The Politics of Nationalism in Modern Iran Ali M

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Abduh, Mohammad, 26 Anglo-Persian Oil Company (later Abrahamian, Ervand, 90 Anglo-Iranian Oil Company), 93, Abrahamic religions, 15 129, 130, 135 Achaemenids, 15, 21, 34, 144, 166–167, William Knox D’Arcy, 129 169, 171, 173, 289 Arabs, 30 Adamiyat, Fereydoun, 142–143, 184, Anti-Arabism, 165 206, 227 Association with Islam, 145, 146 Afghan, uprising of 1722, 10 Arani (trial of), 128 al-Afghani, Jamal al Din, 26, 28–30, Arjomand, Said A., 194, 198 46, 206 Arsanjani, Hasan, 161–162 compared with Mehdi Bazargan, 207 Aryanism. See Indo-Europeanism dialogue with Joseph Ernest Ashraf, Ahmad, 262, 263 Renan, 47 Avesta, Avestan. See Zoroastrianism and European intellectuals, 29, 47 Azerbaijan, 121, 154 Agha Mohammad Khan, 19, 23, Azerbaijan Crisis 1946, 121, 192, 291 123–124 Ahmad, Jalal Al-e, 186–188 Constitutional Revolution (reading Babi Revolt, 26, 42 of), 187 Baghi, Emad ad Din, 225–227, 229, 263 Tudeh Party, 186 Bahais. See also Shi’a Islam ‘Westoxification’ (Gharbzadadegi), 186 Persecution of, 150–152, 159 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 188, 259–264, Bakhtiar, General, 158, 210 273, 275–276, 278 Bayle, Pierre and the Achaemenids, 229, 259, 275 on the Enlightenment and the Abbasid and Cyrus, 198, 260, 278, 279 Caliphate, 47 and the Holocaust, 264–265 Bazargan, Mehdi, 206–209, 211 Akhundzadeh, Mirza Fathali, 30, 58, 152 Bible Alam, Asadollah, 132, 160, 225, 262 Biblical narrative, 16 Amanat, Abbas, 40 Boroujerdi, Grand Ayatollah, 243–244 Amini, Ali, 161–162 British Imperial Bank of Persia, 41, 130 Ancient Persians, 16 Abdolhassan Ebtehaj, 130 Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919, Browne, Edward G., 13, 22, 25, 26, 28, 38, 70–71 40, 41, 45, 53, 58, 70, 178

321

322 Index

Browne, Edward G. (cont.) Impact of, 299–300 characterization of Turks, 23 Under Reza Shah, 94–95, 112 Revolution of 1905, 115, 118–119 Dar al Fonun, 95 Role of ulema, 44 Language, 98–100, 101 The Persian Revolution, 26, 40 School of Political Science, 95 A Year among the Persians, 22 University of Tehran, 96–98 Bush, President George W., 254 Europeans Europeanization Catholicism, 10 under Reza Shah, 83–85 Christensen, Arthur, 75–76, 108, 115 intellectual influences,47 , 75, 237 Churchill, Winston S., 154 idea of freedom, 144 Cold War, 33, 126, 137, 157–159, 163, on Laws, 90 287. See also Russia and United on Taqizadeh, 64 States technological influence on Iran, 247 Constitution trade and diplomatic links with Iran, 9 Constitutional Movement, 33, 43, 46, Westoxification (Gharbzadegi), 186–187 54–55, 150, 248, 285 Persian constitution, 51–52 Fardid, Ahmad, 186, 187–188 declaration of independence, 52 Constitutional Revolution, 188 and English constitution, 52–53 Heidegger, Martin, 188 US constitution, 78 Fardoust, Hussein, 225 Constitutional Revolution of 1905, 33, 39, Fedayeen e Islam, 118, 131, 134 43, 45–46, 60, 68, 87, 89, 140, 204, Ferdowsi, 34. See Shahnameh 206, 285 Firuz, Prince, 80, 86, 111 Azerbaijan, 121 Foroughi, Mohammad-Ali, 100, 104, 107, compared with American Revolution, 50 111, 112, 115, 119, 143, 154, 168, Legacy of, 90 272 and Reza Khan (later Reza Shah), 66 Compared with Kasravi, 119 Tabriz, 122 On Laws and Constitution, 87–88 Curzon, Lord, 14, 16, 38, 44, 178 Quoted, 36, 105 and the Anglo-Persian Agreement of On Shahnameh, 104–105 1907, 70–71 Freemasonary Persia and the Persian Question, 14, 38 and Enlightened nationalism, 42, 43 Cyrus, 21–22, 166–168, 170, 173, 175, Freemasons, 188, 205, 262 180, 222–223, 282, 300 French culture, 31, 48, 49 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud on, 198 use of French in Iranian elite, 92 Anniversary (2500th), 34 French Revolution, 4–6, 25 Cyrus cylinder, 21, 176, 260, 278–279 Legacy on Iranian thought, interest in, 115 Hedayat, Sadeq, 48 Thomas Jefferson’s interest in, 167 Kasravi, Ahmad, 48 and Islamic state, 223 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 5 Mohammad Reza Shah, 183 eulogy to Cyrus, 110 Germany Appeal of to Iranian nationalists, 55 Darius, 171 Gobineau, Count Arthur de, 23 Davar, Ali Akbar, 80, 86, 90–91, 111, 165 Gramsci, Antonio, 32 Radical Party, 86 grand narrative, 4, 6 Dawleh, Vosuq al, 71 Marxist thought, 4 Dehkhoda, Ali Akbar, 49–50 Great War, 7–8, 68–69, 71

