ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU
Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU
2 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE
Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU
ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE
Editura Fundaţiei pentru Cultură şi Învăţământ „Ioan Slavici” Timişoara, 2017
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CO-AUTOR: Dragoş Răzvan Barbu
REFERENŢI ŞTIINŢIFICI: Moyra Throssell, BA (Hons), CPE/GDL, PGCE, LL.M (UNITED KINGDOM, Dean of Higher Education - South Cheshire College / West Cheshire College) Conf. univ. dr. Narcisa Schwarz, Universitatea de Vest „Vasile Goldiş” din Arad Conf. univ. dr. Stăncuța Ramona Dima-Laza, Universitatea de Vest „Vasile Goldiş” din Arad
Coperta: Mihaela Gruber
© 2017 Toate drepturile privind reproducerea integrală sau parţială a textului prezentei lucrări aparţin autoarei Christina Moldoveanu-Barbu
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României MOLDOVEANU-BARBU, CHRISTINA English through Europe / Christina Moldoveanu-Barbu. - Timişoara : Editura Fundaţiei pentru cultură şi învăţământ "Ioan Slavici" Timişoara, 2017 Conţine bibliografie ISBN 978-606-8480-46-6
811.111
All authors take responsibility for the chapter they wrote.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD ...... 9
PART 1: Recommended Places to Visit in Europe
ROMANIA (Author of the recommended places to visit: Romanian team) ...... 15 Grammar Topics: Verb Tenses (Present and Past)
SERBIA (Author of the recommended places to visit: Romanian team) ...... 37 Grammar Topics: Verb Tenses (Future)
GREECE (Author of the recommended places to visit: Greek team) ...... 46 Grammar Topics: Irregular Verbs, Negative and Interrogative Structures
ITALY (Author of the recommended places to visit: Italian team) ...... 63 Grammar Topics: Conditional Mood, Sequence of Tenses, Imperative Mood
AUSTRIA (Author of the recommended places to visit: German team) ...... 74 Grammar Topics: Modal Verbs
SPAIN (Author of the recommended places to visit: Turkish team) ...... 86 Grammar Topics: Direct and Indirect Speech, Passive Voice 5 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU
UNITED KINGDOM (Author of the recommended places to visit: UK team) ... 98 Grammar Topics: Subjunctive Mood, Impersonal Modes (Infinitive, Gerund, Participle)
FRANCE (Author of the recommended places to visit: Greek team) ...... 112 Grammar Topics: Article
BELGIUM (Author of the recommended places to visit: Swedish team) ...... 121 Grammar Topics: Noun
GERMANY (Author of the recommended places to visit: German team) ...... 135 Grammar Topics: Pronoun
POLAND (Author of the recommended places to visit: UK team) ...... 147 Grammar Topics: Adjective
SWEDEN (Author of the recommended places to visit: Swedish team) ...... 159 Grammar Topics: Adverb
RUSSIA (Author of the recommended places to visit: Italian team) ...... 172 Grammar Topics: Numeral
TURKEY (Author of the recommended places to visit: Turkish team) ...... 182 Grammar Topics: Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection
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PART 2: Grammar Basics
Grammar Topics: The Verb. Verbal Tenses (Present and Past) ...... 198
Future ...... 229
Grammar Topics: Irregular Verbs ...... 240 Negative and Interrogative Structures ...... 243
Grammar Topics: Conditional Mood ...... 251 Sequence of Tenses ...... 254 Imperative Mood ...... 259
Grammar Topics: Modal Verbs ...... 261
Grammar Topics: Direct and Indirect Speech ...... 274 Passive Voice ...... 281
Grammar Topics: Subjunctive Mood ...... 284 Impersonal Modes The Infinitive ...... 293 The Gerund ...... 301 The Participle ...... 306
Grammar Topics: The Article ...... 311
Grammar Topics: The Noun ...... 314
Grammar Topics: The Pronoun ...... 326
Grammar Topics: The Adjective ...... 332
Grammar Topics: The Adverb ...... 339
Grammar Topics: The Numeral ...... 348
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Grammar Topics: The Preposition ...... 352 The Conjunction ...... 357 The Interjection ...... 360
AFTERWORD ...... 362
REFERENCES ...... 363
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FOREWORD
In order to cooperate, the people of Europe need a common language and the most used one is surely ENGLISH. This course comes to help people improve their English… in a special manner: by travelling through Europe. The first part of this book is a guide of recommended places to visit in Europe. The trip starts from Romania and goes through 14 countries: Romania, Serbia, Greece, Italy, Austria, Spain, United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Germany, Poland Sweden, Russia and Turkey. Each country presents some of its best touristic sites, by using a certain grammar structure in the description (these structures are underlined, so that they could be easily observed). After each text, there is a reference to the basics of the grammar structure in case, which is explained in the second part of this book. After studying the structure, the “traveler” can go back to the just visited place and try some exercises to practice it. Thus, learning has three steps in this book: 1. Reading and identifying the grammar structure (while enjoying the beauties of Europe); 2. Studying the structure with the help of syntheses and visual frames; 3. Practising the structure just learnt, as well as revision of the connected structures (especially for the verbal tenses).
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The second part of the book is a “grammatical travel” through all the ten parts of speech in English (verb, article, noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, numeral, preposition, conjunction, interjection). The systematized presentation helps the learner understand easily each grammar issue and facilitates further references whenever necessary, during the journey. The “charts” summarize the information and deposit the knowledge in the right “shelf”, in line with the other structures. The book is thought for the level B1 – B2 (Intermediate and Upper-Intermediate). The practice after each touristic site and each grammar milestone enables the use of the new structures in specific contexts. The book came out through an Erasmus+ project which involved teachers and students from Romania, Sweden, Italy, United Kingdom, Greece, Germany and Turkey. All the partners recommended places in Europe to be visited and then the Romanian representative developed the grammatical explanations and the exercises. Therefore, many thanks for their cooperation to: Dragoş Răzvan Barbu (Romania) Marina Wahlström (Sweden) Anna Backman Wikström (Sweden) Muslima Tulkinjonova (Sweden) Eleni Patiraki (Greece) Christian Tschuschke (Germany) Natalia Arnăutu (Germany) Rosa Scaffidi (Italy) Nancy Trifiletti (Italy) Nella Marullo (Italy) Yvette Robinson (United Kingdom) Majkel Czapracki (United Kingdom) Alpay Canta (Turkey)
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English is a beautiful language and Europe is an exquisite continent. Learning by travelling provides the chance to have fun, enjoy learning, find out so many things about geography, history, or culture of Europe and, in the same time, become more and more self-confident about your communication in English. So, pack up and… HAVE A GREAT JOURNEY THROUGH EUROPE!
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Christina Moldoveanu-Barbu (Guide of a linguistic travel)
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PART 1: Recommended Places to Visit in Europe
Practice grammar by travelling
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ROMANIA
Let’s start our travel htrough Europe! Our starting point is ROMANIA, a beautiful country with large plains, rich hills and wonderful mountain landscapes; with many natural resources; with welcoming and inventive people.
Superlatives: Palace of the Parliament (in Bucharest) is the largest administrative building in the world and also the heaviest building in th eworld Best gymnast of the world: Nadia Comăneci (first 10 in gymnastics); and youngest World Gymnastics Champion: Aurelia Dobre (14 years and 352 days in Holand, Rotterdam, on 23rd October 1987) The largest volcanic chain in Europe: The Carpathians
Five recommended places to visit in Romania: 1. Bucharest 2. Timişoara 3. The Carpathian Mountains 4. Peleş and Bran Castles 5. On the Road to Romanian Monasteries 6. Danube Delta
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7. Arsenal Park Orăştie 8. Romanian Country Side
During our travel through Romania, we will focus on the verbal tenses: Present (simple and continuous) and Past (simple and continuous). Let’s observe the construction and the use of the verbs!
1. ROMANIA: BUCHAREST GRAMMAR: Present Simple
Welcome to Romania! Welcome to Bucharest! The capital of Romania is situated in the southeast of the country. Its architecture is a mix of neo-classical, interbelic, communist-era and modern buildings. Travellers need several days to really discover Bucharest: parks, museums, impressive churches, trendy cafes etc.
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The Palace of Parliament is the symbol of the city. It is the seat of the Parliament and has some records: it is the largest administrative building in the world (height: 84 m; area: 365,000 m2,; volume: 2,550,000 m3) and the heaviest building in the world (4,098,500,000 kg). Tourists must visit it as it is impressive.
The Cişmigiu Park and the Herastrău Park are famous green and relaxing areas around huge artificial lakes. Cismigiu is situated near the center of the city and several literary works refer to it. At one entrance of the Herăstrău Park erects the Triumphal Arch, which commemorates Romania’ s victory in World War I. In Bucharest you can visit Grigore Antipa National Museum of Natural History, the opulent Spring Palace (former residence of the last Romania’s dictator Nicolae Ceausescu), the Romanian Athenaeum, The National Museum of Art, the Village Museum, the Botanical Garden and many more. Don’t forget Lipscani Street (a famous street in Old Town which hosts exquisite buildings in various styles and many cafes and restaurants).
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Now, when you have met Bucharest, let’s practice the first verbal tense. First, please turn to page 199-205 to read about the AXIS OF TENSES and then to page 206-208 to study SIMPLE PRESENT. After you have understood the use of Simple Present, solve the following exercises:
Exercise 1: Write the following sentences in the third person singular, making all the necessary changes. The first two sentences are solved as an example:
1. The trips are interesting. / The trip is interesting. 2. They wash their hands. / He washes his hands. 3. I am the smallest in my group. 4. These travel plans always work just fine. 5. We are in Romania. 6. The girls take their luggage with them. 7. My pets remain at home with my mom while I go on holiday. 8. You light the candles near the tent. 9. His parents know his travel plans.. 10. We have breakfast at 8.00 a.m.
Exercise 2: Write the following sentences in the third person singular. Pay attention that modal verbs like can, must, may do not receive –s/-es in Present, third person singular:
1. They can come anytime. 2. Those persons must go to the police station. 3. These people may leave.
Exercise 3: Correct the mistakes in the followinf sentences:
1. He easily read any map. 2. They travels by plane every year. 3. Diana and Rick is the best at planning trips. 4. She enjoy travelling in Europe. 5. You and he wants to arrive in Bucharest.. 6. He haves the first seat on the window in the train. 7. He musts visit Romania. 8. She cans travel by car because it is not too far. 9. John may looks for a seaside holiday. 10. Nick and Josh travels abroad every year.
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2. ROMANIA: TIMIŞOARA GRAMMAR: Present Continuous
Timişoara is the first Romanian city free from Communism. Here started the Revolution in 1989 and now it has just been elected to be the European Capital of Culture for 2021. Let’s imagine we are in Timişoara right now. What are we doing? What are we visiting? We are walking in Victory Square, the place of the Revolution. We are crossing the city from one side to the other by walking only through parks, as Timişoara is the city of parks. We are taking a ship to see the city from Bega Canal. Being tired, we are taking a break at Maria Theresa Bastion or in Union Square and we are having a coffee or a meal in a unique atmosphere. From here we are going to Huniade Castle to visit the History Section and the Natural Sciences Section of the Banat Museum. In front of the museum there are two lamps reminding that Timişoara was the first European town to have introduced electric public lighting in 1864. Another record is the biggest pint of beer of the world, which can be seen near the Beer Factory. There we are trying Timişoreana beer and Romanian traditional food. And we are preparing for a new day in Timişoara...
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Have you enjoyed visiting Timişoara? Now, let’s practice Present Simple and Present Continuous. First please turn to page 209-213 to read the basics about PRESENT CONTINUOUS. After you have understood the use of Present Continuous, solve the following exercises:
Exercise 1: Turn Simple Present into Present Continuous in the following sentences, also changing the adverbs of time as necessary. The first one is already solved as an example:
1. The bus driver works eight hours a day./ The bus driver is working eight hours today. 2. The tourists eat at a restaurant in Union Square. 3. The travellers carry their backsacks. 4. Every morning Sam goes to Victory Square to play with the doves. 5. I visit the Huniade Castle every year. 6. You take a ship on Bega Canal on Mondays. 7. They buy a souvenir in each city. 8. Every morning we drink a coffee at the café at Maria Theresa Bastion.
Exercise 2: Turn Present Continuous into Simple Present in the following sentences, also changing the adverbs of time as necessary. The first one is already solved as an example:
1. The tourist is leaving. 2. The barbecue is burning.. 3. The birds are flying all around the Danube Delta. 4. The zoo animal are running. 5. The receptionists are working in the hotel now. 6. I am preparing for my trip now. 7. Those guys are helping the museum visitors now. 8. The puppy is playing in the Village Museum now.
Exercise 3: Choose Simple Present or Present Continuous for the verbs in parantheses., The first one is solved:
1. The young guides always (answer / are answering) the tourists’ questions.. 2. We (go) to Bucharest every month, but now we (go) to Timişoara. 3. It (get) colder and colder in the mountains now. 4. Today the group (visit) Cişmigiu Park and Herăstrău Park. 5. The plane from Bucharest (land) at 5 p.m. every Monday and Friday. 6. This week she (travel) to Serbia. 7. The museum (lie) opposite the Botanical Garden. 8. Three hours from Budapest to Timişoara plus eight hours from Timişoara to Bucharest (mean) 11 hours by car.
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Exercise 4: Circle the verbs that cannot be used in the continuous tenses:
Go Feel Forgive Resemble Make Signify Have Measure Say Hear Belong Own Run Be Concern Must Cost Walk Contain Write Suppose Refuse Get Enjoy Mind Notice Reach Expect Seem Ask Want Understand Remember Like Sing Appear Love Step Think Know Swim Wish Smell Agree Include Sleep See Believe Eat Realize Mean Concern Taste Drink Need Want Do Matter Hope Weigh Break Care Remind Develop Forget Look
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3. ROMANIA: THE CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS GRAMMAR: Present Perfect
Have you ever visited the Carpathians Mountains? The Carpathians are a mountain range forming an archof 1500 km. It is the second longest range in Europe (after the Scandinavian Mountains). They are also the host of the second largest Virgin Forests in Europe (after Russia). The Carpathians have always had many thermal and mineral waters. The highest peak is Moldoveanu (2544 m). The mountain passes make incredible lanscapes (Prislop Pass, Tihuţa Pass, Bicaz Canyon etc.). The Transfăgărăşan and Transalpina are the highest paved road crossing the Carpathians. If you have never experienced cottage life in the mountains, here is a place to start. Enjoy the view of the mountains and of the National Parks, taste the traditional Romanian food (especially at the sheepfolds) and follow the many marked paths and trails to reach higher and higher peaks. You might even have a horse-riding mountain trip.
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Haven’t the Carpathians Mountains been amazing? They are, indeed. Have you noticed the Present Perfect verbs in the text? Great! Let’s study PRESENT PERFECT and PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS on page 214-217. After you have understood the use of Present Perfect, come back here to solve the following exercises:
Exercise 1: Write the Present Continuous and Present Perfect for the following sentences:
1. The tourists climbs the mountains. 2. The plane takes off. 3. We travel a lot.
Exercise 2: Write the Present Simple and Present Perfect Continuous for the following sentences:
1. She is studying the map. 2. The tourists are walking in the center of the city. 3. They are asking for a guide.
Exercise 3: Choose between Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous for the verbs in parantheses:
1. I (follow) the marked path to get here. 2. The kids (play) for hours in the Fun Park. 3. The souvenir shop-assistant (sell) 100 pieces until now. 4. She (travel) in Europe since she graduated. 5. I (look for) the right street for six hours, but I (find) it yet. 6. They (go) on a scavenger hunt and they (not return) yet.
Exercise 4: Choose Simple Present, Present Continuous, Present Perfect or Present Perfect Continuous for the verbs in parantheses:
1. Michael and William (discover) a new holiday offer lately. 2. We (book) the plane seats right now. 3. He (go) to the seaside every summer. 4. I (researced) for a better offer in the last two hours. 5. The tent (be) wet now. 6. They (travel) by train for so many hours that they are tired now. 7. I (try) the zipline now. 8. The woman (play) tennis well so far.
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4. ROMANIA: PELEŞ and BRAN CASTLES GRAMMAR: Simple Past
Peleş Castle Bran Castle
Peleş Castle is situated in the Carpathians Mountains, near Sinaia. It was built between 1873 and 1914, by King Carol I. He fell in love with the mountain scenery the first time he saw it and purchased 1300 km2 for hunting and summer retreat. After 1947, the Communist regime overtook the Castle and opened it as a tourist attraction for a short time. It became a museum in 1953 and later, between 1975-1990, it was closed and declared “State Protocol Interest Area”. After the 1989 Revolution, the castle became a national heritage site and it was opened to the public. The complex is composed of three monuments: Peleş Castle, Pelişor Castle and the Foişor Hunting Lodge, and it is visited by almost half a million tourists annually. Bran Castle is situated near Bran and it is a landmark of Romania. It is known as “Dracula’s Castle” due to the Irish Bram Stoker who wrote a novel: Dracula. The name came from the surnames of Vlad the Impaler’s father, the Dracul (who was a member of the Dragon Order. Now Bran Castle is a museum of Queen Maria’s art and furniture collections.
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SIMPLE PAST is to be studied when talking about history. Peleș Castle and Bran Castle are evidences of the Romanian past. You can now study Simple Past on page 218-221. After you have understood the use of Simple Past, return here to solve the following exercises:
Exercise 1: Underline the Past with one line and the Present Perfect with two lines:
The Camp
The group has been travelling for eight hours to reach the final destination. They have played, have sung and have told jokes the whole time. The travel seems to never end. Still it is the best travel they have ever had. Finally, the group has arrived at the mountain camp full of joy and noise: ”Have you prepared the room for the group,” asked the guide. ”Yes, we have. The last one will be ready in ten minutes. We have been cleaning and changing sheets for two days to have them prepared in time. It was a last moment booking, but we have finally managed the situation. We have always met our customers’ expectations.” ”Thank you. We have just taken out the luggage from the bus. Could you show us our rooms?” ”This way, please.” The group split in ten rooms to unpack and rest a little. One hour later they met in the hotel restaurant: ”I haven’t seen such beautiful scenery since I was in Austria,” said somebody. ”Fortunately, I have brought my camera with me.” ”Have you learnt to use it?” ”I have and I will take some pictures after we have had dinner. I am starving right now.” ”Now let’t have a good meal after our long journey,”the guide invited us. ”We could make a tour if we have finished eating before dark. Let’s hurry up!” Dinner was short as everyone wanted to go outside for a walk. The trip around the cabane was as great as we expected and just made us eager to go farther the next day.
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Exercise 2: Choose between Present Perfect and Simple Past for the verbs in parantheses:
1. Yesterday I (go) to the travel agency at the Mall and I (buy) a tour of Romanian castles. 2. I (dream) about making a tour of Romanian Monasteries lately. 3. Until now they (manage) to book a room. 4. He (call) since he (come back) from the seaside. 5. The guide (pass) the exam last month. 6. He (get) the authorization only last week. 7. He (drive) since 5 a.m. 8. The train (arrive) already. 9. His train (arrive) later yesterday. 10. He (stay) in that museum since morning. It is too much.
Exercise 3: Untangle the words of the sentences, paying attention to Present (Simple and Continuous), Past and Present Perfect (Simple and Continuous):
1. for been have this tour doing years I. 2. sent She week a from the postcard seaside last me. 3. have People travelled years over all Europe for. 4. holiday planning in a I wonderful Romania am. 5. three restaurant Ron week at the times eats a. 6. morning children early left for in the The Aqua Park. 7. wanted always to I see Danube Delta have. 8. I by am ship this traveling time.
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5. ROMANIA: ON THE ROAD TO ROMANIAN MONASTERIES GRAMMAR: Past Continuous
Bârsana Monastery Voroneţ Monastery
Putna Monastery Curtea de Argeş Monastery
We were travelling through the beauties of Romania and we were wondering what else should we visit. Then we found a Guide of Romanian Monasteries. While we were studying the Guide, somebody came to explain to us the wonders of the Monasteries’ Tour. The Painted Monasteries of Bucovina represent the Biblical stories in specific colours: Voroneţ (blue), Humor (red), Suceviţa (verde), Moldoviţa (yellow), Arbore (combination of colours) etc.. Seven of Bucovina Monasteries were placed in the UNESCO’s World Heritage in 1993.
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The most famous of the Moldavian Monasteries is probably Putna Monastery, while the most notoriuous of the Wallachian Monasteries are Cozia Monastery and Curtea de Argeş. Thousands of pilgrims come all year long to the most known of the Transyvanian Monasteries: Prislop Monastery, where Priest Arsenie Boca serviced for many years. He is in the process of being canonized and what of the special things happening here is that the flowers brought by pilgrims never wither. The Wooden Monasteris in Maramureş are unique churches which combine the Gothic architecture with the traditional wooden construction. An example is Bârsana Monastery – a nun monastery, included in the UNESCO list of heritage buildings. I thought I was going on an “architectural” tour, but instead I discovered a “meditation tour”, a lesson of Romanian history and culture; I met the Romanian spirit and I encountered the wonderful Romanian traditions at their home (traditional costumes, folk dances, legends and myths, harvesting time, holidays customs etc.). It was only going better and better, when I decided I had to come here again.
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While you were visiting the Romanian Monasteries, I prepared some exercises with Past Tense. First, let’s study PAST CONTINUOUS on page 222-224. After you have understood the use of Past Continuous, you should solve the following exercises:
Exercise 1: Choose the right answer:
1. We (made / are making) everything we could to reach our destination in time. 2. I (met / was meeting) a priest the other day. 3. Yesterday while they (came / were coming) to the hotel, they (met / were meeting) a friend. 4. While I (called / was calling) the travel agency, my husband (searched / was searching) for accommodation online. 5. Last week at this time my friend (packed / was packing). 6. It (got / was getting) hotter and hotter in Egypt. 7. I (looked for / was looking for) a good hotel, I (booked / was booking) a room and I (left / was leaving) for the best holiday of my life. 8. The receptionist (asked / was asking) me where I came from?
Exercise 2: True or False?
1. The Painted Monasteries of Bucovina represented the Biblical stories in specific colours. ______
2. The Americans were building the Romanian Monasteries. ______
3. We were travelling through the beauties of Romania and we were wondering what else should we visit. ______
4. Seven of Bucovina Monasteries were placed in the UNESCO’s World Heritage in 1953. ______
5. Priest Arsenie Boca was servicing at Suceviţa Monastery during World War I. ______
6. The Wooden Monasteris in Maramureş combined the Gothic architecture with the traditional wooden construction. ______
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6. ROMANIA: DANUBE DELTA GRAMMAR: Past Perfect
Danube Delta is the second largest river delta in Europe. Recorded notes about the Delta had existed even before the Roman Conquest. The territory had been for a long while part of the Ottoman Empire. It was liberated in 1878 and in 1991 was enlisted as UNESCO’s World Heritage Site. The Danube River divides into three branches – Chilia, Sulina and Sfântul Gheorghe (Sain George), forms the Danube Delta and then flows into the Black Sea. The Delta hosts 325 species of birds, 43 species of mammals and 136 species of fish – the third largest biodiversity in the world. The landscape is amazing and the best choice is to rent a boat and visit it on water. If you go there, you must enjoy fish meals. If you choose to try local food, you will taste fish and only fish, but in wide range of dishes: fish soup, fish stuffed cabbage, fish meatballs, fish stew… fish in almost everything. It is quite surprising how many fish dishes the locals can cook. Before you said you had it all, they had already come up with a new tasty fish dish.
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What an amazing trip to Danube Delta! Rest a little and study PAST PERFECT on page 225-228. After you have understood the use of Past Perfect, these exercises below will help you practice it:
Exercise 1: Translate the following sentences:
1. He had returned from his holiday before his colleagues came to town. 2. I went to Italy after I had spent a few days in Austria. 3. The group had already visited the rooms of the castle before they visited the gardens. 4. She had understood the map before she turned three years old. 5. The travel agency sent us the tickets after we had paid.
Exercise 2: Choose the right tense for the verbs in parantheses:
1. I (find) the hotel two days ago on the internet. 2. I (travel) through Europe for a long time. 3. Last year, while my husband (travel) by plane, I (travel) by train. 4. We (meet) two days later in Budapest. 5. My manager (go) on a business trip this week. 6. Look! They (discover) the best holiday offer. 7. Diane (pack) before she called for a taxi. 8. He (sleep) for many hours in the plane before the airhost announced the landing. 9. I (go) to Danube Delta tomorrow. 10. Ronaldo (eat) fish every day because he lives in Danube Delta.
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7. ROMANIA: ARSENAL PARK ORĂŞTIE GRAMMAR: Verbal Tenses – Present and Past
A particular experience can be lived in Arsenal Park Orăştie – a “military camp” where you can peacefully try “war life”. Before I went there a few years ago, I had booked a room. It was hard to choose the type of room: Officer Rooms, Tank Rooms, Cannon Rooms, Colonel Apartments or General Villas. I am looking at the photos now and I remember the strange holiday I enjoyed there together with a group of friends. It was unique. I tried so many challenging Cannon Room and unforgettable activities there: escalation on Arsenal Tower, paragliding, treasure hunt, archery, military instruction, paintball, airball, jeep wrangler go cart, swimming in Arsenal Aqua Park, hiking, zipline, power-fan jumps, cycling, golf, skating, mini-fotbal, outdoor fitness and so many more. It was an endless range of activities. I was testing everything at that time. I had been doing things for twelve hours before I decided to go to bed. I just couldn’t get enough of it.
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Activities in Arsenal Park Orăştie can be exhausting, but extremely funny. Take a break to look at the following exercise:
Exercise 1: Identify the tenses used in the following sentences. They are underlined once. Please also focus on the key words (the adverbs of time) which areunderlined twice:
1. He hasn’t called since he came back from the mountains. 2. We usually sing in English. 3. Did she pass the exam last week? 4. He has been playing since three o’clock. 5. He was playing the piano when he heard that strong noise. 6. Right now I am talking on the phone with my brother. 7. He hasn’t come yet. 8. Yesterday he asked me to help him. 9. He has been drinking in that bar since morning. 10. Was she reading when you arrived at home? 11. He always thinks about his sister. 12. For the time being I am working on this project. 13. I am not going to the market now. 14. Have you already learnt the poem? 15. The child was doing his homework while his father was fixing his car. 16. We have been waiting here for a very long time. 17. She met him two days ago. 18.He sometimes likes to play tennis. 19. Has she been wandering through shops for five hours? 20. You were always bothering me when I was trying to work! 21. The day before yesterday they found a wallet. 22. He writes letters once a week. 23. It is getting cold. 24. I haven’t put on weight lately.
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8. ROMANIA: ROMANIAN COUNTRY SIDE GRAMMAR: Verbal Tenses – Present and Past
In the last years, Agro-tourism has greatly developed in the rural areas of Romania. It is so wonderful to meet local people, try local food, experience Easter or Christmas in these places. The fresh air, the tasty food, the unbelievable landscapes have no terms of comparison. It’s authentic life what you get there. Have you ever tried something like that? Riding trips, blessing of food on holidays’ nights, folk dances like “Căluşarii”or “Romanian Hora”, listening to Romanian folk music, collecting eggs from chickens and milk from the cow... If you didn’t try it before, you must attempt for authenticity. Romanian villagers are famous for their welcoming attitude, for making you feel... at home, as they have always been very proud of their traditions. They are eager to share them with you.
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If Arsenal Park Orăştie alerted all your senses, the Country Side surely relaxed you. You have freshened enough to read the following exercise:
Exercise 1: Identify the tenses used in the following text. They are numbered, so, please establish if the tense chosen for each number is true or false:
BUYING MAGAZINES
“Hello, can I help (1) you?” asked (2) the shop-assistant seeing a customer entering the book-stalls. “Hi. Yes, please. I would like to buy some magazines for the friends I am visiting (3) tonight. I need (4) to buy the most appropriate ones for each of them. Can you help (5) me? I have been looking (6) for something like this for hours.” “So, how old are (7) your friends? Are (8) they males or females and what hobbies do they have (9)?” “Let’s see. One of them is (10) a 45-year old business man. I know (11) he doesn’t like (12) sports.” “Has he ever read (13) ‘Business with Us’? It appeared (14) five months ago for the first time.” In fact it had appeared (15) even before they launched the new version which is not as ggod as this one. “He tells (16) me about his readings. No, I think (17) he hasn’t known (18) about it. Does it present (19) successful businesses in the world or …?” “I understand (20) it is something interactive with study cases and all kind of surveys in the business world. I am trying (21) to get one off the shelf to show it to you.” “It is (22) very interesting. Now,… the other friend is (23) a boy who simply loves (24) cars. He is (25) five years old.” “An encyclopedia about cars will be great for him. It appears (26) monthly and we have just received (27) the first number.” “Oh, I didn’t know (28) about it. It sounds (29) perfect. I was thinking (30) of buying some colorful pages, but this is (31) great.” “What about the third friend?” “It’s (32) this boy’s mother. She works (33) in Public Relations. She’s (34) young, dynamic and reads (35) everything she finds (36) on the market. It’s (37) hard to buy something for her.” “I have (38) here the right solution. We have worked (39) for a short while with a foreign association which sends (40) us materials about Public Relations and Business, exclusively (for our network). This was (41) their first magazine, but we have run out (42) of it. Still, I can offer (43) you their extra material edited just this month, as a kind of review of the most important events in the field.” “I think (44) I’ve got (45) just what I was looking for (46). How much are (47) all these three magazines?” “My colleague will help you with this. Have a nice day and please come again!”
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True or False?
(1) – Simple Present ____ (25) –Present Conyinuous ____ (2) –Past Continuous ____ (26) – Simple Present ____ (3) – Present Continuous ____ (27) – Present Perfect ____ (4) – Simple Present ____ (28) – Simple Past ____ (5) – Simple Present ____ (29) – Simple Present ____ (6) – Past Perfect Continuous ____ (30) – Past Perfect Continuous ____ (7) – Simple Present ____ (31) – Simple Present ____ (8) – Simple Past____ (32) – Simple Present ____ (9) – Simple Present ____ (33) – Simple Present ____ (10) – Simple Present ____ (34) – Simple Present ____ (11) – Simple Present ____ (35) – Simple Present ____ (12) –Present Continuous ____ (36) – Simple Present ____ (13) – (Indefinite) Present Perfect ___ (37) – Simple Present ____ (14) –Past Perfect ____ (38) – Simple Present ____ (15) – Past Perfect ____ (39) – (Indefinite) Present Perfect ___ (16) – Simple Present ____ (40) – Simple Past ____ (17) – Simple Past ____ (41) – Simple Past ____ (18) – Present Perfect ____ (42) – Present Perfect ____ (19) – Simple Present ____ (43) – Past Continuous ____ (20) – Simple Present ____ (44) – Simple Present ____ (21) – Present Continuous ____ (45) – Simple Present ____ (22) – Simple Past____ (46) – Past Continuous ____ (23) – Simple Past ____ (47) – Simple Present ____ (24) – Simple Past ____
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SERBIA
From Romania, our imaginery travel takes us to Serbia (one of Romania”s neighbours). It was part of Yugoslavia in the past and it became independent after a series of separations: in 1991 Croatia, Slovenia and Republic of Macedonia; in 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina; in 2006 Montenegro. And Serbia
Superlatives: Cerje Cave – The longest cave in Serbia Đeravica – The highest mountain peak in Serbia: 2656 m (Prokletije) Đerdap Lake – The largest lake in Serbia: 253 km2 (artificial lake)
Five recommended places to visit in Serbia: 1. Belgrade 2. Tara National Park 3. Devil’s Town 4. Resavska Cave 5. Serbian Royal Dynasty Tour
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During our travel through Serbia, we will focus on the Future Tense. Let’s observe the construction and the use of the verbs!
1. SERBIA: BELGRADE GRAMMAR: Future Simple and Future Continuous
Belgrade (Београд) is an outspoken, adventurous, proud and audacious capital of Europe, where past and modernity jointly unfold before the tourists’ eyes. The socialist blocks are squeezed between the art nouveau masterpieces and the Habsburg and Ottoman vestiges. You should visit Belgrade one day. You will have the chance to visit the Kalemegdan Citadel which was destroyed more than 40 times (the fortifications began in Celtic times, were then extended by the Romans and then reconstructed in the 18th centuryby Austro-Hungarians and Turks) and Royal Palace (built in 1929 in the Serbian-Byzantine style and covered in white marble). You will be able to see Tito's Mausoleum and the Museum of Yugoslav History, as well as Nikola Tesla Museum and Zepter Museum (a private museum containing a collection of works by contemporary Serbian artists). At the confluence of Sava and Danube rivers, the Islands of War will wait for you in a peaceful atmosphere, in spite of its name. You will listen to the almost 200 species of birds, will lie 38 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE in the sun on its Lido Beach and will visit the vikendice (holiday shacks). I am sure you will be visiting, for a while, the avant-garde art space O3ONE – a set of exhibitions focused on contemporary art, science and new technologies. Belgrade, “the White City”, was the capital of former Yugoslavia from its creation in 1918. Belgrade was considered the 1st spot among the top 10 party cities in the world in 2009 (by Lonely Planet), so will discover a wonderful city by day and by night.
You are in Serbia now; in fact in the capital of Serbia: Belgrade. Do you think you could practice the FUTURE while here in Belgrade? Don’t forget to consult pages 229-230. about the Future Tenses.
Exercise 1: Turn the following sentences from Simple Present to Simple Future:
1. The town is modernized. 2. The mayor brings many tourists to town. 3. The trainsl travel faster. 4. I visit the Central Square. 5. They buy tickets. 6. I rains. 7. The architect combines many styles.
Exercise 2: Turn the following sentences from Simple Past to Future Continuous:
1. I visited Island of War. 2. We traveled by ship on Danube River. 3. My friend read about Kalemegdan Citadel. 4. I looked at a leaflet about Nikola Museum. 5. Carol and Evelyn watched a documentary about Zepter Museum. 6. Maia came to the White City. 7. I drew a landscape of Sava River.
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2. SERBIA: TARA NATIONAL PARK GRAMMAR: Future Perfect
Welcome to Tara National Park! Mountain Tara was declared a National Park in 1981 and it is part of the Vlach Mountains. In an area of 19,175 ha, there are over 50 species of mammals, 140 species of birds, 23 species of amphibians and reptiles and 19 species of fish, as well as (about) 1200 types of plants. Come here for a week and before you leave, you will have seen only a small part of it, as Tara national Park is huge and cahllenging. The Canyon of Derventa River reveals an amazing landscape. You can walk through the dense forests (here is the highest desity of spruce in the world). There are 18 tracking paths marked on the official NP map. You can chill on the highest peak: Kozji (Goat) at 1,591 meters or you can enjoy the five best views from: Banjska stena, Biljeska stena, Crnjeskovo, Oslusa viewpoint, Sjenic viewpoint. You can sleep by night in houses on water, in tents, huts or in the three hotels which are part of the Military Institution on Tara mountain. For fun, you can go fishing, cycling and even kayaking on the many artificial lakes. By the time of going back home, you will have experienced a magnificent voyage in Serbia.
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Exercise 1: Choose between Simple Future, Future Continuous and Future Perfect for the verbs in parantheses (references about FUTURE PERFECT on page 231):
1. She (cook) for the tourists at that time. 2. I (finish) my virtual tour before noon. 3. Tomorrow it (rain) in the Canyon of Derventa River. 4. The waiter (serve) the drinks before serving the food. 5. The tennis players (meet) on the ground soon. 6. I (search) for a while if I want to find cheap and good accommodation. 7. One day I (visit) Tara Mountains to see 50 species of mammals, 140 species of birds, 23 species of amphibians and reptiles and 19 species of fish. 8. Tomorrow at 11 o’clock the kids (travel) by bus to Tara National Park. 9. Everybody (finish) their holiday by the end of August. 10. The tourists (walk) on the marked path in the National Park next week at this time. 11. I love Serbia and I probably (go) there in autumn. 12. Our train (leave) in two hours. 13. He (carry) his own rucksack. 14. He (drive) to Devil’s Town tomorrow morning. 15. I hope the weather (be) for the next three days.
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3. SERBIA: DEVIL’s TOWN GRAMMAR: “Going to” Future
Devil’s Town (Đavolja Varoš) is a peculiar rock formation, located in south Serbia on the Radan Mountain. We are going to visit this special place next month. There are 202 exotic formations described as earth pyramids or towers (2 - 15 m tall and 4 - 6 m wide at the base) and it is indeed a special sight. Devil’s Town was declared a major natural monument in 1995. 50,000 tourists visit it every year. Are you going to visit Devil’s Town with us?
Through the views of the rock formations, we can make plans with “Going to” Future (Near Future):
Exercise 1: Turn the following sentences into “GOING TO” FUTURE (also called NEAR FUTURE) to express future planned actions (references about Near Future on page 234):
1. Belgrade becomes a more modern city. 2. We display our paintings at O3ONE in Belgrade. 3. The Devil’s Town has attracted 50,000 tourists. 4. I booked a bus to Devil’s Town. 5. Resavska Cave was extended for public visitation. 6. The Serbian government had voted the “New Tourism project” before the parliamentary summer holiday. 7. Tourism will develop in Serbia.
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4. SERBIA: RESAVSKA CAVE GRAMMAR: Future-in-the-Past
I said to myself once that I would visit some interesting caves in Europe and I guess Resavska Cave is a great choice. I thought maybe I would have visited Lazareva Pećina (the longest cave in Serbia – 9818m) or Rakin Ponor (the deepest cave - -285 m) before I visited Resavska Cave, but it seems Resavska Cave is the most challenging one. Serbia offers many interesting places to visit: in cities, on the top of the mountains, on water or... underground. Resavska Cave is one of the largest and oldest caves in Serbia. It is considered to be 80 million years old. It has four halls on two levels, the entrance being on an altitude of 485 meters. The names of the halls and tunnels are very interesting and somehow descriptive: Hall of joined columns or collonades, Beehive Hall, Entrance Hall of History, Crystal Hall and Blind Tunnel. The cave was opened to the public in 1972, but in 2017 they opened the Andrenalin Park in the cave – a tour of 15 obstacles: hanging bridges, hanging ropes, ziplines and beams. They said that Resavska Cave would become part of the largest National Park of Serbia in the region of mountain Kučaj-Beljanica.
