envoy, 60 Silent emergency, 85 Special Report to the Fifteenth United Silviculture, 137 Nations General Assembly on the Sirleaf, Ellen Johnson, 53, 198 Congo Crisis (1961), the, 295 Skeans, Abigail, 243 Special Representative of the Secretary Skill acquisition and empowerment General in North Macedonia, 276 training workshops, 93 Special Representatives of the Slav-Macedonians (64%), 272 ECOWAS President, 21, 56 Slovenia, 272 Special World Small and Medium Size Enterprises Conferences, 1 (SME), 93 Spirit of commonality at the January Small arms and light weapons (SALW), 1992, 1 162 Split of the maquis, 114 Smock, David, 242 Stamnes, Eli, 281 Smythe, Amy, 163 Stanleyville, 307 Social and Economic Reconstruction of Casamance (SERC), 128 State-collapse, 26 Social anger, 78, 108 Stifle legitimate democratic dissent, Social discontent, 86 230 Social environments, 22 Stigmatization of youth groups, 22 Social harmony in diversity, 125 Stockpiles of all banned weapons, 133 Social justice, xix, 1 Structural prevention, 3, 6 Social movements, xvii Struggle for self-rule, 108 Social problems, 216 Successful humanitarian intervention, Social progress, xxiii 260 Social progress and better standards of Sufi-Brotherhood, 218 life in larger freedom, 1 Sunni ‘Establishment’ Muslim group, Socio-economic development, 280 the, 218 Socio-economic peripheralization, 239 Sunni ‘Mainstream-Establishment’ Soft power, 178 Muslims, 218 Sokalski, Henryk, 280 Supreme Islamic Council, 227 Solitude of self, 88 Sustainable development, 280 354 INDEX

Sustainable socio-economic develop- Track-I diplomacy, 21, 59 ment, 2 Track-II Diplomacy, 21, 47, 58 Sustained mediation of the conflict, (Track II) mediators, 176, 216 266 Traditional modes of conflict Sweden, 225 resolution, 55 Traditional peacekeeping, 205 Tradition of compromise, 264 T Tradition of conflict management, 221 Tamanrasset Accord (January 6, 1991), Training in forensic science and 320 criminal ballistic investigation, 282 Tangible and intangible filaments, 179 Training in police investigative Tanzania, 272 techniques, 282 Tanzanian President Ali Hassan Transitional societies, xvii, 5, 255 Mwinyi, 267 Transitional world, 95 Taylor-backed armed rebellion, 156 Transtemporal reward, 221 Taylor, Charles, 24, 156–158, 184, Traore, Tiramakhan (Army General), 314 135 Taylor’s NPFL, 185 Triggers of conflict, 221 Technical indicator grid, 65 ‘True Wig Party’, 186 Territorial integrity, xvi Truth and Reconciliation Commission Terrorism of mass destruction, 293 (TRC) in Sierra Leone, The, 164 Theological understandings or Truth telling, xxi, 223 imperatives, 221 Truth Telling, Forgiveness, Accom- Third parties, 176, 178 modation and Conciliation, Threats of weapons of mass destruction, 262 293 Tuareg, 310 Three Permanent Members of the UN Tuareg-led secessionist revolt, 309 Security Council (the US, UK and Tuareg National Movement for the France), 225 Liberation of Azawad (MNLA), 9 Tijaniyya, 218 4th Tuareg revolt, 309 Timbuktu (AQIP), 310 Turks, 272 Time inconsistency problems, 179 Tutsi-led militants, 263 Timelier compliance, 179 Twisted logic and message of hate, 268 Timing, 257 Two Decades of Peace Processes Tolbert’s Administration, 24 in West Africa: Achievements, Tolbert’s regime (1971-80), 185 Failures, and Lessons, 51 Tolerance, 25 Tyrannical rule, xix Torture, 126 Touré, Ahmadou Toumani, 309 Tourism industry, 138 U Touval, Saaida, 181 Uganda, 272 Track I actors, 59 Ugandan High Court, 11 INDEX 355

