Addai and Baidoo.… J. Appl. Biosci. 2013. Effects of forest destruction on in Bosomkese forest reserve,

Journal of Applied Biosciences 64: 4763 – 4772

ISSN 1997–5902 The effects of forest destruction on the abundance, species richness and diversity of butterflies in the Bosomkese Forest Reserve, Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana. Addai, G. and Baidoo P. K*. Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. *Corresponding author’s email address: [email protected]

Original submitted in on 15th January 2013. Published online at www.m.elewa.org on 25th April 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jab.v64i1.88465

ABSTRACT Objectives: Despite the substantial loss of natural forest in the Bosomkese Forest Reserve, little is known on the effects of the massive habitat loss and degradation on forest biota. The study therefore assessed the effects of anthropogenic activities on species composition and abundance in the Bosomkese Forest reserve in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana. Methodology and Results: The effects of anthropogenic activities on butterflies were studied in three forest types identified in the forest reserve namely, disturbed canopy (DC) slightly disturbed canopy (SDC) and undisturbed canopy (UC), which was the control. The data on the butterflies were collected using fruit – baiting traps on a 1 kilometer line transect selected in each of the study areas. Species richness and diversity were analyzed using Simpson’s Diversity Index. Five butterfly families were identified during the study. These were: Numphalidae, Hesperiidae, , Lycaenidae and Papilionidae. recorded the largest number of species whilst Papilionidae was the least abundant. The undisturbed canopy recorded the largest number of butterflies whilst the disturbed canopy recorded the least number of butterflies. In terms of diversity, the undisturbed canopy showed the greatest diversity whilst the disturbed canopy showed the least diversity. Conclusion and application of findings: Strict enforcement of forest laws by the law enforcement agencies and creating alternative source of livelihood for the people living in and around the forest reserve will help reduce the dependence on the forest as a source of livelihood.

INTRODUCTION The exploitation of the natural forest by man for his as well as a sink for carbon dioxide thereby survival has left in its wake massive degradation reducing global warming (Myers, et al., 2000). and destruction. Forests provide many social, According to Swanes et al. (1997), close to 40% of economic, and environmental benefits to the pharmaceutical products used in the USA are survival of man. It is a source of timber and paper either based on or synthesized from material products, habitat for wildlife, recreational facilities compounds found in plants, , or

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Addai and Baidoo.… J. Appl. Biosci. 2013. Effects of forest destruction on butterflies in Bosomkese forest reserve, Ghana microorganisms. Other uses of the forest include makes them sensitive to changes in biotic and the promotion of eco-tourism, with financial abiotic environment. Butterflies are among the benefits to the local citizens (The International best-known that are involved in pollinating Eco-Tourism Society, 1992), aesthetic and cultural flowers. Butterflies are also good indicators of benefits (Gormey, 1997), and scientific research. habitat quality as they respond rapidly to Forests have therefore contributed and continue to modification of vegetation (Robbins and Opler, contribute to the survival of man. 1996). They are extremely susceptible to unusual In spite of the enormous benefits obtained from climatic conditions and certain species can be forests, large areas of the richest forests in the used to indicate certain environmental conditions. world have been cleared for fuel wood, timber Butterflies are widely recognized as potentially products, and agriculture (Alonso et al., 2001). valuable ecological indicator. Their presence can Based on a five- year study, FAO (2005) found that prove that habitats are suitable and indicate that forest areas throughout the world were declining at certain conditions have been met. Butterflies are a rate of about 7.3 million hectares per year, an often colourful and sensitive to habitat and area equivalent to Panama and . The environmental changes. Therefore, any change in Upper Guinean forests of Ghana are among the the forest can lead to changes in butterfly most biologically unique in the world because they communities (Daily and Ehrlich 1995). harbour a wide diversity of plant and Certain butterfly species can be used to define species, many of which are found nowhere else, environmental health simply by the presence of but these are also among the most critically particular species. In contrasts, their absence may threatened forests in the world (Larson et al., reflect declining health (Larson and Collins, 1998). 2007)Only about 10-15% of original forest cover The influence of landscape patterns on butterfly has not been destroyed and what remains is highly communities have been documented by different fragmented and degraded With the exception of authors (Schneider et al., 2003., Natuhara et al., sacred forest groves, virtually no forest cover 1999). Sparks and Carey (1995) observed an remains outside the boundaries of designated influence of the floral composition on butterfly reserves (Allotey, 2007). diversity. Similarly, Schoonhoven et al. (1998) A wide range of human activities such as farming reported that tree species diversity and cover had and logging result in degradation of biotypes and a positive effect on butterfly, but high proportion of loss of habitats. Loss of habitats such as large trees had a negative effect on butterflies. unimproved grasslands and wetlands has been Butterflies are day flying insects and relatively particularly dramatic and has led to reduction in abundant in areas of luxuriant vegetation. They are population in many European sensitive to changes in temperature, humidity, and countries (Kudrna, 1986, Van Swaay and Warren, light levels that are caused by habitat changes. 1999., Balber and Erhardt, 2000., Ricketts et al., Changes in butterfly composition and abundance 2001). Population increase, coupled with can point to suitable changes in forest habitat urbanization and industrialization over the years because the larvae have specialized host-plant have led to over-exploitation of forest resources requirements and adults are important for studies resulting in high deforestation and disappearance that can reveal the stabilization or decline of of some plant and animal species (Fermon, 2002). butterflies’ species population due to habitat Insects are important in environmental quality destruction or loss of forest ecosystem. The study assessment because of their dominance in therefore assessed the effects of anthropogenic terrestrial ecosystem. Their short life cycles can activities on butterfly species composition and result in rapid population responses to abundance in the Bosomkese Forest Reserve in disturbances and their wide range of life style the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana.