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Underground we discover the Future-in-the-Past::
Exercise 1: Rephrase the following sentences using the right form of FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST (references about Future-in-the-Past can be found on page 232-233):
1.They will go on holiday soon. They said that ………………………………………………………………….
2. The travel agent will be selling hot vacation packages this month. The manager told me that …………………………………………………..
3. The movie will be great. She explained that ……………………………………………………….…..
4. I will have finished my trip by Monday. I asked if she ………………………………………………………………….
5. The painters will have been displaying their paintings for two whole weeks in the National Museum of Art before selling the hall to somebody else. The painters announced that they......
6. They will have solved the problem before leaving on holiday. They asserted that they ......
7. She will solve the booking problem. I knew she ......
8. Perhaps he will arrive later. He suggested he ......
9. He will be working in the restaurant the next day at 3 oʼclock. He said he ......
10. The clouds will cover the sky in the whole country. The man said the clouds ......
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5. SERBIA: SERBIAN ROYAL DYNASTY TOUR GRAMMAR: Other Ways to Express Future
The Serbian Royal Dynasty Tour will take you to the region of Šumadija, the very core of Serbia. You are to see the small town Topola and the remnants of the fortified stronghold of Karadjordje, the founder of the dynasty and the leader of the Serbian insurrection against the Ottomans in 1804-1813. Then you are about to visit the Serbian Royal Dynasty of Karadjordjevic Mausoleum, King Peter’s Museum (dealing with these historic events) and Saint George’s Church (a small church with carved iconostasis). Then comes the best part of the tour: tour and wine tasting at the Royal Wine Cellar. If you are still interested in history, you might also want to take the History Tour along the Danube. Enjoy Serbia!
Exercise 1: Use other ways of expressing Future for the following contexts (references on page 234-239):
1. Missing the train (“to be about to…”) 2. Going on the Serbian Royal Dynasty Tour (“to be to…”) 3. Checking Topola’s touristic offers (“to be due to…”) 4. Meeting in the Conference Room (Simple Present) 5. Visiting the country side in Serbia (Present Continuous) 6. Starting the travel (“to be to…”)
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GREECE
The third country of our European route is Greece. It is the country of the first Olympic Games, the country of saint places (like Mount Athos) and of mythology (Zeus of Olympus). Let’s visit Greece!
Superlatives: 48.0 °C (118.4 °F) – The highest temperature ever recorded in Europe (in the Elefsina and Tatoi suburbs of Athens - 10 July 1977) The first Ancient Olympic Games: 776 BC. Mount Athos – heart of Orthodoxism
Five recommended places to visit in Greece: 1. Ancient Olympic Games 2. National Archaeological Museum, Athens 3. Knossos Palace In Herakleion Crete 4. Mount Athos 5. Centaurus (Greek mythology)
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Let’s read the first three texts about Greece and focus on the forms of the irregular verbs (the irregular verbs in the texts are underlined):
1. GREECE: ANCIENT OLYMPIC GAMES GRAMMAR: Irregular verbs
Sports developed in all the Mediterranean areas where the Greek civilization thrived. However the first organized Pan-Hellenic games that can be considered the historic origin of the institution dates back to the 8th century B.C. They were the Olympic Games, which were held every four years at the stadium of Olympia in honor of Zeus. The origins of the Olympic Games are lost in the prehistoric times and are associated with competitions between gods and heroes. Strabo, the historian of the 1st century B.C., attributed their institution to Herakleides, who after their arrival at Elis they found the state of Elis and established the worship of Olympian Zeus as dominant god. Physical exercise coupled with music was the ideal means for the education of young people in antiquity. Training back then was much more than what we currently call sports. It had pedagogic, religious and philosophical importance. Athleticism prevailed in every ancient Greek city as principal concern and activity. At the zenith of Greek civilization, sports took up a large part of
47 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU the life of citizens. The palaestras (rings) and gymnasia were places for daily physical and mental exercise and subsequently evolved to general education institutions, where leading philosophers taught. The ancient ideals of emulation and competition never ceased to benchmarks even in modern times. Gymnastics and athletics are ancient Greek words, which not only survived in Modern Greek, but were also adopted by almost all languages of the world.
2. GREECE: NATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM, ATHENS GRAMMAR TYPE: Irregular verbs
The National Archaeological Museum (Greek: Εθνικό Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο) in Athens houses some of the most important artifacts from a variety of archaeological locations around Greece, from prehistory to late antiquity. The National Archaeological Museum became one of the best Greek touristic attractions at the end of 19th century when the Greek government set it up. It is considered one of the greatest museums in the world and contains the richest collection of artifacts from Greek antiquity worldwide. The museum has shown an
48 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE imposing neo-classical design, which was very popular in Europe at the time, and it is in accordance with the classical style artifacts that it houses. The initial plan was conceived by the architect Ludwig Lange and it was later modified by Panagis Kalkos. At the front of the museum there is a large neo-classic design garden which is decorated with sculptures.
3. GREECE: KNOSSOS PALACE IN HERAKLEION CRETE GRAMMAR: Irregular verbs
Knossos is the largest Bronze Agearchaeological site in Crete and is considered Europe's oldest city. The name Knossos has survived from ancient Greek references to the major city of Crete. The identification of Knossos with the Bronze Age site has been supported by tradition and by the Roman coins that were scattered over the fields surrounding the pre-excavation site. Many coins were inscribed with Knosion or Knos on the obverse and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse, both symbols deriving from the myth of King Minos, supposed to have reigned from Knossos. The coins came from the Roman settlement of Colonia Julia Nobilis Cnossus, a Roman colony placed to the north of Kephala. The Romans thought they
49 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU had colonized Knossos. After excavation, the discovery of Michael Ventris confirmed the palace complex. The second palace was built on a much grander scale over the old Palace after an earthquake had destroyed it. The structure and ruins we see today are from the second Palace. During the Bronze Age, the town surrounded the hill on which the palace was built.
After finding out about the Ancient Olympic Games, the National Archaeological Museum in Athens and the Knossos Palace in Herakleion Crete, we could take a break and practice the IRREGULAR VERBS (the minimum list of irregular verbs can be consulted on page 240-242):
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks (first 20 verbs in the list of irregular verbs): find …………… ………….. break broke …………….. buy …………….. …………….. ………….. built built be was, were ……………. do did ……………... come …………….. come drive drove …………. get got ………….. have …………… …………… go …………… gone drink drank …………….. eat …………… eaten ………….. fell fallen feel …………… ………….. give …………… given bring …………….. …………….. forget forgot ………….. begin ……………. begun cut ……………. cut
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Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks (the first 40 verbs in the list of irregular verbs): know ……….. known find …………… ………….. break broke …………….. have …………… …………… buy …………….. …………….. ………….. built built put ………. put be was, were ……………. get got ………….. do did ……………... come …………….. come speak spoke …………. drive drove …………. go …………… gone ……….. said said ……….. sat sat sing sang ………….. run ………….. run ………. smelt smelt ……….. sold sold drink drank …………….. see …………. seen eat …………… eaten ………….. fell fallen feel …………… ………….. give …………… given send …………. ………….. bring …………….. …………….. forget forgot ………….. sleep ………… …………. begin ……………. begun ………… lost lost learn ……….. ………….. cut ……………. cut make ……….. …………. ……… met met ……… read read pay ………. ………… ………. heard heard ……… left left
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Exercise 3: Fill in the blanks (Practice the whole minimum list): take ………. taken understand understood …………. find …………… ………….. break broke …………….. have …………… …………… buy …………….. …………….. ………….. built built put ………. put be was, were ……………. get got ………….. do did ……………... come …………….. come speak spoke …………. drive drove …………. go …………… gone ……….. said said ……….. sat sat sing sang ………….. run ………….. run ………. smelt smelt ……….. sold sold drink drank …………….. see …………. seen eat …………… eaten ………….. fell fallen feel …………… ………….. give …………… given send …………. ………….. bring …………….. …………….. forget forgot ………….. sleep ………… …………. begin ……………. begun ………… lost lost learn ……….. …………..
52 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE know ……….. known cut ……………. cut make ……….. …………. ……… met met stand ………. …………. ……… read read pay ………. ………… ………. heard heard write wrote …………. ……… left left think ………. …………. ………… told told wake ………. woken
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It is time now to observe the negative constructions in the English language:
4. GREECE: MOUNT ATHOS GRAMMAR: Negative Structures
Mount Athos is a mountain and a peninsula in northern Greece. The peninsula, the easternmost part of the larger Halkidiki peninsula, houses about 1,400 monks in 20 Eastern Orthodox monasteries. The entry into Mount Athos has been strictly controlled and only males have been allowed entrance. Spring is the best season of the year to visit Mount Athos. Women are not allowed to visit Mount Athos. Some women would really like to go there but they cannot just because they are women. Males who go to Greece must not miss Mount Athos as this is quite a special experience. People do not go there just for tourism. It is a saint place which they will not forget.
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Women ate banned from Mount Atjhos, they are not allowed on Mount Athos. A good start to study NEGATIVE STRUCTURES in English (reference on page 244-247):
Exercise 1: Contradict the following statements:
1. You are the best student in the class. 2. They go to the market every day. 3. I would like to have a car. 4. He should learn at night. 5. You want to drive the bus. 6. She may come now. 7. The football game was very interesting. 8. The ball is on the fridge. 9. We have two bathrooms in this flat. 10. They came here every day last week. 11. The toys are hidden in the wardrobe. 12. The boy is playing the violin. 13. Everybody must sing loudly. 14. The painter has lost his tools. 15. Your boyfriend needs more attention. 16. The newspaper shows people’s opinion. 17. Have a drink! 18. The children do their homework after school. 19. Who does his homework is a real student. 20. Her hair will be red. 21. I would agree with you if you were right. 22. They did know the truth. 23. The peanuts proved to be very good. 24. I might win the competition. 25. The packages were sent to the company on Friday. 26. The envelope was stolen. 27. The law must be obeyed. 28. All the people in the world should know that. 29. Crazy people always walk on roofs at night. 30. The referee often makes mistakes. 31. The teacher explains the lesson to us. 32. The TV usually works for hours. 33. Turn on the light! 34. Switch off the TV! 35. The T-shirts have been sent to you. 36. He forgot his pencilbox at home. 37. The computer does its work very well. 38. You may enter the room in five minutes.
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39. They could have borrowed some money. 40. The teenagers bought a lot of icecreams.
Exercise 2: Complete the following sentences with a SHORT negation. The first two are solved as a model:
1. The boys speak English, but the girls don’t. 2. The plain is green, but the hill aren’t. 3. The factory was opened, but the supermarket … 4. The dogs have run a lot, but the puppies … 5. I might visit you tomorrow, but you … be at home. 6. She must answer the guide’s questions, but her husband … 7. The sportsmen travelled by plane, but their coaches … 8. The passenger will call the policeman, but he … come soon enough. 9. The table should be moved somewhere else, but the chairs … 10. Half of the page was erased, but the other half … 11. Books are important, but cheap books … 12. The walls upstairs need reparation, but the walls downstairs … 13. The monumentl would be repaired, but the building behind it …. 14. Some of my colleagues went shopping, but the others … 15. The meat went bad, but the milk … 16. The rceptionists always do their job, but the waiters … 17. Red fits you, but green … 18. Her daughter can play tennis, but her son … 19. The young pilots could leave, but the old ones … 20. They voted that day, but they … the next week. 21. The hotel team will try to please the tourists, but the restaurant crew …. 22. The luggage must be watched, but the bags …
Exercise 3: Change the Simple Present (negative) into the Present Continuous (negative):
1. The kids don’t fight on the playground. 2. The elephants in the zoo don’t eat grass. 3. The radio doesn’t work. 4. The young men don’t answer the questions. 5. The passenger doesn’t walk in the center of the city.
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Exercise 4: Change the Present Continuous (negative) into the Simple Present (negative). Don’t forget to change the adverbs of time, when necessary:
1. The children are not leaving. 2. The birds are not singing. 3. The little animal is not running. 4. I am not going on mountain trips now. 5. Those locals are not helping the tourists now.
Exercise 5: Write the negative form in the Past Continuous. Don’t forget to change the adverbs of time, when necessary::
1. The women sew every day. 2. The scientist discovers something new every year. 3. The king always gives strange orders. 4. Those peoples fight each other every two years. 5. The tourist often walks in the park before the meal.
Exercise 6: Write the negative form in the Present Perfect. Don’t forget to change the adverbs of time, when necessary::
1. Father is going abroad tomorrow. 2. The Englishmen are carrying a big bag. 3. The computer is saving the information now. 4. The queen is riding a horse. 5. The kids are riding their bikes.
Exercise 7: Turn the following sentences into negative sentences:
1. I usually eat at home. Right now I am eating at the restaurant. 2. They have always traveled a lot. Last year they stayed at home. 3. The traveler had climbed the mountain before noon. Then he went for swimming in the pool. 4. The short singer gives autographs after every concert. Right now she is taking pictures with her fans. 5. My friends drank local wine every nigh. Now they are trying the local beer.
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Now let’s focus on the interrogative sentences while going into Greek Mythology:
5. GREECE: CENTAURUS (GREEK MYTHOLOGY) GRAMMAR: Interrogative Structures
In Greek mythology, Centaurus is the father of the race of mythological beasts known as the Centaurs or Ixionidae. The centaurs are half-man, half horse - having the torso of a man extending where the neck of a horse should be. They were said to be wild, savage, and lustful. Would you prefer history or mythology in ancient Greece? It was stated that after Ixion fell into insanity and was ostracized by his country, Zeus sympathized greatly with Ixion and brought him up to Olympus to dine with the gods. Here is where Ixion saw Hera, Zeus' wife and queen of the gods. He instantly fell in love with her beauty. Zeus soon became aware of the situation. He was in disbelief that Ixion would betray him and so he set a trap. Zeus found Ixion sleeping in a field and created a cloud figure of Hera. Zeus laid the figure, who was later named Nephele, next to Ixion. When Ixion awoke, he thought Hera was laying beside him and began hugging her.
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What do you think happened to Ixion? Zeus was so angry when he saw his suspicions confirmed that he drove Ixion from Mount Olympus, struck him with a thunderbolt, and then damned Ixion to be eternally bound to a flying burning wheel that would spin around the heavens nonstop (though it was later moved to Tartarus). Are you ready to read the interesting Greek Mythology?
Study the INTERROGATIVE STRUCTURES (see page 248-250):
Exercise 1: Answer the following questions and also focus on the structure of the interrogative sentences:
1. What is a Centaurus? 2. Where did Ixion meet Hera for the first time? 3. Who helped Ixion when he was ostracized by his country? 4. Tell why Zeus got angry with Ixion. 5. Can you say what Zeus did when his suspicions were confirmed? 6. Zeus could have sympathized with Ixion for ever, couldn’t he? 7. Hera could not love Ixion, could she? 8. Ixion betrayed Zeus, didn’t he? 9. Hera didn’t betray Zeus, did she?
Exercise 2: Give short answers to the following questions. Answer with the same modal/auxiliary verb the question starts with. The first four sentences are solved as an example:
1. Do you like apples? Yes, I do. No, I don’t. 2. Does he take medicines? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t. 3. Did she write that letter? Yes, she did. No, she didn’t.
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4. Have you called your mother? Yes, you have. No, you haven’t. 5. Do you go to your grandparents every year? 6. Did it hide itself under the bed? 7. Does she bring her paper? 8. Will the Indians move to the reservation? 9. Does it obey its master? 10. Did he leave today? 11. Have they answered the door at once? 12. Do you know English? 13. Have I lost my mind? 14. Will they look for that book in the library? 15. Must I stay here for the trial? 16. Had he locked the door before he left? 17. Shall I help him? 18. May I call him again in a few minutes? 19. Might things be worse than that? 20. Has she watched those movies? 21. Is it in the garden? 22. Did the detective find the girl? 23. Will you come to me tomorrow? 24. Are the walls in your room? 25. Does his wife cheat on him all the time? 26. Could you tell me where he is? 27. Am I wrong? 28. Do I have to save the information? 29. Would you excuse a fatal mistake? 30. Does he often buy flowers?
Exercise 3: Turn the following sentences into questions. The first two are already solved as an example:
1. The basement is full of rats. Is the basement full of rats? 2. Her nephews grow up in an old village. Do her nephew grow up in an old village? 3. The bottle was full of oil. 4. I have gone far today. 5. They can read in French. 6. The camp might be finished until summer. 7. Common people must obey the law. 8. Those trees should be cut.
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9. The streets are overcrowded. 10. The sailor would stay at home for a while if he were allowed. 11. The librarians were locked in the room. 12. You will share the room with the new colleague. 13. I shall forget you forever. 14. The cops need him as a witness. 15. The inhabitants of this city have survived. 16. Somebody waters the flowers every day. 17. The paper falls off the desk. 18. Common mistakes appear in this paper. 19. Chocolate tastes good. 20. These two pupils try to be better. 21. The young lady bought a small skirt. 22. The doorkeeper stopped the visitor. 23. The audience left the show room. 24. The orchestra played until late at night. 25. His family owned a shoe company. 26. They demolished the whole building. 27. You were at the bar then. 28. Basketball used to be my favorite game. 29. I forgave him. 30. The men woke up at 7 o’clock in the morning.
Exercise 4: Change the Simple Present into the Past Continuous:
1. Does your kid play in the hotel garden? 2. Do ships travel a lot these days? 3. Do they attend the math courses? 4. Does she decorate the tree at Christmas? 5. Do you meet her in the square? 6. Does he try to catch up the group?
Exercise 5: Change the Present Continuous into the Present Perfect:
1. Are they sleeping in the train? 2. Are you packing? 3. Is Cathy looking for a souvenir? 4. Am I making a the best holiday choice? 5. Are we choosing the right path? 6. Is he competing for a trip in Teneriffe?
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Exercise 6: Ask questions for each word in the sentence. Look at the first three models:
1. Helen travels to Italy every year. Who travels to Italy every year? (Helen – this is a question asked for the subject; the question does not need an auxiliary or a modal verb) What does Helen do every year? (travels) Where does Helen travel every year? (Italy) When does Helen travel to Italy? (every year) 2. Those twenty students passed the English exam last week. Who passed the English exam last year? (students – this a question asked for the subject) How many students passed the English exam last week? (fifteen – it is also part of the subject) What did those fifteen students do last year? (passed) What did those fifteen students pass last year? (the exam) What exam did those fifteen students pass last year? (the English exam) When did those fifteen students pass the English exam? (last week) 3. They can play tennis very well. Who can play tennis very well? (they – this is a question asked for the subject) What can they do very well? (play) What can they play very well? (tennis) How can they play tennis? (very well) 4. You have started a new tour in Greece. 5. He accepted the tickets late in the evening. 6. She was writing a postcard to her grandparents. 7. They will lie in the sun on the beach every morning. 8. The tourists had already learnt about Centaurus from their guide.
Exercise 7: Write negative interrogation. The first one is solved as a model:
1. Are you satisfied with his work? Aren’t you satisfied with his work? 2. Is your brother studying English these days? 3. Have you visited this museum? 4. Will you come with us? 5. Can they help me in this project? 6. Must you go to the school right now? 7. Should he call them to find out the result? 8. Do you know his name? 9. Does always the clerk arrive in time? 10. Did you participate in the National Congress in Bucharest? 62 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE
ITALY
Both Greece and Italy have a long history behind. The Greeks and the Romans are among the oldest and most developed societies in the history of human beings. We already discovered Greece, now let’s discover Italy.
Superlatives: Mont Blanc - Third highest mountain peak (4,810.45 m) Alps – The longest range of mountains in Europe (Italy, Germany, Switzerland, France, Austria) (1450 km) Apennines – Second longest mountain range in Europe (1500 km)
Five recommended places to visit in Italy: 1. Amalfi Coast 2. Sicily 3. Italian Lake District 4. Pompeii 5. Venice
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We have learned the Indicative Mood up to now. It is time to move on to the Conditional Mood:
1. ITALY: AMALFI COAST GRAMMAR: Conditional Mood
It would be so great to visit Amalfi Coast when you reach the region of Campania. It is known for its extraordinary beauty that makes it one of Italy’s top tourist destinations. Stretching 30 miles along the southern side of the Sorrento Peninsula, the Amalfi Coast is appreciated for its picturesque coastline that features shimmering bays, craggy cliffs, lemon tree gardens, multicolored villas and ritzy resorts. One of the most romantic towns along the Amalfi Coast is Positano which offers you beautiful pebbled beaches, pastel houses and scenic mountains. The town I would recommend is Amalfi with its lovely plazas lined with restaurants. I would also suggest the town of Ravello - favoured for its beautiful villas of gardens and art works. I visited Amalfi Coast for many times. I would probably have stayed there for ever. Summer is so pleasant in Amalfi and so relaxing. You just can’t have enough of it.
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Let’s study the CONDITIONAL (see page 251-253):
Exercise 1: The text below exemplifies the use of the Conditional Mood which is underlined, numbered and named, as well as explained for better understanding (at the end of the text):
Looking for Perfectness
It would be nice (1) to meet your idol. From distance idols seem the most powerful, beautiful, intelligent and gifted people. Still, would they look (2) as perfect face-to-face as they look from the distance? Would perfect people be living (3) on Earth to shadow all the others around or to act as models to be followed? Life takes strange paths and molds people according to the experience they go through. Of course nobody is quite perfect, but how would we have lived (4) without the concept of perfectness to be the target of human life? It is unreachable and still necessary, as all beings need objectives to move on, to develop and eventually to survive. Theoretically, survivors would have been improving (5) their condition year by year, longing for perfection, if there hadn’t been pitfalls all over the course of lives. Existence is not only an ascendant road, but a large street full of options and meanderings. The idols could be considered (6) landmarks. The pitfalls might be (7) the lessons to be learnt. The perfectness should be (8) the finish line. Life itself would embody (9) the means of ascending as close as possible to perfectness.
(1) – Present Conditional (expresses an improbable action) (2) – Present Conditional (expresses an improbable action) (3) – Present Conditional Continuous (expresses an improbable action which would take place for a longer period of time) (4) – Perfect Conditional (expresses a hypothetical / impossible action) (5) - Perfect Conditional Continuous (expresses a hypothetical / impossible action) (6) - Present Conditional with ”could” (expresses an improbable action) (7) - Present Conditional with ”might” (expresses an improbable action; lowest probability to happen because of ”might”) (8) - Present Conditional with ”should” (expresses an improbable action; highest probability to happen because of ”should”) (9) - Present Conditional (expresses an improbable action)
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Knowing the Conditional Mood, we can learn If Clause now, which is one of the three restrictions called together Sequence of Tenses (Sequence of Tenses comprises of If Clause, Time Clause and Direct Object Clause):
2. ITALY: SICILY GRAMMAR: Sequence of Tenses - If Clause
If you come to Italy, you will surely not miss these places.
If I were you, I would book immediately. I’m sure you won’t regret it. Come to Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous region of Italy that also includes several smaller islands and it is separated from the mainland region of Calabria by the 5 km (2 miles) Strait of Messina. You’ll learn fascinating legends about the strait, such as the Scilla and Cariddi legend. Sicily is the home to every great Mediterranean civilization. It is rich in art and history: from Agrigento’s Valley of the Temples to
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Palermo’s Baroque churches. The island’s most striking geological feature is Mount Etna, Europe’s tallest active volcano. Moreover, if you had had more time, you could have visited many more places in Sicily. It is simply wonderful.
We already know how to build the Conditional and now we will learn the rules of the Conditional Clause, also calles IF CLAUSE. Please consult page 255- 256):
Exercise 1: Choose the right variant:
1. If I had a ticket, I (will give / would give / would have given) it to you. 2. If you go to London, you (will have to / would have to / would have had to) an umbrella with you. 3. We (won’t miss / wouldn’t miss / wouldn’t miss) the train if we had woken up earlier. 4. If we had lived in the country, the kids (will play / would play / would have played) outside all day long. 5. I will not be able to accompany you to Napoli if my manager (doesn’t allow / didn’t allow / hadn’t allowed) me to leave work for a few days. 6. If she (has / had / had had) time, she would have gone shopping.
Exercise 2: Choose the right tense / mood for the verbs in parantheses, according to the threetypes of If Clause:
1. If the sun (shine), we will climb the mountains over there. 2. If I (earn) enough money this year, I would go on an exotic holiday. 3. I wouldn’t have hurt myself if I (take) ankle shoes. 4. If we (meet) at 10.30, we will have time to catch the train. 5. The zookeeper (punish)them if they had fed the animals. 6. Rick would arrive in time if he (left earlier). 7. If he( know) the way, I will take him with me 8. They (go)to the theatre by taxi if it had rained. 9. If I (be) rich, I would travel all around the world. 10. She (come) to Rome if were invited.
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3. ITALY: THE ITALIAN LAKE DISTRICT GRAMMAR: Sequence of Tenses – Time Clause
When you come to Italy, you will find the amazing Italian Lake District among the many beautiful landscapes of this country. The Italian Lake District, which is as breathtaking as the English one, stretches across Northern Italy. The southern ends of most of the lakes are relatively flat but the northern ends are mountainous as the lakes reach deep into the Alps. They have been popular with tourists for over hundreds of years. The Italian Lakes offer you good weather and attractive scenery. Garda is the largest lake, and offers stunning scenery. Como is equally stunning, with forested slopes rising directly from the water’s edge. When you come, don’t forget to visit, further west, Lake Maggiore. Even if it is less popular, it is just as beautiful as the others, with several popular family resorts. After you have visited Lake District, you will start liking Italy more and more.
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Somebody told me that I would love Italy as soon as I saw it. He was right. There are many exquisite places in Italy, ut the most exciting landscape is the there where the mountains comes staright into the sea or the lakes. Somebody also said that people would start coming to Italy again and again after they had visited it once. So, come to Italy and you will love it and you will return here again and again.
In If Clause and Time Clause there are restrictions in the use of tenses. On page 257. you can find the rules for TIME CLAUSE. After understanding this, you can practice Time Clause with the following exercises:
Exercise 1: Match the two parts of the sentences:
1. I will go to Sicily when a. they have studied the map 2. Ray said that he would visit his brother when b. I find a good hotel. 3. She said she would return after c. he went to Italy. 4. They will find the path after d. she had visited the Italian Lake District.
Exercise 2: Fill in the table:
Main Clause (+ Direct Object Clause) Time Clause 1 The guide said that we would leave when … 2 You will send her a postcard after …. 3 Dorothy told me that she would come after … 4 The bus driver will take a break when …
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4. ITALY: POMPEII GRAMMAR: Sequence of Tenses – Direct Object Clause
It was said that you would have enjoyed the life of the ancient Roman world if you had lived in Pompei. It is, in fact a famous Roman city which was buried under several feet of volcanic ash for nearly 1,700 years after the cataclysmic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. Once when I was there, I asked if Pompeii would be completely unearthed one day. Here is what I was told: Excavation of Pompeii began in 1748, and the site is yet to be totally unearthed. The site is located near the modern city of Naples. A tour of Pompeii gives the tourists a fascinating insight into the everyday life. They say that visitors can walk along the ancient streets to see the remains of bakeries, brothels and baths. Pompei is situated in South Italy, not far away from Napoli.
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We have already studied the restrictions in If Clause and Time Clause. The last one in this restrictional group is the DIRECT OBJECT CLAUSE. Look on page 258 to learn the rule. After having read that, you can practice here:
Exercise 1: Match the two parts of the following sentences:
Main Clause Direct Object Clause
She said if their seats would be booked.
They asked that we were too tired to take another trip. I explained that you had studied the ancient Roman world many years ago. We decided that she would go to the travel agency the next day. You told him that he was in the right place.
He thought that I had already visited Pompeii a year before.
Exercise 2: Revise Sequence of Tenses by matching the two parts of the sentences:
Part 1 Part 2 If I knew this when we really needed their help. They said if they had been lost. The locals said that they would help when I decide to leave. I will buy the tickets that I had counted on their advice. They would have asked for directions if he reached the city of Naples. I told them I would know what to do. The traveler would go to Pompeii After she had visited Venice She announced us if they are not be allowed to. Diane explained that she would come that she was amazed by the view.. Nobody will make photos after I had found the Lakes’ map. I will visit the Lake District that they would visit Naples.
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The Imperative Mood is generally used for orders, commands and it does not necessarily require a subject in its structure:
5. ITALY: VENICE GRAMMAR: IMPERATIVE MOOD
Come to see one of the the most fampus cities in Italy! Don’t waste any time! Venice is waiting for you. Let’s “read” it a little: One of the best places to visit in Italy, Venice is a unique city that is built upon a lagoon surrounded by the Adriatic Sea. Venice is an archipelago of 118 islands all connected by hundreds of beautiful bridges and scenic canals. The Grand Canal is the most famous and divides the city into two sections. One of the most popular things to do in Venice is to take a gondola ride along one of its many canals. Take a gondola and visit Venice on water! It is one of the most romantic cities in the world. That’s why if you have a romantic love affair you have to spend some days here. Enjoy also its picturesque waterways and historic architecture like Saint Mark’s Square and Basilica, the Doge’s Palace and Rialto Bridge!
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Venice is also famous for the Annual Carnival, which takes place 40 days before Easter. So, don’t wait any longer, come to Venice!
Look on page 259-260. to study the IMPERATIVE MOOD. Then come here to practice it:
Exercise 1: Underline all the imperatives in the following text:
Do This, Do That
All the time the teachers tell us what to do: open the book, read the text, listen to me, go to the blackboard, do the exercise, stand up, sit down, be silent. Or they tell us what we are not to do: don’t run, don’t cheat on the tests, don’t make mistakes, don’t speak bad words, don’t forget your homework. All these are the Imperative Mood. School is full of Imperatives directed from the teachers towards the pupils / students. Yet, how would school be if teachers were told what to do and not to do for at least one day? Just to feel the real meaning of the Imperative. Then, ”Go to the blackboard!” might change into ”Will you go to the blackboard, please?”; ”Listen to me!” might become ”Will you listen to me, please?”; ”Come here” might turn into ”Come here, will you?”. Also ”Don’t cross the line!” might be transformed into ”Don’t cross the line, please!”. Imperative might also vary from orders to suggestions: ”Let’s do the exercise!” instead of ”Do the exercise!”, ”Let’s read the text!” instead of ”Read the text!”. The ”Law of the Forbidden Imperative in Schools” should be enforced. It is not only a matter of words, but also a matter of relationship, of human rapports. Thus, school might become a better place all over the world.
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AUSTRIA
From Italy we drive directly to Austria, which shows us its palaces, ski resorts, mountain landscapes and big lakes called sees.
Superlatives: Grossglockner - Seventh highest mountain peak in Europe (3,798 m) Alps – The longest range of mountains in Europe (Italy, Germany, Switzerland, France, Austria) (1450 km). The Battle of Vienna took place at Kahlenberg Mountain near Vienna on 12 September 1683, against the Ottoman forces. The battle is also noted for including the largest known cavalry charge in history.
Five recommended places to visit in Austria: 1. Vienna 2. Innsbruck 3. Salzkammergut 4. Salzburg 5. Zell am See
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Modal Verbs are “helping” verbs which accompany other verbs to show special meanings:
1. AUSTRIA: VIENNA GRAMMAR: Modal Verbs – Can / Could
Elegant waltzes and Johann Strauss can immediately come to mind when one thinks of Vienna, the capital of Austria and its largest city; the city could hold more than 200 balls each year. But the city also is known for other classical composers such as Mozart, Brahms, Beethoven and Schubert. Travellers can take a break from music by visiting the Hofburg, which houses the Hapsburg rulers’ imperial jewellery, and the Kunsthistorisches, a museum that has an outstanding collection of paintings by old masters. Vienna is also famous for its cafes where travellers can rest their weary feet while deciding which museum or park to visit next. Could you go visit Vienna? Could you enjoy all the beauties and all the cultural objectives of the city? There are many wonderful places to see in Vienna and you need quite some days to cover it…
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Modal verbs help people understand the attitude of the speaker who can mean necessity, probability, possibility, ability, permission, command etc Study the MODAL VERBS on page 261-273. Then try these exercises:
Exercise 1: Chose the correct variant: can / could / be able to.
1. Last week we …………. go shopping, but this week we can’t. 2. My friends will …………… build a new house in the next years. 3. If you walk fast, you ……………. Arrive in time. 4. When I was little, I ……………. not go on holiday to Austria. 5. Last week the passengers ……………… travel in the area only by train or by ship. 6. Ray ……………….. drive for eight hours non-stop. 7. I ………………... buy the ticket only now. 8. He ……………… to solve any problems lately. 9. He would ………………… to do that if he practiced a little. 10. She ……………….. not drive me home yesterday.
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2. AUSTRIA: Innsbruck GRAMMAR: Modal Verbs – May / Might
Innsbruck, with a name that translates as “bridge over the inn,” is an all-season tourist destination. It is internationally known for its winter sports, having hosted the Winter Olympics in 1964 and 1976. But this Tyrolean city may offer more than just great skiing. It might offer a good mix of cathedrals, such as Hofkirche, which houses the tomb of Emperor Maximilian I; the Schloss Ambras, which has a collection of paintings and armour; and the Bell Museum, a nod to 400 years of bell-making. May I invite you to spend your holiday in Innsbruck? You might find it far from you, but it is worth coming here. You’ll love it.
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Exercise 1: Chose the correct variant: may /might.
1. Now you ………….... go visit the museum. 2. I ……………. go shopping in the mall today, but I don’t really want that. 3. Lisa, …………… I come on the trip whit yo? 4. Innsbruck ……………… become the new summer tourist attraction. 5. Yesterday he ………………. go to Bell Museum, but he didn’t. 6. I know that it’s not likely to get the permission, but I am still asking you: ……….…….. I go to Austria and Italy in the same month?
Exercise 2: Chose the correct variant: may /might / can / could.
1. There ………….... be chance to let you leave. 2. ……………… I help you with something? 3. I …………….. make you tea. Would you like that? 4. You ……………. get invited to the party, but it’s a slight chance. 5. Tomorrow I ……………. leave the town, but I am not sure yet. 6. The passenger …………… like this new type of doughnut. 7. Wait! I think I ………….. help you whit this! 8. I ………….. buy a muffin but I did’t. 9. I thought I ………….... visit Schloss Ambras last year, but it was not possible.
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3. AUSTRIA: SALZKAMMERGUT GRAMMAR: Modal Verbs – Need / Must / Have to
Salzkammergut is a beautiful resort area that starts with Salzburg and heads east into a land of lakes. Sparkling clean lakes, green hills, wonderful mountains, romantic towns like St.Wolfgang and Hallstatt make up this region. Travellers who have seen the movie “The Sound Of Music” must know what this lake region looks like, because that movie was filmed in and around the city of Salzburg and the neighbouring Salzkammergut region. The resort area is popular with sunbathers as well as visitors who need relaxing spa treatments. Visitors can join in the relaxed moods by donning the ever-popular resort wear, lederhosen for men and dirndl outfits for women. Tourists have to visit it to understand it. You need to see it and you will fall in love with it.
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Exercise 1: Chose the correct variant: need / must / have to.
1. I ………….. to go to the travel agenty today. 2. You …………. leave New York before Christmas, if you want to get to Laponia to see Santa Claus. 3. You …………….. respect the law of the country you are visiting. 4. Have you …………. pack already? 5. Tom cannot visit Hallstatt now. He ………… help George with his book. 6. Children …………….. go to school every year.
Exercise 2: Chose the correct variant: need / must / have to / can / could / may / might.
1. You ……………… see it and you will fall in love with it. 2. You ……………… buy a ticket if you want to travel by train. 3. …………………. I count on you, my friend? 4. She ……………….. like it, although I doubt it. 5. I …………….. get there in five minutes if I found a taxi. 6. …………….. I talk to you for a minute? 7. The contract ………………….. have a clause about this issue. Let’s check it! 8. I have to look on the internet for some good accommodation. 9. You ………………. Want to have a look! 10. You …………….. need my help with this.
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4. AUSTRIA: SALZBURG GRAMMAR: Modal Verbs – Shall / Should
You must visit Salzburg by means, my dear friend! This is situated in central Austria, near the German border. You should go there as it is probably best known as the birthplace of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Travellers should come to Austria’s fourth-largest city to view the sights that inspired such unforgettable music. With its hill-topped medieval fortress, picturesque Altstadt old town and breath-taking Alpine scenery, Salzburg may be considered as one of the best places to visit in Austria. For those who might want to relive scenes from the movie “The Sound of Music”, must-see attractions include the 17th-century Baroque Mirabell Palace and Gardens and the von Trapp family home, which is now a hotel. Mozart aficionados can visit his birthplace as well as a reconstruction of his home. Shall you miss this wonderful Austrian place? Of course you shall not. Landscapes, castles, Austrian customs and the little Austrian houses with flowers on the windows… should all offer you a wonderful experience…
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Exercise 1: Chose the correct variant: shall / should.
1. ………………. I help you with the luggage? 2. All the people in the world ………………… Salzburg once in their life. 3. The Baroc Mirabell Palace ……………… be renovated. 4. ……………… I call the taxi for the airport? 5. Of course you ………………. not miss the tour.
Exercise 2: Revise shall / should / need / must / have to / can / could / may / might by matching the sentence with the right Modal Verb:
Sentence Modal Verb
1. ……… I help you with information a. might about Mozart’s birthplace?
2. I ……………. have seen “The b. can Sound of Music”, but I am not sure at all; I don’t remember any scene. 3. Travellers …………… come to c. may Austria’s fourth-largest city to view the sights that inspired such unforgettable music. 4. Salzburg ………….. be considered d. need as one of the best places to visit in Austria. 5. In Salzburg you ………… visit the e. have to Baroque Mirabell Palace and Gardens. 6. …………….. you tell me how to get f. shall to the birth home (or the reconstruction) of Mozart, please? 7. If you want to visit the castle, first g. could you ………………. buy an entrance ticket. 8. I ……………. check if there is h. must available accomodation in Salzburg during the festival. 9. You needn’t leave so early to catch i. should the train.
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5. AUSTRIA: ZELL AM SEE GRAMMAR: Modal Verbs – Will / Would
My friend would also be interested in visiting Zell am See, located in the state of Salzburg, which is another well known tourist destination, famous for its mountains and lakes. Once governed by French troops back in the early 19th century, Zell am See has hosted several international skiing competitions. Off the ski slopes, one has to discover its most famous attractions, i.e. the Romanesque St. Hippolyte’s Church, with an elevated walkway that dates back to the early 16th century. Will you enjoy heights? Zell am See is also a good starting point for the Grossglockner Alpine Road, a panoramic road famous for its high alpine scenery.