UK’s Peace Support Program, 204 United Nations Education and Scien- Ultra-modern Mosques, 230 tific and Cultural Organization Umbrella organization for women’s (UNESCO), 83 NGOs, the, 281 United Nations Emergency Force UNAMSIL, 318 (UNEF), 7 UN and the Western allies, 307 United Nations Observer Mission Unanticipated challenges, 258 Uganda-Rwanda (UNOMUR), UN-appointed Head of Mission of 268 UNIMIR, 269 United Nations Office for Project UN Charter (Chapters VI-VII), 261 Services (UNOPS), 91 UN Charter, the, 298 United Nations Operations in the Congo (ONUC), 301 Underground trade in contraband, 79 United Nations Peacebuilding UN Development Program, 233 Commission (PBC), 88 UNDP office, the, 282 United Nations peacekeeping, 260 UNFROFOR-MC, 273 United Nations Protection Force UN General Assembly, 295 (UNFROFOR), 273 UN General Assembly Report on the United Nations Security Council Congo, 299 Resolution 1325 (2000), 154 UN good offices diplomacy, 275 United Nations treaty (Article 99 of UN High-Level Panel on Threats, the UN Charter), 294 Challenges and Change, 323 United Nations (UN), 270 UN Human Development Index United Nations (UN) Summit, 1 (HDI), 138, 321 (US), 217 UN International Drug Control Unleash atrocity, xxi Program (UNDCP), 281 UN mission, 270 UN intervention in North Macedonia, 1994 UN Mission to Rwanda, the, 258 278 UN Office on Drugs and Crime valued Union Miniere Company, 305 the annual global arms trade, 79 Union of Democratic Forces of Guinea UN Panel of the Experts, 226 (UFDG), 63 1995 UN Preventive Deployment Union of Women’s Organization in Force in North Macedonia North Macedonia,the, 281 (UNPREDEP), 259, 261, 274, Unique social capital, xxiv 275, 278, 281–283, 285, 290 United Kingdom (UK), 217 UN Regional Office for West Africa United Liberation Movement of (UNOWA), 93 Liberia for Democracy (ULIMO), UN Resolution (143) of July 14, 1960, 156, 193 301 United Nations Assistance Mission for UN Resolution 1820 (2008), 154 Rwanda (UNAMIR), 269, 272 UN Resolution 795, 273 United Nations Development Program UN’s conflict prevention diplomacy in (UNDP), 91 North Macedonia, 280 356 INDEX

UN Secretary-General’s good offices, W 276 Wade, 110 UN Secretary-General’s Good Offices Wahhabi Islamists, 218 Diplomacy, 275 Wallensteen and Svensson, 181 UN Secretary-General Dag Ham- Walter, Barbara F., 178 marskjöld, 6 War, xxi UN Secretary-General on Women, War against corruption in Northern Peace and Security, 158 Macedonia, 282 UN Security Council, 258 War against international crime, 282 UN Security Council Resolution 1325 War entrepreneurs, 87 on Women, Conflict Prevention, War-induced humanitarian crises, 45 Peace and Security (October 31, War-lords, 23 2000), 134 Warmongers, xv UN Security Council Resolution 1674 War-traumatized communities, 203 (April 28, 2003), the, 323 War-traumatized zones, 293 UN Security Council Resolution 2085 Weah, George, 198 (December 20th 2012), the, 312 Weaknesses and failures in available UN Special Court for Sierra Leone, conflict, 220 197 Welensky, Sir Roy (CAF’s Prime UN Special Envoy (Trevor Gordon- Minister), 305 Somers), 193 West Africa, 95 UN Special Representative in North West African Network for Peace Macedonia, 280 (WANP), 19 Untested role in peacekeeping, 205 West African regional organization, Uprooted and displaced children, 84 ECOWAS, the, 311 US-Africa Command Partnership, 204 West Side Boys (WSB), 318 US-Australian Sierra Rutile, the, 319 White flag of the Casamance US Embassy, 233 independence movement, 121 Wolof ‘new comers’, 124 Wolof ethnic group, 137 Wolof language (‘wolofisation’)as V lingua franca, 122 Vienna branch of UN Office for Drug Women Accord 97 , 166 Control, the, 282 WomeninAction, 166 Violation of ESCR, 14 WomeninNeed, 166 Violation of trust in peacekeeping, 260 Women in Peace Building Network Violence, xxi (WIPNET), 161 Violence in the family, 125 Women members of the Sacred Forest Violence in the Niger Delta, 80 Association, 133 Violent conflict, 221 Women’s activism, xix Violent internal upheavals, 78 Women’s activism in the MRU, 167 Vision 2020, 50 Women’s Forum, the, 166 INDEX 357

Women’s Peacebuilding Network Youth Bulge, xviii, 78, 80 (MARWOPNET), 164 Youth empowerment, 90, 92 Women’s Peace Initiative (WPI), 160 Youth in warring zones, 82 Women’s wing of the RUF, 159 Youth participation in policy-making, Work, 124 95 World Bank, 218, 223 Youth peace education, 93 World Bank’s structural adjustment Youth protests, 87 policies, The, 14 Youth-related violence, 80 World Conference of Religions for Youth role perception, 87 Peace, the, 233 Youth Unemployment, 93 World Council of Churches, 188 Yusuf, Muhammad, 239 World Food Program, 225 World Health Organization (WHO), 158 Z World without organized religion, xxii Zaire, 272 Zangon-Kataf in Kaduna State, 241 Zealotry, xxi Y Zero-sum condition, 177 Yala, Kumba, 117 Ziguinchor-born, Robert Sagna, 130 Yamoussoukro, 192 Ziguinchor College Campus (Lycee Yamoussoukro I-IV Accords (June to Djignabo), 120 October 1991), 191 Ziguinchor Peace Talks, the (Decem- Yelwa in Plateau State, 236 ber, 2004), 128 Yobe, 240 Ziguinchor region of Casamance, 23 Youth alienation, 80 Zuma, Jacob, 12