Ebtehaj, Abdolhassan, 130, 163 Habermas, Jurgen, 255 Education (in Iran) Hajji Baba, 12. See also Morier

Index 323

Jones-Brydges, Harford, 12 Jaleh Square Massacre, 226 The Adventures of, 12, 38. See also Jam, Mahmud, 92 Jamalzadeh, Mohammad Ali Jamalzadeh, Mohammad Ali, 60–61, 186 Hardinge, Arthur (British Diplomat), 39 Yeki bud, Yeki Nabud, 61 Qajar decay and reform, 39, 40 Hajji Baba, 61 Hazhir, Abdulhussein, 131 Jannati, Ayatollah, 281 Hegel, 16 Jefferson, President Thomas, Progress (and Ancient Persians), 16 and Cyrus, 167 Herodotus, 10, 107, 167, 169–170, Jones, Sir William, 13 171 Jones-Brydges, Harford, 12–13 Historical scholarship (status in Iran), and Hajji Baba, 12 142–143 Hoveyda, Amir Abbas, 208–209 Kabir, Amir, 268 Hume, David, 274 Kadivar, Mohsen, 243–245 Huntington, Samuel, 163, 165 Karanjia, R.K. (India journalist), 177 Hussein, Saddam Kashani, Ayatollah, 147, 205 Invasion of Iran, 212. See also Iraq Kasrai, Siavosh, 176 Hyde, Thomas Kasravi, Ahmad, 118–120, 141, 142, 184 Religio Veterum Persarum (1700), 15 Compared with Hasan Taqizadeh, 118 Compared with Mohammad-Ali Imperial Calendar, 183, 199 Foroughi, 119 Adoption of, 183 Influences of the French Revolution on Indo-Europeanism Iranian thought, 48 Aryan myth, 8, 12–13, 14, 16, 119 Murder of (by Fedayin e Islam), 131 Aryanism, 15, 103, 107–108, 145, Tarikh-i Mashruteh-yi Iran, 40 147, 165, 174, 178–179, 234, Kaveh, 176, 194, 216–217. See also Kaveh 265, 291 Kaveh, 57–59 and the term ‘Iran’, 102 and Achaemenids, 59 and Third Reich, 108 and Iranian calendar, 58 India, 13 and Sasanians, 59 Iraq, and Shahnameh, 55–56, 59 Revolution of 1958, 160 Kaveh the Blacksmith, 57 War with Iran, 212–213, 226–227 Zahhak, 57 Isaacson, Isaac (‘Current Revolutions in Kayhan, 266 Persia’), 10 Kayhan Research Institute, 266–267 Islam, 29. See also Shi’a Islam and Sunni Keddie, Nikki, 5 Islam Kermani, Mirza Agha Khan, 30, 58 Islam and the State, 201, 209, 214–215, Khalkhali, Sadeq, 208–209, 223 241, 242 Khamenei, Ali, 214, 230, 241, 243, 253, Governance, 214–215, 238. See also 257, 258, 273–274, 282 Bazargan, Mehdi Khan Zand, Karim, 19 Guardianship of the Jurist, 199–200 Khatami, Mohammad, 246, 250, 252–255, Islamic Consultative Assembly, 218 257–258, 260, 264, 268–269, 276, Islamic identity, 227–228 280, 288, 298 Islamic Law, 209–210 and Western ideas, 248 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Khomeini, Ayatollah, 34, 192–193, 194– (IRGC), 220 195, 205, 212, 214, 224, 227, 230, Marxism (and Islam), 211–213, 295 232, 235, 238, 244, 249, 267, 287 Islamic (Iranian) Revolution, 1, 35, 164, Death of, 201, 221–222 179–180, 204, 236, 295 Status of Force Convention, 164 Khomeini’s role and influence on.See U.S. Embassy Siege 1979, 211 Khomeini ‘White’ Revolution, 179, 196