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Exercise 1: Fill in the table. Tick each table-cell for the verbs which can be used to express the meanings in the first column:
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Exercise 2: Undeline all the Modal Verbs in the following text and say what they express. The first five are explained as an example:
Travelling
Travelling in the whole world is a very interesting, but also expensive hobby. Having such an experience together with your best friend must (1) be the life experience somebody may (2) look for. ”Let’s have a tour of the world, shall we (3)?” ”We could do (4) it next summer, for a month…?” ”Yes, we might try (5) this…” ”Wouldn’t you like to go on such a trip with me?” ”I used to dream about such a trip when I was younger, but I have never been able to make this dream come true. Of course, I would like to do it, especially with my best friend.” ”Then why are you having second thoughts, my friend?” ”Such a trip will be pretty expensive. We should calculate a rough budget to see if I can manage this.” ” I suggest that you should make your dream come true this time. We may travel by my camper so that the accommodation costs would be low and we might also cook rapid food in the camper…” ”Need I decide right now? Everything has come out all of a sudden. No matter how much I should want it, I have to think it over.” ”You must be a very precautious person. I dare you to be adventurous once in your life and agree on doing this. We’ll keep it as cheap as possible for both of us to manage the costs. What do you say?” ”You are to talk me into this no matter what, aren’t you?” ”I would if I needed to. You really ought to do something you have always wanted to. I might, as well, go by myself if you refused me, but it wouldn’t be the same without you.” ”OK. OK. May I speak?” ”No, you may not speak if you intend to refuse me… I’m joking.” ”Could I borrow your fishing rod for this trip?” ”Then you do accept my proposal?” ”I couldn’t afford to miss such a great adventure with my best friend.” ”Thank you, thank you, thank you. You shall not regret this. You, the wonderful world pay attention: we are coming!”
(1) – must (expresses probability) (2) – may (possibility) (3) – shall (asking for advice) (4) – could (possibility) (5) – might (possibility, lowest degree)
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SPAIN
Austria has enchanted us with its mountain landscape. Let’s change the setting a little and visit the sea landscape of Spain.
Superlatives: Fourth largest country in Europe (498,468 km2) Real Madrid – The best club football teamin Europe; in fact the first three best football clubs are Spanish: Real Madrid, Athetico Madrid and FC Barcelona Spaniards have the highest life expectancy in Europe
Five recommended places to visit in Spain: 1. Santiago De Compostela Cathedral 2. The Canary Islands 3. Costa del Sol 4. Ciudad De Las Artes Y Las Ciencias, Valencia 5. Barcelona's Sagrada Familia and Gaudi Sites
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Turning Direct Speech into Indirect Speech also requires some changes of verb tenses or other parts of speech (such as pronouns, adverbs, adjectives). Here are some Indirect Speech structures:
1. SPAIN: SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA CATHEDRAL GRAMMAR: Indirect Speech – Reported Verb in the Present
The magnificent Cathedral of Santiago (St. James) is a component of the Santiago de Compostela World Heritage Site in Galicia, Spain. It was built to house and honor the relics of the saint, and it has been the goal of pilgrims since the Middle Ages, the culmination of their completing the famed Camino de Santiago. One of the outstanding monuments of Early Romanesque architecture, the cathedral was built between 1060 and 1211, and despite the Baroque transformation of the exterior in the 16th to 18th centuries, the interior is still in the purest Early Romanesque style. People say that you'll see both of these periods at play as you enter the west front, through one of
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Spain's most impressive church facades.” Step inside to face the Pórtico de la Gloria, part of the old west front now concealed by the 18th-century facade. The focal point of the interior is the elaborately decorated Capilla Mayor, built over the Apostle's tomb. One of the visitor says that he could not help being frightened while wandering around this tomb. In the center of the high altar of jasper, alabaster, and silver is a 13th-century wooden figure of the Apostle, richly adorned in precious metals and gems. On either side, narrow staircases lead up behind the figure so that pilgrims can kiss the Apostle's cloak - culminating their pilgrimage. In a crypt under the altar, the Apostle's remains are in a silver casket.
The rules of the INDIRECT SPEECH are on page 274-280. After having read that, you can have an attempt of practisinf Indirect Speech here:
Exercise 1:Turn the following sentences into Indirect Speech. The reported verbs are in the Present:
1. Direct Speech: ”I am doing an exercise now,” explains Tom. Indirect Speech: Tom explains that ...... 2. Direct Speech: ”My father speaks English well,” Laura tells her friend. Indirect Speech: Laura tells her friend that ...... 3. Direct Speech: ”I have lost my keys,” says the little boy. Indirect Speech: The little boy says that ...... 4. Direct Speech: ”She hasn’t spoken to him since that day,” mother is telling me. Indirect Speech: Mother is telling me that ...... 5. Direct Speech: ”I last saw her two days ago,” I explain to the policeman. Indirect Speech: I explain to the policeman that I last saw ...... 6. Direct Speech: ”I hope she will remember to buy bread,” says Thomas. Indirect Speech: Thomas says that ...... 7. Direct Speech: ”Jack wants to know if you will be here tomorrow,” I am telling Cathy. Indirect Speech: I am telling Cathy that ......
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2. SPAIN: THE CANARY ISLANDS GRAMMAR: Indirect Speech – Reported Verb in the Past
“The Canary Islands are the an archipelago and autonomous community of Spain located on the Atlantic Ocean, 100 kilometres (62 miles) west of Morocco. The Canaries have become a well-known touristic region.” “What did she say?” “She said that the Canary Islands were an archipelago of Spain, located on the Atlantic Ocean. She said that the Canaries had become a well-known touristic region.” “The main islands are Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. The archipelago also includes a number of islands and islets. The archipelago's beaches, climate and important natural attractions, make it a major tourist destination with over 12 million visitors per year” “Even before I visited Spain, I had visited the Canary Islands.” “I haven’t understood…” “She said that even before she had visited Spain, she had visited the Canary Islands and it had been a wonderful holiday, of course.”
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Exercise 1:Turn the following sentences into Indirect Speech. The reported verbs are in the Past:
1. Direct Speech: ”I am doing an exercise now,” explained Tom. Indirect Speech: Tom explained that ...... 2. Direct Speech: ”My father speaks English well,” Laura told her friend. Indirect Speech: Laura told her friend that ...... 3. Direct Speech: ”I have lost my keys,” said the little boy. Indirect Speech: The little boy said that ...... 4. Direct Speech: ”She hasn’t spoken to him since that day,” mother told me. Indirect Speech: Mother told me that ...... 5. Direct Speech: ”I last saw her two days ago,” I explained to the policeman. Indirect Speech: I explained to the policeman that ...... 6. Direct Speech: ”I hope she will remember to buy bread,” said Thomas. Indirect Speech: Thomas said that ...... 7. Direct Speech: ”Jack wants to know if you will be here tomorrow,” I told Cathy. Indirect Speech: I told Cathy that ......
Exercise 2: Turn the following questions, exclamative sentences and affirmative sentences into Indirect Speech. The reported verbs are in the Past:
1. Direct Speech: ”Do you smoke?” she asked Paul. Indirect Speech: She asked Paul if ………………………………………………. 2. Direct Speech: ”Will your mother come here at 5 o’clock?” asked the teacher. Indirect Speech: The teacher asked me if …………………………………….. 3. Direct Speech: ”Who is this child?” the neighbor wanted to know. Indirect Speech: The neighbor wanted to know who ………………………… 4. Direct Speech: ”How much is five and five?” I asked the little girl. Indirect Speech: I asked the little girl how much …………………………….. 5. Direct Speech: ”Leave it on the table!” mother told me. Indirect Speech: Mother told me …………………………….…………………. 6. Direct Speech: ”Don’t drive too fast!” they told him. Indirect Speech: They told him …………………………………………………. 7. Direct Speech: ”Let’s wait for Jane here!” said Mike. Indirect Speech: Mike suggested that ………………………………………….. 8. Direct Speech: ”Heavens! It’s getting cold.” Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with disgust that ……………………………...
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9. Direct Speech: ”Damn! I can’t find my glasses.” Indirect Speech: He cursed as he ………………………………………………. 10. Direct Speech: ”What a wonderful view!” Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with surprise that ………….………………… 11. Direct Speech: ”Good morning! How are you?” Indirect Speech: He greeted me / He wished me a …………………………… 12. Direct Speech: ”Did you find her in the classroom?” I asked Tom. Indirect Speech: I asked Tom if ………………………………….……………… 13. Direct Speech: ”I have never seen her before that day,” he affirmed. Indirect Speech: He affirmed that ………………………………….…………… 14. Direct Speech: ”We are going to help her,” they told. Indirect Speech: They told that ……………………………………….………… 15. Direct Speech: ”She is about to leave the house,” the woman explained. Indirect Speech: The woman explained that ………………….………………. 16. Direct Speech: ”You will have seen the results before the end of the week,” remarked the manager. Indirect Speech: The manager remarked that ……………………………….. 17. Direct Speech: ”Can you open the door, please?” Indirect Speech: He asked me if ……………………………………………….. 18. Direct Speech: ”She will be travelling to Spain at that hour,” grandmother said. Indirect Speech: Grandmother said that ……………………………………..
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3. SPAIN: COSTA DEL SOL
GRAMMAR: Indirect Speech – Words that change when the reported verb is in the past
Costa del Sol (in English “The Coast of the Sun” or “The Sun Coast”) is a line of coastal towns in the south of Spain. In the past it was a series of small fishermen settlements, but now it has become a well-known touristic region, which includes Malaga. It is situated between Costa de la Luz and Costa Tropical. These beaches are attractive to tourists. My friend visited Costa del Sol some years ago and told me that those beaches were wonderful and full of joy. He said that some years before Malaga Airport was rebuilt and extended to facilitate mass tourism. Low-cost charters and holiday packages were offered to develop tourism in th region. The Port of Malaga was also renovated and extended in 1988 to ensure traffic of goods and transport of tourists. They say: “Costa del Sol is now an essential economic area and an important driver of investment in Malaga”. The cruise industry has developed massively. It was said that then in 1988, the reconstruction radically changed the image of the port and surrounding areas.
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Exercise 1: Turn the following sentences into Indirect Speech making the necessary changes:
1. Direct speech: I am at the seaside now. Indirect speech: He said that ......
2. Direct speech: Give us these documents today. Indirect speech: The managers ordered ......
3. Direct speech: My car is here. Indirect speech: He said ......
4. Direct speech: This adventure book is mine. Indirect speech: The girl told me ......
5. Direct speech: I visited her yesterday and five days ago. Indirect speech: He explained that ......
6. Direct speech: We will see her next year. Indirect speech: They said that ......
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When the Subject executes the action of the sentence, we use Active Voice. When somebody else acts on the subject, we use Passive Voice. Focus on the Passive Voice constructions in the following paragraphs:
4. SPAIN: CIUDAD DE LAS ARTES Y LAS CIENCIAS, VALENCIA GRAMMAR: Passive Voice
As a guide, I am usually asked about the oturistic sites in Valencia. Right now I am being questioned by e-mail about Ciudad De Las Artes Y Las Ciencias. This a place I like to talk about, as I have great memories from there. When Valencia diverted the course of the river that had repeatedly flooded the city, it was left with a broad, flat riverbed spanned by bridges. It was upon this clean palette that the brilliant Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava created a breathtaking ensemble of structures that have become a magnet for aficionados of contemporary architecture. Not only the
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Solve this exercise after you have studied the PASSIVE VOICE on page 281- 283:
Exercise 1: Rephrase the following sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice:
1. Spain has made the magnificent Cathedral of Santiago (St. James) component of the Santiago de Compostela World Heritage Site in Galicia. The magnificent Cathedral of Santiago……………………………………………. 2.They built the cathedral between 1060 and 1211 The cathedral …………………………………………………………………………. 3. Many tourists have visited the Canary Islands. The Canary Islands ………………………………………………………………….. 4. I book the best hotel in Teneriffe every year. The best hotel in Teneriffe …………………………………………………….……. 5. The Spaniards had built Malaga Airport some years before. Malaga Airport ……………………………………………………………….……… 6. We see Costa del Sol as the best beach in Spain. Costa del Sol ………………………………………………………….……………… 7. The receptionist is calling room 245. Room 245 ……………………………………………………………….……………. 8. I will change the hotel room. The hotel room …………………………………….………………….……………..
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5. SPAIN: BARCELONA'S SAGRADA FAMILIA AND GAUDI SITES GRAMMAR: Use of Passive Voice
Antoni Gaudi took the architectural style known as Art Nouveau a step farther, even, some have argued, into absurdity. The fanciful and outrageous buildings he created in Barcelona have become landmarks, the signature attractions of this Catalan city. Foremost is The Sagrada Família church, officially the Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família or the Holy Family Church of the Atonement. One of Europe's most unconventional churches, it is also unfinished, so as you look down from its tower you can see the work in progress below. You may search in vain for absolute straight lines in Gaudi's Casa Milà, his last and most famous secular work; it resembles a piece of sculpture more than a functional building. Be sure to ascend to its roof - the chimneys are said to have inspired the image of Darth Vader from Star Wars. Parc Güell overlooks the city from a hillside, the views and gardens framed by fantastical creatures - salamanders, fish, an octopus - and designs in bright ceramic-chard mosaics. A fanciful towered house near the entrance is largely covered in colored ceramics. Unlike most buildings, Gaudi's appeal even to children and to adults who don't care a thing about architecture, for one simple reason - they are just plain fun to look at.
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Exercise 1: Underline all the Passive constructions in the following text and explain their use. The first four are exemplified for you:
The book was written (1) in English. All the characters were constructed (2) in a colorful way and all the scenes were depicted (3) with profound details. ”Has the book been finished (4) ?” asked the reporter. ”I thought the book would be completed before the end of the month, but it still needs to be revised before being published. To be printed as it is now would be an offense for my readers who expect no less than perfectness.” ”Will your characters have been described completely before the action meets the culminant point or are they to be developed gradually until the end of the story?” ”Everything is introduced gradually in my book, then it is turned upside down and again ”downside up” until the reader is overwhelmed, gets confused, accustoms with the suspense tactic and, when least expected, he is illuminated by being given the most unexpected conclusion ever. It is a complicated and completely not boring book.” ”Had the book been required by the public before you started writing it? I mean did you search for their tastes, their expectations? How have you come up with this scenario?” ”Critics has signaled the linear development of the books present on the market in the last few years. I thought a different kind of book would be interesting and welcomed.” ”I can’t wait to read your book. When is it going to be published after all?” ”The book is going to be found on the bookshop shelves next month.”
(1) – Passive Voice: Simple Past (finished action; the tense is used to tell a story; the Subject is ”the book” on which is projected the action expressed by the Predicate) (2) – Passive Voice: Simple Past (finished action; the tense is used to tell a story; the Subject is ”the characters” on which is projected the action expressed by the Predicate) (3) – Passive Voice: Simple Past (finished action; the tense is used to tell a story; the Subject is ”the scenes” on which is projected the action expressed by the Predicate) (4) – Passive Voice: (Indefinite) Present Perfect (unfinished action; Active Voice would have been: Have you finished the book?)
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UNITED KINGDOM
Spain was great, but now we are flying to the United Kingdom, a place with a rich history and full of touristic sites.
Superlatives: Ranked 10th according to the number of billionaires in the world. Largest islands in Europe (210,100 km2) Eas a' Chual Aluinn (Scotland)- The highest waterfall (201 m)
Five recommended places to visit in United Kingdom: 1. Castle of Dover 2. Oxford 3. London 4. Stonehenge 5. Cambridge
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Besides the Indicative Mood, Conditional Mood and Imperative Mood, the last Personal Mood in English is the Subjunctive Mood, which is presented in the texts below:
1. UNITED KINGDOM: CASTLE OF DOVER GRAMMAR: Synthetical Subjunctive
Castle of Dover known as the ‘key to England’, the great fortress of Dover Castle has played a crucial role in the defence of the realm for over nine centuries, a span equalled only by the Tower of London and Windsor Castle. During the Cold War, the network of tunnels hidden under the castle were transformed into the secret location of one of Britain’s Regional Seats of Government, with the role of organising life in the event of a nuclear attack. If we were at the castle, we would visit all the rooms. (Synthetical Subjunctive - Past Subjunctive) If we had had more time at the castle, we would have visited the gardens, too. (Synthetical Subjunctive - Past Perfect Subjunctive)
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Examples of Synthetical Subjunctive:
It is essential that you attend the trip in order to see the Chester Eastgate clock. I suggest that we visit the Chester Eastgate clock together.
It is recommended that you take some water with you, if you want to go around the Chester wall. If I were you, I would also take some food.
It is important that he/she try to take pictures of the Liverpool Cathedral. I wish you took a picture of the Liverpool Cathedral.
Please consult the SUBJUNCTIVE on page 284-292; then practice the Subjunctive structures in the follwing exercises:
Exercise 1: Continue the sentences using the Subjunctive Mood:
1. I would take some food with me if I ……………………………………………. 2. It is recommended that he ………………………………………………………. 3. Long ……………………… the King! 4. I wish I ……………………………………………………………….……………. 5. It is time you ……………………………………………………….…………….. 6. The campers wished it ………………………………………….………………. 7. They wouldn’thave missed the Liverpool Cathedral even if ….…………… 8. I suggest that we …………………………………………………………………
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2. UNITED KINGDOM: OXFORD GRAMMAR: Analytical Subjunctive
As the oldest university in the English-speaking world, Oxford is a unique and historic institution. There is no clear date of foundation, but teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly from 1167, when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris. I propose that we all should go to the Oxford University. (Analytical Subjunctive) / I suggest that we all go to the University of Oxford. (Synthetical Subjunctive)
Exercise 1: Revise the Subjunctive. Focus on the underlined structures and try to explain the type of Subjunctive used. Check your answers at the end of the text:
In the following text the Subjunctive is introduced as a ”possible friend”; as a difficult grammar subject turned into an easy usable means of communication in English. The Subjunctive is bolded, numbered and explained at the end of the text. Moreover, in order to facilitate the understanding of the use of Subjunctive, the examples are set in the same order as they were presented in the previous theoretical part; there are separate paragraphs marking different types of Subjunctive in use:
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Friendship in Brotherhood, Friendship in Life (Falling in love with SUBJUNCTIVE)
Have you ever asked yourself what friendship means? Is it a feeling? Is it the name of a relationship? Or maybe the question should be: is it real? It comes between acquaintances, between colleagues, between sisters and brothers and it takes ‘sizes’ and ‘shapes’ that you cannot imagine. Examples are everywhere:
“Long live our friendship! (1)” tells you a supposed friend after some glasses of wine. And, with your heart full of satisfaction, you happily reply: “So be it! (2) I am so lucky to have a friend like you. God bless you! (3)” “My brother recommended that I be there (4) for a friend in times of need and in times of joy. We have long discussions about friendship and he states… ‘it is necessary that a friend assume both the dark and the light moments of his fellow (5) if he calls himself a genuine friend.’ He also made the suggestion that honesty and loyalty be the first features characterizing two people involved in friendship (6). ”
“I wish I knew your brother (7). He seems to have strong principles and a healthy mind. Don’t you think it is high time for you to introduce us? (8)” “It is high time you met each other (9). I should have done this a long time ago. However, even if you wanted to meet him today, it is impossible (10) because he is out of town for a while.” “You talk as if he were out of town for a long period of time (11) .” “I would rather you understood (12) that he was out of town for an unlimited period of time. He is somewhere on business and I really don’t know when he comes back. Obviously, I would rather know (13) where he is, what he does and when he plans to return.” “If I were you, I wouldn’t worry so much (14) because he seems smart enough to take care of himself.”
“Yes, but I wish he hadn’t been so secretive about his work and about his life (15). I consider him my best friend and I tell him everything: good or bad. But he sometimes treats me as if I had been the youngest in the family (16). I am his older sister.” “I would have talked to him about this issue if it had bothered me so much (17). Why don’t you?”
“Shall I talk to him (18) ?” “He decided that you shall stay away of his private life (19) and you might ask him why.”
“But why should we keep away from each other (20)?” “I suggest that you should explain to him (21) these thoughts of yours. It is important that he should be aware of your doubts (22). Moreover, maybe his
102 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE desire that no one should interfere with his business (23) is just a matter of confidentiality. He is an attorney after all, isn’t he?” “Still, if I should leave town for a long period of time, I would talk to him (24).” “Are you saying that if you should ever go with your boyfriend somewhere, you will ask for his permission (25)?” “I’m saying that I would tell him where I go lest that he should worry about me (26). But whatever he should say, I would go on with my plan (27).”
“You wish he would leave you alone (28), but you also wish he would tell you everything (29).” “He is my little brother. We love each other and we are friends. He just has to let me know that he is O.K. so that I would relax a little (30).”
“You can call him on his cell phone so that you could relax… (31)”
“May all be so easy! (32)… Unfortunately he left his cell phone at home. And he hasn’t called me for five days.” “It is possible that he may be very busy (33). It is also likely that he might have called you (34) and you weren’t at home.” “You are telling me this in order that I might forget about my worries (35).” “However worried you may be, you might go home and wait for his call (36). He might be calling you right now. You’re so closed. He wouldn’t want you to get upset because of him. I’m sure he was just busy. Come on, I will go with you. Who knows, maybe he has already arrived at home and he worries about you. It’s midnight.”
P.S.: Is SUBJUNCTIVE one of your friends already?
(1) – Present Synthetical Subjunctive (to express wishes) (2) – Present Synthetical Subjunctive (to express wishes) (3) – Present Synthetical Subjunctive (to express wishes) (4) – Present Synthetical Subjunctive (in Direct Object Clause) (5) – Present Synthetical Subjunctive (in Subject Clause, required by the construction ”it is + adjective”) (6) – Present Synthetical Subjunctive (in Attributive Clause) (7) – Past Synthetical Subjunctive (required by the verb ”wish”, to express present) (8) – Past Synthetical Subjunctive (required by the ”it is time” , to express present) (9) – Past Synthetical Subjunctive (required by the ”it is high time” , to express present) (10) – Past Synthetical Subjunctive (required by ”even if”) (11) – Past Synthetical Subjunctive (required by ”as if”)
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(12) – Past Synthetical Subjunctive (required by ”would rather”, when the Subjects of the sentences are different; it expresses present) (13) – Infinitive (used after ”would rather” when there only one Subject expressed) (14) – Past Synthetical Subjunctive (in If Clause – Type II) (15) – Past Perfect Synthetical Subjunctive (required by the verb ”wish”, to express past) (16) – Past Perfect Synthetical Subjunctive (required by ”as if”) (17) – Past Perfect Synthetical Subjunctive (in If Clause – Type III) (18) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHALL (in Main Clause: Interrogations) (19) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHALL (in subordinate clauses, when ”shall” means ”must”) (20) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD (in Main Clause: Interrogations: ”should” is used with the meaning ”it is necessary”) (21) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD (in Direct Object Clause) (22) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD (in Subject Clause, required by the construction ”it is + adjective”) (23) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD (in Attributive Clause) (24) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD (in If Clause – Type II – special case with the meaning ”If it happened to…”) (25) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD (in If Clause – Type I – special case with the meaning ”If it happens to…”) (26) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD (in Adverbial Clause of Purpose) (27) – Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD (in Concessive Clause) (28) – Analytical Subjunctive with WOULD (required by the verb ”wish”) (29) – Analytical Subjunctive with WOULD (required by the verb ”wish”) (30) – Analytical Subjunctive with WOULD (in Adverbial Clause of Purpose) (31) – Analytical Subjunctive with COULD (in Adverbial Clause of Purpose) (32) – Analytical Subjunctive with MAY (to express wishes) (33) – Analytical Subjunctive with MAY (in Subject Clause, required by the construction ”it is + adjective”, with a low degree of certainty) (34) – Analytical Subjunctive with MIGHT (in Subject Clause, required by the construction ”it is + adjective”, with the lowest degree of certainty) (35) – Analytical Subjunctive with MIGHT (in Adverbial Clause of Purpose, with the lowest degree of certainty) (36) – Analytical Subjunctive with MIGHT (in Concessive Clause, with the lowest degree of certainty)
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We have already seen the Personal Moods. Now it is time to learn the Impersonal Moods: Infinitive, Gerund and Participle:
3. UNITED KINGDOM: LONDON GRAMMAR: Impersonal Moods - Infinitive
London is full of places to be visited by tourists. It is a wonderful place to spend your holiday, to learn about UK history and culture, to shop or to go to theatre, concerts and various events. Buckingham Palace is the London residence and administrative headquarters of the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom. The palace was originally built in 1703 as Buckingham House, a London home for the 3rd Earl of Mulgrave, John Sheffield. It became a royal residence when King George III purchased it in 1761 to live in in with his wife, Queen Charlotte. Big Ben is the nickname for the clock at the North end of the Palace of Westminster in London. The tower itself was originally called The Elizabeth Tower and the clock was the Great Bell. Big Ben has had many other names since 1858: St Stephen's Tower, The Clock Tower and The East Tower. Big Ben has rarely stopped since it was built. Even after an bomb attack which destroyed the Commons chamber during World
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War II, the clock tower managed to survive and keep ticking. The London Eye is a giant Ferris wheel on the South Bank of the River Thames in London and is also known as the Millennium Wheel.
It is the world’s tallest observation wheel. Within each capsule, interactive, guides allow you to explore the capital’s iconic landmarks. The London Eye was formally opened by the Prime Minister Tony Blair on 31st December 1999, but did not open to the paying public until 9th March 2000.
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Check the INFINITIVE on page 293- 300. Don’t forget to come back here to practice it:
Exercise 1: Underline all the infinitive constructions in the text below:
The New Job
His goal is to get funding for the project he has written. It has been hard work and the expectations are high. He has promised to himself to be writing projects until one of them is awarded and then to implement it in the best way possible. He may have spent much of his time doing it, but it will be worth. His friends used to imagine him to have been working until late at night on various trifles for an unacceptable salary, but now they admit this is quite a new job, with a great future. They help him achieve this by encouraging his work. They also intend to really help him implementing the project if he gets funding. Of course, they have not told him yet, but they intend to when he receives the good result. They all consider him to be the best for this job. It just fits him. They would be happy for him to be awarded after so much labor. It is time for hard-working people to be appreciated He himself needs to be considered hard-working and good at what he is doing. Therefore, he is definitely expected to fulfill this.
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4. UNITED KINGDOM: STONEHENGE GRAMMAR: Impersonal Moods - Gerund
One of the wonders of the world, and also the best-known prehistoric site in Europe is Stonehenge, a place of burial. Archaeologists believe it was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC in the middle of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England. Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in Wiltshire (England), 3 km west of Amesbury and 13 km north of Salisbury. It consists of a ring of standing stones (4.1 metres high each and 2.1 metres wide), each stone weighing around 25 tons. Seeing the best-known prehistoric site in Europe, you can suddenly feel like living in the prehistoric era. Having learnt about it, the ancient history of our world, helps us understand not only the past, but also the present. Do you enjoy learning about your past?
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Check the GERUND on page 301- 305. Don’t forget to come back here to practice it:
Exercise 1: Infinitive or Gerund?Choose the right variant:
1. I am keen (to travel / on travelling) abroad. 2. They are interested (to visit / in visiting) Oxford. 3. I go to Castle of Dover (to discover / for discovering) a piece of history. 4. Sonja enjoys (to visit / visiting) London’s attractions. 5. Do you intend (to go /going) to Buckingham Palace or to Tower Bridge. 6. I can’t help (to buy / buying) souvenirs everywhere I go. 7. I hope (to have/ having) time to visit Stonehenge. 8. I avoid (to fly / flying) as much as I can. 9. They want (to return / returning) home. 10. He seems (to enjoy / enjoying) the travel very much.
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5. UNITED KINGDOM: CAMBRIDGE GRAMMAR: Impersonal Moods - Participle
Cambridge is a univeristy city situated on river Cam, approximately 50 km from London. It dates back in the Bronze Age. The University of Cambridge was founded in 1209 and it is one of the top five universities in the world. More than 40% of the workforce in Cambridge has a higher education qualification, which is more than twice the national average. Cambridge's two universities, the collegiate University of Cambridge and the local campus of Anglia Ruskin University, serve around 30,000 students. I have heard of Cambridge since I started learning English. I visited it in the past and I am thinking about going to study there. It is a well-known university center where anyone would like to study and research.
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Check the PARTICIPLE on page 306- 310. Don’t forget to come back here to practice it:
Exercise 1: Identify the type of Participle used:
”Judging by the way he looks like, he must be the boss. This being settled, let’s approach him, shall we?” ”I heard his name called by the guy behind him. It is Brad Hamilton. He is definitely the manager.” ”The wanted man encountered, we can go and ask him to participate in the interview for our newspaper.” ”I will have him prepared for it in no time. Give me a few moments.”
(1) – ...... (2) –...... (3) – ...... (4) – ...... (5) –......
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FRANCE
United Kingdom was so great to visit, being one of the most visited country in Europe. France is also an important touristic pole, which attracts more than 80 million tourists every year.
Superlatives: Third largest country in Europe (603,628 km2) Mont Blanc - Third highest mountain peak (4,810.45 m) Alps – The longest range of mountains in Europe (Italy, Germany, Switzerland, France, Austria) (1450 km).
Five recommended places to visit in France: 1. Paris 2. Palais Royal and Palace of Versailles 3. The Eiffel Tower 4. Louvre 5. Notre Dame
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Let’s focus on the English Article while visiting France:
1. FRANCE: PARIS GRAMMAR: Indefinite Article
I don’t think that there is a more beautiful capital in Europe than Paris. Definitely, a trip to Paris is everybody’s dream. The city has many important cultural institutions: Louvre museum - the most visited museum in the world; Musée d'Orsay - famous for its collection of French Impressionist art; Pompidou-center Musée National d'Art Moderne - sheltering the largest collection of modern and contemporary art in Europe. In 2017, the European Commission ranked Paris as the most "Culturally Vibrant City" in the European Union. A beautiful view is given by the the Seine River, which crosses the central area of Paris. Enchanted by this beautiful view, the tourists can visit many monuments: Notre Dame Cathedral, Palais Royal, Palace of Versailles, the Arc de Triomphe, the Eifel Tower. It is such a pleasure to walk around Paris, to feel its romantic atmosphere, to have a coffee and a cake in its famous cafes, to taste the French cousine... Have a “taste” of France, of Paris to complete your European experience.
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Wander through France and discover the Indefinite, Definite and Zero ARTICLES (see the reference on pages 311-313):
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the right form of the Indefinite Article: a or an 1. I visited ……. museum in Paris. 2. Are you at ……. ice cream counter? 3. Paris is ……. romantic city. 4. I will stay ……. day or two in Paris. 5. I met ……. interesting person in front of Paris train station. 6. I want to see ……. elephant at the zoo. 7. Do you want ……. apple from the shop? 8. I had ……. great culinary experience in France. 9. I wish I could find …… souvenir. 10. Can you get me …….fork?
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2. FRANCE: PALAIS ROYAL AND VERSAILLES GRAMMAR: Definite Article
The Palais Royal, originally called The Palais Cardinal, is a palace located in Paris. This palace has a huge garden which is one of the most beautiful in Paris and it is also open to the public. However, people are not allowed to visit the palace itself. Another popular French palace is the Palace of Versailles. It is a royal chateau in the Ile de France which is 15 miles southwest of Paris. It was built in the 17th century for King Louis XIV. In the 19th century the "Museum of the History of France" was founded in Versailles. A famous room in the palace is the Hall of Mirrors with 17 mirrored arches opposite to 17 windows. Every arch contains 21 mirrors which makes a total of 357 mirrors.
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Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the pronunciation of the Definite Article: [∂Ə] or [∂i:]
1. Where is the [...... ] Palace of Versailles? 2. Can I touch the […….] dog? 3. The [……] Palais Royal is very big. 4. How can I make the [……] cake if I am busy? 5. I will take the [……] train to Paris to see the [……] Eiffel tower. 6. Please, help me with the […….] exercises. 7. I can manage the [……] company until you come back from your vacation. 8. I cannot afford the [……] hotel in Paris. 9. You are the [……] man I need. 10. I am staying under the [……] oak tree.
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3. FRANCE: EIFFEL TOWER GRAMMAR: Zero article
The most popular and well known one is The Eiffel Tower. Tons of tourists visit Paris every year to see this beautiful monument. It was built in 1889 to mark the 100 year anniversary of the French Revolution. The Eiffel Tower is located in the centre of Paris. While visiting the tower, you will see shops and restaurants and, most importantly, you will be able to enjoy a breath taking view of the beautiful city. We went to Paris after graduation and of course we had a lovely time there. Love is the air and days pass so fast while visiting this romantic European city. Girls and boys, hand-in-hand, wander through the beauties of the city, their experience culminating with the symbol of the Paris, the symbol of France: the Eiffel Tower.
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Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the Zero Article or the Definite Article:
1. Who can play … piano for our concert? 2. I would like to go to … cinema today, what do you think? 3. Last summer I visited …United States. 4. … declaration of his son’s friend was a total lie. 5. He went to … building where he thought he had left his coat. 6. In order to cross … Pacific Ocean you need to travel by ship for a long while. 7. Next summer I will visit … Great Britain. 8. The injured people went to … hospital to be treated. 9. … Captain Wendell made a huge mistake. 10. When can we visit … United Kingdom? 11. I thought you would go to … hospital to check on your brother. 12. I miss … breakfast my girlfriend prepared for me every morning. 13. Read … chapter 25 for tomorrow! 14. He left from … England to go to the other end of the world. 15. Which do you like more: … mathematics or … literature? 16. …little Robert fell down and started crying. 17. … teacher told … the students to prepare for …exam very seriously. 18. … coffee is expensive here because they import it from Switzerland. 19. Give me … biology handbook, please. I need it for tomorrow. 20. Everybody sings in …Italy. 21. I asked him about … Italian book which I lent him a month before, but no answer. 22. … Sinclair’s questions were so troubling that I could put myself together to give him a straight answer. 23. … hope is the last who dies. 24. … waters came out of the valley and flooded … whole area. 25. My grandma goes to … church every Sunday. After 12 o’clock she meets her friends in front of … church and they go to have a coffee. 26. He wants to go to … university to look for his friend. 27. The United States are in … North America. 28. … students prepare for their exams. 29. How much is … meat, please? 30. They graduated from … university five years ago and still they haven’t found a job yet.
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4. FRANCE: LOUVRE GRAMMAR: Indefinite, Definite and Zero Article
The Louvre is a famous museum located in Paris. It is said that it is the world's largest museum. At some point in history it was the palace of the Kings and Queens of France. In the main entrance, there is a glass pyramid and a statue: the Equestrian statue of Louis XIV). Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa" painting is in this museum.
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the right Article (Indefinite, Definite, Zero): 1. … view is unbelievable. 2. Louvre is ... wonderful French touristic attraction. 3. I have heard that … cars are very expensive this year. 4. ... dinner we had last night in Paris was very delicious. 5. Nobody can buy … time no matter how hard we try. 6. Will you turn on … light for me, please? 7. I love … light, but I hate … dark. 8. Listening to …music is great. Still, … dancing is a lot better. 9. What ... wonderful painting! 10. I like both … light blue and dark blue. 11. Can you come to … school to pick me up? 12. This is ... necessary procedure before boarding on the ship. 13. …red fits you just fine. Take it. 14. In … case you forget my telephone number, call Laura. She knows it. 15. ... ticket is on the table.
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5. FRANCE: NOTRE DAME GRAMMAR: Indefinite, Definite and Zero Article
Notre-Dame de Paris translated as "Our Lady of Paris" is a Catholic Cathedral. It is one of the largest and most well known church buildings in the whole world. It was built between 1163 and 1345. It is located in Ile de la Cite in the very heart of the city. The twin towers are 69 meters tall. Every year millions of people visit this church.
Exercise 1: Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:
1. The accommodation in the Paris is very expensive. 2. The Fast Foods offer hamburgers and chips. 3. I would like to have an lemon juice. 4. The Notre-Dame is a Catholic Cathedral. 5. The Cathedral was built between the 1163 and 1345. 6. Ile de la Cite is the very heart of city. 7. This is a amazing cathedral. 8. Kings and Queens of France lived in the Louvre Palace. 9. Dream of the traveler has come true. 10. The breakfast is served from 7 to 10 a.m. in the restaurant.
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BELGIUM
From France we go straight to Belgium, the most international country and the core of the European Union.
Superlatives: The Law Courts of Brussels is the world's largest court of justice Belgian men are the second tallest in the world (181.7 cm), after the Dutch; Belgium has the largest urbanised population in Europe Brussels South Charleroi Airport- the most punctual airport in Europe; Europe’s first skyscraper was built in Belgium; Belgium has more castles per kilometre than any other country in the world.
Five recommended places to visit in Belgium: 1. Grand Place in Brussels 2. The Museum of Fine Arts in Ghent 3. Cinquantenaire 4. Château De Bouillon 5. Mini Europe Park
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While enjoying Brussels, could you identify the six rules of forming the plural of nouns? Place the underlined nouns in the text below under the six columns of the table, according to the rule:
1. BELGIUM: GRAND PLACE IN BRUSSELS GRAMMAR: Plural of Nouns
As the centre of European culture and institutions, Brussels has much more to offer than most people imagine. With its small town charm, trendy bars and restaurants, fabulous food, great nightlife, fantastic shopping, numerous museums, interesting exhibitions and festivals organized there every year. The first place you will normally be taken to see in the city is the Grand Place. The central square of the City of Brussels is considered one of the most beautiful places in the world. Almost all of the buildings in Grand Place have a historical significance. One of them is Hotel de Ville (the imposing gothic Town Hall, built in the early 15th century) which is still used for civic purposes today.
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Men, women and children are all amazed by Brussels’ surprises: lunches in a Treehouse, the Mini-Europe Park, the Hidden City (the old underground city of Brussels), the Atomium (a building constructed in 1958 in the shape of a unit cell of an iron crystal magnified 165 billion times, which is today a museum), the Royal Park (in the center of the city), The Museum of Instruments (Musée Des Instruments De Musique), the The biggest "apéro" in Brussels (an event where people gather toc hat, drink and dance outside) or the Belgian chocolate tour. Belgian chocolate factories are famous for their high-quatity products. You can visit a chocolate factory even in Brussels: Zaabär Chocolate Factory. It is very appealing for kids, and not only, as they organize visits, workshops, presentations and walking dinners there. Whole days and nigths can be filled with the numerous things to see and experience in Brussels. Even in winter, you can have fun in the Christmas Market at the Grand Place. There you can shop at the 200 chalets, play at the fairground attractions, meet Santa Claus and the elves, admire the a Christmas tree and the sound-and-light show on the Grand- Place, or skate on the covered ice rink. Brussels is simply wonderful. You can get there by car, by aircraft or by ship, but you can’t miss it!
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The travel through Belgium is a travel about the NOUN. If you read the references on pages 314-325, you will be able to solve the exercises that follow:
Exercise 1: Now fill in the table with the nouns from the text above, according to the six rules of forming the plural of nouns. The first five nouns from the text are already written as an example:
Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4 Rule 5 Rule 6
Write rule 1 Write rule 2 Write rule 3 Write rule 4 Write rule 5 Write rule 6 here: here: here: here: here: here: Regular plural Irregular Noun+-s plural institutions people bars restaurants museums
Exercise 2: Put all the nouns in the following sentences into the plural. Make all the required transformations. The first two sentences are already changed into plural as an example:
1. The book is on the table. The books are on the tables. 2. What is your favourite class at school? What are your favourite classes at schools?
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3. The bush over there was planted two years ago. 4. One coach trained this team for one year. 5. Where is their box of chocolates? 6. We have only one tomato left in the fridge. 7. There is a good brand of radio on the shelf. 8. This piano costs 1000$ and that piano costs 5000$. 9. He intends to give me one photo. 10. The little boy is very scared in his first day of school. 11. They have a cruel enemy that has fought against them for years. 12. What colour is the leaf? 13. Put your handkerchief in your pocket. 14. The deer is walking slowly around the chalet. 15. The researcher’s mouse runs away. 16. The dress I bought yesterday is very interesting. 17. What hero do you know? 18. Tell me about your belief! 19. The workers fixed the house in two months. 20. This is an important day for the whole country. 21. The kangaroo is jumping here and there. 22. There is a special bench for me in this park. 23. He asks me about the engine series of my car. 24. Bring a sheep with you when you come! 25. His first wife divorced him because he used to drink. 26. The man comes here to ask for a job. 27. Where did you lose your scarf (!)? 28. She has got a child. 29. There is half of it on the table. 30. Show me the tooth that hurts you! 31. The dwarf helped Snow White(!). 32. She is a great woman. 33. He attended a famous university. 34. He sacrificed his life for his belief. 35. Whose roof is that one? 36. You will hurt your foot if you don’t stop playing there. 37. The baby is one month old. 38. Where is the key? 39. The path you are looking for should be quite near these places. 40. The old people of this village build that factory.
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In the text below, we can observe the plural of some Compound Nouns:
2. BELGIUM: THE MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS IN GHENT GRAMMAR: Plural of Compound Nouns
Ghent is a historic city in Flanders that attracts tourists from all different directions. There is a Museum of Fine Arts which stands on top of the “must see” list. The museum holds a large collection of art from the Middle Ages until the mid 20th century. It also has a large amount of sculptures. The Coronation of Virgin is one of the oldest collections from 1350 painted by Puccio Di Simoni. Some masterpieces are so exciting that they can quicken your heartbeats. If you manage to visit the Museum of Fine Arts, write feedbacks for other potential visitors to set the museum in the spotlights. The collections of the museum have become landmarks of Belgium.
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Exercise 1: Underline the compound nouns with a double line and the nouns with irregular plural with one line: dining-table, hankerchief, boyfriend, man, feedback, goose, motorcycle, haircut, house, rainfall, computer, take-off, landing, forget-me-not, woman, copybook, tooth, travel, window, output, blanket, greenhouse, mouse, washing machine, bulding, software, foot, turnover, child, television
Exercise 2: Put all the nouns in the following sentences into the plural. Make all the required transformations. The first sentence is already changed into plural as an example:
1. Surprisingly, he took his mother-in-law to Ghent. Surprisingly, they took their mother-in-laws to Ghent. 2. The man-servant has brought the breakfast I ordered 1 minute ago. 3. The hotel bedroom was prepared for the guest. 4. The boy picked up a forget-me-not for his girlfriend. 5. Pour in a handful of flour! 6. Sorry for calling you,but a Mr. Johnson wants to see you. 7. Tell the Englishman that the trip has been delayed. 8. Her sister-in-law is visiting the Museum of Fine Arts. 9. The teacher presented the beauties of Belgium in this classroom. 10. A policeman is guarding the building. 11. He wants to see the masterpiece. 12. She is waiting for the feedback from him. 13. My guide enjoys being in the spotlight. 14. That is the landmark of Belgium.
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The nouns coming from other languages have “special” plurals:
3. BELGIUM: CINQUANTENAIRE GRAMMAR: Plural of Nouns - Nouns adopted from other languages
Parc du Cinquantenaire or Jubelpark is one of the beautiful parks in Brussels where you can enjoy the sunshine. It is a large green space littered with gorgeous buildings, tall trees, a beautiful fountain and the obligatory waffle. Everyone is out enjoying the warm weather; cyclists, children, happy puppies, large groups of friends with picnics and frisbies, couples walking hand in hand. The Jubelpark is not only a park but a national landmark in Brussels. It is located in the heart of Brussels. The name means Park of the Fiftieth Anniversary. It was built during the reign of Leopold II in memory of fifty years of Belgian independence. Two of the arches are home to a museum which shows the evolution of cars. There are many interesting places to see in Brussels adn you need some criteria to choose among the multitude of attarctions. It also depends on your tempi (tempos) – how fast you are when visiting things. All these touristic “phenomena” attract to Belgium almost eight million people annually.
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Exercise 1: Underline the correct plurals:
1. These (funguses / fungi) are poisonous. 2. These are activated by all the (stimuleses / stimuli). 3. The travel agents who sign the highest number of contracts receive (bonuses / bonusi). 4. Change the position of the (antennas / antennae). 5. If you can solve your (dilemmas / dilemmae), you will have a better life. 6. I saw so many (aquariums / aquaria) in the Museum of Natural History. 7. The (indices / indexes) measure the changes in a portfolio of stocks. 8. He needs some medical (analysis / analyses) to check his state. 9. Draw two (axis / axes) so that we could make a chart. 10. There are ten (criterions / criteria) of selection in the project. 11. In (paranthesis / parantheses) I wrote the former value. 12. Not all the (phenomenons / phenomena) can be explained. 13. In that room there are five (bureaux, bureaus). 14. We saw some (chamois / chamos) at the zoo. 15. The (palazzos / palazzo) of Venice are old buildings, full of history.
Exercise 2: Write the plural for the following nouns:
1) Bunch - ………………………… 2) Criterion - …………………….. 3) Feedback - ……………………. 4) Child - ………………………… 5) Phenomenon - ……………..… 6) Axis - ………………………….. 7) Study - ………………………… 8) Dilemma - ……………………. 9) Aquarium - …………………… 10) Merry-go-round - …………. 11) Lord-Chancellor - ………… 12) Parenthesis - ………………. 13) Leaf - ……………………….. 14) Day - ……………………….. 15) Man-servant - …………….. 16) Aircraft - …………………… 17) Father-in-law - ……………. 18) Box - ………………………… 19) Antenna - …………………… 20) Tooth - ………………………
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In English, some nouns are let’s say special: some of them have two plurals with different meanings (see “staffs” and “staves”); others have different meanings for the singular form and the plural form (see in the text below “age” and “ages”):
4. BELGIUM: CHÂTEAU DE BOUILLON GRAMMAR: Particular nouns
Château de Bouillon (Bouillon Castle) is a beautiful Middle Ages castle in Belgium. It is situated in the town of Bouillon. The first record of the castle dates from 988, but its age is surely higher, as the name goes back to the Gallo-Roman period. The Dukes of the House of Ardenne owned the fortress until 1096, when they sold it to finance the First Crusade. In this castle you can walk around and visit rooms where you can see how the people lived in medieval times. There are dolls in suits who represent for example the staffs. The dolls move accompanied by some audios, as if they read some staves and explanations. One of the most enjoyable things in this castle is the bird show. It is an open-air bird shows in which trained owls, hawks and eagles swoop low over spectators’ heads.
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Exercise 1: Match the two parts of the sentences:
1.) The Palace was built a.) with airs and graces.
2.) Write the b.) for the winner.
3.) I don’t like people c.) to find the North.
4.) Look for some iron compasses d). are amazing in autumn.
5.) The colours went up e.) the customs.
6.) I have just read the contents f.) do I need to wait?
7). He took out everything and g.) in the Middle Ages. showed us 8.) The most known English h.) the contents of his pockets. customs are 9.) I cleaned the screen of the i.) to draw circles on each big compasses paper. 10.) In case of a car accident, j.) of the book.
11.) The colours of the Parc du k.) fresh air. Cinquantenaire 12.) How many minutes l.) due to the high costs.
13.) The damages are m.) the 5 o’clock tea and the visit unrepararable to Big Ben. 14.) All the spectacles of this n.) the minutes of the meeting. festival 15.) The secretary was writing o.) to see this amazing Château de Bouillon 16.) I need my spectacles p.) you must pay all the damages.
17.) Afer I got off the plane, I went r.) were sold out. through 18.) I don’t feel very well. I need s.) ages of your children. some
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It’s time to focus on the Subject-Predicate Agreement while visiting the Mini Europe Park in Brussels (Belgium):
5. BELGIUM: MINI EUROPE
GRAMMAR: Subject-Predicate Agreement
Mini Europe is a European Union theme park located at the foot of Atomium. It was inaugurated in 1989 and it shows visitors miniature versions of the most popular buildings and attractions of the countries in the EU. At the start of each country’s display there is a sign showing the name, capital city, land area, population and the year they joined the EU. The visitors can discover the beauty of Europe during a two hour walk in this wonderful park. The park represents roughly 80 cities and 350 buildings. All the miniatures are built down to the finest detail. Building and streets are made to a scale of 1:25. A visit to Mini Europe can best be combined with a visit to the Atomium. If you go to the top of Atomium, you can see a panoramic view of Mini Europe. If the weather is good, it is
132 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE even possible to see Antwerp and many other important buildings of Belgium, which are located more than hundred kilometres away from the Atomium. The best advice is to go to the park early in order to have time to admire each corner of the European Union. Statistics say that Mini Europe receives 350,000 tourists every year on an area of 24,000 m².
Exercise 1: Focus on the Subject-Predicate Agreement. Choose the right variant for the verb:
1. The English (is / are) the most conservative in the world. 2. Mumps (starts / start) with pains in the ears. 3. Fish and chips (goes / go) very well with white wine. 4. One of the students always (asks / ask) a lot of questions at the end of the class. 5. The contents of the suitcase (was / were) destroyed in the crash. 6. Neither the cat nor the dogs (is / are) allowed in the house. 7. The scissors (was / were) in the same set with the some needles and threads. 8. Every child (likes / like) to open Christmas presents. 9. Physics (is / are) difficult. 10. The team (was / were) punished for not wearing the contest number. 11. The Smiths (represents / represent) a family model to be followed. 12. The number of accidents (has decreased / have decreased) lately. 13. None of my friends (knows / know) the exact name of the device. 14. I need the goods which (is / are) the best on the market. 15. The trousers perfectly (fits / fit) the yellow blouse. 16. A number of books (has proved / have proved) to be useless and poor, although expensive. 17. The crossroads suddenly (appears / appear) in my face and I don’t know which way to turn to avoid the crash with the car coming towards me. 18. Wine and soda (is / are) his favourite alcoholic drink. 19. Neither of the managers (was / were) able to solve the company’s crisis. 20. One and a half year (was / were) necessary to find the right solution. 21. There (is / are) plenty of trays with food on the table. 22. Measles (is / are) a catching disease. 23. The news about the singer (is / are) unexpected. 24. The pyjamas (is / are) in the wardrobe. 25. Eight kilos of apples (is / are) just what we need. 26. Statistics (is / are) the science I consider very complicated to study. 27. Statistics (is / are) helpful when trying to prove your theory.
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28. The public (is / are) applauding intensely. 29. Draughts (is / are) interactive and interesting. 30. Your glasses (is / are) on the fridge. 31. Where (is / are) the clothes I have asked for? 32. The money (doesn’t / don’t) bring happiness.
Exercise 2: Underline the correct variant of the noun: singular or plural.
1. When I had (trouble / troubles) with my bike, I call my brother to help me. 2. Can I come to you for (advice / advices) if I need it. 3. Go fetch the (pyjama / pyjamas). 4. Do you know what (homework / homeworks) we have to do for tomorrow. 5. I need the (scale / scales) to weigh this. 6. I have got a lot of (information / informations) and I don’t know how to sort everything. 7. Show the passport at the (custom / customs). 8. I left the (ground / grounds) in the coffee pot. 9. His (manner / manners) are bad. 10. I need the (compass / compasses) to draw a circle.
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GERMANY
Our travel takes us to Germany now, a country with a strong economy and a leading role in the European Union.
Superlatives: The largest national economy in Europe Seventh largest country in Europe (357168 km2); Second largest population (82,67 million people) Alps – The longest range of mountains in Europe (Italy, Germany, Switzerland, France, Austria) (1450 km)
Five recommended places to visit in Germany: 1. Leipzig 2. Heidelberg 3. Dresden 4. Munich 5. Rűgen Island
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In the following letter from Leipzig, you can follow the Personal Pronoun in English, while finding out about the German city:
1. GERMANY: LEIPZIG GRAMMAR: Personal Pronoun
I would like to tell you and your sisters something about Leipzig. When they come to Germany, we can all visit my brother. He has lived there for quite a while. He can show us this place where tradition rubs shoulders with modernity. I know that your sisters love architecture, so for them Leipzig will definitely be very exciting, since great art can be enjoyed just a few steps away from an exciting world of outdoor activities. My brother’s wife was born in Leipzig and she told me that the city’s history goes back almost 1,000 years. I also explained to her that this Saxon metropolis earned more than a few claims to fame – as a city of music, of commerce, of heroes, as the site of the Peaceful Revolution, as Little Paris, Athens on the River Pleisse, and the Venice of the North. (http://english.leipzig.de/leisure-culture-and-tourism/tourism/)
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Germany welcomes us with a short study of the PRONOUN. Read more about that on pages 326-331 and then practice it here:
Exercise 1: Match the two columns, focusing on the Personal Pronoun (in Nominative):
1.) SHE a.) 3rd person singular 2.) I b.) 1st person plural 3.) IT c.) 3rd person plural 4.) THEY d.) 3rd person singular 5.) HE e.) 2nd person plural 6.) YOU f.) 1st person singular 7.) WE g.) 2nd person singular 8.) YOU h.) 3rd person singular
Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks with the Personal Pronoun in Accusative/Dative:
me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
1. I am calling …………. to ask you if you want to go to Leipzig with me? 2. Please give ………… the information we need. 3. Can I offer ………… a flower if she accepts to date me? 4. Look at this cute dog! Give ………… the bone. 5. You can’t lie …………. . I am too smart to believe that. 6. We will give ………… all the documents you need to plan the business trip. 7. I will not buy ………… all this food! It is too much for you two. 8. Is is for ……….? I can only thank you. 9. When do you send ………. their tickets? 10. Give ……... the razor to shave. He must look pretty for his date.
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In the next German city, Heidelberg, we discover the Possessive Pronoun and Reflexive Pronoun:
2. GERMANY: HEIDELBERG GRAMMAR: Possessive Pronoun and Reflexive Pronoun
My favourite city in Germany is Heidelberg. So I shall satisfy your curiosity about its fascinating sightseeings. By the way, did you know that our common friend, Johnny, has been studying medicine at the University of Heidelberg? His girlfriend is a guide and she showed me historic treasures, such as the Church of the Holy Spirit, the Knight St. George House, the medieval Old Bridge, and the Heidelberg Castle. No wonder that Heidelberg is a famous tourist attraction. Her family owns an old building on the main street of the city center, Haupstrasse, which is packed with museums, shops, pubs, art galleries, restaurants, and markets selling the likes of German sausages, beer steins, and cuckoo clocks. Home to the oldest university of Germany, the long academic history of Heidelberg can be retraced along Philosopher’s Walk, a picturesque footpath often walked by plenty professors and earlier philosophers. Because I like this city so much, I will make myself a present: a weekend in Heidelberg. (http://tripizia.com/2016/07/27/10-best-tourist-attractions-in-germany/)
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Exercise 1: Write the Possessive Pronoun correspondent to the Possessive Pronominal Adjective:
1.YOUR (singular) - ______2. MY - ______3. ITS - ______4. THEIR - ______5. HIS - ______6. YOUR (plural) - ______7. OUR - ______8. HER - ______
Exercise 2: Match the Reflexive Pronoun with the correspondent Personal Pronoun:
1.) SHE a.) themselves 2.) THEY b.) himself 3.) YOU (plural) c.) yourself 4.) I d.) itself 5.) YOU (singular) e.) ourselves 6.) IT f. ) myself 7.) HE g.) herself 8.) WE h.) yourselves
Exercise 3: Fill in the blanks with the right reflexive pronoun:
1. We helped ………………….. with some juices at the party. 2. He cut …………………. by accident with that sharp knife. 3. The dog can defend …………………… . 4. Diane talks to …………………….. when she is alone. 5. I woke up early, I washed …………………… and I went to school. 6. Children, behave ………………….. ! We don’t want to disturb anyone here. 7. Did you wash ……………………… this morning, kid? 8. I caught sight of ………………….. in the mirror. I looked so tired. 9. Men must shave …………………….. every morning. 10. The kids enjoyed ………………….. at the party. 11. Unfortunately the gymnast hurt ………………. just before the competition. 12. You two paid for …………………., although I invited you there. 13. I watched ………….. in the video made in Heidelberg. 14. You might hurt ……………………. if you don´t stay still.
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After Leipzig and Heidelberg, we discover the Demonstrative Pronoun and Indefinite Pronoun in Dresden:
3. GERMANY: DRESDEN GRAMMAR: Demonstrative Pronoun and Indefinite Pronoun
Before this city was severely damaged from World War II bombings, Dresden had been known as the Jewel Box, because of its lavish collection of some stunning art and architecture. These are really stunning! After many years, the city has restored much of its former glory. Several colleagues of mine visited the city a couple of months ago. None of them was disappointed by what each discovered during their trip. All were pretty enthusiastic about that capital of the federal state of Saxony. Those historic sites of Dresden, like the stunning Frauenkirche cathedral, are unforgettable. The city also boasts many cultural institutions of which the Semper Opera is most widely esteemed. (http://isratravels.in/product/dresden/)
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Exercise 1: Fill in the table with the Demonstrative Pronouns:
Singular Plural Near Far
Exercise 2: Underline all the Indefinite Pronouns with one line and all the Demonstrative Pronouns with two line:
“You yourself saw him stealing the wallet. Somebody said that.” “I don’t know who told you that, but it is an awful lie. I cannot be your witness in the matter because at that time I was dressing myself in the cloakroom. I really didn’t see the thief.” “We three are friends and we respect one another, but if he stole that wallet you should be honest with me. We can quarrel because of this or we can solve the problem peacefully. The decision is all yours. That is my office. I’ll wait there for your decision.” “Trust me! I don’t want to quarrel – neither with you nor with him, but this is the plain truth. And these are the proofs.” “Whom should I believe right now?” “We are both your friends and I know that he would never steal from you.” “I agree with these opinions of yours. Nobody praises friendship more than me.” “Then why did you accuse him of those things?” “Either I was wrong or something happened. Maybe somebody else stole my wallet. I am not sure anymore. Each of you two seem to be right.” “Another problem is that we need to join the others on the basketball court. There are already most of them there waiting to start the game.”
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The last German city of our travel, Munich, will help us discover the Reciprocal Pronoun and the Emphatic Pronoun:
4. GERMANY: MUNICH GRAMMAR: Reciprocal Pronoun and Emphatic Pronoun
Before I came to Germany, I myself often thought which city I would like to visit first. Now, here I am wandering all by myself through Munich, which is the Capital of the state of Bavaria. The city lies near the foot of the German Alps. I have heard some tourists explaining to each other that this is Germany's second most popular destination after Berlin. One of them was himself originally from Berlin and was fascinated that Munich has something to offer to everyone, be it culture, hi-tech, parks and greenery, night-life, architecture, beer gardens, shopping or the skiing and sailing close by. Additionally, being close to Austria and Italy, and such destinations as Prague and Budapest, it is also a marvellous point from which to explore Central Europe. The city hosts the famous Munich Oktoberfest as well as other festivals. It is often called the 'City with a Heart', and, though a throbbing cosmopolitan place, it genuinely has a village feel and the people are warm and friendly. It is also clean, safe and has a superb public transport system. People call one another Münchner. (http://www.discover-munich.info/)
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Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks for each picture, using the Reciprocal Pronoun:
They look at ………… The women were fighting with The teenagers are talking ……………….. to …….....
The people help ……….. Robert and Jane love The girls give ………….…. ………………… Christmas presents.
Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks with the Emphatic Pronoun:
1. Lewis ………………. went there to help you. 2. I …………….. made the chocolate cake. 3. Tory, have you …………….. thought that a trip to Munich is the solution? 4. Rona finished all these by ………………….. . 5. You ………………… are the winners of this competition. 6. The cat eats by ……………….. now, although in the past I had to feed her. 7. They ………………… asked for a second piece of meat. 8. We can manage this all by ………………….. .
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Next we travel to Rugen Island and learn about the Relative Pronoun and the Interrogative Pronoun:
5. GERMANY: RUGEN ISLAND GRAMMAR: Relative Pronoun and Interrogative Pronoun
What do I find exciting about Rugen Island? Even on the way to Rügen, where you can begin your holiday, it soon becomes clear that it is “the right place to be.” How can Germany’s largest island be described? It is often referred at as the most beautiful island - and that’s quite understandable! Would you like to know why? Visitors to Rügen are treated to so many different stunning views, which include white sandy beaches; idyllic bays, peninsulas and lakes; tree-lined avenues; rugged cliffs; and lush beech forests. Those who explore this island will never forget its beauty! Nestled in the island’s picturesque landscape, there can be found plenty of tranquil villages and lively resorts that are splendid. Rügen is bursting with colour - from the vivid greens of the forests and the shimmering turquoise of the sea, to the brilliant white of the sand and the chalk, and the vibrant yellows and reds of the poppy and rape fields. But that is by no means all! Come with us on a voyage of discovery around the holiday island of Rügen. (https://www.ruegen.de/en/ueber-ruegen.html)
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The travel through Germany was great and now we have some time to revise all the English PRONOUNS:
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct pronoun or pronominal adjective from the box. The first five pronouns are already filled in as an example:
all of us; all; anything; each other; everybody; her; her; him; him; his; it; it; me; me; me; mine; my; myself; no one; no one; nobody; nobody; our; our; some of us; that; that; the others; them; themselves; they; those; us; we; where; who.
My friends and I wanted to go on a trip in the mountains. We all prepared for our trip. I took my mother’s car because mine was broken and I asked who wanted to come with me. When we arrived there …. .. .. went to the chalet and … …… went in the forest to pick up some flowers and berries. Lisa and … boyfriend, Mike, screamed at …. ….. and therefore …. were upset. The girl didn’t feel very well that day. I …… was a little annoyed, too, seeing the two of …. like this. The next day .. went to see the waterfall. Mike didn’t come with ... …… knew where he was. .. … had seen him for three hours. We met … only later. Lisa was angry with … again. He innocently asked me if …….. had happened to … and why she was angry. .. was … mistake, only he wasn’t aware of ….. .. was difficult for .. to answer all ….. questions without interfering too much. But he had …… to talk with. When .. finally came back to town .. … seemed to be upset anymore. The two lovers ………. turned on the radio for … of .. to listen to some joyful music. ……… was relaxed and happy, and …. was the end of … trip last summer. The question is: “….. are we going to spend … next summer holiday?”
Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks with the correct pronoun or pronominal adjective from the box below:
a little; all by themselves; both; each other; her; her; her; hers; herself; herself; I; it; many; me; me; my; my; my; my; neither…nor…; nobody; she; some; them; themselves; themselves; they; those; those; us; us; we; we; we;Walking what; what;through who; a forest you; can you. be dangerous if … are not careful to …. … step on or if you don’t know the place. Last summer .. sister and … decided to go for a walk in the mountains. .. were walking for almost half an hour when suddenly a huge snake came out of
145 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU a bush and I stopped scared to death. My sister … was more courageous than .. went on walking. I called … to wait for .., but … didn’t hear me because she was focused on picking up some little red flowers. I ran after …. for a while and when we finally stopped .. realized that we got lost in the woods. ……. I … she knew the way back home. .. sister ……. got scared and .. began fighting with …. …... I blamed … for …. had happened, but she defended ……. saying that .. had been .. own idea to go for a walk in the forest, not ….. In the evening …. tourists found .. and …. helped .. to get back home. ….. people were used to such trips in the forest and they ………. admitted that they had done it for hundreds of times before. They proclaimed ………. as the kings of the woods. They weren’t …. but their voices could be heard even from the other planet. They were young and joyful and didn’t have luggage with ….. Maybe just . ……. They had drawn a map of ….. mountains … .. ……….. That was an unforgettable experience. In the end we …. – I and my sister – agreed that …… was to be blamed, but anyway I will never go in the mountains with .. sister again.
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POLAND
The rod from Germany goes on to Poland, a parliamentary country in Central Europe. Poland is known for its great economic development after the Communist Era.
Superlatives: The Polish Jura Chain has some of the oldest rock formation on the continent of Europe The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer in the 16th century The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra Mountains
Five recommended places to visit in Poland: 1. Warsaw 2. Palace of Culture and Science in Warsaw 3. Sigismund Bell (Wawel Cathedral, Cracow) 4. Polish Legend: The Dragon Statue 5. Tatra Mountain and Masurian Lake District
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Our travel in Poland starts in the capital of the country – Warsaw. Please identify the adjectives in the text below:
1. POLAND: WARSAW GRAMMAR: The Adjective
The symbol of Warsaw is a beautiful mermaid and the mermaids can be found on the city’s coat of arms and statues. Tales of mermaids have been around for thousands of years. Men have told these tales of beautiful and dangerous creatures who live primarily deep beneath the sea. The common image of the ancient Merfolk, mermaids and mermen, is that they are humans from the waist up, but fishes from the waist down, which is rather unusual and strange. They are said to have the tail of a distinct aquatic animal such as a fish or dolphin. Their sighting was thought to be a bad omen, foretelling storms and rough seas.
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Poland is our host for the lesson about ADJECTIVES. Please, first study the adjective on pages 332-338, and then turn back here to practice:
Exercise 1: Now the adjectives being identified in the text, let’s try to find their opposite adjectives. The first adjective in the text is beautiful. Its opposite adjective is: ugly.
Beautiful / Ugly______…………………………………… …………………………………… …………………………………… …………………………………… …………………………………… …………………………………… …………………………………… ……………………………………
Exercise 2: Let’s go further and find the opposites for the following adjectives: black, far, naughty, healthy, bad, cold, wrong, unfaithful, fearful, dirty, wild, curly, true, sad, ugly, full, easy, light, expensive, boring, quick, light, open, wide, hard-working, big, hard, rough, old, rude, clever, rich, high, tall, long, cloudy, fat, strong, right, loose, old, early, asleep, dry.
Example: black - white far - near, close naughty - obedient healthy - sick, ill
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Still in Warsaw, we go on visiting the tallest building of the city and one of the tallest buidings in Europe: The Palace of Culture and Science. Please identify the degrees of comparisons of the adjectives used in the text below:
2. POLAND: PALACE OF CULTURE AND SCIENCE IN WARSAW GRAMMAR: Adjective – The Degrees of Comparison
Poland’s highest building is the astonishing Palace of Culture and Science. I tis situated in the biggest city of country. The building was originally named the Joseph Stalin Palace of Culture and Science (Pałac Kultury i Nauki imienia Józefa Stalina), but, in the later years, Stalin's name was removed from the colonnade, interior lobby and one of the building's sculptures. The tall building stands at an incredible height of 231 meters, and it is also one of the world’s tallest clock towers. The mechanical parts of this striking, gigantic clock work together, just as the biological system of our human body, with a common aim of telling the accurate time. At the beginning, the Palace was despised as it was associated with the Soviet domination. Then it was said to contrast in an uglier way with the older buildings around. In time, the construction of the skyscarpers has
150 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE balanced the older buidlings with the more modern ones, and the Palace has gained itsplace, being internationally recognized as a symbol of Warsaw.
Exercise 1: Complete the boxes with the degrees of comparison:
Old - -
Good - -
Beautiful - -
Big - -
Interesting - -
Bad - -
Far - -
Little - -
Heavy - -
Fine - -
Exercise 2: Complete the boxes with the degrees of comparison:
1. good - better; funny - ______2. cleanest – cleaner; dirtiest - ______3. sad – saddest; bad - ______4. more expensive – the most expensive; healthier - ______5. hard – hardest; fast - ______6. more hard-working – hard-working; cleverest - ______7. less – least; much - ______
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From Warsaw we go to Cracow, another beautiful Polish city. We can practice now some structures with adjectives:
3. POLAND: SIGISMUND BELL of WAWEL CATHEDRAL, CRACOW GRAMMAR: Structures with Adjectives
Cracow is as interesting as Warsaw, being the second largest city in Poland. It has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life and one of Poland's most important economic hubs. This makes Cracow even more challenging. Something very intersting here is the 11-tonne heavy and gigantic Sigismund Bell, which is located in the beautiful bell tower of the Wawel Cathedral. It is made of steel and it is sounded only during the most important Polish holidays. The melodic and innocent sound, that the bell emits when sounded, can be heard from a distance of 6 miles. It puts a delightful smile on the faces of the visitors and and it fills the people of Cracow with a sense of pride. The longer your travel is, the more interesting places you discover. It is harder and harder to choose what to visit in a world full of touristic sites. On the other side, travels are more and more expensive and probably fewer and fewer people can travel to luxurious or far away places.
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Exercise 1: Underline the five structures with adjectives in the following text:
The more interesting you are in this research, the more valuable results you can reach. I know it is getting more and more difficult now, but I am sure your paper will be much better than the paper of your competitiors. Maybe the prize itself is less rewarding in comparison with your hard work, but anyway such a discovery is as important as the invention of the wheel.
Exercise 2: How would you rephrase it?
1. The temperatures increase gradually. It is ……………………………… 2. The quality is proportional with the attention. The more attentive you are, ……………………………. 3. The sister is shorter than the brother. The brother is …………………. 4. The bike is not more expensive than the motorbike. The motorbike is ………………………… 5. Dan and Ann are equally smart. Dan is …………………… Dan.
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The Legend of Cracow talks about a protective Dragon. So, under his protection, let’s continue our research on adjectives and clear up the Order of the Adjectives in a sentence:
4. POLAND: CRACOW and THE POLISH LEGEND GRAMMAR: Order of Adjectives
According to Polish legend, the city is protected by a powerful, mysterious, ancient dragon. The dragon was said to be a huge and dangerous beast, with large and scary claws, which could penetrate any material and bring death to the foes who threatened to disturb the delicate peace of the people of Cracow. The dragon’s thundering roar caused fear amongst all and the dragon’s astonishing, gigantic size, made all pay him, his well-deserved respect. The noisy, fire-breathing, huge, old, seven-deaded, Polish, bronze statue guards the Wawel Cathedral.
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Exercise 1: Write the ADJECTIVES in the right ORDER:
1. He has a (wooden, brown, old, big) chair. 2. My mother bought a (silk, tight, red, Italian) blouse for me. 3. Where is the (round, new, German, nice) pillow? 4. I have bought (iron, interesting, beautiful,new, grey, English, square, four) closets for my office. 5. He saw (French, young, small, beautiful, three) women in that room. 6. Joanne is a (small, lovely, Chinese, young) girl. 7. I would like to have a (tiled, stone, huge, six-roomed, bright) house near the mountains. 8. Where is the (browny, little, cute, furry) kitten? 9. Cracow is a (Polish, old, wonderful, friendly, big) city. 10. The (old, kind, grey-haired, Polish) man helped me fiind my way back to the Wawel Cathedral.
Exercise 2: Number the adjectives according to the rules of ADJECTIVE ORDER:
1. (round, iron, silver, five, old, big, interesting) tools
2. (German, one, tall, angry) man
3. (hard-working, solid, young) people
4. (bronze, high, valuable, Italian) statue
5. (wooden, three, brown, Assian) cottages
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Mountains and lakes, wonderful landscapes and… one dilemma: Which is it: Pronominal Adjective or Pronoun? Let’s read and find out:
5. POLAND: TATRA MOUNTAIN and MASURIAN LAKE DISTRICT GRAMMAR: Pronominal Adjectives vs. Pronouns
Tatra Mountains are a large mountain range that form a natural border between Slovakia and Poland. These gigantic height and uneven structure attract a huge number of mountain climbers, who want to explore them and reach the wonderful view from the top of the mountain range. The enormous Masurian Lake District is a lake district in north- eastern Poland within the geographical region of Masuria. It contains more than 2,000 lakes which are filled with glittering waters. This huge lake district is filled with delightful and enchanting views that can bring you to your knees. Hard to choose which of them to visit? It your decision, only yours. These places offer some wonderful landscapes and, if you want to see these, you should make up your mind right now. See you in Poland!
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Exercise 1: Write the underlined pronouns and pronominal adjectives in the following table:
Pronouns Pronominal Adjectives mine my the others some
Text 1: My friends and I wanted to go on a trip in the mountains. We all prepared for our trip. I took my mother’s car because mine was broken and I asked who wanted to come with me. When we arrived there some colleagues went to the chalet and the others went in the forest to pick up some flowers and berries. Lisa and her boyfriend, Mike, screamed at each other and therefore they were upset. The girl didn’t feel very well that day. I myself was a little annoyed, too, seeing the two of them like this. The next day all people went to see the waterfall. Mike didn’t come with us. Nobody knew where he was. No one had seen him for three hours. We met him only later. Lisa was angry with him again. He innocently asked me if anything had happened to her and why she was angry. It was his mistake, only he wasn’t aware of that. It was difficult for me to answer all those questions without interfering too much. But he had nobody to talk with. When we finally came back to town no one seemed to be upset anymore. The two lovers themselves turned on the radio for all of us to listen to some joyful music. Everybody was relaxed and happy, and that was the end of our trip last summer. The question is: “Where are we going to spend our next summer holiday?”
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Text 2: Last summer my sister and I decided to go for a walk in the mountains. We were walking for almost half an hour when suddenly a huge snake came out of a bush and I stopped scared to death. My sister who was more courageous than me went on walking. I called her to wait for me, but she didn’t hear me because she was focused on picking up some little red flowers. I ran after her for a while and we finally stopped we realized that we got lost in the woods. Neither I nor my sister knew the way back home. My sister herself got scared and we began fighting with each other. I blamed her for what had happened, but she defended herself saying that it had been my own idea to go for a walk in the forest, not hers. In the evening some tourists found us and they helped us to get back home. Those people were used to such trips in the forest and they themselves admitted that they had done it for hundreds of times before. They proclaimed themselves as the kings of the woods. They weren’t many but their voices could be heard even from the other planet. They were young and joyful and didn’t have luggage with them. Maybe just a little. They had drawn a map of those mountains all by themselves. That was an unforgettable experience. In the end we both – I and my sister – agreed that nobody was to be blamed, but anyway I will never go in the mountains with my sister again.
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SWEDEN
From Central Europe we move to the northern countries to meet Sweden - a Scandinavian country, bordered by Norway, Finland and Denmark.
Superlatives: Fifth largest country in Europe (449,964 km2) The largest Scandinavian country (173,860 square miles) The Swedish Empite - During the 17th and early 18th centuries Sweden was one of the great European powers
Five recommended places to visit in Sweden: 1. Oresund Bridge 2. The Northern Lights In Lapland 3. The Amusement Park In Gothenburg 4. Drottningholm’s Castle 5. Sälen - The Ski Resort
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On the north of Poland lies Sweden with its Scandinavian atmosphere and many more touristic sites to display. While travelling through Sweden, we will learn the Adverb in English:
1. SWEDEN: ORESUND BRIDGE GRAMMAR: Adverbs – Degrees of Comparison
The Oresund Bridge is nearly 15 kilometres long and actually connects Malmo and Copenhagen. Exactly 7,8 kilometres of the bridge consist of driveways and only 4 kilometres are made up of tunnels. You can drive safely and hastily because it is built for speed and comfort. The bridge also looks very fascinating from afar. There are usually no passport inspections when entering Denmark, but checks have become significantly stricter when you enter Sweden, due to the European migrant crisis. Most often you will see the custom officers. Would you like to cross more quickly to Sweden? Take the Oresund Bridge! You will travel faster and more comfortably.
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The Oresund Bridge in Sweden is our gate to the study of ADVERBS (see pages 339-347). Are you ready to practice them?
Exercise 1: Complete the boxes with the degrees of comparison:
Early - -
Hard - -
Beautifully - -
Fast - -
Carefully - -
Badly - -
Slowly - -
Little - -
Well - -
Nicely - -
Exercise 2: Complete the boxes with the degrees of comparison:
1. well - better; far - ______2. cleanest – cleaner; dirtiest - ______3. sadly – most sadly; badly - ______4. more beautifully – most beautifully; faster - ______5. hard – hardest; healthily - ______6. more easily – easily; more dangerously - ______7. less – least; much - ______
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2. SWEDEN: THE NORTHERN LIGHTS IN LAPLAND GRAMMAR: Structures with Adverbs
An Aurora, which is mostly referred to as a polar light or Northern Lights, is a natural light display in the sky. The phenomenon is most often seen in the high latitudes. The Northern Lights are actually collisions between electrically charged particles from the sun that enter the earth’s atmosphere. Auroras are produced when the magnetosphere is sufficiently disturbed by the solar wind, mainly in the form of electrons and protons. They precipitate into the upper atmosphere where their energy is lost. So, the Aurora can be seen less often than we would like to, but when it apeears it enlightens the sky as much as you expected. I tis an amazing natural show. Your experience grows better and better. The more you see it, the more you want.
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Exercise 1: Underline the five structures with adverbs in the following text:
The more you research, the further you get. I know you work harder and harder now, but I am sure you will succeed sooner than your competitiors. Maybe they work less than you and their rewarding comes later. Aanyway you deserve as much as you get after such an intensive research
Exercise 2: How would you rephrase it?