324 Index

Khosravi, Amir, 92 and films (twenty-first century Khosrow I, 86, 96, 166 portrayals), 270–271 Kurds, 120, 121, 249 and Khomeini, 195 and Mossadeq, Mohammad, Labour Government (in Britain), 133 136–138, 157 Larijani, Ali, 258, 268 removal of, 158 League of Nations and religion, 146 Anglo-Iranian Oil, 129 and Western education, 147 and nationalism, 8 Mojahedin-e Khalq Organization Lorraine, Sir Percy, 72–74 (MKO), 213 Molk, Mohammad Ali, 100 Majlis Montazeri, Ayatollah, 214, 243 Reforms Montesquieu, 10–11, 18 under the fifth Majlis, 77–78 Persian Letters, 10 and Reza Shah, 81–82 Morier, James, 12, 38. See also Hajji Baba Makki, Hussein, 92 Mosaddeq, Mohammad, 81, 124–125, Malcolm, John Sir, 13, 293 129–130, 131, 132, 135–139, 140, History of Persia, 20 148, 152, 157, 159, 161, 182, 184, Mali, Joseph 210, 238 on 1848 mythology, 7 and Mohammad Reza Shah, 136–138 Maliki, Khalil and Reza Shah, 125, 157 –158 Visit to Britain, 134 and Tudeh Party, 137 Menashri, David, 94, 96 Motahhari, Ayatollah Ali, 202–203, 266 Mannheim, Karl, 3 Mousavi, Mir Hussein, 214, 284 Mansur, Ali, 164 Marashi, Afshin, 57 Nader Shah, 11 Marx, Karl, 7, 162, 202. See also grand Comparison with Reza Shah, 67 narrative And Delhi 1739, 18 Marxism, Naimi, Jalal (editor of Keshvar) Arani (trial of), 128 Quoted, 132 Influence in Iran, 127, 161, 186, Napoleon Bonaparte, 5, 152–153 187, 189 Tulard, Jean: The Myth of the Saviour, Fear of, 137 152 Tudeh Party, 128–129, 239 Nasir al Din Shah, 22 and Islam, 189, 294 and Tobacco Boycott of 1891–1892, 40 Shariati, Ali, 189–190 Nasir Khan, 120 Taqizadeh, Seyyed Hasan, 127 National Bank of Iran, 92, 93 Mashai, Esfandiar Rahim, 279, National Front, 130–131, 132, 148, 159 280, 282 Nietzsche, Frederich, 15–17, 20, 57 Mesopotamia, 16, 21 Zarathustra, 15–16 Mirkhwand, 292–293 Zoroastrianism (influenced by), 15–16 Mirza Malkom Khan, 46 Nixon, President Richard, Mohammad Ali Shah, 54. See also Qajars State visit to Iran 1972, 177 Mohammad Reza Shah, 34, 35, 136–138, Nourizad, Mohammad, 269 153–162, 164–166, 168, 172–180, Nuri, (Ali Akbar) Nateq, 245, 246–247, 181–185, 192–195, 196, 198, 212, 259 218, 225 Nuri, Fazlollah, 206 and Aryanism, 174, 178–179 and Cyrus the Great, 166–167, 193 Occidentalism, 29, 290 eulogy to, 110 c.f. ‘Orientalism’, 29 and economic growth, 168, 178, Old Testament, 166, 167 181, 183 Cyrus, 21, 166