1. The salaries increase gradually. You will earn ……………………………… 2. It is harder to climb when you reach higher altitudes. The higher you get, ……………………… you climb. 3. The accident scared him and he has become more careful in his work. He has worked …………………. since his accident. 4. The boy is not as quick in his running as his father. He runs ………………………… than his father. 5. James´ voice is as good as Laura´s. James sings …………………… Laura.
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Watch the variants offered in the following text and make the difference between the Adjectives and the Adverbs:
3. SWEDEN: THE AMUSEMENT PARK IN GOTHENBURG GRAMMAR: Adverbs vs Adjectives
Liseberg is an amusement park located in Gothenburg, probably opened in 1923. It is one of the most visited amusement parks in Scandinavia, attracting about three million visitors annually. Among the worthy attractions is the Balder, voted twice as the best wooden roller coaster and the Helix which drives unbelievably quickly. Another attraction that enormously increases your adrenaline temporarily, is the Atmosphere. After boarding the gondola, riders wait excitedly (riders are excited waiting for the rise). The gondola rises slowly (the gondola starts a slow rise) towards the sky and after several seconds the catch mechanism releases the gondola which then falls freely (which gets into a free fall). Even the Mechanic is a little dangerous for those who are afraid of heights. However you will have an amazing day at Liseberg.
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Exercise 1: Choose between the Adverb and the Adjective given in parantheses:
1. My child plays tennis (well / good). 2. He got sick because he didn´t take (heavily / heavy) clothes. 3. He was repairing something (noisily / noisy) when the neighbors came upstairs to complain. 4. How many languages do you speak (fluently / fluent)? 5. I don´t feel (well / good). I think I´ve caught a cold. 6. Speak (calmly / calm) if you want to be understood! 7. The little girl seemed so (happily / happy) that she had tears in her eyes. 8. Drivers drive (more carefully / more careful) if they are watched by policemen. 9. He works (hardly / hard) all day long and he arrives at home exhausted. 10. Look at me (attentively / attentive)! 11. The country gardens smell (freshly / fresh). 12. Don´t drive with a high speed if you want us to get there (safely / safe)! 13. He explained the process in a (miraculously / miraculous) way and therefore he got a scholarship abroad. 14. Look at him how (attentively / attentive) he is with his wife! 15. He is so tired that he can (hardly / hard) talk. 16. The music was too (loudly / loud) and we didn´t manage to talk.. 17. The woman has sung (wonderfully / wonderful) since she graduated from the Music University. 18. The car hit her pretty (badly / bad), but she (completely / complete) recovered after a one-year treatment. 19. This is a (seriously / serious) problem, but if you work (seriously / serious), you will manage to solve it. 20. He came (happily / happy) tom e to tell me that he had won the competition. 21. The pilots remained (calmly / calm) even in the most difficult moments and saved the whole crew. 22. He presented a (fluently / fluent) discourse and the audience (really / real) admired him . 23. The flowers looked (amazingly / amazing). 24. The food my mother cooks always tastes very (well / good). 25. (Oddly / Odd) all the students wrote good papers. 26. Spell the word (correctly / correct)! 27. His intervention was (dangerously / dangerous), but he has acted (dangerously / dangerous) since he started working in the field. 28. I tried to present the things (convincingly / convincing) to sell as many products as possible. 29. Take off the lid (slowly / slow) and introduce the substance in the vessel, then shake the content (carefully / careful) and (patiently / patient) wait for the result. 30. He hit a window (accidentally / accidental).
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31. He seemed so (proudly / proud). He came (proudly / proud) to me and told me the whole mountain adventure. 32. I speak (fluently / fluent), but I (hardly / hard) write. I don´t spell very (correctly / correct). 33. He behaved (politely / polite) until his boss offended him. Then he behaved rather (stupidly / stupid) throwing (badly / bad) words all around. 34. His (politely / polite) behaviour impressed everybody in the room. 35. I need an answer (immediately / immediate). If you don´t come (immediately / immediate), the boss will fire you. 36. He (quietly / quiet) sat down on the bench and waited for his turn. It was a (quietly / quiet) day he wasn´t hurrying anywhere. 37. Come back a little and look (carefully / careful) at that guy. He resembles your brother, doesn´t he? 38. A small change has appeared in our schedule so that we apologize for the (shortly /short) delay. 39. They were singing (joyfully / joyful) as if nothing had happened. 40. I would (gladly / glad) help you if I knew the person. Anyway, I am (gladly / glad) we have talked.
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Let’s see where the adverbs is correctly placed in the sentence:
4. SWEDEN: DROTTNINGHOLM’S CASTLE GRAMMAR: Position of adverbs in the sentence
Make a day trip to Drottningholm and discover a historic environment of the royal and highest class. You can visit it anytime because the castle and the park are mostly open to visitors all year long. The palace is Sweden’s best preserved royal castle. It was originally built in the late 16th century by the French architect Nicodemus Tessin, on behalf of queen Hedvig Eleonora. Since then, several royal families left their marks on the castle. There are many magnificently and gorgeously designed rooms. Since 1981 the castle is currently the royal family’s permanent residence. The rooms in the south section are reserved for royal family members. I have always dreamed about visiting a Swedish Castle in summer. Are you coming with me?
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Exercise 1: Underline the adverbs in the following sentences. What position can the adverbs occupy? What is their grammatical value?
A 1. Where will you spend your summer holiday? 2. How well he speaks English! 3. Yes, she is at home. / No, we don’t live here. 4. The bandit entered the room. Slowly, he moved his hand towards the gun. 5. Outside it was snowing. In the country most people work on farms. 6. Yesterday we played football. 7. Once a year we go to the seaside. 8. Generally he works a lot. Sometimes we meet at a pub. 9. Quite often we go on trips. 10. Fortunately the dog didn’t see him. / Maybe he can help us. 11. By now we have learnt a lot of interesting things. How often have you met? / Sooner or later you will understand the truth.
B 1. Never has she understood him! / No sooner had we sent the mail to Paris. Little does he know about this. / I don’t like coffee. Neither does my sister. 2. Only by learning can he succeed in his career. 3. Near the school was a new hospital. / Often have I found his name in newspapers. / By her side did a lovely child sit. / Twice a week did we go shopping together. 4. Here is a new article about friendship. / There come many people to visit the exhibition. / In came Jane. / Up jumped the children. / Down fell the books. / Back ran the cat. 5. In she came. Up they jumped. Down they fell. Back they went. 6. So difficult was the problem that none of us could do it. / Such was the fate of this woman.
C 1. He simply refused to talk with us. 2. We have recently discovered the truth. He generally speaks very formal. They are often here. 3. They are obviously right.
D 1. Our friends left the town Our friends left the town yesterday. / She goes there on Fridays. 2. I see him very rarely. / She leaves the house very seldom. 3. It was raining heavily. / I opened the door carefully. 4. We walked in the park. 5. They help me very much. 6. His brother isn’t very well.
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Exercise 2: Set the adverbs in parentheses in the right place in the sentence:
1. I go to the seaside (always). 2. We do our homework (at dusk). 3. I like to watch movies on TV (in summer). 4. He comes to me (from time to time). 5. We go to the restaurant (once a week). 6. He wants to go to the theatre (never). 7. They want to go to Sweden (afternoon, on Saturday). 8. It is hot (in July, usually). 9. It rains (in August, occasionally). 10. Why do you come to us (so seldom)? 11. We want to borrow books (never). We buy them. 12. We like to play the piano (sometimes). 13. We go to the seaside (always, in summer). 14. He eats in the morning (never). 15. You go to your grandparents (seldom, in winter). 16. At 6 o’clock I get up and go to work (in the morning, usually). 17. We have dinner on the balcony (in July, generally). 18. They go to gym (three times a week, at noon). 19. He leaves the house (at 8 o’clock, sometimes, in the evening) and goes to his parents. 20. She looks for her glasses everywhere and finds them on the TV (always, after a while).
Exercise 3: Rephrase starting with the negative adverb:
1.He had hardly arrived at home when the telephone rang. Hardly ______2. He never buys a newspaper without reading it entirely. Never ______3. He will be allowed to this at no time. At no time ______4. The boy had scarcely hidden the cigarette when the teacher entered the classroom. Scarcely ______5. He realized very little how late it was now to change his attitude. Very little ______6. The teacher adopted such an attitude that they had to listen. Such an attitude ______
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Let’s ski through the various forms and meanings of the following adverbs:
5. SWEDEN: SÄLEN - THE SKI RESORT GRAMMAR: Adverbs with different forms and meanings
If you like speed and skiing, then Sälen is the right place for you. The mountains of Sälen are situated in Dalarna, near / close to the border with Norway. Sälen hosts the start of the oldest (since 1922), longest (90 km), and largest cross country ski race in the world. Despite its small population, Sälen receives many tourists nearly all year long. There is also a cross-country ski school in Sälen, to practice and improve your technique and speed. In Sälen, there are also nine children's areas. Obviously there are duly equipped slopes for them. So, if you are due to this ski resort in winter, you have definitely made the best choice for the kids, too. With Sälen, you have closely reached the perfect deal.
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Exercise 1: Explain the meanings of the underlined adverbs in the text about Sälen – the ski resort:
near / nearly due / duly close / closely
Exercise 2: Make up sentences with the following words:
deep / deeply easy / easily free / freely hard / hardly just / justly late / lately most / mostly right / rightly
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RUSSIA
Russia is the biggest country in Europe. In fact Russia lies on two continents: Europe and Asia.
Superlatives: Biggest country – 3,972,400 km2 (17,098,242 km2 including Asian Russia); Largest population (144.3 million people) Volga – The largest river in Europe (2193 miles); Caspian Sea - The largest enclosed inland body of water on Earth bounded by Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkmenistan (371,000 km2); Lake Baikal – The deepest lake (-1638 m) Mount Elbrus - Highest mountain peak (5,642 m)
Five recommended places to visit in Russia: 1. The Russian Luxurious Underground (in Moscow) 2. Moscow – The Red Square 3. Kremlin 4. Catherine’s Palace 5. Saint Petersburg
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The best way to travel in Moscow is the Underground. During the trip we will practice the Cardinal Numeral:
1. RUSSIA: THE LUXURIOUS UNDERGROUND (IN MOSCOW) GRAMMAR: Cardinal Numeral
To move in Moscow use the underground trains. Opened in 1935, with an 11-kilometre (6.8 mi) line and 13 stations, it was the first underground railway system in the Soviet Union. Since 2016, the Moscow Metro (excluding the Moscow Central Circle) has 203 stations and its route length is 339.1 km. It is the fifth longest line in the world. The first plans for a metro system in Moscow date back to the Russian Empire, but were postponed by World War I, the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War. The underground stations were built to be luxurious places for the people. Stalin ordered the underground artists and architects to create very beautiful paintings, sculptures and decoration inside every Moscow underground station. Each of them is an art exhibition hall.
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In Russia starts our “travel" through the English NUMERAL. Study it on pages 348-351 and then let´s have some exercises:
Exercise 1: Read and write the following numbers: 11; 13; 15; 32; 49; 57; 78; 192; 564; 218; 901; 1367; 3723; 91 438;
Exercise 2: Dictate and write the following telephone numbers (in pairs): 142093; 144765; 106731; 329774; 116279; 803621; 45192.
Exercise 3: Dictate and write the following years (in pairs): 1946; 1969; 1978; 1715; 1504; 1859; 2001; 1900; 1485; 1792.
Exercise 4: What time is it? 7.30; 9.45; 11.00; 10.05; 12.53; 8.21; 15.15.
Exercise 5: Answer the following questions: How many degrees are in a right angle? How many degrees are in a circle? How many degrees are in a straight angle? How long is the Moscow Metro? How many stations does the Moscow Metrou have? When was the Moscow Metrou line opened?
Exercise 6: Read the following money: 1p; 3£; 1¢; 5¢; 10¢; 25¢; 50¢; 100$.
Exercise 7: Solve some mathematical operations (write them in letters): 2 + 7 0.6 : 0.2 ½ + 3/4 78 – 4 7.2 + 2.8 22/15 x 3/ 4 15 : 5 7.9 – 2.8 14/25 : 3/ 10 7 x 6 37. 1 x 10 28/2 – 14/3 100 – 55 54. 7 x 100 23 + 32 5 x 2 3/5 – 2/5 √4 + √25 120 + 4 5/7 x 3/2 3√75 60 : 3 3/8 : 4/5
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By underground we might get to the Red Square to practicethe Ordinal Numeral:
2. RUSSIA: MOSCOW - THE RED SQUARE GRAMMAR: Ordinal Numeral
The second place to visit is the Red Square. During the Soviet era, the Red Square maintained its significance, becoming the main place of interest for the new state. The Soviet Union holds three important parades in the Red Square for May Day, Victory Day, and the October Revolution. When you arrive there, you are fascinated by the elaborate dome Saint Basil’s Cathedral. Don’t forget to visit Lenin’s Mausoleum which contains the embalmed body of Vladimir Lenin. If you go starting from the 1st May, you will see the annual victory parade to celebrate the defeat of the Nazy Germany in World War II. If you have time, go inside the Gum department store. It is not just a store but it is a comfortable lounge area with restaurants and cafés; it is an art gallery and a venue for cultural events. It is a symbol of Moscow and it is the closest place to the Kremlin.
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Exercise 1: Supply the corresponding ordinal numerals:
1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 8; 9; 11; 13; 15; 20; 21; 46; 65; 100; 122; 313; 1000.
Exercise 2: Read the following Roman numbers:
III; V; XI; XXXVII; L; XL; LXX; C; XC; XCV; CCC; D; CD; DC; M; CM; MC.
Exercise 3: Answer the following questions (paying attention to the dates):
1. When is the first school-day? 2. When is your birthday? 3. When is Christmas? 4. When is our national day? 5. When is the last school-day? 6. When is the last day of the year? 7. What is the date today? 8. When is the Annual Victory Parade in Moscow?
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3. RUSSIA: KREMLIN GRAMMAR: Fractional Numeral
You can’t miss the visit to Kremlin! It is a fortified complex at the heart of Moscow, overlooking the Moscova river to the south, the Red Square to the east and Alexander Garden to the west. You can see five palaces, four cathedrals and the Kremlin’s walls with the Kremlin’s towers. Originally there were eighteen Kremlin towers, but their number increased to twenty in the 17th century. In 1990, both the Red Square and the Kremlin were the first sites in URSS added to UNESCO’s World Heritage list. The irregular triangle of the Kremlin wall encloses an area of 275,000 square meters. Its overall length is 2,235 metres and the height ranges from 5 to 19 meters, depending on the terrain. The wall's thickness is between 3.5 and 6.5 meters. The complex is the official residence of the President of the Russian Federation, who fights for the economic growth of Russia. The Kremlin expects a 3 per cent growth in 2017, but the real growth seems to be only 1.3 per cent.
Exercise 1: Read and write the following numbers: 0.3; 1.45; 5.347; ½; ¾; 5/12; 9/17; 7/30.
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4. RUSSIA: CATHERINE’S PALACE GRAMMAR: Multiplying Numeral
If you remain longer in Russia, visit Catherine’s Palace, located 30 kilometres south of Saint Petersburg. It was built in 1717 as the residence of the first Russian Tsars. Starting in 1743, the building was reconstructed by four different architects, before Bartholomeo Rastrelli, Chief Architect of the Imperial Court, was instructed to completely redesign the building on a scale to rival Versailles. At Catherine’s Palace the tourists can admire the 325 metre-long palace in Rococo style. Another surprising fact is that more than 100 kilograms of gold were used to gild the sophisticated stucco façade and the statues erected on the roof. The interiors of the Palace are also very spectacular. The ticket for schoolchildren under 16 years old costs 360 RUB, but an adult tickets costs double. It can be visited only six times a week, as on Tuesady the Palace is closed.
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Exercise 1: Complete the sentences with Multiplying Numerals:
1.) The peasant paid ______(double) 2.) The sales increased ______(fivefold) 3.) It is ______(hundredfold) 4.) The obtained number was ______(triple) 5.) The stocks went up ______(thousandfold)
Exercise 2: Use the following numerals in sentences of your own:
forty; love; thirty-one; oh; nought point five; two-by-two; thousands; score; dozen; gross; threefold; three fourths; the twentieth; nil; double/twofold/duplicate, triple/threefold/ triplicate, quadruple/fourfold, tenfold, hundredfold, thousandfold etc.; one time/ones, two times/ twice, three times/thrice.
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5. RUSSIA: SAINT PETERSBURG GRAMMAR: Frequentative Numeral
Saint Petersburg is Russia's second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is home to the Hermitage - one of the largest art museums in the world. Of the six buildings of the main museum complex, five, named the Winter Palace, Small Hermitage, Old Hermitage, New Hermitage and Hermitage Theatre, are open to the public. Guess how many doors there are: 1786. Let’s count the windows… 1945; and let’s count the rooms… 1500 rooms. all the Hermitage Museum complex can be seen from the Nieva River. The Square in front of it, called Palace Square, is where many significant events took place, including the Bloody Sunday and the October Revolution in 1917. In the centre stands the red granitic Alexander Column. Once in your life you must see Saint Petersburg. I have visited the city three times and every time I discovered something new.
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Exercise 1: Complete the sentences with Adverbial Numerals:
1.) My friends go to the cinema every Saturday. They go to the cinema ………...... ….….. 2.)Mother goes shopping every Monday and Friday. She goes shopping ………...... ……… 3.) We have Math every Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday. We have Math ...... …… 4.) George has English every Monday, Wednesday and Thursday. He has ……………...... … 5.) I have told you this ...... (an exaggeration for many-many times)
Exercise 2: Use the following numerals in sentences of your own:
once; five times; twice; twice a week; ten times a day; four times a month, once in a life time.
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TURKEY
Our European travel ends in Turkey which is also a transcontinental country in Eurasia, just like Russia.
Superlatives: The Turkish Armed Forces - the second largest standing military force in NATO in 2015, after the U.S. Armed Forces, (639,551 military, civilian and paramilitary personnel) Turkey is the 28th largest export economy in the world Bűyűk Ağn (Mount Ararat) – the highest peak in Turkey (5137 m)
Five recommended places to visit in Turkey: 1. Pamukkale 2. Cappadocia (Kapadokya) 3. Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya) 4. Ankara 5. The Blue Mosque (Sultanahmet Camii)
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Turkey brings in quite a different atmosphere. The new experience is accompanied by the study of Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections:
1. TURKEY: PAMUKKALE GRAMMAR: Prepositions
Pamukkale, meaning "cotton castle" in Turkish, is a natural site in Denizli Province, in southwestern Turkey. The city contains hot springs and travertines, terraces of carbonate minerals left by the flowing water. It is located in Turkey's Inner Aegean region, in the River Menderes valley, which has a temperate climate most of the year. The ancient Greco-Roman and Byzantine city of Hierapolis was built on top of the white "castle" which is in total about 2,700 metres long, 600 m wide and 160 m high. It can be seen from the hills on the opposite side of the valley in the town of Denizli, 20 km away. Tourism is and has been a major industry. People have bathed in its pools for thousands of years. As recently as the mid-20th century, hotels were built over the ruins of Hierapolis, causing considerable damage. An approach road was built from the valley over the terraces, and motor bikes were allowed to go up and down the slopes. When the area was declared a World Heritage Site, the hotels were demolished and the road removed and replaced with artificial pools. Wearing shoes in the water is prohibited
183 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU in order to protect the deposits. Pamukkale is a tourist attraction. It is recognized as a World Heritage Site together with Hierapolis. Hierapolis- Pamukkale was made a World Heritage Site in 1988. The underground volcanic activity which causes the hot springs also forced carbon dioxide into a cave, which was called the Plutonium (which here means "place of the god Pluto"). This cave was used for religious purposes the by priests of Cybele, who found ways to appear immune to the suffocating gas.
Our journey ends with the PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION and INTERJECTION in Turkey. This last lesson can be studied on pages 252-361. and practiced right here:
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the right preposition:
1) I work a lot ……. home to finish the painting of the rooms. 2) We are staying …….... London. 3) Run ……. home; your brother has just arrived and he is looking for you. 4) This chocolate is made …….... milk. 5) Unfortunately, I am already late …….... work, so I must leave. 6) In summer I will go ….….. England. 7) How often do you go …...... school for the parents meetings? 8) If you want to get tickets ……….. the concert, you must hurry. 9) The boy has been ….….. school since 8 a.m. 10) He drives with a speed…….... 30 miles an hour. 11) I would like to read a novel ……... Henry James. 12) Add 4 pounds …….. sugar and mix well. 13) We will meet there …..………. the twilight. 14) The town is ……….. the North of the country. 15) We live …….….. the 21st century and speed is the key word of our living. 16) I have waited for you …..…. two hours. 17) I would like to watch a movie …….. TV. 18) Will you travel …….. train? 19) They studied in that university ….….. three years. 20) There is a strange car ……... the street. 21) The building is …..….. the South. 22) There are a lot of clouds …..….. the sky. 23) The post-office is …….. the right side of the street.
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24) I am talking ….….. the phone with my best friend. 25) We have an important business meeting ….….. the morning. 26) The market is …….. the left, but you have to turn …….. left there to reach the city hall. 27) You must hand in the paper on 22nd September …….. the latest. 28) He is lying ….….. the grass to rest for a while. 29) ..….. the first level they must be able to speak basic words in English. 30) We are going to meet the manager …….. the evening. 31) She will return ….….. the end of the month. / ………. the end they will accept her. 32) She comes ….….. East. 33) …….. the beginning of the week I will move to my new apartment. 34) Can I find her there …….. the afternoon? 35) The party is ..….... the 3rd …….. May. 36) He lives ….….. the 2nd floor. 37) It is extremely hot in Egypt …..….. summer. 38) I have never traveled …..….. ship. 39) The child goes to bed at 10 o’clock …….. night. 40) Is your colleague travelling ….... plane? 41) I can buy five books …….. most right now. 42) The Board is going to meet in Rome …….. Monday. 43) …….. least you could help your brother. 44) Can we go to the seaside ……... July? 45) When do you plan to go ….….. holiday? 46) I think I will be working on this project ….….. ever. 47) They will probably visit their parents …….. Eastern. 48) In summer the children meet in front of the house …….. dusk and play for about two hours. 49) I must start working on this ….….. dawn so that I could finish it in time. 50) Santa Claus brings presents ……... Christmas. 51) She always goes to work ...….... car. 52) The teams go to the competitions …..….. bus. 53) I haven’t seen you …..….. a long time. 54) They can meet ….….. 5 o’clock. 55) The girl was born ….….. 1985.
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2. TURKEY: CAPPADOCIA (KAPADOKYA) GRAMMAR: Verbs with Obligatory Prepositions
According to Herodotus, in the time of the Ionian Revolt (499 BCE) the Cappadocians were reported to occupy a region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine (Black Sea). Cappadocia, in this sense, was bounded in the south by the chain of the Taurus Mountains that separate it from Cilicia, to the east by the upper Euphrates, to the north by Pontus, and to the west by Lycaonia and eastern Galatia. The name, traditionally used in Christian sources throughout history, continues to be used as an international tourism concept to define a region of exceptional natural wonders, in particular characterized by fairy chimneys and a unique historical and cultural heritage. Cappadocia was known as Hatti in the late Bronze Age, and it was the homeland of the Hittite power centred at Hattusa. After the fall of the Hittite Empire, with the decline of the Syro-Cappadocians (Mushki), after their defeat by the Lydian king Croesus in the 6th century, Cappadocia was ruled by a sort of feudal aristocracy, dwelling in strong castles and keeping the peasants in a servile condition. Later that made them apt to foreign slavery.
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Now, the area is a popular tourist destination, as it has many areas with unique geological, historic, and cultural features. Touristic Cappadocia includes 4 cities: Nevsehir, Kayseri, Aksaray and Nigde. The region is located southwest of the major city Kayseri, which has airline and railway service to Ankara, Istanbul and other cities. The most important towns and destinations in Cappadocia are Ürgüp, Goreme, Ihlara Valley, Selime, Guzelyurt, Uchisar, Avanos and Zelve. Among the underground cities worth seeing are Derinkuyu, Kaymakli, Gaziemir and Ozkanak. The best historic mansions and cave houses for tourist stays are in Urgup, Goreme, Guzelyurt and Uchisar. Hot-air ballooning is very popular in Cappadocia and it is available in Goreme. Trekking is enjoyed in Ihlara Valley, Monastery Valley (Guzelyurt), Urgup and Goreme. If you visit Cappadocia, a guide can explain to you the major attractions and how to get there. You can also apply to organized tours. You can also ask for advice at your hotel. Your route depends on your preferences. Think about Cappadocia as your next holiday destination.
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the preposition asked by the verb:
1. I hope I succeed ...... finding something else to do for a while. 2. If they agree ...... us, we can sign the contract. 3. The young man applied ...... a job in tourism. 4. I am thinking ...... my next trip to Turkey. 5. Nothing will prevent me ...... going to Cappadocia. 6. The travel agents aim …………….. selling as many holidays as possible every year. 7. Don´t worry …………… missing the flight! There is enough time. 8. The client asked ……………… more offers. 9. The four cities - Nevsehir, Kayseri, Aksaray and Nigde – belong ……….. Cappadocia. 10. While walkig in Cappadocia I came …………… my old Turkish friend.
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11. The contest consists …………. four tests. 12. Our trip plans depend ………… the time when I can leave my work. 13. The watchman explained ………. us that the museum was closed on Monday. 14. Are you searching …………. a holiday in Goreme? 15. I will never give ……………… on my dream. 16. You keep …………….. talking about Turkey. Why don´t you go there in summer? 17. I am looking ………………….. to meeting you in Ürgüp. 18. He has recovered ……………….. the difficult period he passed through. 19. Are you participating ……………… the conference about Turkey? 20. Listen …………. Me. I have found an amazing offer in Cappadocia.
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3. TURKEY: HAGIA SOPHIA (AYASOFYA) GRAMMAR: Nouns with Obligatory Prepositions
Hagia Sophia was a Greek Orthodox Christian patriarchal basilica (church), later an imperial mosque, and now a museum (Ayasofya Müzesi) in Istanbul, Turkey. From the date of its construction in 537 AD, and until 1453, it served as an Orthodox cathedral and the seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople, except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Empire of Constantinople. The building was later converted into an Ottoman mosque from 29th May 1453 until 1931. It was then secularized and opened as a museum on 1st February 1935. Famous for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture] and it is said to have "changed the history of architecture". It remained the world's largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520.
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The current building was originally constructed as a church between 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian Iand was the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to occupy the site, the previous two having both been destroyed by rioters. It was designed by the Greek geometers Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. The church was dedicated to the Wisdom of God, the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity, its patronal feast taking place on 25th December - the commemoration of the birth of the incarnation of the Logos in Christ. Although sometimes referred to as Sancta Sophia (as though it were named after Saint Sophia), sophia being the phonetic spelling in Latin of the Greek word for wisdom, its full name in Greek is Ναὸς τῆς Ἁγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας, Naos tēs Hagias tou Theou Sophias, "Shrine of the Holy Wisdom of God". Your participation in such a tour would be a special experience because you get access to a different world. You might feel astonishment at seeing Hagia Sophia. You can get there by car or by bus after you have got information about this trip. Your impressions of the museum will add to the ones acquired after visiting Pamukkale and Cappadocia. Eventually you will start understanding Turkey and its beauty. Go on a Turkish holiday to complete the European experience!
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the preposition asked by the noun:
1. The idea ...... relaxing by going shopping today could be great. 2. In have prepared the documents in accordance ...... our last discussion. 3. I am giving you advice ..... that issue, but only because you are my friend. 4. Your belief ...... your dream is to be admired. 5. Are you travelling ...... bus to Hagia Sophia? 6. His confidence ...... his brother is unquestionable. 7. I travelled to more countries comparison ...... my colleagues.
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8. Unfortunately the boy was a witness ...... that quarrel. 9. He is under suspicion of stealing. 10. There are too many cars ...... the street. 11. The actor went ...... stage to play his number. 12. Here is the solution ...... to your problem. 13. The resemblance ...... your twin is very strong. 14. His responsibility ...... the HR department gives him the right to do that. 15. I need a report ...... the event in three days. 16. Can you bring me some proofs ...... this issue. 17. We´ll talk ...... phone later. 18. The travel agency is opposite ...... the railway station. 19...... the meantime I will go to Ankara. 20. I need to go ...... holiday as soon as possible, because I am very tired. 21. Those dresses are ...... of fashion now. You must change them. 22. His care ...... his career is kind of exaggerated. 23. The difference ……………. his opinions are huge. 24. You must fiind an excuse ...... not visiting him. 25. I go to many beautiful places, ...... example Turkey.
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4. TURKEY: ANKARA GRAMMAR: Adjectivess with Obligatory Prepositions
Ankara is also different from other European cities, you can be certain of that. This is why I am sure you are interested in visiting the capital of Turkey. As a tourist, you will be exposed to Turkish culture and civilization: religion, food, buildings, museums, the Turkish language and customs... Ankara is one of the most important touristic attractions of Turkey. Although the capital, it is in fact the second largest city of the country. It is a significant commercial and industrial city. Its inhabitants are proud to call it a green city, due to the vast green area per inhabitant. Here you can admire the examples of Roman and Ottoman architecture, the Ankara Castle and Citadel, the Museum of Anatolium Civilization, The Temple of Augustus and Rome, The Roman Bath and the Roman Road, the Mosques, the Victory Monument, The Aviation Museum, the METU Science and Technology Museum etc. And when you’re tired of walking, you can stop for a Turkish coffee made in sand or for a Turkish tea, or you can taste original baklava, şöbiyet, kadayıf, künefe ot kebab. The experience is worthy of trying.
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Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the preposition asked by the adjective:
1. I am tired ...... worrying so much. 2. Aren´t you able ...... plan everything in details? 3. They were very disappointed ...... her results. 4. She is afraid ...... darkness. 5. We got accustomed …………………. the requirements in time. 6. I am aware ………….. the risks of such a travel. 7. You are not capable ……………….. understanding this process. 8. I am certain ……………….. his loyalty. 9. Are worried ………………. these exams? 10. He said he was sorry …………… being late. 11. The managers of this company are successful ……. making a good image. 12. I am finally content …………….. my decision. 13. Robert is so sure …………… his girlfriend. 14. Children are dependent …………….. their mothers. 15. This holiday is different ……………… all the other holidays. 16. Are you surprised ………….. her arrival? 17. When you get fed up ……… his attitude, take your things and move out. 18. The man is friendly ……….. all customers. 19. I said many things related ………….. this subject. 20. I am good ………… math and physics. 21. He was found guilty ………….. charge. 22. Is you son satisfied …………….. his job? 23. I have always been responsible …………… joyfullnes in the group. 24. I am very proud ………… you, my son. 25. If you are interested ……………. learning English, I can help you.
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5. TURKEY: THE BLUE MOSQUE GRAMMAR: Conjunctions and Interjections
The Blue Mosque (Called Sultanahmet Camii in Turkish) is a spectacularly historical mosque in Istanbul. The mosque is known as the Blue Mosque because of blue tiles delicately surrounding the walls of interior design. It was built between 1609 and 1616 years, during the rule of Ahmed I. Just like many other mosques, it also comprises a tomb of the founder, a madrasa and a hospice. Still used as a mosque, the Sultan Ahmed Mosque has also increasingly become a popular tourist attraction in Istanbul. People visiting this Mosque cannot help conveying their surprise by yelling “Wow”. Besides being a tourist attraction, it's also an active mosque, so it's closed to non-worshippers for half an hour or so, during the five daily prayers. The best way to see the great architecture of the Blue Mosque is to approach it from the Hippodrome (west side of the mosque). If you are non-Muslim visitors, you also have to use exactly same direction to enter the Mosque.
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Exercise 1: Underline all the conjunctions and interjections in the following text:
“Unless you have a better idea, I suggest that we should have a travel in Europe and we should start from Turkey." “Hey! I think this is a great idea, but we should start from Romania and end our trip in Turkey.." “We could start from Bucharest or Timisoara. Wherever we start, it´s going to be an amazing European tour." “As long as we visit France, UK, Germany, Italy, Greece… it´s just great." “We have enough time and that´s why we must plan everything in details." “Wow! You are serios about such a trip..." “I am serious and I prepared a plan as well. I would like to show it to you and listen to your opinion, your suggestions…" “Absolutely! Come on! Let´s see! Europe here we come!"
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PART 2:
GRAMMAR BASICS
Meet the most important grammar problems in English
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The Verb
Verbal Tenses
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AXIS OF TENSES
The AXIS OF TENSES is the basic tool for understanding the English tenses:
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According to the AXIS OF TENSES, the center of the axis is Present Tense. There are six tenses presented on this axis, the most used English tenses (from left to right): - PAST PERFECT - PAST - PRESENT PERFECT - PRESENT - FUTURE PERFECT - FUTURE. Each tense has two aspects: simple/indefinite (above the axis) and continuous/progressive (below the axis), as represented in Figure 2. (All these tenses will be presented in detail in chapter five, but here it is a rough comparative presentation in order to differentiate the tenses). The construction of the tenses must not be learnt by heart, but the mechanism of composing their structure should be understood. Here are the RULES AND EXPLANATIONS FOR THE STRUCTURES OF THE TENSES presented in the AXIS OF TENSES. First of all, there are two important rules for the construction of all tenses: 1. All the CONTINUOUS tenses are built with the verb to be and the ending –ing. 2. All the PERFECT tenses are built with the verb to have and past participle. The PAST PARTICIPLE is constructed by adding –ed to the verb (infinitive) for the regular verbs; and, for the irregular verbs, the past participle is the third column in the list of irregular verbs:
VB. + - ed (for regular verbs) 3rd form (for irregular verbs)
Examples: finished, skated, worked; lost, drunk, broken, seen.
Roughly speaking, SIMPLE PRESENT expresses common, repeated actions which are performed all the time, like a ”rule”; while PRESENT CONTINUOUS represents the ”exception from the rule”: something that happens only now (in the moment of speaking)/ only today / only this week / only this month, only this year (for a limited period of time in the present), but not all the time.
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The form of the verb in the Simple Present is the initial form of the verb: VB. (INFINITIVE)
I eat three times a day. You write your homework right after school. We attend the course every day. You both go there weekly as far as I know. For the third person, singular (he /she / it) Simple Present is formed by adding –s or –es to the verb (details in chapter five):
VB. + -s/-es
He washes his teeth in the morning and in the afternoon. She cooks three courses every Saturday. It looks for bones all the time. According to the rules mentioned above, Present Continuous is formed with the verb to be in the present (am / are / is) and the ending –ing: AM/ARE/IS + VB.- ing
I am having a shower right now. You are passing the exam today. He is competing with his brother this week. We are managing two projects this month. You are working abroad this year. They are breaking the rule this time. The following examples illustrate comparatively the use of Simple Present and Present Continuous (”rule” versus ”exception from the rule”): I walk to school every day, but today I am taking a taxi. My colleagues come to work at 8 o’clock every morning, but this week they are coming one hour late.
SIMPLE PAST expresses past, finished actions, having no connection with the present. It is formed by adding –ed to the verb (for regular verbs) or the second column in the list of irregular verbs (for irregular verbs): VB. + - ed (for regular verbs) 2nd form (for irregular verbs)
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It rained a lot yesterday. The champion swam for the gold medal in that competition.
PAST CONTINUOUS expresses actions taking place in a certain moment in the past (in progress in a certain moment in the past); or actions taking place for a limited period of time in the past. It is formed with the auxiliary verb to be in the past and the ending –ing: WAS/WERE + VB.- ing
Yesterday at six o’clock I was writing the report for my manager. They were winning that day. Generally, Simple Past is used to tell stories, to enumerate actions, without any special details. Past Continuous brings in some extra nuances about the context (a certain moment, an action in progress, limited period of time etc.). It is important to emphasize the fact that all actions expresses by Past verbs – Simple or Continuous – are finished actions.
In contrast to the Past, PRESENT PERFECT expresses unfinished actions, actions that have connections with the present (actions which started in the past and continue in the present; actions finished in the past which have consequences in the present; actions completed very close to the present moment etc.). Present Perfect is a kind of ”link”/”compromise” between Present Tense and Past Tense. (INDEFINITE) PRESENT PERFECT is formed with the verb to have (in the present) and the Past Participle:
HAVE / HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE
I have loved you (I loved you in the past and I still love you now). It has rained (It still rains). My friends have ordered a pizza (The pizza is here now, we can see it in the present). Children have always enjoyed listening to piano music (They still do).
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS is built with the verb to have in the present (perfect tenses are made with the auxiliary to have), the Past Participle of the verb to be (as it is a continuous tense and it comes after
202 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE the verb to have which is always followed by Past Participle) and the ending –ing (the ending of all continuous tenses):
HAVE / HAS + BEEN + VB.- ing
The students have been studying for hours. (They have already studied for a long time and they still do.) The dog has been playing with the ball for two whole hours. (The dog has played for a very long time and it still does.) Present Perfect Continuous emphasizes the idea of continuity and duration.
PAST PERFECT expresses the remotest action(s) in the past, indicating the order of the actions. This tense shows anteriority in the past. (INDEFINITE) PAST PERFECT is formed with the verb to have (in the past) and the Past Participle:
HAD + PAST PARTICIPLE
The politician had begun his speech before he was given the floor. (First the politician began speaking and only later he was actually given the floor.) The child spoke only after he had seen his parents around him. (First the child saw his parents around him and only after that he started speaking.) The man joined the crowd after he had bought a whistle and had found his flag. (Fist the man bought a whistle and found his flag and after that he joined the crowd.) The conjunctions before and after are signals of anteriority in the compound phrase. The action which took place first must be in the Past Perfect.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS is built with the verb to have in the past (perfect tenses are made with the auxiliary to have), the Past Participle of the verb to be (as it is a continuous tense and it comes after the verb to have which is always followed by Past Participle) and the ending –ing (the ending of all continuous tenses):
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The politician had been delivering his speech for three whole hours before the audience got bored and left. (The politician spoke for a very long time and then the audience got bored and left.) The child got hungry after he had played for five hours in the park. (First the child played for five long hours in the park and only after that he got hungry.) Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes the idea of continuity and duration.
FUTURE TENSE are in the right side of the Present in Figure 2. SIMPLE FUTURE expresses neutral actions in the future (meaning no planned actions, but just opinions, remarks, simple declarations; planned actions are formulated with Near Future or Future Continuous, for example): It will rain tomorrow. (It is not a planned action, but only an opinion. Rain cannot be planned.) I am going to hand in the paper tomorrow. (This is a planned action and it is expresses with Near Future.) I will be handing in the paper tomorrow. (It is also planned and it is expressed by Future Continuous.) Simple Future is made by auxiliary will and the verb (infinitive):
WILL + VB.
It will be a nice day tomorrow.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS expresses actions taking place in a certain moment in the future (in progress in a certain moment in the future); or actions taking place for a limited period of time in the future; or future planned actions. It is formed with the auxiliary verb will, the infinitive of the verb to be and the ending –ing:
WILL + BE + VB.-ing
The actors will be playing their roles in the play tomorrow at 8 o’clock. He will be travelling to London next week.
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FUTURE PERFECT expresses anteriority in the future (just as Past Perfect shows anteriority in the past). (INDEFINITE) FUTURE PERFECT is formed by the auxiliary will, the auxiliary to have (perfect tenses are made with the auxiliary to have) and Past Participle:
WILL + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
I am sure the politician will have begun his speech even before he is given the floor. (The politician is so eager to speak that first he will begin speaking and only later he will actually be given the floor to save the situation.) The conjunctions before signals anteriority in the compound phrase. The action which will take place first must be in the Future Perfect. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS is built with the auxiliary will, the auxiliary to have (perfect tenses are made with the auxiliary to have), the Past Participle of the verb to be (as it is a continuous tense and it comes after the verb to have which is always followed by Past Participle) and the ending –ing (the ending of all continuous tenses):
WILL+HAVE + BEEN + VB.- ing
The politician will have been delivering his speech for hours before the audience get probably bored and actually leave. (The politician will speak for a very long time and then the audience will get bored and will leave.) Future Perfect Continuous emphasizes the idea of continuity and duration.
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SIMPLE PRESENT The FORM: The form of the verb in the Simple Present is the initial form of the verb: VB. (INFINITIVE)
For the third person, singular (he /she / it) Simple Present is formed by adding –s or –es to the verb (details in chapter five):
VB. + -s/-es
The USE: Simple Present expresses:
1. common, repeated actions People eat three times a day. We visit ourgranparents every year. 2. general truths The earth is round. Five times four is twenty. 3. rules, laws, instructions, proverbs, newspaper headlines (for recent events) Students are not to run in the school corridors. The mayor meets the president. (headline) 4. permanent actions, timeless actions The building lies opposite the post-office. China has a huge population. 5. officially planned actions The train arrives at half past five. The Annual General Meeting takes place on Wednesday morning. 6. future actions in the spoken language Mother goes to the market tomorrow. 7. stories with the so-called “Historic” or “Narrative” or “Dramatic” Present in order to make it more dynamic The Princess tricks the monster, takes the horse and runs away.
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[instantaneous actions [ ֽ instən'teiniəs .8 The player serves and gets the point. The girl goes to the window, opens it and draws a long breath. 9. actions which are taking place in the moment of speaking for the verbs that do not have a continuous aspect Right now I hope to get some good news. 10. future in Time Clause and If Clause where the use of the future is forbidden Her friends will celebrate her gold medal when she comes back from the Nationals. The politician will resign if the Parliament does not listen to him.
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Simple Present:
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PRESENT CONTINUOUS
The FORM: Present Continuous is formed with the verb to be in the present (am / are / is) and the ending –ing: AM/ARE/IS + VB.- ing
The USE: Present Continuous expresses:
1. actions which are taking place right in the moment of speaking We are listening to our favorite tune right now. 2. a durative action which accompanies a habitual action The child falls asleep only if the tape recorder is playing soft music. 3. limited temporary actions (used with today, these days, this week, this year) The manager usually drives his own car to work, but today he is taking a taxi. 4. unofficially planned actions The children are going to the seaside tomorrow. 5. gradual actions (with get or grow) It is getting colder (and colder) outside. 6. reproaches (usually with always, constantly, continually, for ever) You are always forgetting your pen at home! 7. future in Time Clause and If Clause where the use of the future is forbidden I will fill in the form while my colleague is writing the application. The shopkeeper will present his top products if the buyer is looking for something expensive.
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Present Continuous:
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Verbs that Cannot Be Used in the Continuous Aspect
There are nine groups of verbs which cannot be used in the continuous aspect: 1.Verbs expressing perceptions: see, hear, taste, smell, feel, note, notice; 2.Verbs expressing mental activities: think, know, understand, remember, remind, forget, suppose, realize, imagine, recognize, believe, guess, mean, consider; 3.Verbs expressing feelings and attitudes: love, hate, adore, like, dislike, prefer, enjoy, hope, agree, matter, mind; 4.Verbs expressing volition: want, wish, desire, intend; 5.Verbs expressing possession: have, own, hold, belong, possess; 6.Verbs expressing states or permanent characteristics: be, exist, seem, appear, look, cost, measure, weigh, resemble, differ, equal, mean, signify, contain, consist, suit; 7.Verbs expressing the beginning and the end of an action/state: start, begin, stop, end, finish, cease; 8.Modal verbs: can, could, may, might, must, have to, need, shall, should, will, would, ought to, dare, let; 9.Other verbs: expect, matter, result, compare.
Some of these verbs have two meanings and therefore they are exceptions from the rule. With one meaning (generally the basic one), the verb can be only simple, while, when the meaning is changing, the verb can be both simple and continuous, according to the context:
See Perceive (with eyes) Meet
I see that you are a handsome boy now. I am seeing my manager in a few moments in his office.
Hear Perceive / Listen (with ears) Listen to witnesses in Court
The children hear their teacher. The judge is hearing to the witnesses now.
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Taste Permanent quality of a thing The action of tasting
The chocolate tastes sweet. The child is tasting the chocolate now.
Smell Permanent quality of a thing The action of smelling
The flower smells great. The girl is smelling the flower now.
Feel Permanent quality of a thing The action of touching/feeling by touch
The silk feels so smooth. The tailor is feeling the silk now.
Expect Hope Anticipate / Wait for something to happen
She expects you to win the competition. She is expecting a letter from Bucharest these days.
Think Believe Give thought to
I think that you are wrong this time. I am thinking about my friends who are in Switzerland right now.
Realize Understand Produce something
He realizes now that you meant only good things for him. He is realizing a huge building with his team this year.
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Have Possess In expressions (meaning eat, ask somebody to do something etc.)
I have three apartments in town. I am having lunch with my sister now. I am having my students learn for the exam.
Be Exist Temporary behaviour
All the men are in the room now. The man is being ridiculous with his speech right now
Appear Look Come
You appear exquisite in this dress. You are appearing right on time.
Measure Be … meter/kilo/liter Determine length/weight/volume etc. using a measurement tool
The path measures 5 meter. I am measuring the path now.
Weigh Be … kilo Determine weight using a scale
The bag weighs 20 kilo. The farmer is weighing the bag.
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PRESENT PERFECT
The FORM: (Indefinite) Present Perfect is formed with the verb to have (in the present) and the Past Participle: HAVE / HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE
The USE: Present Perfect expresses:
1. actions that started in the Past and continue in the Present or Future (unfinished actions) The soldiers have fought in Asia. (They still do.) 2. actions that took place in the Past, but have consequences in the Present (or there are possible connections with the present) I have ordered a pizza by phone (The pizza man has just rang the doorbell). I have visited your beautiful town. (I still remember.) I have seen bears in this forest. (It is possible to see them and we are scared.) 3. actions whose moment is not mentioned The children have bought a toy house. 4. incomplete actions taking place an incomplete period of time: today, this morning, this week, this month, all day, all night etc. Today the baby has drunk two bottles of milk. (He will still drink milk today.) 5. actions that took place very close to the present moment (usually accompanied by adverbs like just, recently, already, yet, lately, until now, till now, so far, up to now, these 20 minutes, the last 20 minutes, during the last week etc) Note: yet is used only in interrogative and negative sentences The chief-editor has just ended the meeting.
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6. unfinished actions accompanied by indefinite adverbs of time: always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, ever, never, occasionally, generally Your mother has never been happier. 7. unfinished actions accompanied by since, for, how long They haven’t written any letters to us since they left the country. 8. future actions in Time Clause and If Clause for anteriority The children will play in the park after they have done their homework. The manager will give you a solution if he has read the paper.
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Present Perfect:
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PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The FORM: Present Perfect Continuous is built with the verb to have in the present (perfect tenses are made with the auxiliary to have), the Past Participle of the verb to be (as it is a continuous tense and it comes after the verb to have which is always followed by Past Participle) and the ending –ing (the ending of all continuous tenses):
HAVE / HAS + BEEN + VB.- ing
The USE: Present Perfect Continuous:
1. emphasizes the idea of duration and continuity of a present action The footballers have been playing in the field for hours. 2. expresses uninterrupted actions For three whole hours she has been singing uninterruptedly.
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Present Perfect versus Past
Present Perfect is a ”linking tense” between Past and Present. It is a kind of compromise between the two adiacent tenses as the Present Perfect action expresses actions started in the Past and continued in the Present, or actions which took place in the Past but has consequences in the Present, or actions which took place in the Past very close to the Present moment (accompanied by adverbs like: just, recently, these last seconds etc.)
Examples: I have worked on my project. (It means I started working in the past and I am still working on it.) I worked on the project. (It means I finished working on the project; I don’t work anymore on it.)
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SIMPLE PAST
The FORM: Simple Past is formed by adding –ed to the verb (for regular verbs) or the second column in the list of irregular verbs (for irregular verbs):
VB. + - ed (for regular verbs) 2nd form (for irregular verbs)
The USE: Simple Past expresses:
1. actions that took place in the past and are finished (have no connection with the Present) - when the past moment is mentioned (yesterday, last, ago, a day before etc.) I bought bread yesterday. - when the past moment is implied I learnt a lot. - sometimes the past meaning becomes definite as a result of a question in the Present Perfect ”Have you done your homework?” “Yes, I have.” “When did you do it?” 2. repeated and common past actions (past habits) I went fishing every Saturday when I was a student. 3. a sequence of events in narrations The teacher opened the door, entered the classroom and asked us to take a piece of paper to write a test. 4. present actions turned into Indirect Speech Direct Speech: I intend to write a book. Indirect Speech: He told me that he intended to write a book. 5. reported verbs ”He is guilty as charged,” explained the judge. 6. present actions in Direct Object Clause after a past in the Main Clause (according to the Sequence of Tenses) Henry thought that he was right.
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7. future actions in Time Clause (simultaneity with a Future-in-the-Past action) You said that you would help me when you finished your task. 8. present conditional in If Clause The workers would go on strike if their salaries were cut.
SPELLING issues:
Verb ended in –e: add only –d; Verb ended in –c: add –k and –ed; Verb ended in –y, preceded by a vowel: y does not change, add -ed; Verb ended in –y, preceded by a consonant: y changes into I, add –ed; One-syllable verb, ended in one vowel plus one consonant: double the last consonant and add –ed; Poly-syllabic verb, ended in one vowel plus one consonant, last syllable stressed: double the last consonant and add –ed;
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Simple Past:
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PAST CONTINUOUS
The FORM: Past Continuous is formed with the auxiliary verb to be in the past and the ending –ing: WAS/WERE + VB.- ing
The USE: Past Continuous expresses:
1. actions that were taking place in a certain moment in the past Yesterday at 8 o’clock my grandparents were knocking at my door. 2. an action seen in progress for period of time in the past (used with yesterday morning, yesterday afternoon, yesterday evening) They were talking business affairs yesterday afternoon. 3. actions that were in progress when something more important / a momentary action took place (background action / foreground action) While I was having dinner, the phone rang insistently. 4. two or more long actions occurring in the same time (long simultaneous actions) The mothers were sitting on the bench in the park while their children were playing around. 5. past reproaches (used with always, continuously, permanently, for ever) You were always teasing me when we were in school! 6. past gradual actions Suddenly it was getting colder and colder until I felt quite frozen. 7. future planned actions from a past point of view When he was here, he told me that he was taking some courses next month. 8. present continuous actions turned into Indirect Speech Direct Speech: My classmate is chatting with her friend. Indirect Speech: I said that my classmate was chatting with her friend. 9. present continuous actions in Direct Object Clause after a past in the Main Clause (according to the Sequence of Tenses) Daniel thought that his best friend was travelling to Switzerland.
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10. future continuous actions in Time Clause (simultaneity with a Future- in-the-Past action) His father told him that he would be a champion when he was working hard enough. 11. present conditional in If Clause What would you do if your grandparents were travelling to China now?
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Past Continuous:
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PAST PERFECT
The FORM: (Indefinite) Past Perfect is formed with the verb to have (in the past) and the Past Participle:
HAD + PAST PARTICIPLE
The USE: Past Perfect expresses:
1. actions that started in the past and finished before another past action or past moment PAST AFTER PAST PERFECT PAST PERFECT BEFORE PAST The dog ate after he had stolen the bone from the butcher’s shop. The women had cooked before they set the table. 2. actions that took place very close to a past moment (usually accompanied by adverbs like just, already, yet, hardly, scarcely, barely, no sooner) They had just won their gold medals when a new competition was announced. The scientist had not presented the paper yet when the commission stopped the symposium. The watchman had hardly entered the building when he saw the thief. Note: INVERSION The adverbs can also be placed at the beginning of the sentence, but in this case an inversion takes place: Hardly had the watchman entered the building when he saw the thief. 3. finished actions accompanied by indefinite adverbs of time: always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, ever, never, occasionally, generally They had always lost their caps even before the competition began.
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4. finished actions accompanied by since, for, how long The baby hadn’t drunk milk anymore since September. The cat hadn’t come home for two days before our holiday. 5. past and present perfect actions turned into Indirect Speech Direct Speech: ”During my university studies I earned my living by selling cars.” Indirect Speech: He said that during his university studies he had earned his living by selling cars. Direct Speech: ”The kids have eaten a lot.” Indirect Speech: Grandmother told me that the kids had eaten a lot. 6. future actions in Time Clause, which are anterior to the Future-in-the- Past actions He said that he would move to Germany after he had saved enough money. 7. perfect/past conditional in If Clause I would have bought the dress if it hadn’t been so expensive.
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Past Perfect:
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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The FORM: Past Perfect Continuous is built with the verb to have in the past (perfect tenses are made with the auxiliary to have), the Past Participle of the verb to be (as it is a continuous tense and it comes after the verb to have which is always followed by Past Participle) and the ending –ing (the ending of all continuous tenses):
HAD + BEEN + VB.- ing
The USE: Past Perfect Continuous:
1. emphasizes the idea of duration and continuity of a past action You had been wasting four hours before you decided to take action. 2. expresses uninterrupted past actions Who had been skating six hours continuously before getting tired? 3. past continuous and present perfect continuous actions turned into Indirect Speech Direct Speech: ”All the animals in the forest were running scared.” Indirect Speech: Grandfather told me that all the animals in the forest had been running scared.
Direct Speech: ”The girl has been baking a delicious cake for hours.” Indirect Speech: The cook told them that the girl had been baking a delicious cake for hours.
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Future
1. SIMPLE FUTURE
The FORM: Simple Future is made by auxiliary will and the verb (infinitive): WILL + VB.
The USE: Simple Future expresses:
1. common future actions Winter will come with cold and snow. Girls will play with dolls. 2. actions that will take place in the future, but with no promise or volition attached (just assumptions, opinions, speculations) She will solve the problem. Perhaps he will arrive later. 3. formal announcements made in newspapers, weather forecasts The president will visit the plant tomorrow morning. The clouds will cover the sky in the whole country.
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2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS
The FORM: Future Continuous is formed with the auxiliary verb will, the infinitive of the verb to be and the ending –ing:
WILL + BE + VB.-ing
The USE: Future Continuous expresses:
1. actions in progress in a certain moment in the future I will be working on the project tomorrow at 4 o’clock. 2. actions taking place for a longer period of time in the future The children will be playing in the garden all morning. 3. actions that will be in progress when something else more important / a momentary action will take place (background action / foreground action) It will be raining when you get there. 4. two long simultaneous actions in the future I will be reading while you are learning for your exam. 5. future planned actions (but no personal involvement, just the natural course of events) I will be going to Cluj on 1st of August.
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3. FUTURE PERFECT
The FORM: (Indefinite) Future Perfect is formed by the auxiliary will, the auxiliary to have (perfect tenses are made with the auxiliary to have) and Past Participle:
WILL + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
The USE: Future Perfect expresses:
It expresses future actions finished before another future action or future moment. They will have finished their job before they leave their office.
4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The FORM: Future Perfect Continuous is built with the auxiliary will, the auxiliary to have (perfect tenses are made with the auxiliary to have), the Past Participle of the verb to be (as it is a continuous tense and it comes after the verb to have which is always followed by Past Participle) and the ending –ing (the ending of all continuous tenses):
WILL+HAVE + BEEN + VB.- ing
The USE: The Future Perfect Continuous:
It emphasizes the idea of duration and continuity of an action finished before another future action or future moment. The children will have been playing for long hours in the park before they finally decide to go home to eat.
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FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST:
FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST is used only in Subordinate Clauses, to express future after a Past Tense in the Main Clause (the same cases presented for FUTURE are valid here)
5. FUTURE-IN-THE- 6. FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST PAST SIMPLE CONTINUOUS
The FORM: The FORM: WOULD + VB. WOULD + BE + VB. -ing
The USE: The USE: 1. common future actions 1. actions in progress in a certain moment She said winter would come with cold in the future and snow. He said he would be working in the They said girls would play with dolls. garden the next day at 3 oʼclock. 2. actions that will take place in the 2. actions taking place for a longer period future, but with no promise or volition of time in the future attached (just assumptions, opinions, They thought the children would be speculations) playing in the garden all morning. I knew she would solve the problem. 3. actions that will be in progress when He suggested that perhaps he would something else more important / a arrive later. momentary action will take place 3. formal announcements made in (background action / foreground action) newspapers, weather forecasts I said it would be raining when you He announced that the president got there. would visit the plant tomorrow 4. two long simultaneous actions in the morning. future The man said the clouds would cover I think I would be reading while you the sky in the whole country. were learning for your exam. 5. future planned actions (but no personal involvement) I explained I would be going to Cluj on 1st of August.
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7. FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST 8. FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST PERFECT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The FORM: The FORM:
WOULD + HAVE + BEEN + VB-ing WOULD + HAVE + Past Participle
The USE: The USE: It expresses future actions finished It emphasizes the idea of duration and before another future action or future continuity of an action finished before moment another future action or future moment They asserted that they would have The painters announced that they would solved the problem before they left town. have been displaying their painting for two whole weeks in the National Museum of Art before the hall was sold to somebody else.
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9. NEAR FUTURE
The FORM:
TO BE GOING TO + VB
The USE: Near Future expresses:
1. future planned actions, premeditated actions, intentions The mother is going to help the child with his homework. My brother is going to marry her in July. 2. predictions Listen to the wind. It is going to be a stormy day. (there are signs to prove it) But: It will be a stormy day. (the speaker only believes it) 3. actions referring to the immediate future She is going to show me the result right now. (immediate future) She will show me the results when she has them. (remote future) Note: Do not use the verbs go or come with this future form.
10. “TO BE TO” FUTURE
The FORM:
TO BE TO + VB
The USE: “To be to” Future expresses:
1. future planned actions The teacher is to enter the classroom in five minutes. 2. actions meant to happen He opened the book which was to become the foundation of his future medical career.
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3. duties and forbidden actions The students are to hand in the paper in five days. Patients are not to enter the lab without being called.
11. “TO BE DUE TO” FUTURE
The FORM: TO BE DUE TO + VB
The USE: “To be due to” Future expresses:
It expresses scheduled actions. The train is due to arrive at the train station at 6 o’clock.
12. “TO BE ABOUT TO” FUTURE The FORM:
TO BE ABOUT TO + VB
The USE: “To be about to” Future expresses:
It expresses future actions which have almost happened. The little girl is about to burst into tears because you’ve called her a liar.
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WAYS OF EXPRESSING FUTURE
Present Simple & Continuous - future planned actions (official / unofficial) - future in Time Clause to express simultaneity (after a future tense) - future in If Clause
Present Perfect - future in Time Clause to express anteriority (after a future tense)
Past - future in Time Clause to express simultaneity (after a future-in-the-past tense)
Past Present - future in Time Clause to express anteriority (after a future-in-the-past tense)
SUMMARY CHART OF THE ENGLISH TENSES
In the next table, there is a SUMMARY CHART OF THE ENGLISH TENSES showing schematically: a. The construction of tenses; b. The position / length of the action in time; c. Examples of tenses in use. The information is easy to follow in the three tables, which can be used for further references while practicing the English Tenses.
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Summary chart of the English tenses: (a) The construction of tenses
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(b) The position / length of the action in time
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(c) Examples of tenses in use
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Irregular Verbs
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MINIMUM List of Irregular Verbs
VERB PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE be was, were been begin began begun break broke broken bring brought brought build built built buy bought bought come came come cut cut cut do did done drink drank drunk drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen feel felt felt find found found forget forgot forgotten get got got (gotten AmE) give gave given go went gone have had had hear heard heard know knew known learn learned, learnt learned, learnt leave left left lose lost lost make made made meet met met pay paid paid put put put read read read run ran run say said said see saw seen sell sold sold send sent sent
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Negative and Interrogative Structures
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NEGATIVE STRUCTURES
A general rule in English (with very few exceptions) is that, for negation and interrogation, a modal or auxiliary verb is needed. Therefore, it is important to recognize these verbs in order to build negation and interrogation correctly.
Here is the list of modal and auxiliary verbs:
be (am, are, is, was, were); have (have, has, had); do (do, does, did); can, could; may, might; must, must; have to, had to; need, needed; shall, should; will, would; let, let, let; ought to; dare, dared;
NEGATION in English has two main rules depending on the kind of verb that is to be negated: modal / auxiliary verb or other verbs:
A. The negation of the modal and auxiliary verbs The negation is made by adding NOT to the modal / auxiliary verb:
MODAL / AUXILIARY VB. + NOT
The car is in the garage. / The car is not in the garage. They have spoken a lot. / They have not spoken a lot. I can help you with this. / I cannot help you with this. You must go to the market. / You must not go to the market. The girl will open her bag. / The girl will not open her bag.
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The negative form can also be shortened by adding –n (from not) to the verb, writing the apostrophe instead of –o and then –t: VB. + n + ’ + t
The car isn’t in the garage. (is + not) They haven’t spoken a lot. (have + not) I can’t help you with this. (can + not) You mustn’t go to the market. (must + not) These short forms are called contracted forms and they are used almost all the time in spoken English.
Note: can + not → cannot (one word) must + not → mustn’t [“t” will not be read] shall + not → shan’t will + not → won’t
You shan’t open the door to anyone. (shall + not) The girl won’t open the bag. (will + not)
B. The Negation of the other verbs The negation is made by introducing the auxiliary verb do, with its three forms: do (present tense, 1st and 2nd person); does (present, 3rd person), and did (past tense). After the right form of do comes the negative particle not and then the verb:
DO DOES + NOT + VB. DID
They wash the dishes. They do not wash the dishes. / They don’t wash the dishes.
We eat soup. We do not eat soup at all. / We don’t eat soup at all.
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Exceptions: a) LET The negation is made with Rule B, although it is a modal verb: Let him sleep. / Don’t let him sleep. b) HAVE TO The negation is made with Rule B, although it is a modal verb: You have to write the letter. / You don’t have to write the letter. c) NEED The verb has two meanings: - must (It is a modal verb; the negation is made with Rule A): You need to go now. / You needn’t go right now. - necessitate (It is not a modal verb; the negation is made with Rule B): I need that book. / I don’t need that book for a while. d) HAVE The verb have can be: - either auxiliary verb in perfect tenses and, in this case, the negation is made with Rule A: I have done my job. / I haven’t done my job. - or it can mean possession and, in this case, the negation is made with Rule B: I have a piece of land. / I don’t have a piece of land. e). DO The negation of the verb do is made with the verb itself, applying Rule B: I do my homework. I do not do my homework. / I don’t do my homework.
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Note: Do not conjugate both verbs when you make negations (conjugate only the first verb): He drinks beer. He does not drink beer. / He doesn’t drink beer. ”Drinks” is at present, 3rd person singular, and therefore has the ending ”–s”. When negating, the auxiliary verb ”do” is conjugated at present 3rd person singular, becoming ”does”. The verb ”drink” stays at infinitive (it is not conjugated anymore).
She bought bread. She did not buy bread. / She didn’t buy bread. ”Bought” is in the past. When negating, the auxiliary verb ”do” is conjugated at past, becoming ”did”. The verb ”buy” stays at infinitive (it is not conjugated anymore).
Note: In English there cannot be two negations in one sentence. Nimeni nu ştie acest lucru. / Nobody knows this. Because the indefinite pronoun ”nobody” is negative, the verb ”know” is not negated anymore. Nu ştiu nimic. / I know nothing. / I don’t know anything. In this case, the sentence can be translated in two ways: - Negate ”nimic” becoming ”nothing” and don’t negate the verb (which remains infinite: ”know”); - Negate the verb ”ştiu” (”don’t know”) and don’t negate the indefinite pronoun ”nimic”; it remains ”anything”. In this way, there is only one negation in the sentence.
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INTERROGATIVE STRUCTURES
As mentioned before, most INTERROGATIONS / QUESTIONS / INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES require, like negations, a modal or auxiliary verb in their construction. Thus, the order of the words in questions / interrogative sentences is the following:
MODAL / REST OF SUBJECT QUESTION AUXILIARY PREDICATE PREPOSITION WORD VB ……
Meaning:
INTERROGATIVE MODAL/ S VB. PREPOSITION PRONOUN AUXILIA RY …… who can PRONOUN VB REST of whom could NOUN SENTENCE which may what might how have when must where shall why should how much will how many would how long am/are/is whose was, were .…….…. do does did
Examples:
Can Mary land me her camera? Auxiliary S ubject Verb Indirect Object Attribute Direct Object verb
Do they go to the mountains on their holiday? Auxiliary Subject Verb Adverbial of Place Adverbial of Time verb
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When could you visit your grandparents? Question Modal vb. Subject Verb Direct Object word What are you looking for? Question Auxiliary. Subject Rest of Verb Preposition word vb.
Where are you coming from? Question Auxiliary. Subject Rest of Verb Preposition word vb.
EXCEPTION: In the QUESTIONS ASKED FOR THE SUBJECT, the modal / auxiliary verb is not needed anymore:
QUESTION ? WORD VB. PREPOSITION ? ………. In fact, the question word replaces the subject and the rest of the sentence remains unchanged.
Daniel wants to go to the market. Who wants to go to the market?
One hundred kilos have been harvested this year. How many kilos have been harvested this year?
PARTICULAR CASES: INDIRECT QUESTIONS have the same topic (order of words) like affirmative sentences (Subject + Predicate). Indirect questions are ”questions” preceded by another sentence. In fact they become ”affirmative” in their structure:
Direct question: What does he eat? Indirect question: Tell me what he eats? Preceding Question S P sentence word
Direct question: What is the problem? Indirect question: Can you understand what the problem is? Preceding Question S P sentence word
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QUESTION TAGS are disjunctive questions which are translated into Romanian by ”nu-i aşa?”. They always follow a declarative sentence. In English, the structure of these questions is:
Contracted form Subject of modal / auxiliary vb. + (Always pronoun)
If there are no modal / auxiliary verbs in the declarative sentence, then the auxiliary ”do” (do / does / did) must be introduced to build the question tag.
There are two types of question tags: - negative question tags (when the declarative sentence is positive / affirmative): She is going to the market now, isn’t she?
Positive sentence Negative question tag
She goes to the market ever day, doesn’t she?
Positive sentence Negative question tag
- positive question tags (when the declarative sentence is negative): Mother isn’t cooking now, is she?
Negative sentence Positive question tag
Mother doesn’t cook every day, does she?
Negative sentence Positive question tag
EXCEPTION: There is one exception for the verb to be, 1st person singular: I am right, aren’t I?
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Conditional Mood
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FINITE FORMS: CONDITIONAL
The Conditional Mood is a personal mood (like the Indicative Mood). Its FORMS are:
Present Conditional: Both Simple and Continuous Present Conditional express improbable actions. (Simple) Present Conditional is formed with the auxiliary verb would and the infinitive of the verb to be conjugated:
WOULD + VB.
The children would like to play in the park every day. I would definitely enjoy playing tennis with you.
Present Conditional Continuous: Present Conditional Continuous is formed with the auxiliary verb would, the short infinitive of the verb to be and the verb to be conjugated, with the ending –ing (would is the signal of Conditional, while the verb to be and - ing are the signals of continuous tenses):
WOULD + BE + VB. -ing
She would be knitting at this time if possible. The boys would be playing football at this time if possible.
Perfect Conditional (Past Conditional): Both Simple and Continuous Perfect Conditional express hypothetical actions / impossible actions. (Simple) Perfect Conditional is formed with the auxiliary verb would, the short infinitive of the verb to have and the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated (would is the signal of Conditional, while the verb to have and the Past Participle are the signals of perfect tenses):
WOULD + HAVE + Past Participle
The employees would have left earlier that day. You would have finished your job before the deadline.
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Perfect Conditional Continuous (Past Conditional Continuous): Perfect Conditional Continuous is formed with the auxiliary verb would, the short infinitive of the verb to have, the Past Participle of the verb to be and the verb to be conjugated, with the ending –ing (would is the signal of Conditional, the verb to have and the Past Participle (of to be) are the signals of perfect tenses, while to be and the ending –ing are the signals of continuous tenses):
WOULD + HAVE + BEEN + VB.-ing
Grandmother would have been knitting at that time if possible. They would have been working on their project at that time if possible.
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Sequence of Tenses
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SEQUENCE OF TENSES
In order to respect the Sequence of Tenses in English, it is important to learn the restrictions which exist in If Clause, Direct Object Clause and Adverbial Clause of Time (Time Clause).
1. IF CLAUSE NOTE: It is forbidden to use FUTURE and CONDITIONAL in IF CLAUSE ! Therefore, there are three types of If Clause (Conditional Clause):
TYPE I: Voi intra în cameră 1/ dacă mă vei striga. 2/ -Viitor + Viitor I will enter the room 1/ if you call me. 2/ -Future + Present
TYPE II: Aş intra în cameră 1/ dacă m-ai striga. 2/ - Condiţional prezent + Condiţional prezent I would enter the room 1/ if you called me. 2/ - Present Conditional + Past TYPE III: Aş fi intrat în cameră 1/ dacă m-ai fi strigat. 2/ - Condiţional trecut + Condiţional trecut I would have entered the room 1/ if you had called me. 2/ -Perfect Conditional + Past Perfect
MAIN CLAUSE IF CLAUSE TYPE I FUTURE PRESENT (PRESENT) (Present Subjunctive) TYPE II PRESENT PAST CONDITIONAL (Past Subjunctive) TYPE III PERFECT PAST PERFECT CONDITIONAL (Past Perfect Subjunctive)
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NOTE: For the second type of If Clause, the verb to be is used only in one form: were.
OTHER WORDS THAT INTRODUCE IF CLAUSE: unless He would enjoy himself unless he were tired. but for But for your help, I couldn’t have managed to solve the problem. in case Call me in case you need me. on condition that I’ll finish my job in time on condition that you help me. providing that / provided that We will talk provided that you arrive in time. suppose that / supposing that / given that I don’t know what I would have done supposing that you hadn’t been there for me. as long as I will trust you as long as you don’t let me down.
OMISSION OF “IF”: If may be omitted in case we make an inversion between the subject and the auxiliary / modal verb: Had they opened the door earlier, they would have seen the whole scene. (instead of: If they had opened the door earlier, they would have seen the whole scene.)
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2. TIME CLAUSE
The Time Clause answers the question WHEN. It is introduced by words such as: when, after, before, as soon as, until, till, since, as, while, once, by the time that etc.
NOTE: It is forbidden to use FUTURE in TIME CLAUSE ! Thus, the following table presents the tenses used to express future in such a clause:
MAIN CLAUSE TIME CLAUSE
PRESENT
(simultaneity) FUTURE (PRESENT) PRESENT PERFECT (anteriority)
PAST
(simultaneity) FUTURE-IN-THE- (PAST) PAST PAST PERFECT (anteriority)
EXAMPLES: a. I will post the letter when I find a mailbox. (Future + Present) b. I will post the letter after I have stamped the envelope. (Future + Present Perfect) c. I said that I would post the letter when I found a mailbox. (Past + Future-In-the-Past + Past) d. I said that I would post the letter after I had stamped the envelope. (Past + Future-In-the-Past + Past Perfect)
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3. DIRECT OBJECT CLAUSE
The Direct Object Clause answers the question WHAT. The following table shows the use of tenses in the Direct Object Clause:
MAIN DIRECT OBJECT CLAUSE CLAUSE
PRESENT No restriction
PAST PERFECT (anteriority) PAST PAST (simultaneity)
FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST (posteriority)
The conductor says that the train is leaving right now / left five minutes ago / will leave in about five minutes.
The engineer told them that he had graduated long before the manager. I announced that I was not sick anymore. You and your sister answered that you would go to the seaside in August.
EXCEPTIONS: The Present Tense can be used in the Direct Object Clause in case of expressing general truths or expressing obvious actions (after verbs such as: know, think etc.):
The teacher said that water boils at 1000C. I knew the woman has two kids.
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Imperative Mood
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FINITE FORMS: IMPERATIVE
The FORM: The form of Imperative is the Infinitive of the verb. The subject is usually not necessary, but sometimes it is possible to use one to emphasize it:
INFINITIVE OF THE VERB (usually with no subject)
EXAMPLE: Go to the door! Don’t cross the line! Don’t you dare mock me!
The USE: It expresses an order (1), a request (2), an invitation (3), a prohibition (4), an instruction (5), a suggestion (6), a warning (7), a wish (8): (1) Stop right there! (2) Show me your ID! (3) Come here with us! (4) Don’t write on your papers! (5) Go straight ahead and then turn left! (6) Try to call him on the cell phone! / Let’s go for a walk! (7) Look out at the fire! (8) Have a wonderful journey!
NOTE: The structure can be emphasized by using the verb do: Do go to the door!
NOTE: The imperative with let is used for other persons (other than the second person): Let me help talk first! Let him drive! Let her prepare the food! Let it fetch the bone! Let us solve the problem! Let them find the toy!
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Modal Verbs
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0.Modal Verbs: CAN
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1.Modal Verbs: COULD
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Modal Verbs: MAY
2.
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Modal Verbs: MIGHT
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Modal Verbs: SHALL
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Modal Verbs: WILL
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Modal Verbs: MUST
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3.Modal Verbs: SHOULD
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Modal Verbs: WOULD
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Modal Verbs: NEED, USED TO, DARE, BE TO, OUGHT TO
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Summary of the use of MODAL VERBS:
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Synthesizing table of the use of the English Modal Verbs:
Direct and Indirect Speech
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Direct and Indirect Speech
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Direct Speech represents the exact words of the speaker (in inverted commas). Indirect (Reported) Speech represents the transposition of the speaker’s words, maintaining the meaning unchanged.
Indirect speech is introduced by the so-called reporting verbs: accuse, add, admit, advise, agree, answer, argue, apologize, ask, assure, blame, boast, complain, congratulate, cry, decide, demand, deny, encourage, explain, grumble, insist, invite, murmur, object, observe, offer, point out, promise, protest, recommend, refuse, remark, remind, reply, require, say, scream, shout, suggest, stammer, tell, threaten, urge, warn, wish, whisper etc.: The athlete says that he will win the competition. They tell that nobody was in the room. You will decide later that I am wrong. She answers that the morning has started better than ever.
There are two cases of Indirect Speech: 1. When the reporting verb is in the PRESENT, no changes occur by turning Direct Speech into Indirect Speech. 2. When the reporting verb is in the PAST, the changes shown in Figure 11 (at the end of the chapter) occur. Each tense goes two steps back the axis of tenses (when this is not possible, only one step back is taken or the tense remains unchanged – according to the next chart): - SIMPLE PRESENT turns into SIMPLE PAST; Direct speech: I solve problems every single day. Indirect speech: He said that he solved problems every single day. - PRESENT PERFECT turns into PAST PERFECT; Direct speech: He has broken three vases until now. Indirect speech: He said that he had broken three vases until then. - SIMPLE PAST turns into PAST PERFECT; Direct speech: They finally found gold. Indirect speech: They said that they had finally found gold. - PAST PERRFECT remains unchanged; Direct speech: I had already solved that problem. Indirect speech: She said that she had already solved that problem. - SIMPLE FUTURE turns into FUTURE-IN-PAST;
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Direct speech: Children will always love toys. Indirect speech: They said that children would always love toys. - FUTURE PERFECT turns into FUTURE PERFECT-IN-PAST; Direct speech: Mary will have returned till June. Indirect speech: Father said that Mary would have returned till June. - FUTURE-IN-PAST turns into FUTURE PERFECT-IN-PAST; Direct speech: They thought they would earn it. Indirect speech: They said that they had thought they would have earned it. - FUTURE PERFECT-IN-PAST remains unchanged. Direct speech: They believed they would have stated the truth. Indirect speech: They said that they had believed they would have stated the truth. The changes are the same for both simple (indefinite) and continuous tenses.
In the CONDITIONAL CLAUSES: - Type 1: usual changes (mentioned above) take place; Direct speech: I will change it if I need to. Indirect speech: She said that she would change it if she needed. - Type 2: no changes take place; Direct speech: I would call you if you wanted me to. Indirect speech: He said he would call you if you wanted him to. - Type 3: no changes take place. Direct speech: I would have brought bread if I had found at the shop. Indirect speech: She said that she would have brought bread if she had found at the shop.
In subordinate clauses containing a (Synthetical) SUBJUNCTIVE required by wish, would rather, it is time, there is no change: Direct speech: I wish you were here with me. Indirect speech: He told her that he wished she were there with him.
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Direct speech: It is time you understood his greatness. Indirect speech: He said it was time you understood his greatness.
Direct speech: We would rather she were at home. Indirect speech: We said we would rather she were at home.
In Indirect Speech, MODAL VERBS often remain unchanged. Still, some changes are required. INFINITIVE and GERUND constructions sometimes replace constructions with reporting verbs such say or tell: Direct speech: I could bring a tent. Indirect speech: He offered to bring a tent. (instead of: He said that he could bring a tent.)