Index 325

Ottoman Constitution 1876, 42 Renan, Joseph Ernest, 27–28 Ottoman Empire, 19 and al-Afghani, 27, 47 Resurrection Party (Rastakhiz), 183 Pahlavis, 22, 67, 116, 177, 184, 191, 200, Reuter, Baron Julius de, 46, 130 224, 289, 291. See also Reza Shah Reza Shah (also Reza Khan), 72–73, 76, and Mohammad Reza Shah 79–80, 108–109, 123, 254, 287 Endurance of Pahlavi state after Islamic Constitutional Revolution, 50 Revolution, 194, 198. See also Europeanization of Iran, 83–85 Islamic state Influence of Sasanians on. See Sasanians Gah-Nameh-ye Panjah Sal-e and Nader Shah, 78 Shahanshahi-e Pahlavi, 182 Compared with, 67 Influence of the Sasanians on, 85–86 Ramara, General, 131 Meaning of the term ‘Pahlavi’, 82–83 As Reza Khan, commander of Cossacks, Shahanshah Pahlavi, 82 65–66 Parthians Rule of, 112, 114, 119 Compared to Sasanians, 76, 85 Terms ‘Shahanshah’ and ‘Iran’, 100–101 Persians Ricoeur, Paul, 114, 235 and their decadence,, 11 Romans, 16 Pezeshkzad, Iraq, 270 Rushdie, Salman, 215 Pirnia, Hasan, 103, 143, 167–168 Russia Pishavari, Jafar, 123–124 Anglo-Russian relations positivism, 6, 34 Anglo-Russian convention of 1907, professionalization (of history) 44, 53, 133 impact on Iranian historical annexation of Caspian Sea territories, 10 consciousness, 24 Azerbaijan Crisis 1946, 121, 123 progress, 4, 6 Fall of USSR and implications for Iran, and the Ancient Persians. See Hegel 231, 233, 256 Protestants influence on Persian affairs, 54 writers, 10 British concerns over, 71 Putin, President Vladimir, 260 During Second World War, 117, 120–121, 123, 128 Qajars, 23, 286 Soviet influences on opposition to Qajar State, 19 Reza Shah, 73 Position within Pahlavi Russian revolution of 1905, 42 historiography, 36 State visit by President Putin 2007, 260 Reform, 39 Treaty of Turkmenchai of 1828, 46, 121 Mohammad Ali Shah, 54 Status of the word ‘Iran’, 102 Saalam Turkifcation of, 24 Closure of newspaper, 251 as ‘Turks’66, Safavids, 25–26 Qalibaf, Mohammad Bagher, 258–259 empire, 19 Qavam, Ahmad, 123, 133, 138 religion, 25. See also Shi’a Islam state, 10 Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi, 220–221, collapse of, 18 230–231, 245, 260, 268, 280, 287 Saltaneh, Itimad al, 32 Ranke, Leopold von, 6 Sanskrit, 16 Rawlinson, Henry and Indo-Europeanism, 13 Bisitun inscriptions of Darius I, 17 Sasanians, 59, 144, 166, 229–230, Razavi, Ahmed, 139 232, 289 Razmara, Haj Ali, 129, 131, 132–134 Compared with Parthians, 76, 85 Reformist Movement, 246, 249, 253, 254. Fall of Sasanian state and status of See also Mohammad Khatami Islam, 148–150