Direct speech: We will behave ourselves. Indirect speech: The kids promise to behave themselves. (instead of: The kids say that they will behave themselves.)
Direct speech: I bought two many blankets. Indirect speech: He admitted buying too many blankets. (instead of: He said that he had bought too many blankets.)
Direct speech: You do work too much. Indirect speech: The manager insisted on her working too much. (instead of: The manager said that she did work too much.)
In INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES the same changes occur concerning the tenses, but more changes are to be made in the topic of the words. The order of the words in an Indirect Question is Subject + Predicate and the auxiliary do is not required anymore: Direct speech: Do you want an ice cream? Indirect speech: He asked her if she wanted an ice cream.
Direct speech: Do you go to the seaside or in the mountains this summer? Indirect speech: The agent asked the spouses whether they went to the seaside or in the mountains that summer.
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Direct speech: Where are you from? Indirect speech: The officer asked the traveler where he was from.
In EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES the same changes occur concerning the tenses: A. Orders: The AFFIRMATIVE IMPERATIVE turns into LONG INFINITIVE. Direct speech: Turn the page! Indirect speech: The teacher told us to turn the page. The NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE turns into NOT + LONG INFINITIVE. Direct speech: Don’t eat hastily! Indirect speech: The trainer told us not to eat hastily.
B. Suggestions: In Indirect Speech, suggestions built with the verb let turn into constructions: should + verb: Direct speech: Let’s have a coffee! Indirect speech: He suggested that we should have a coffee.
C. Exclamations (opinions, surprise, disgust, greetings, thanks, wishes, swear words etc.) Direct speech: What a smart guy! Indirect speech: The old woman said that he was a smart guy.
Direct speech: Oh! You have grown up! Indirect speech: Mary exclaimed with surprise that he had grown up.
Direct speech: Oh! It is an awful situation! Indirect speech: John exclaimed with disgust that it was an awful situation.
Direct speech: Thank you! Indirect speech: The tourist thanked me.
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Direct speech: Good morning! Indirect speech: She wished me a good morning.
Direct speech: Merry Christmas! Indirect speech: They wished me a merry Christmas.
Changes of other parts of speech: Certain pronouns and possessive adjectives, as well as some expressions of Time and Place must be changed while turning Direct Speech into Indirect Speech: Direct speech: I am at the seaside now. Indirect speech: He said that he was at the seaside then.
Direct speech: Give us these documents today. Indirect speech: The managers ordered to give them those documents that day.
Direct speech: My car is here. Indirect speech: He said his car was there.
Direct speech: This adventure book is mine. Indirect speech: The girl told me that that adventure book was hers.
Direct speech: I visited her yesterday and five days ago. Indirect speech: He explained that he hat visited her the day before and five days before.
Direct speech: We will see her next year. Indirect speech: They said that they would see her the following year.
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Passive Voice
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The FORM: Passive Voice is formed with the verb to be and the Past Participle: TO BE + Past Participle
EXAMPLE: Active voice: I clean the house twice a week. (The Direct Object “the house” becomes the Subject) Passive voice: The house is cleaned twice a week.
The STRUCTURE:
The house is cleaned (by me) twice a week.
GRAMMATICAL + PASSIVE + (AGENT) + … SUBJECT PREDICATE (LOGICAL SUBJECT)
The USE: It is used when:
1. the logical subject is not important The apartment has been repainted (it is not important that some workers did it). 2. the logical subject is not known The house had been robbed again (we don’t know who robbed it). 3. the logical subject is not to be told we say: The flight was cancelled. instead of: I cancelled the flight (I won’t assume the whole guilt). or a modest person would say: The problem has been solved after moths of hard work. instead of: I have solved the problem after months of hard work. 4. the logical subject is obvious The sale-agent presented the product and ten pieces were sold on the spot (it is obvious that the sale-agent sold the pieces as a consequence of his presentation).
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5. the action or the grammatical subject (not the logical one) is to be emphasized: The TV was turned off by Helen (It is important that the TV didn’t work anymore or that the TV, and not the radio, didn’t work anymore; and not who turned it off). 6. the sentence s to be simplified, for stylistic reasons: Those two men risked their lives and were killed by the aggressor. (The two sentences have a common subject: those two men. It sounds clearer and it is shorter than: Those two men risked their lives and the aggressor killed them.).
NOTE: Some verbs cannot be passive: be, become, cost, fit, hold, last, lack, like, owe, possess, resemble, seem, suit, wish
NOTE: Generally, the transitive verbs can be passive. Only a few intransitive verbs can be passive (especially verbs followed by an obligatory preposition): The study of English as a foreign language must be insisted on.
NOTE: The ditransitive verbs can produce two passive sentences: Active voice: The clerk gave me a whole range of information. Passive voice 1: I was given a whole range of information (by the clerk). Passive voice 2: A whole range of information was given to me (by the clerk).
NOTE: Some active verbs may have a passive meaning: The goods are selling fast during the season. NOTE: In colloquial English get may be used to build a passive structure: He will get hurt if he keeps offending his friends. You will get wet if you play near the water. The child got burnt playing with matches. NOTE: The passive voice is part of the Nominative + Infinitive construction: She is considered to be the best in her group.
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Subjunctive Mood
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Subjunctive expresses unreal actions which denote emotion, wish, opinion, judgment, possibility, necessity, or actions which have not taken place yet. It is a finite form, just like Indicative, Conditional and Imperative, but it is considered to be the opposite of Indicative which expresses real actions. There two types of Subjunctive: Synthetical Subjunctive (”old” Subjunctive) and Analytical Subjunctive (”modern” Subjunctive).
A. SYNTHETICAL SUBJUNCTIVE
There are three tenses: A1. Present Subjunctive
SHORT INFINITIVE
It used to express: - wishes: Long live the Queen! God bless you! - verbs in THAT-clauses: Direct Object Clause – which determine verbs such as: advice, agree, arrange, commend, decide, demand, doubt, expect, insist, offer, order, propose, recommend, request, settle, suggest: The captain ordered that the soldiers defend the fortress with their life. They demanded that the council approve the transport of the equipment. Who ordered that the recruits be left alone in the field? Subject Clause – introduced by the structure It is + Adjective: It is recommendable that each team member meet the deadline. It is important that the woman understand the situation. It is advisable that he change the password immediately. It is necessary that the high-school graduate choose the right university. It is compulsory that all children bring food and water with them.
Attributive Clause: Somebody from the crowd made the suggestion that women and children be sheltered in the nearest school.
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The shop-assistant made the suggestion that the customer try on the blouses.
A2. Past Subjunctive
PAST TENSE
The form of Past Subjunctive is the same with the form of Past Tense with only one exception for the verb to be, which is were for all persons. I wish I were you. Still, Past Subjunctive expresses present actions.
Past Subjunctive is used: - in Conditional Clauses – Type Two, to express improbable actions: We would travel abroad if we had money. They would finish their job unless you troubled them all the time. You would correct me if I weren’t right. - after wish, it is (high) time, as if, as though, even if, even though, would rather, would sooner, would better, if only, in case that, suppose that, supposing that – to express present actions: I wish we stayed home. It is time he left her alone. He behaves as if he were the king of the whole world. The judge would punish him even if he were not guilty. If only you passed the exam. What would you do supposed that you lost your job? I would rather you joined my team. (Subjunctive is used with would rather / would sooner / would better only when the subjects in the two clauses are different. If the subjects are the same, then Infinitive is to be used after would rather: I would rather go for a walk.) Negative subjunctive: Supposed that I not know the code, how can I enter my own office? I would rather you not complained so much about everything.
A3. Past Perfect Subjunctive
PAST PERFECT
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The form of Past Perfect Subjunctive is the same with the form of Past Perfect. (For pedagogical reasons, teachers often call it just Past Perfect, especially in If Clause.) Perfect Subjunctive expresses past actions (while Past Subjunctive expresses present actions).
Past Perfect Subjunctive is used: - in Conditional Clauses – Type Three, to express hypothetical actions: You would have turned back if you had lost your track. They put on some jackets unless they had been cold. - after wish, it is (high) time, as if, as though, even if, even though, would rather, would sooner, would better, if only, in case that, suppose that, supposing that – to express past actions: They wish the lift hadn’t been out of order that day. The campers wished it hadn’t rained so much in the camp fire day. The guide spoke English as if it had been his native language. Everybody behaved politely even if the guest had crossed the line. If only they had managed to solve the problem. Where would you have gone supposed that I hadn’t been at home? I would rather the students had prepared their exam. (Subjunctive is used with would rather / would sooner / would better only when the subjects in the two clauses are different. If the subjects are the same, then Infinitive is to be used after would rather.)
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B. ANALYTICAL SUBJUNCTIVE
AUXILIARY VB + PRESENT INFINITIVE
/ PERFECT INFINITIVE
The auxiliary verb is one of the modal verbs (shall, should, would, could, may, might) which here becomes auxiliary because it helps building the Subjunctive Mood. The temporal aspect is set by: - Present Infinitive to express simultaneity; - Perfect Infinitive to express anteriority.
The use of Analytical Subjunctive: B1. SHALL + INFINITIVE is used in: - main clauses (interrogations): Shall I bring you a cup of tea? (meaning: Do you want me to bring you a cup of tea?) - subordinate clauses, when shall means must: The chief-editor has said that the author shall make some corrections on his book before publishing it. (meaning: The chief-editor has said that the author must make some corrections on his book before publishing it.)
B2. SHOULD + INFINITIVE is used in: - main clauses (interrogations): When should they hand in the final report? (meaning: When is it necessary for them to hand in the final report?) - subordinate clauses: Direct Object Clause – which determine verbs such as: advice, agree, arrange, commend, decide, demand, doubt, expect, insist, offer, order, propose, recommend, request, settle, suggest: They demanded that the council should approve the transport of the equipment. Who ordered that the recruits should be left alone in the field? Subject Clause – introduced by the structure It is + Adjective: It is important that you should understand the situation. It is advisable that he should change the password.
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It is necessary that the high-school graduate should choose the right university. It is compulsory that all children should bring food and water with them. It is desirable that the children should not hear adult arguments. Adverbial Clause of Purpose – introduced by so that, in case, for fear, lest: We did everything we could so that the boy should win the competition. We were there to support him lest he should lose his mind. Adverbial Clause of Concession – introduced by although, though, wherever, whenever, however, whatever, whoever, no matter: Although he should be slow at his age, you make him feel important. Wherever you should go with your job, don’t forget to write to me. Call me whenever you should end this game of yours. Whatever she should do, try to save her. Whoever you should think you are, don’t cross the line. I will choose a book no matter how high the price should be in this book-shop. Adverbial Clause of Time: He keeps on learning until he should know everything on the subject. Attributive Clause: Somebody from the crowd made the suggestion that women and children should be sheltered in the nearest school. Conditional Clause – it is a special case of If Clause which expresses high uncertainty or doubt (translated into Romanian by: ”dacă cumva ar”, ”dacă s-ar întâmpla să/ dacă s-ar fi întâmplat să”): If he should fail the exam, his teacher would train him again. (meaning: If he happens to fail the exam (although it is unlikely), his teacher would train him again. In If Clause ”should fail” is not Conditional, but Subjunctive. ) All elected governors would have taken the floor for hours if the moderator should allow them. (meaning: All elected governors would have taken the floor for hours if the moderator happened to allow them.)
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Should confers the highest degree of certainty that the action should take place. Would is the next in line, meaning that actions with would are a little less likely to take place than actions with should.
B3. WOULD + INFINITIVE is used in: Direct Object Clause – after wish: I wish you would arrive in time. Mother wishes her daughter wouldn’t have to take two jobs. Adverbial Clause of Purpose: The pupils ran out in a hurry so that they would not receive homework for the next day.
B4. COULD + INFINITIVE is used in: Adverbial Clause of Purpose: She entered the room silently so that nobody could hear her coming so late. Could + verb is even less certain to occur than should and would, but more probable than verbs accompanied by may or might.
B5. MAY + INFINITIVE is used in: - main clauses (to express wishes): May all your dreams come true! May long live your Queen! - subordinate clauses: Subject Clause – introduced by the structure It is + Adjective: It is possible that you may not understand the situation. It is probable that he may want to change the password after this. It is likely that the high-school graduate may choose the appropriate answers to this quiz. Adverbial Clause of Purpose: He has brought her flowers so that she may forgive him. The old watchmen ran in order that they may catch the young thieves. Adverbial Clause of Concession – introduced by although, though, wherever, whenever, however, whatever, whoever, no matter: Although he may be slow at his age, he is still faster than you. Wherever you may choose to go with your job, think twice. Call me whenever you may end this game of yours. Whatever she may decide to do, try to help her.
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Whoever you may invite to the party, take care of yourselves. I will choose a book no matter what price he may ask me. Direct Object Clause: He thinks that he may reach the target in spite of all hardships. He thought that he may have lost one great opportunity, but he was still self-confident.
May expresses the lowest degree of certainty for the action to take place among all these auxiliary verbs used to build Subjunctive and mentioned above.
B6. MIGHT + INFINITIVE is used in: Subject Clause – introduced by the structure It is + Adjective: It is possible that you might not find the solution here. It is probable that he might choose to leave earlier. It is likely that all students present here might pass this hard exam. Adverbial Clause of Purpose: He did this so that he might earn her love. Grandfather climbed the ladder so that he might reach the box. Adverbial Clause of Concession – introduced by although, though, wherever, whenever, however, whatever, whoever, no matter: Although he might be a little late, he will catch up with you. Wherever you might travel, he prefers staying home. Give me a call whenever you might find my paper. Whatever she might say about you, it is not for the best. Whoever you might see at the party, remember to greet politely. I will swim no matter how much he might stop me. Direct Object Clause: The poor guy thinks she might call him back. I was afraid that I might have lost my best friend in this stupid fight.
Might is used to express the lowest degree of certainty possible.
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The auxiliaries are ordered according to the degree of certainty they offer:
HIGH DEGREE LOW DEGREE OF CERTAINTY OF CERTAINTY
+ -
I I I I I
SHOULD WOULD COULD MAY MIGHT
Example: They helped her so that she should win the competition. (It is very sure for her to win the competition) They helped her so that she would win the competition. (She has high chances to win the competition.) They helped her so that she could win the competition. (She has some chances to win the competition.) They helped her so that she may win the competition. (There is a pretty high doubt that she will win the competition.) They helped her so that she might win the competition. (It is very unlikely for her to win the competition.)
NOTE: In terms of politeness, the strength of the modal verbs is: HIGH DEGREE LOW DEGREE OF POLITENESS OF POLITENESS
Would+ is the most polite verb of all and the longer the phrase is, the more - I I I I I WOULD COULD MIGHT MAY CAN
polite is the statement:
Would you be so kind to help me? (the most formal request) Would you mind helping me? Would you help me? Could you help me? Can you help me? (informal request)
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The Infinitive
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NON-FINITE FORMS: INFINITIVE
The Infinitive has a long and a short form; like all tenses of the Indicative Mood, the Infinitive also has Continuous and Perfect aspects:
Long Infinitive (”Full” Infinitive) Long Infinitive is made with the particle ”to” and the verb (unconjugated):
TO + VERB
The senior manager wants you to take over this case. It was too expensive to buy it. It is so strange to see you here. He feels well enough now to go back to work. His need to save the world is eating him alive. My father is the first man to walk on the moon. (My father is the first man who walked on the moon.)
The most frequent use of Infinitives is to express (particular) purposes (as for general purposes ”for + gerund” is used): My goal is to win the Nationals this year. (For general purposes: Environmental laws are written for protecting the country environment.)
It is also used in Infinitive Phrases: To tell you the truth, I have no idea how to solve this. It will cost 1 million dollars to be more precise. To cut it short, I lost the game.
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Short Infinitive (”Bare” Infinitive) Short infinitive means ”the verb” unconjugated. This form is required in certain cases (see its use after the forms of Infinitive): VERB
Please, make him eat this food to get healthy.
Simple and Continuous Infinitive The forms presented above are simple/indefinite forms, but Infinitive also has a Continuous form made with the auxiliary ”to be” and the verb to be conjugated and the ending ”-ing”:
TO + BE + VB -ing
I imagine my kids to be playing in a huge yard of an Italian villa. It is used after auxiliary and modal verbs; also after verbs like: appear, happen, seem; hope, promise; and after passive structures: The cowboys can be playing cards for hours without getting bored. Grandmother happens to be preparing your favorite cake. We promise to be waiting patiently for the results. Our university is considered to be teaching unique subjects in Europe.
Present and Perfect Infinitive The Present Infinitive is ”to + verb” (or just ”verb”). In order to form the Perfect Infinitive, just like in any perfect tenses, you need the auxiliary verb ”to have” and the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated:
TO + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
He was considered to have stolen the wallet even before the police said so. It is used to express anteriority, although in case of Infinitives the tense is more likely to be showed by the context and not by the Infinitive itself: The professor is asking me to answer ten difficult questions. The professor asked me to answer ten difficult questions. The professor will ask me to answer ten difficult questions.
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(The Infinitive ”to answer” is the same in the three sentences above, but according to their contexts, the reader understands that the first one expresses Present, the second one expresses Past and the last one expresses Future.) It is also used after modal verbs to express anteriority: He may have lost this battle, but he didn’t lose the war.
Perfect Continuous Infinitive This is not a form used very often, but it is possible. It is made with the auxiliary verb ”to have”, the Past Participle of the auxiliary verb ”to be” and verb to be conjugated with the ending ”-ing”:
TO + HAVE + BEEN + VB-ing
I imagined my ex-colleagues to have been working till late at night for a miserable salary. It is used after auxiliary and modal verbs and also after verbs like: appear, happen, seem and after passive s structures: Grandmother appeared to have been preparing this cake for hours. Our university students are considered to have been preparing themselves a lot for the exam of their life.
Active and Passive Infinitive Active Voice shows an action performed by the subject, while Passive Voice shows an action performed on the subject. The form of Passive Infinitive is made with the auxiliary verb ”to be” and the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated:
TO + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE
Active Voice: The cat jumped to catch the mouse. Passive Voice: The famous actor wears sunglasses because he doesn’t want to be recognized by people in the street. Perfect Infinitive in the Passive Voice is formed with he auxiliary verb ”to have” (it is a perfect tense), the Past Participle of the auxiliary verb ”to
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TO HAVE + BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE
Passive Voice: They were thought to have been lost in the near forest.
PARTICULAR CONSTRUCTIONS with Infinitive:
1. SHORT INFINITIVE is used after: Modal Verbs: can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should, let The team can win the gold medal this year. The train might be a little late due to the weather. Make, Help, Had better, Would rather (when the subjects of the two sentences are the same) Don’t make me slap you! I intend to help him rebuild his house. (It is also possible to say: I intend to help him to rebuild the house.) We had better leave as it is getting dark. The hikers would better come down as the storm is close. Verbs of perception: see, hear, smell, taste, feel, watch to emphasize that the action is complete The audience heard the actor sing that (whole) great song. (The audience heard the actor singing (a part of) that great song) I saw the dolphin jump through the circles for half an hour. (At least I managed to see the dolphin (while) jumping through the circles.)
2. SPLIT INFINITIVE can be used by inserting adverbs ended in –ly such as: clearly, completely, duly, entirely, fully, really, thankfully etc., between the particle ”to” and the verb (in informal cases)
TO + adverb(-ly) + VB.
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3. INFINITIVE represented by TO is used to avoid repetition; after verbs like: like (would like), love (would love), hope, hate, want, intend, plan, mean, try; after modal verbs: used to, ought to, have, need, be able to; and after be going to: I didnʼt get any chance to see her yet, but I would like to. ”Have you already passed the exam?”/ ”I hope to, but I don’t know yet.” I will manage this sooner or later; this is what I plan to. ”Do you enjoy swimming?” / ”Not anymore, but I used to.” ”Have you bought bread?” / ”I am going to.”
4. ACCUSATIVE + INFINITIVE – is a way of making communication shorter:
NOUN / PRONOUN + INFINITIVE
(in Accusative)
It is used after: - Verbs expressing perception: see, watch, hear, smell, taste, feel, touch, notice, observe, perceive; and after let and make. In this case Short Infinitive is in order: Everybody saw the guilty man deny his crime. Please, let me know when you are available. I can make you admit the truth if I want. - Verbs expressing mental activities: admit, assume, believe, consider, guess, judge, know, imagine, mean, suppose, suspect, think, trust, understand The jury believed him to be innocent. We consider you to be part of our family. - Verbs expressing volition: want, wish, desire, expect, intend Your parents want you to go to the university. - Verbs expressing determination: cause, get, induce, make I will make the boy understand that he is wrong. - Verbs expressing permission, command: allow, command, demand, order, permit, recommend Of course, I allow you to join my team.
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- Verbs expressing affirmation and negation: acknowledge, declare, deny, pronounce, report, state The committee declares you to be not guilty. - Verbs such as: advice, appoint, bear, challenge, choose, convince, persuade All my acquaintances advise me to leave him alone. - Verbs + Prepositions: belong to, be up to, count on, depend on, rely on, wait for It is up to my mum to decide on this important matter.
5. FOR + NOUN / PRONOUN + INFINITIVE – is used after impersonal constructions: it / there + be + adjective
FOR + NOUN / PRONOUN + INFINITIVE
(in Accusative)
It is advisable for my brother to propose her before she leaves. It is necessary for her to find out the truth. It is time for my friends to understand my point of view. There is nothing else for you to find here. I would be happy for you to find a job in your new town. It is also used in personal constructions such as: They would be happy for him to win the big prize after his hard work.
6. NOMINATIVE + INFINITIVE – is also a way of making communication shorter:
SUBJECT + PASSIVE VOICE + LONG INFINITIVE
It is used after Passive Voice verbs such as: believe, consider, expect, feel, hear, imagine, know, perceive, see, suppose. Paul is known to be the first in his class. The last year winner is expected to win again. All children are supposed to learn by playing. He is reported to have been chosen the best football player of the World Championship.
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The structure becomes:
SUBJECT + ACTIVE VOICE + LONG INFINITIVE for verbs such as: appear, chance, change, happen, prove, seem, turn out. He appears to be the most hard-working pupil in the school. She happens to know him from the theater club. The document proved to be a fake. Doesn’t he seem to earn too much money for his poor work? This choice has turned out to be the worst possible for her.
NOTE: The Infinitive has both verbal and noun characteristics (shown by its functions in the sentence): The knight fights to win (The Infinitive is an Adverbial of Scope – verbal characteristic). To solve such a problem requires quite a gift. (The infinitive construction is a Subject – noun characteristic)
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The Gerund
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NON-FINITE FORMS: GERUND
Like the Infinitive, the Gerund has both verbal and noun characteristics: His unexpected arrivings troubled the whole family. (The plural form and the function of Subject are noun characteristics.) She longs for swimming as the old pool was closed. (The presence of the preposition ”for” is a noun characteristic.) The children enjoy playing in the garden. (The Adverbial of Place following the Gerund is a verbal characteristic.) Mother is afraid of him working too hard. / Mother was afraid of him having worked too hard. (The tense – Present and Perfect – is a verbal characteristic of the Gerund.) The councilors agreed on staying there until Monday. (In this case, the Gerund has both noun (it is preceded by a preposition: ”on”) and verbal characteristics (it is followed by an Adverbial of Place and an Adverbial of Time) in the same sentence.)
Present and Perfect Gerund The Present Gerund is made with the verb to be conjugated with the ending -ing: VB. - ing
Will you stop worrying so much, please! In order to form the Perfect Gerund, just like in any perfect tenses, you need the auxiliary verb ”to have” with the ending –ing and the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated:
HAVING + PAST PARTICIPLE
The chance of having met her before she left the country was a great joy for me. It is used to express anteriority (an action which took place before the action expressed by the personal verb).
Active and Passive Infinitive Active Voice shows an action performed by the subject, while Passive Voice shows an action performed on the subject. The form of Passive
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Gerund is made with the auxiliary verb ”to be” with the ending –ing and the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated:
BEING + PAST PARTICIPLE
Active Voice: He keeps on preparing himself for university. Passive Voice: I am praised for being trained so well. Perfect Gerund in the Passive Voice is formed with he auxiliary verb ”to have” (it is a perfect tense) with the ending ”-ing” (to form Gerund), the Past Participle of the auxiliary verb ”to be” (to build Passive Voice; coming after ”have”) and the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated (for Passive):
HAVING + BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE
Passive Voice: The opportunity of having been awarded for that invention even before it was patented was a great surprise for me. (First the person was awarded for the invention and only after that the invention was patented. This Passive Construction expresses anteriority in the Past, showing that the action expressed by the impersonal / non-finite verb took place before the action expressed by the personal / finite verb.)
THE USE OF GERUND The Gerund is used after:
1. VERBS EXPRESSING feelings, mental activities, advice, the beginning, the continuation or the end; and other verbs: - bear, detest, dislike, enjoy, hate, like, love, miss, regret; People like joining the winning teams. I hate leaving you here with this mean man. - admit, anticipate, consider, forget, forgive, imagine, intend, mind, prefer, recollect, remember, understand; Please, forgive me for being late. They remembered seeing the kids very happy that day. - advise, suggest;
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Do you suggest taking this way or that one? - begin, start, continue, keep, cease, end, finish, stop; When you start studying the document, you will understand this. Stop talking that way about your friend! - avoid, delay, deny, escape, excuse, fancy, involve, omit, postpone, practice, resist, risk, save, try; The robber denied breaking into that house. Excuse me for dropping the plate.
2. PREPOSITIONS: - nouns + preposition: apology for, change of, disappointment at, experience in, fear of, habit of, hope of, idea of, importance of, necessity of, objection to, possibility of, process of, reason for, right of, surprise at, way of The gentleman expressed his apology for upsetting the lady. The manager explained his reasons for firing those people. - adjective + preposition: accustomed to, afraid of, agreeable to, annoyed at, averse to, capable of, conscious of, interested in, proud of, responsible for, suitable for, surprised at, tired of, used to Babies are afraid of remaining alone in the dark. I am so tired of listening to your complaints. - verb + preposition: accuse of, agree with/on, aim at, approve of, believe in, consist in, count on, excuse from, focus on, insist on, prevent from, rely on, result in, succeed in, think of The subordinate was accused of delaying the whole process. This medicine will prevent you from feeling pain. - phrasal verbs: give up, go on , keep on Once and for all, you must give up crying for her. ”Go on reading the poem”, said the teacher.
3. EXPRESSIONS: be worth, can’t help, can’t stand, feel like, it’s no good, it’s no use, look forward to It is not worth arguing with them on this. My aunt can’t help giving advice at every step. I can’t stand you screaming at me for no reason. We don’t really feel like playing chess today. It’s no good forcing him to eat what he doesnʼt like.
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It’s no use writing to them as they never answer. I am looking forward to meeting you at the conference.
4. TO EXPRESS PROHIBITION, SUGGESTION and FORMAL REQUEST: No smoking! How about going for a walk? What about changing the password? Would you mind lending me your pen?
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The Participle
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NON-FINITE FORMS: PARTICIPLE
The Participle has two main forms: Present Participle and Past Participle.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE Present Participle may be an adjective / adverb or a verbal construction. It is mainly translated by gerunziu into Romanian when it has verbal characteristics: That interesting book was sold out in no time. (Adjective) The princess walked smilingly up to the throne of her father. (Adverb) Somebody is knocking at the door. (Verbal characteristic because the Present Participle is part of a compound tense here: it is part of Present Continuous) Telling the truth in this matter is imperative.
The FORM of Present Participle (Active Voice) is made by adding the ending –ing to the verb (PRESENT form):
VB. - ing
Active Voice: Presenting everything you know in the best way possible is all you can do right now. The Active Perfect form is made with the auxiliary ”to have” with the ending -ing and Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated:
HAVING + PAST PARTICIPLE
Active Voice: Having bought this machine before you consulted me was irrational. The Present Passive form of Present Participle is formed with the auxiliary ”to be” with the ending –ing and the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated: BEING + PAST PARTICIPLE
Passive Voice: Being told to stay in the classroom, the pupils didn’t dare to get out.
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The Perfect Passive Form of Present Participle is formed with the auxiliary ”to have” with the ending –ing, the Past Participle of the auxiliary ”to be” and the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated:
HAVING + BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE
Passive Voice: Having been exiled for his mistake, the poor man started to rebuild his life from pieces.
CONSTRUCTIONS with PRESENT PARTICIPLE
1. ACCUSATIVE + (PRESENT) PARTICIPLE is used after verbs of perception (see, hear, smell, taste, fell, notice, observe, perceive, watch etc.) and after verbs such as: catch, find, imagine, keep, leave, start, stop
NOUN / PRONOUN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE
(In Accusative)
Do you also hear some glass cracking around? (some glass is in Accusative and cracking is Present Participle) You will find them at the train station waiting for you. (them is a personal pronoun in Accusative and waiting is the Present Participle) Hurry up to catch her quite poking about your closets. (her is the personal pronoun in Accusative and poking about is the Present Participle)
2. NOMINATIVE + (PRESENT) PARTICIPLE is after verbs of perception in Passive Voice (to be seen, to be heard, to be smelled, to be tasted, to be felt, to be noticed, to be perceived, to be watched etc.)
SUBJECT + PASSIVE VOICE + PRESENT PARTICIPLE
The bank representative was perceived handling clients with arrogance. (The bank representative (Subject) + was perceived (Passive Voice) + handling (Present Participle))
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3. ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE with PRESENT PARTICIPLE The Subjects in the compound phrase are different:
SUBJECT 1 + PASSIVE PARTICIPLE + SUBJECT 2 + PREDICATE
The guilty boy being punished, the other children calmed down. 4. ABSOLUTE PARTICIPLE The participial construction does not have a subject. Generally speaking, the –ING Forms is one of the most difficult issues in the English grammar.
REVISION: -ING FORMS can be: . GERUND The device stopped working suddenly. . PRESENT PARTICIPLE Whoever is making this noise, please stop! . VERBAL NOUN The writing of European projects is an extremely challenging job. . VERBAL ADJECTIVE Blossoming trees are so wonderful in spring that I could look at them for ever.
PAST PARTICIPLE
The Past Participle has two forms: the verb with the ending –ed, for regular verbs; and the third form (from the list of irregular verbs), for the irregular verbs. VB. + - ed (for regular verbs) 3rd form (for irregular verbs)
The girl and the boy had skated together for a while before they become national champions. (Part of a complex predicate) Drops of water have fallen from the tree. (Part of a complex predicate) He was told to change his environment for a healthier one. (Part of a Passive predicate)
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It is also used in English as an adjective and as a predicative: This broken window is the result of your anger, isn’t it? (Adjective) You look really messed-up today. (Predicative)
It is used to replace Attributive Clauses and Adverbial Clauses, in order to shorten communication: The spectators invited on the stage took part in the show. (This is shorter than the compound sentence containing an Attributive Clause: The spectators who were invited on the stage took part in the show.) Arrived there, the tourists sat down exhausted. (Arrived there is used instead of an Adverbial Clause of Time: When they arrived there, the tourists sat down exhausted.)
CONSTRUCTIONS with PAST PARTICIPLE
1. ACCUSATIVE + PAST PARTICIPLE This structure is a way of making communication shorter and therefore clearer:
NOUN / PRONOUN + PAST PARTICIPLE (In Accusative)
Everybody has heard your name called, except you.
2. ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE with PAST PARTICIPLE This participial construction does not contain a Subject. The problem solved, everybody was finally pleased.
3. CAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
HAVE + ACCUSATIVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
GET
I will have my hair cut at the barberʼs shop. They got his envelope returned to the sender before anyone read it.
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The Article
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The Indefinite Article
The Indefinite Article stays in front of the nouns which name a non-specific thing. The form is: a (in front of consonants) and an (in front of vowels). The pronunciation is [Ə], but sometimes [ei] is also used. Example: a tourist, a museum an elephant, an authorization
The Definite Article
The Definite Article precedes the noun and shows that the noun is already known to the speaker. It has only one form: the and the pronunciation is [∂Ə] (in front of consonants) and [∂i:] (in front of vowels). Example: the tourist, the museum the elephant, the authorization
The Zero Article
The Zero Article refers to noun phrases which contain no definite or indefinite article. It has no form. In fact the lack of the definite article the in certain cases makes the Zero Article. in [-] summer, on [-] Monday, [-] America, , [-] mathematics, [-] breakfast, by [-] car
The Zero Article is used in front of: a) names ([-] Ramona) Paul is a good boy. b) titles ([-] Captain Hook) Captain Hook lost his ship. c) geographucal names ([-] America, [-] Romania, [-] Danube) Exceptions: The United States of America, The United Kingdom etc We need to cross Lake Jackson to reach our destination. London is not far away.
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d) plural nouns with general meaning ([-] People, ) People eat three times a day. / Wild animals are dangerous. e) abstract nouns ([-] love, [-] like, [-] hate, [-] hope) Freedom is important. Love is wonderful f) materials, substances ([-] gold, [-] sugar, [-] coffee) Gold is expensive. Sugar is sweet. g) meals ([-] breakfast, [-] lunch, [-] dinner) Breakfast is ready. h) days, months, seasons, holidays (on [-] Monday, in [-] January, in [-] summer, at [-] Christmas) I will come on Monday. In summer it is very hot here. Christmas is the best time of the year. i) school subjects, sciences, languages ([-] Mathematics, [-] Astronomy, [-] English) I like mathematics. Astronomy is very interesting. Do you speak English? j) means of transport (by [-] car, by [-] plane, by [-] bus) I am travelling by bus. k) colors ([-] red, [-] blue, [-] yellow) Red fits you well. l) nouns followed by numerals ([-] chapter five, [-] room 235) Read chapter five. You have room 235. m) some expressions (at [-] dawn/at [-] dusk, at [-] random, [-] face to [-] face, in [-] front of, on [-] sale etc) I am waiting for you in front of the cathedral. We have a lot of clothes on sale.
Note: All the nouns followed by a determiner receive a definite article in front of them: The breakfast I prepared is on the night table. The mathematics I learned in school was very useful.
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The Noun
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The Plural of Nouns Basic Rules
1. Regular plural: noun + -s 1 house - 2 houses 1 dog - 2 dogs
2. Plural of the nouns ended in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o : noun + -es 1 class - 2 classes 1 bush - 2 bushes 1 ranch - 2 ranches 1 buzz - 2 buzzes 1 box - 2 boxes 1 potato - 2 potatoes The nouns ended in –o are sometimes exceptions: noun + -s 1 radio - 2 radios 1 photo - 2 photos 1 piano - 2 pianos 1 killo - 2 killos 1 kangaroo - 2 kangaroos But: 1 zero - 2 zeros / zeroes; 1 volcano - 2 volcanos / volcanoes
3. Plural of the nouns ended in -f or –fe : -f / -fe ─> -v + -es 1 leaf - 2 leaves 1 wife - 2 wives Exceptions for nouns ended in -f sau –fe: noun + -s 1 roof - 2 roofs 1 proof - 2 proofs 1 hankerchief - 2 handkerchiefs 1 belief - 2 beliefs But: 1 dwarf - 2 dwarfs / dwarves
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4. Plural of the nouns ended in –y : Nouns ended in vowel + -y : noun + -s 1 day - 2 days 1 boy - 2 boys
Nouns ended in consonant + -y: -y ─> -i + -es 1 factory - 2 factories 1 study - 2 studies
5. Nouns for which the singular is the same with the plural : Sg = Pl 1 sheep - 2 sheep 1 aircraft - 2 aircraft 1 swine - 2 swine
6. Irregular plural: 1 man - 2 men 1 woman - 2 women 1 child - 2 children 1 mouse - 2 mice 1 goose - 2 geese 1 tooth - 2 teeth 1 foot - 2 feet 1 ox – 2 oxen
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The Plural of the Compound Nouns
General rule: Make the plural for the main element of the compound noun.
Plural in the FIRST ELEMENT of the compound noun When the first element of the compound noun is described by the next words, then this is the element that becomes plural: 1 court-martial - 2 courts-martial 1 mother-in-law - 2 mothers-in-law
Plural in the BOTH ELEMENTS of the compound noun Sometimes both elements of the compound noun become plural. This happens when the compounds contain: ”man-”, ”woman-”, ”gentleman-”, ”knight-”, ”lord-”, ”yeoman-” in an attributive position: 1 man-servant - 2 men-servants 1 Lord Chancellor - 2 Lords Chancellors
Plural in the FINAL ELEMENT of the compound noun The final element of the compounds is pluralized when this last element is described by its former element. 1 Englishman - 2 Englishmen 1 bedroom - 2 bedrooms The final element of the compounds is pluralized when none of the component elements are nouns: 1 forget-me-not - 2 forget-me-nots 1 merry-go-round - 2 merry-go-rounds 1 handfull - 2 handfuls (Add two handfuls of boiled beans.)
Plural of compound nouns which contain ”TITLE + NAME” The plural is built in two ways: pluralizing the title or pluralizing the name. 1 Mister Boyle - 2 Misters Boyle / 2 Mister Boyles
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The Plural of the Nouns Adopted from Other Languages
The plural of the nouns coming from Latin - Nouns ended in –us: -us ─> -i / -era 1 fungus - 2 fungi 1 focus - 2 foci 1 nucleus - 2 nuclei 1 stimulus - 2 stimuli
1 genus - 2 genera Some adjectives ended in –us have both a “Latin plural” and a classical English plural: 1 fungus - 2 fungi / funguses 1 focus - 2 foci / focuses 1 nucleus - 2 nuclei / nucleuses Others have only a classical English plural: 1 bonus - 2 bonuses 1 campus - 2 campuses
- Nouns ended in –a: -a ─> -ae [i:] 1 antenna - 2 antennae 1 vertebra - 2 vertebrae Some adjectives ended in –a have both a “Latin plural” and a classical English plural: 1 antenna - 2 antennae / antennas 1 vertebra - 2 vertebrae / vertebras Others have only a classical English plural: 1 dilemma - 2 dillemas 1 idea - 2 ideas
- Nouns ended in –um: -um ─> -a 1 aquarium - 2 aquaria 1 curriculum - 2 curricula 1 medium - 2 media Some adjectives ended in –um have both a “Latin plural” and a classical English plural: 1 aquarium - 2 aquaria / aquariums 1 curriculum - 2 curricula / curriculums 1 medium - 2 media / mediums
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Others have only a classical English plural: 1 album - 2 albums
- Nouns ended in –ex / -ix: -ex / -ix ─> -ices 1 index - 2 indices 1 matrix - 2 matrices Some adjectives ended in –um have both a “Latin plural” and a classical English plural: 1 index - 2 indices / indexes 1 matrix - 2 matrices / matrixes
The plural of the nouns coming from Greek - Nouns ended in –is: -is ─> -es 1 analysis - 2 analyses 1 axis - 2 axes 1 basis - 2 bases 1 crisis - 2 crises 1 hypothesis - 2 hypothesis 1 parathesis - 2 paranthesis
- Nouns ended in –on: -on ─> -a 1 criterion - 2 criteria 1 phenomenon - 2 phenomena Some adjectives ended in –on have only a classical English plural: 1 demon - 2 demons
The plural of the nouns coming from French - Nouns ended in –ieu / -eau: -ieu / -eau ─> -ieux / -eaux 1 adieu - 2 adieux 1 bureau - 2 bureaux
- Nouns ended in –s: Sg = Pl 1 chamois - 2 chamois
The plural of the nouns coming from Italian - Nouns ended in –o: -o ─> -i 1 palazzo - 2 palazzi 1 tempo - 1 tempi
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Some adjectives ended in –o have both a “Latin plural” and a classical English plural: 1 tempo - 2 tempi / tempos Others have only a classical English plural: 1 soprano - 2 sopranos
Nouns with Different Significances for Singular and Plural
For some nouns, the plural form has a different meaning from the singular form: age - Ages What is your age? / He loves the history of the Middle Ages. air - airs I want to go to the mountain to get some fresh air. / That girl shows airs as if she were the princess of the kingdom. compass - compasses Don't forget to take the compass with you in the mountain trip. / The compasses are broken. / I have used the compasses to draw the circle. colour - colours That colour fits you well. / Avoid the dark colours. / The gold medalist was watching the colours of his country on the highest mast. content - contents Show me the content of your pocket. / I read the contents of the book, but I couldn't find what I was looking for. custom - customs I enjoyed the custom of tasting bread and salt. / There are interesting customs in this region. / You need a passport to pass the customs. damage - damages
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The damage is irreparable. / He will have to pay damages for that accident. draught - draughts Don't stay in the draught! / There are strong draughts in this area. / Would you like to play draughts with me? drawer - drawers The socks are in the top drawer. / I will clean the drawers tomorrow. / Men wear drawers in winter. effect - effects You will feel the effects of my actions soon. / What are the effects of your negotiation? / He protected his own effects. ground - grounds The play ground is around the corner. / I need to know on what grounds you punished him. / Leave the coffee grounds in the cattle. minute - minutes Wait a minute! / I need 5 minutes to be ready. / I write the minutes of each official meeting. moral – morals He has morals for everyone. / Nobody likes him because of his morals. pain - pains They feel the pain. / The pains are unbearable. / She took pains to see that they all received their part of food. quarter - quarters The kid asked for a quarter. / Three quarters go to you and one quarter to me. / Where are the quarters of the institution? sand - sands The sand is so hot! / Go to the sands and watch the sea!
321 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU spectacle - spectacles The spectacle was great. / I will see three theatre spectacles this week. / Grandmother can't find her spectacles. spirit - spirits Somehow, I felt the spirit around me. / The spirits protected me. / He drinks spirits every evening. / What are your spirits today?
Nouns with Two Forms of Plural
Some nouns have two different plural forms (used in different contexts,with different meanings). brother - Plural forms: brothers (siblings) or brethren (close members of an organization) Roberta has two elder brothers. / By enrolling in that organization, they have become brethren. cherub - Plural forms: cherubim (angels) or cherubs (images og anges) Cherubims are beings involved in work before God. / I like those murals of cherubs. cloth - Plural forms: cloths (linen) or clothes (dresses) The tradesman sells cloths. / I will pack my clothes. cow - Plural forms: cows (domestic animals) sau kine (herd) His three cows give a lot of milk every day. / He saved the kine from that disease. die - Plural forms: dies (piercing machine) or dice (numbered cubes for games). The factory provided the dies neccessary to cut, shape and stamp our products. / The dice have been cast. formula - Plural forms: formulas (speaking/writing expressions) or formulae (mathematical rules)
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The formulas the old man used in his speech seemed exaggerated. / The pupils must learn the mathematical formulae genius - Plural forms: geniuses (extremely smart people) or genii (spirits) All those rewarded here are geniuses of science. / The genii bothered him every night. index - Plural forms: indexes (book contents) or indeces (parameters) Study the indexes of these books. / The manager presented the project indeces. penny - Plural forms: pennies (coins) or pences (sum of money in coins) I left five pennies on the table. / I paid 1 pound and fifty pences. staff - Plural forms: staffs (department in army) or staves (a set of five parallel lines on which musical notes are written) All staffs are convoked for tomorrow. / Can you read the staves?
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Agreement Subject-Predicate
General rule The Subject (noun / pronoun generally) agrees in number with the Predicate (verb). Examples: - singular noun with singular verb: The boy is intelligent. - plural noun with plural verb: The boys are intelligent.
Exceptions: 1. The singular collective noun is used with a singular verb when the noun is taken as a whole. The team is winning the competition. The singular collective noun is used with a plural verb when the noun refers to the members of the group. The team are receiving their gold medals. The plural collective noun is used with a plural verb. The teams are competing for the cup.
2. The nouns connected by and form a multiple noun and are generally used with plural verbs. Mother and father have gone to the market. If the nouns connected by and are taken as a whole, then they are used with singular verbs. Fish and chips is my favourite meal.
3. The units of measurement are used with singular verbs if they are preceded by a numeral, because in this case the structures are taken as a whole. Six months is a long time. If the structure expresses more than one whole unit, then the noun is used with a plural verb. One and a half meter are enough for the skirt.
4. The nouns “Singularia Tantum” (nouns with no plural form) are used with singular verbs. The advice is strange and unexpected.
The nouns “Pluralia Tantum” (nouns with no singular form) are used plural verbs when they express:
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- things composed of two parts (trousers, pyjamas, scissors, glasses etc.) - substantivized adjectives ending in -s (chemical substances, contents etc.) - nouns ended in –ing (surroundings) - characteristics from sciences (statistics, phonetics etc.) The trousers are on the bed. The surroundings are amazing. The statistics were already too old.
The nouns “Pluralia Tantum” are used singular verbs when they express: - diseases (measles, mumps) - games (cards, draughts) - names of sciences / school subjects (statistics, mathematics) Mumps is not a serious disease. Statistics is a difficult science.
5. The pairs either...or..., neither...nor..., not only... but also... are used as follows: the agreement is made with the latter noun. Neither the boy nor the girl is in the yard. (singular noun + singular noun + singular verb) Neither the boy nor the girls are in the yard. (singular noun + plural noun + plural verb) Neither the boys nor the girl is in the yard. (plural noun + singular noun + singular verb)
6. The structures with with, together with, as weel as, including don’t affect the Subject-Predicate agreement. The school with the most prizes is from Romania.
7. The nouns accompanied by every, each, either, neither, none are used with singular verbs. The nouns accompanied by neither of can be used with singular or plural verbs. Either choice is good for me. Neither of the children comes / come to the center.
7. “THERE” agrees with the Real Subject, while “IT” is used with a singular verb. There are apples on the table. / There is a car in front of the house. It is the champions who raised the money for her treatment
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The Pronoun
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The Pronoun
The Pronoun is the part of speech which can be used instead of a noun or a noun phrase (when this is already known or understood). In English there are nine categories of pronouns: Personal, Possessive, Reflexive, Demonstrative, Indefinite, Reciprocal, Emphatic, Relative and Interrogative. Note: In English there is no pronoun of politeness like in other languages. The pronoun related to the person in case is used.
The Personal, Possessive, Reflexive, Emphatic Pronoun
The Personal Pronoun is the pronoun which expresses persons, animals or objects, assignining them one of the three grammatical persons. The Possessive Pronoun is the pronoun which replaces the name of one or more things in possessive relation with one another. The Reflexive Pronoun is the pronoun which marks the identity of the Subject and the Direct / Indirect Object. The Emphatic Pronoun is the the pronoun which emphasizes the Subject or The Object by repetition.
Person Possessive Personal Pronoun Pronominal Possessive Reflexive Emphatic Nominative Acusative Adjective Pronoun Pronoun Pronoun Number /Dative I I Me My Mine Myself Myself II You You Your Yours Yourself Yourself He Him His His Himself Himself
Singular III She Her Her Hers Herself Herself It It Its Its Itself Itself I We Us Our Ours Ourselves Ourselves
II You You Your Yours Yourselves Yourselves
Plural II They Them Their Theirs Themselves Themselves
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The Demonstrative Pronoun
The Demonstrative Pronoun is the pronoun which indicates an object, showing its nearness or remoteness from the speaker or from the present tense.
Singular Plural Near THIS THESE Far THAT THOSE
The Indefinite Pronoun
The Indefinite Pronoun is the pronoun which refers to indefinite persons or things.
The forms of the indefinite pronoun are: Pronouns ended in -BODY or -ONE, and in -THING Everybody/Everyone must go downstairs. Everything is prepared there. Pronouns starting with SOME- (somebody, someone, something) I need somebody to help me. Do you need somebody to help you? Pronouns starting with ANY- (anybody, anyone, anything) I don't want anything from you. Pronouns starting with NO- (nobody, no one/none, nothing) I want nothing from you. SOME-, ANY-, NO- used with -ELSE Somebody else should continue this. ALL and BOTH Call all of them in here! Both our managers want to talk to them. EITHER and NEITHER (used for two people/things) Either of the two employees can do this. I wouldn't choose either of the two books. I like neither of those two files. ANY and NONE (used for more than two people/things) Any of the three employees can do this. I wouldn't choose any of the five books. I like none of those four files. EACH Each of the statements is checked. They each buy bread regularly.
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ANOTHER (used with non specific singular things), OTHERS (used with non-specific plural things), THE OTHER (specific singular things) and THE OTHERS (specific plural things) I bought another, because this one broke. Some are happy, others are sad. Pick the other, please. These children are winners, the others have to work more to win. Note: ANOTHER, OTHER, THE OTHER can be used as pronominal adjectives (having only singular forms in this case). I need another pencil. I will make other cakes for you. Look at the other puppy! The other problems are more difficult. MUCH (uncountable), MANY (countable); MORE and MOST (for both countable and uncountable) I have some sugar, but I still need much. Many have become bored. Look for more! Most are like those children over there. MUCH, MANY, MORE and MOST can also be used as pronominal adjectives. I need much flour. Many pupils have become bored. Look for more elements! Most children are like thise over there. A LITTLE (uncountable), A FEW (countable) I need just a little/a few. A LITTLE and A FEW can also be used as pronominal adjectives. He has brought a little cheese and a few tomatoes. In order to emphasize the very small quantity, the pronouns or pronominal adjectives used are: LITTLE and FEW. I am asking only for little help. All I need is few hints to solve this. SEVERAL and ENOUGH I bought some notebooks for school, but I still need several. I don't have enough. SEVERAL and ENOUGH can also be used as pronominal adjectives. I don’t have enough notebooks so I am going to several shops to buy some. ONE, YOU, THEY can be used to express impersonal constructions. One should obey the law. You/They must follow the directions.
The Reciprocal Pronoun
The Reciprocal Pronounis the pronoun which expresses relations of reciprocity betwee/among beings, ideas, objects. The forms are:
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- each other (for two things) The two kids looked at each other. - one another (for more than two things). The four men fought one another bravely.
The Relative Pronoun
The Relative Pronoun is the pronoun which sets the relation between a sentence and its subordinate clause. It introduces relative clauses. It is used only in compound sentences. The forms of the relative pronoun are: WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHICH, WHAT, THAT, WHOEVER, WHICHEVER, WHATEVER, AS, BUT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY.
WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER are used for people, while WHICH is used for things and animals. Diana is the one who helped me. This is the girl whom I told you about. I would welcome whoever wants to join me. Where is the table which I bought yesterday?
THAT can be used for both people and objects, but WHO/WHOM are preferred for people and WHICH for animals This is the girl that I have told you about. THAT can be eliminated:. This is the girl I have told you about.
WHOSE expresses belonging or connection with somebody or something. They are the boys whose colleagues left school. The car whose door is open is mine.
WHOEVER, WHICHEVER, WHATEVER I can do whatever you need me to.
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AS is used after “same” and ”such”, while BUT is used when there is a precedent sentence She attends the same courses as I used to.
WHERE, WHEN, WHY introduc propoziții relative. Go to the room where you saw him last.
The Interrogative Pronoun
The Interrogative Pronoun is the pronoun which substitues the anticipated thing, word or group of words as a response to an interrogative statement. It is used in interrogative sentences. The forms of the interrogative pronoun are: WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHAT, WHICH, WHO EVER, WHAT EVER, WHICH EVER. Who will come tomorrow? Whom can I walk with? Whose book is this? Which train shall I take? What ever do they want to do over there? What about going on a trip? I need to establish who is who.
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The Adjective
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The Adjective is the part of speech which indicates the characteristics of a concept (person, object, abstract idea), usually expressed by a noun. Here are the most used adjectives and their opposites: Opposite Adjectives
awake - asleep, beautiful - ugly, brave, courageous - fearful, wimpy, cheap - expensive, clean - dirty, clear, serene - cloudy, closed - open, dark - light, empty - full, faithful - unfaithful, false - true, good - bad, happy - sad, hard, difficult - easy, heavy - light, ill, sick - healthy, interesting - boring, late - early, lazy - hard-working, diligent, left - right, little, small - big, low - high, narrow - wide, near - far, new - old, obedient - naughty, polite - rude, rich - poor, right, correct - wrong, short - long, short - tall, slow - quick, smooth, flat - rough, soft - hard, straight - curly, stupid, fool - clever, smart, tame, domestic - wild, thin - fat, tight - loose, wet - dry, weak - strong warm, hot - cold, white - black, young - old
333 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU Adjective: Degrees of Comparison
There are three degrees of comparison: POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE. The POSITIVE expresses the description of a thing or set of things (big, beautiful, good). The COMPAATIVE expresses a comparison of a thing/ set of things with another thing/set of things (bigger, more beautiful, better). The SUPERLATIVE expresses the highest lowest quality of a thing/set of things in comparison with others of the same nature (the biggest, the most beautiful, the best).
The adjectives are divided in three groups:
1. Short Adjectives (1-2 syllables)
Positive-Comparative-Superlative smart – smarter – the smartest wise – wiser – the wisest big – bigger – the biggest pretty – prettier – the prettiest
2. Long Adjectives (2 or more syllables)
Positive - Comparative - Superlative hard-working – more hard-working – the most hard-working communicative – more communicative – the most communicative
3. Irregular Adjectives
Positive - Comparative - Superlative good - better - the best bad - worse - the worst little - less - the least much, many - more - the most far - farther / further - the farthest / the furthest old - older / elder - the oldest / the eldest late - latter / later - the last / the latest
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Structures with Adjectives
1) Comparative of superiority: “adjective + - er (than)” / ”more + adjective (than)” My car is nicer than yours. / The little girl is more beautiful than her friend. / I admit that you are better than your colleague.
2) Comparative of inferiority: “less + adjective + than” The price is less important than the quality.
3) Comparative of equality: “as + adjective + as” The boy is as clever as the girl.
4) Gradual intensification: “comparative + and + comparative” / “more and more + adjective” The price is higher and higher. The old woman has become more and more faithful.
5) Parallel intensification: “the + comparative (subject+predicate+...), the + comparative (subject+predicate+...)” The longer time you wait, the harder the situation will be for you.
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Order of Adjectives
In English, the adjectives usually stay before the noun the determine, but sometimes the adjective can stay after the noun.
Adjectives in front of nouns: The order of the adjectives describing a thing is: number, characteristics, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, adjective ending in -ing. I have bought four beautiful, new, square, grey, English, iron, interesting closets for my office.
The order of the adjectives describing a person is: number, characteristics, size, age, origin. He saw three, beautiful, small, young, French women in that room.
Adjectives after nouns: Sometimes, the adjectives follow the noun they are determinig: adjectives followed by a pepositional phrase, by infinitive, by set-phrases containing the same unit of measurement; adjectives expressed by Past Participle, words ended in -body, - one, -thing; proper nouns followed by “the”; in expresions. The teachers had ideas very different from the students' ones on that project. / She was a girl easy to talk with. / He doesn't understand that he is a man eighty years old. All the cars driven in that competition were sponsored. I need somebody clever to help me with this problem. Michael the Brave led his people to victory.
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Pronominal Adjectives vs. Pronouns
The PRONOUN stays alone; the PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES is accompanied by a noun:
Possessive Pronoun / Pronominal Adjective The ticket is mine. This is my ticket.
Demonstrative Pronoun / Pronominal Adjectives I really need this. That museum is closed on Monday.
Indefinite Pronoun / Pronominal Adjectives: ALL and BOTH All have solved the problem. / Call all the children in here! Both agreed on this issue. / Both managers want to talk to them. EITHER and NEITHER Either fits you. Either employee can do this. I wouldn’t buy either. I wouldn’t choosee either apple from there. Neither has come in time. Neither answer is correct. ANY and NONE Any is good enough. Any employee can do this. I wouldn't choose any. I wouldn’t call any friend here. I check none. I like none of those four files. EACH They each buy bread regularly.Each statement is checked. ANOTHER, OTHERS, THE OTHER and THE OTHERS I bought another, because this one broke. I need another pencil. Some are happy, others are sad. I will make other cakes for you. Pick the other, please. Look at the other puppy! These children are winners, the others have to work more to win. The other problems are more difficult. MUCH, MANY; MORE and MOST I have some sugar, but I still need much. I need much flour. Many have become bored. Many pupils have become bored. Look for more! Look for more elements! Most are like those children over there. Most children are like thise over there. 337 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU
A LITTLE, A FEW I need just a little/a few. He has brought a little cheese and a few tomatoes. SEVERAL and ENOUGH I bought some notebooks for school, but I still need several. I don't have enough. I don’t have enough notebooks so I am going to several shops to buy some.
Interrogative Pronoun / Pronominal Adjective Whose is this book? (whose - pronoun) Whose book is this? (whose (book) – pronominal adjective)
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The Adverb
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Adverb: Degrees of Comparison
The Adverbs follow the same rules for the degrees of comparison like the Adjectives. Note: Only the gradable adverbs can have degrees of comparison.
The Regular Comparison: Rule 1: The comparison of the adverbs which have the same form with the adjective (early, fast, hard, high, late, near etc.) is: -comparative: adverb + -er The kids will come earlier today. - superlative: the adverb + - est They must work the hardest today to succeed in winning the throphy.
Rule 2: The compariosn of the adverbs ended in –ly (carefully, happily, slowly etc.) is: -comparative: more + adverb They must search more carefully to find it. - superlative: the most + adverb He works most slowly of all.
The Irregular Comparison: well - better - the best badly - worse - the worst much, many – more- the most far - farther / further - the farthest / the furthest late – later – the latest
You will play tennis better if you practice. He went the farthest posiible with this.
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Structures with Adverbs
1) Comparative of superiority: “adverb + - er (than)” / ”more + adverb (than)” Robert drives faster than his brother. Walk more carefully than usual as it is slippery!
2) Comparative of inferiority: “less + adjective + than” / “negație + as/so + adverb + as” The girl writes less elegantly than her cousin. She does not behave as nicely as her cousin.
3) Comparative of equality: “as + adjective + as” The children won as much as the adults.
4) Gradual intensification: “comparative + and + comparative” / “more and more + adjective” They will earn better and better. The man was working more and more joyfully.
5) Parallel intensification: “the + comparative (subject+predicate+...), the + comparative (subject+predicate+...)” The faster you go, the sooner you will arrive there.
6) Absolute Superlative “very + adverb” The manager approached the project very skillfully.
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Ajectives versus Adverbs
Rule: The ADJECTIVE determines a noun. The ADVERB determines a verb (or an adjective).
Example: I am looking at this beautiful dress. You are working beautifully.
They made a slow progress. They were walking slowly.
This race was really fast. The racers had run fast before they reached the first checking point.
It is a very good suggestion. Robert has done well during the competition.
Yours is a better paper. She solves the problems better.
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The Position of Adverbs in the Sentence
Usually the order of the adverbs in a sentence is: Adverb of Manner – Adverb of Place – Adverb of Time. Shortly, the order is MPT, which in fact is set in alphabetical order. She searched curiously there yesterday.
The adverbs can be positioned at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence: Adverbs positioned at the beginning of the sentence: interrogative adverbs, exclamative adverbs, adverbs of opinion, adverbial phrases. Where have you gone? What a wonderful surprise! Surprisingly, they made up again. At least you tried. Sometimes the Definite Adverbs of Time (yesterday, in the morning, in summer), the Adverbs of Definite Frequency (once a week, twice a day) and the Adverbs of Undefinite Frequency (sometimes, generally) are placed at the beginning of the sentence: In summer I spend my time in the country. Once a week I go swimming. Sometimes, I like to drink a beer. Any adverb can be placed at the beginning of the sentence in order to be emphasized: In this place I saw my purse last time. Sometimes, when there are more adverbs in the sentence, some of them are placed at the beginning of the sentence in order to avoid a too long chain of adverbs in the same place: Yesterday I woke up at 7 o'clock in the morning.
Adverbs positioned in the middle of the sentence: The adverbs of manner, the adverbs of opinion and the indefinite adverbs of time are usually placed in the middle of the sentence: She simply called her mother. They are obviously wrong. I have never heard such a story. There are three important rules concerning the position of these adverbs: 1.) If the Predicate is made of 1 word, the adverb is placed between the Subject and the Predicate. The tourists always buy a map before their trip.
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2.) If the Predicate is made of 2 or more words, the adverb stays after the first verb. The passenger has never seen such landscapes before. 3.) If the Predicate is made of verb to be (in simple tenses: am/are/is/was/were), the adverb is positioned after the verb to be. She is usually in the library at this time.
Adverbs positioned at the end of the sentence: The definite adverbs of time (and sometimes some definite/indefinite adverbs of frequency), the adverbs of manner, adverbs of place, adverbs of opinion and adverbs of comparison sometimes stay at the end of the sentence. I spoke with him last week. / I entered the room slowly. / The farmers worked a lot
Inversion Caused by the Adverb
The adverbs with a negative connotation, positioned at the beginning of the sentence, generate an inversion of words: ”adverb - auxiliar - subiect”.
They had hardly entered the house when their mother called them. HARDLY had they entered the house when their mother called them.
I didn’t doubt his words for one moment. NOT FOR ONE MOMENT did I doubt his words.
He has never bought a newspaper without reading it entirely. NEVER has he bought a newspaper without reading it entirely.
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Adverbs with Different Forms and Meanings
Some adverbs have different meanings for different forms. The two forms of such adverbs are: - the adverb form which is identical with the adjective form - the –ly form
Clean - Cleanly (“completely” - “in a clean manner”) You probably clean forgot about my wish. I have chose a sharp knife to cut cleanly thorugh the meat.
Clear - Clearly (“all the way, completely, right” - “in a clear manner”) Luckily, the ball went clear along the ditch. Speak clearly so that I could understand you!
Close - Closely (“near” “tight, nearly”) The children came close to their teacher. The children closely resemble their parents.
Deep - Deeply (“well into” - “a lot”) The diver went deep into the sea. I was deeply impressed.
Direct - Directly (“direction of movement” – “direction of movement”/“without intermediaries”) The train is going direct/directly to London. The professor was directly responsible for that.
Due - Duly (“exactly” - “properly”, “punctually”) The mountains are due west of the city. The answers were duly provided. He duly appeared at the meeting place.
Easy - Easily (“slowly, lightly” - “clearly”, ”probably”) Take it easy; don't rush things! Even if the boy is guilty, go easy on him! He clearly won the game. / You might easily be mistaken.
Free - Freely (“costless” – “in a free manner”,“winllingly”) These services are free (of charge). Soldier, you may speak freely now. The officer freely admitted to have given that order.
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Full - Fully (“completely”, ”directly” - “completely”, “quite/at least”) Your boy has become a fully/fully grown up man now. I fully understand your demand, but I need fully 2 hours to get there.
Hard - Hardly (“heavily” - “not too much”) The winner worked hard. The loser hardly worked.
High - Highly (“at a great distance”- “very much”, ”very well”) The bird went high in the sky. Your teacher has spoken highly of you.
Just - Justly (“precisely”, ”very recently” - “in a fair way”) I know just the right remedy for you. I have just bought a wonderful ring. They were justly accused of cheating.
Late - Lately (“after the right time” - “recently”) He came too late to pick up the award. Lately you showed huge improvement.
Most - Mostly (superlative from much - “mainly”) What I like most is ice cream. Mostly, I manage project budgeting.
Near - Nearly (“close” - “almost”) She went near the boy to help him. I solved nearly all the problems in this chapter
Right - Rightly (“exactly/ immediately/ completely” - “correctly”) He ran right to his grandmother. I must leave right away. The crowd rightly understood that he was to be blamed for their situation. Short - Shortly (“suddenly” - “briefly”, ”soon”) He stopped short when he saw her. Shortly, I have found the solution.
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The Numeral
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The Numeral
The Numeral is the part of speech which expresses a number, a numerical determination of things and the order of things.
The Cardinal Numeral
The Cardinal Numeral expresses a number. The cardinals can be expressed through: - simple numbers zero, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, hundred, thousand, million, billion - compound numbers thirteen, twenty-four, one hundred and sixty-nine
Note: The numerals hundred, thousand, million, billion, dozen (12), score (20), gross (144) are used in the plural only when they express an indefinite number, focusing on a high quantity: Hundreds of people were in the streets. There are dozens of eggs on that table. In all the other cases, these numerals are singular: Before Christmas I bought three hundred toys for the kindergarten. They need three dozen eggs. The canteen purchased five gross of mineral water.
The Ordinal Numeral
The Ordinal Numeral expresses the order of things.
Examples: the first, the second, the third the fourth, the sixth, the seventh, the tenth, the eleventh, the twelveth, the thirteenth, the fifteeenth, the nineteenth the fifth, the eighth, the ninth the twentieth, the sixtieth, the ninetieth the fortieth, the fiftieth
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For the compound ordinal numerals the last term is ordinal and the other(s) are cardinals: the twenty-first, the forty-fourth, the fifty-fifth, the ninety-sixth, the two-hundred-and-sixty-third
Shortly, the ordinal numerals are written as follows: (the) 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 15th, 78th, 91st
In English, the Ordinal Numeral is used to express the date (1st April), the titles of kings (Carol I), the wars (World War I).
The Fractional Numeral
The Fractional Numeral expresses the parts of a whole. There are two types of Fractional Numerals:
- Common Fractions (Vulgar Fractions): one half (1/2), two thirds (2/3), five eights (5/8) In order to express common fractions, the numerator is a Cardinal Numeral and the denominator is an Ordinal Numeral. The percentages are common fractions whose denominator is 100. twenty-four hundredths (twenty-four per cent)
- Decimal Fractions: one point fifty-three (1.53), two point eight (2.8) ; nought point three (0.3)
The Multiplying Numeral
The Multiplying Numeral is the numeral which shows the proportion in which the quantity is increased. The forms of the Multiplying Numeral are: double/twofold/duplicate, triple/threefold/ triplicate, quadruple/fourfold, tenfold, hundredfold, thousandfold etc.; one time/ones, two times/ twice, three times/thrice etc. He paid double just to have that particular horse.
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The sales have increased fivefold since Jones was hired as a Sales Manager. He eats vegetables twice a day and meat once a day.
The Iterative Numeral
The Iterative Numeral is the numeral which shows how many times an action takes place (it expresses frequency). The forms of the Iterative Numeral are: once, twice, three times, four times, five times etc. I met him only once in that office. People usually eat three times a day.
The Collective Numeral
The Collective Numeral is the numeral which expresses the grouping of objects or persons into an assembly: both, duo (Both had already graduated.) all three, trio (All three came that afternoon.) yoke, team, span; couple, pair, brace (Let's call a couple of friends.) dozen, score, gross (She has bought a dozen eggs.) The Collective Nmerals can be used with a noun or an adjective grammatical value. All four started reading. The king called all three princes.
The Distributive Numeral
The Distributive Numeral is the numeral which expresses the distribution or grouping of things. The forms of the Distributive Numeral are: one by one, two by two, by twos, in twos, in pairs, one at a time etc.: Please, enter one by one when you are called. The children walked in twos up to the park.
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The Preposition
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The Preposition
The Preposition is the part of speech which expresses the syntactical report among the words of the sentence. It does not have a syntactical function of its own. The prepositions can be simple, compound, complex or prepositional expressios:
The girls are in the park. They ran into the hall. The clerks open the counter according to the schedule. In spite of your latest marks, you have won the first price.
In English there are verbs with obligatory preposition, nouns with obligatory preposition and adjectives with obligatory preposition. Usually, the preposition is situated in front of the noun it determines. The obligatory prepositions (asked by verbs, nouns and adjectives) are situated right after the verb/noun/adjective.
The boy is at school. (Preposition in front of the noun it determines) You must listen to the teacher. (Obligatory preposition required by the verb listen) The participants in the conference received interesting materials. (Obligatory preposition required by the noun participants) She is interested in photography. (Obligatory preposition required by the adjective interested)
The list of the main verbs with obligatory prepositions: abandon to, accuse of, accustom to, acquaint with, agree on/upon/to/with, aim at/for, apologize for/to, apply for/to, approve of, ask for/in, be after/through, begin by, believe in, boast on/about, belong to, bring on, call on, care for, carry on, charge with, come across, complain of/about, conclude by, consist of/in, contribute to, count on/upon, deal with, decide on/upon, defend against/from, depend on/upon, do about, dream about, drop in, end by, explain to, fight against, find out, get in/to/up, go for/in, give up, grow up, introduce to, involve in/with, keep on, laugh at, leave for, listen to, live on, long for, look at/for/forward/up, make for/up, mingle with, mock at, object to, occur to, participate in, pass by, pay for, plead for, plot against, point at/to/towards, prepare for, prevent from, provide for/with, punish for/with, race against, recover from, rely on, rescue from, resort to, result from/in, retire from, rise from, run into/after/for, search for, seek for, send
353 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU for, set about, show around, succeed in, take for/up, think about/of, throw at, wait for, wave at/to, worry about
The list of the main nouns with obligatory prepositions: access to, in accordance to, account of, accusation of, advance of, advertisement for, advice on, aggression against/towards, agreement about/among/as to/between, amusement at, anger against/at, in answer to, appointment with, appreciation of, approval of, aptitude for, in association with, astonishment at, attempt on/upon, attendance at, authority on/upon, aversion to, awareness of, belief in, by bus, by car, care for, chance of, change of, cause of, claim for/to, comment on, comparison to, concern about/over/for, confidence in, consistency with, contrast to, control over/of, conviction of/for, decision about/on, decrease in, defence against, by definition, debate on, desire for, difference from, in difficulty, discussion on, in disguise, on/off duty, on earth, at ease (with), embarassment at/to, for example, exception to, excuse for, experiment on/with, expert in/on/at, faith in, in fashion, out of fashion, in favour of, on fire, on foot, on the grounds of, at/by/on hand, in harmony with, hatred for/of, on holiday, in the hope for/of, hunger for, by implication, impression of, increase in, information about/on, for instance, insistence on, insurance against, interest in, kindness to, against the law, in the light, in/out of with luck, in the meantime, at the mercy of, in a mess, by mistake,at the/forthe/of the moment, need for, at night, objection to, in office, opinion of/on, opportunity of, opposite of/to, in out of order, participant in, participation in, on patrol, perspective on/of, by phone, in place of, by plane, in possession of, power of/over, preface to, preoccupation with, on prescription, prescription for, proof of, in public, beyond/in/out of question, at random, at any rate, reason for, reference to, reflection of/on/upon, refusal of, relation between/of/to/with, reliance on, relief from, remark on, report on, respect for, resemblance to, resistance to, responsibility for, at (the) risk of, by road, rumour of, at sea, in/out of sequence, in session, in/on/out of sight, similarity to, solution to, on stage, in store, on the /in the street, stress on, success in, suggestion of, above/beyond/under suspicion, sympathy for/with, in tears, technique for/of, on TV, testimony to, in theory, a thirst for, in touch with, without trace, introuble, witness to
The list of the main adjectives with obligatory prepositions: able to, absent from, absorbed in, acceptable to, accustomed to, afraid of/to, ahead of, amazed at/by, angry about/with, annoyed about/at/by/with, anxious about/for, ashamed of, astonished at, attentive to, available for,
354 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE aware of, bad at/for, basic to, bored with, busy with, capable of, certain of, charmed with, clever at/to, close to, comparable to/with, concerned about/with, content with, contrary to, convenient for, delighted with/at/to, dependent on, descended from, different from/than, disappointed in/with, disgusted with, displeased with, divided by, doubtful about, due to, eager for, embarassed about/at/by, enthusiastic about, envious of, essential for/to, exposed to, fair to, faithful to, familiar to/with, favourable to, fearful of, fed up with, fond of, free for, friendly to, full of, good at, grateful to/for, guilty of, hard on, harmful to, honest about, hopeful about, hopeless at, hungry for, identical to/with, impatient at/of/with, incapable of, independent of, inferior to, independent of, indispensable to, inherent in, interested in/to, intolerant of, involved in/with, jealous of, keen about/on, late for, at last, likely to, mad about, made of, married to, mirrored by/in, new to,occupied in/with, optimistic about, parted from, particular to, patient with, pleased with, popular with, preferable to, preoccupied with, proud of, qualified for/to, related to, responsible for, rich in, safe from, satisfied with, scared of, short of/with, sick of, skillful at/in, similar to, slow at, specific to, sorry for, strong in/on, successful in, superior to, sure of, surprised at, thirsty for, tired of, typical of, weak on, worried about, worthy of, wrong with
Prepositional Structures
In English, the change of the preposition accompanying a certain word, can change the meaning of the prepositional structure: at the end / in the end (at the finish / finally) You must hand in the paper at the end of the month. In the end everything came back to order. on time / in time (in due time / at the set time sharp) She always arrives right on time. I'll be there in time for the meeting. between / among (used for two things / used for more than two things) The boy was sitting between the two new girls. Nobody among the classmates knew the answer.
355 Christina MOLDOVEANU-BARBU about / on (used informally / used formally) I will tell you about my holiday abroad. The researcher talked on new discovery. above / over (used in static constructions / used in dynamic constructions) Look at the words above the text! The plane flew over the mountains. across / through (used when the movement takes place on the surface / used for tri-dimensional constructions) The bus was going across the field. The diver was swimming through the sea water. before / in front of (temporal /spatial) Please, come before 10 o'clock! The building lies in front of the post-office.
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The Conjunction
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The Conjunction
The Conjunction is the part of speech which connects sentences or words of the same syntactical function. It does not have a syntactical function of its own, but it marks the relation of coordination or subordination in the sentence or in the compound/complex sentence. Mother and father have gone to work. They said that they would come home late to day.
The conjunctions can be: - simple (and, but, for, or, if, that etc): I went to school that day, but my brother didn't. - compound (however, otherwise, unless, whenever, whatever etc.): I would have called you unless you had been out of town. - correlative (either...or; neither...nor; both...and; as...as; not only... but also; whether...or; the more..., the more; no sooner... than; etc.): Either you do it or you hire somebody to do it for you. - conjunctional phrases (as well as, for instance, in order to, that is why, as long as etc.): I will help you as long as you respect my advice.
According to their function, the conjunctions can be: - coordinating conjunctions – which connect words or clauses with similar values: (cumulative conjunctions) and, as well as, besides, both… and, further/futhermore; not only …but also; (adversative/contrastive conjunctions) but, although, nevertheless, still, yet, while, whreas; (disjunctive/alternative conjunctions) or, else, either…or, neither…nor, otherwise; (conclusive conjunctions) accordingly, consequently, for, hence, so, so that, then, therefore, thus; (explanatory conjunctions): for example, let's say, namely, such as The girls set the table and the boys brought the wine and beer. I know the solution, but he doesn't want help. You will obey or I will call your father. I could adjust the schedule so that you would fit in. Wood, for example, is used to manufacture paper. - subordinating conjunctions – which connect the subordinate clauses with their governing clause: where, wherever, when, since, till/ until, while/as, before, after, exactly, just as, although / though, as...as / as if / as though, as, since, because, so that, in order that, for fear, in case, lest, if,
358 ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE as long as, provided that, on condition that, unless; that, if; when, what, who, why Although he might be wrong, don't contradict him! He would come if you called him. He asked me if I wanted to go with him. The question was why he lied to us.
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The Interjection
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The Interjection
The Interjection is the part of speech which expresses sudden and short strong emotions, sensations, urges, calls or sounds from the surrounding environment.
The interjections are exclamations and usually they alone form a sentence (without a Predicate or a Subject): Oh! Wow! Oops! Absolutely! Alright! Goodness!
Sometimes the interjections have an apposition role and they are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma: Oh, I am sorry to hear that! We managed, thank God, to save it!
The interjections can be: - simple (ah, oh, hey, wow, bow, buzz, bang etc.) “Wow, you did it!” - compound – repetitive sound structures (bow-wow, miaow-miaow, tick- tack etc.) “Bow-wow!” barked the dog. - interjectional phrases – contain conjunctions and other parts of speech (God forgive me!; Damn you!; Goodness gracious!; Well done!; What a pity!) What a pity you did not win!
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AFTERWORD
ENGLISH THROUGH EUROPE… What a wonderful journey... through Romania, Serbia, Greece, Italy, Austria, Spain, United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Germany, Poland Sweden, Russia and Turkey!… A wonderful DOUBLE JOURNEY, as the fourteen European countries have been our host for the study of the English verb, article, noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, numeral, preposition, conjunction and interjection. A thematic journey with basic grammar rules and a lot of language practice. The journey has reached its final point and hopefully has improved English grammar and English fluency. We hope it has also developed the desire of traveling and discovering more and more beauties of European cultures. Europe has so much to offer to the wandering tourist: so many touristic spots are still waiting to be holidayed through. There are plenty of wonderful places… enough to fill hundreds of such journeys. Achieve experience in every corner of Europe! Discover the incredible Europe and create memories that last a lifetime!
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Christina Moldoveanu-Barbu (Guide of a linguistic travel)
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