326 Index

Sasanians (cont.) 115, 122, 141, 142, 144, 145, 149, Influence on Reza Shah, 75, 82–83, 150, 165–166, 167, 184, 186, 203, 86, 9 6 206, 248 Khosrow I, 86 Compared with Ahmad Kasravi, 118 SAVAK, 160 On Constitutional Revolution 1905, Scott, Sir Walter, 6 45–46 Second World War, 8, 113 Kaveh (editorship of), 46, 56–59, 61 Anglo-Soviet occupation Tackling inaccuracies in Iranian his- (of Iran), 113 tory, 60 Radio, 126–127 Persia’s Appeal to England, 53 Shabestari, Mojtahed, 235, 241, 243 On political and Constitutional reform, Shahnameh, 20, 25, 34, 60, 104–105, 108, 62–64, 68–69, 81 115, 119, 126, 128, 143, 144–145, Talbott, Major, 40 148, 174, 176, 177, 193, 216–218, Teymourtash, Abdolhussein, 79–80, 222, 233, 255, 269, 288, 291, 292, 86, 111 296–297 Constitutional Revolution, 80 Ferdowsi, 34, 104, 106 Tobacco Boycott of 1891–1892, 40–41, Millennial celebrations, 107–108 43, 46 and Mohammad Reza Shah, 34 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 248. See also French use in Kaveh. See Kaveh Revolution Shamlou, Ahmad, 216–219, 255 Tudeh Party, 128–129, 134, 158, 239 Kaveh, 216–217 and Mossadeq, 137 Zahhak, 217, 219 Turkey, 24 Shariati Ali, 177, 181, 188–191, 192, Military coup of 1960, 160 202–203 Turks, 23, 30, 42 Shephard, Sir Francis, 133 Azeri Turkish. See Tabriz Shi’a Islam, 25, 26, 35, 146, 177 Edward Browne, 23 influence on Iranian identity, 25 Qajars (regarded as), 66 Safavids (Shah Ismail), 25 Shi’a orthodoxy, 26 Ulema. See Shi’a Islam and Babism/Bahais, 26, 42, 150 United States, 205, 213 Ulema, 25, 29, 51, 79, 80, 83, 116, 118, Influence in Iran, 163 134, 146–147, 151, 181, 196, 227, Relationship with Iran. See also Nixon 229, 236, 269 and Bush and its threat to Qajar dynasty, 40 U.S. Embassy siege 1979, 211 role in the Tobacco Revolt 1892– U.S. as the ‘Great Satan’, 211, 275 1893, 41 Status of Forces Convention, Siakhal guerrilla insurrection of 1971, 210 163–164 Soroush, Abdolkarim, 239, 241–242, 245 University of Tehran, 127. See also Soviet Union. See Russia Education Spring-Rice, Sir Cecil University of Uppsala. See Isaacson, Isaac Account of events in 1906, 44–45 Urabi Revolt of 1881–1882, 42 Sunni Islam and the Ottoman Empire, 25 Varzi, Mohammad Reza, 270 Sykes, Percy, 24 Wagner, Richard Tabari, 149 Opera on Rostam, 17 Tabatabai, Seyyed Zia, 65, 72–73 Weber, Max, 7, 12, 255, 283 Tabriz, 122 Western thought, Azeri Turkish, 122 impact on Iranian nationalism, 3 Taqizadeh, Seyyed Hasan, 36, 46, 47, 48, White Revolution, 33, 196, 204, 210 49, 50–51, 53–55, 60, 83, 95, 111, Wright, Sir Denis, 164–165

Index 327

Xenophon, 167 Zoroastrianism, 15, 170–172, 229, 232 Yazdi, Ayatollah Misbah, 281 Avesta, Avestan, 16 Iranian-Zoroastrian calendar (use in Zahhak. See also Kaveh256 Kaveh), 58 Zarrinkub, Abdollhussein, 143, 148, Zoroaster, 14–15 203, 229 Zoroastrian liturgy, 16