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Addai and Baidoo.… J. Appl. Biosci. 2013. Effects of forest destruction on butterflies in Bosomkese forest reserve, Ghana

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area: The study was undertaken in the butterflies once they enter the trap as recommended by Bosomkese Forest Reserve, which is located about (Barlow et al., 2007). Four different traps were set in 28km East of Sunyani, Ghana and covers a total area each of the transect lines in all the blocks by hanging of 138km2. The Forest Reserve lies approximately the trap nets on supports or shrubs and within 0.1m between latitude 00N, 7˚15N, longitude 2˚05W, and and 1m from the ground level (Bossat et al., 2006). 2˚30W. It is located within the semi-deciduous South Traps were baited with different attractants such as East forest zone (Swanes, 1996) and has a mean pulverised, fermenting banana, flowers, and fermented annual precipitation of between 900 mm to 1500mm. fruit, covered in a rubber bucket two days prior to each There are two well-defined seasons, a rainy season collection. The prepared bait was mixed with fresh palm from April to October and dry season from November to wine for maximum attraction of the butterflies and to March. There are two rainfall peaks-May/June and speed up the fermentation process. The traps were September/October. However, long periods of drought hanged from ropes attached to branches of trees and are normal in December and January. The Forest or shrubs. Whenever a butterfly was captured, the bait Reserve is divided into 84 compartments with three was replaced with fresh one. The trap stations were designations based on the nature of their canopies. labelled as treatment, T1, T2, T3, and T4. Baits were then These include open canopy, where only selective put in plastic plates and placed in the trap to complete logging is allowed under the strict forest laws and the procedure. Each trap was replicated four times. In regulations, closed canopy where little or no human addition to this, walk- and- catch -method using activities is allowed to take place, and disturbed canopy butterfly nets was employed within one kilometre line where the forest has been destroyed or near transect in each of the study area. With this, any destruction due to the activities of the inhabitants of the butterfly observed and caught within the catchments area. area was counted. Data were collected monthly for six Data collection on the butterflies months (October 2010- March 2011) and for each Site selection: A one (1) kilometre long transect was month, sampling was replicated two times. Butterflies of selected from each of the three blocks. This selection West (Larson, 2005) was the identification guide was guided by the effort from the forest guards. used for identifying the families and species. Data were Sampling of the butterflies for the study was carried out collected on numbers of butterflies, relative abundance along the transects at 25 metres interval in each block of butterflies with respect to habitat preference and which was randomly selected with the point of entry dominance, species richness and diversity. Relative and accessibility in the area taken into consideration. abundance and dominance of the butterflies with Butterfly sampling: A cylindrical trap of at least 90cm respect to habitat preference and dominance were in height was used to capture the butterflies. This calculated from the following formulae: height was used to minimize the escape of the

Number of individual butterflies Relative abundance 100%  Total number of butterflies captured

Number of individual butterflies  Relative dominance 100% Total number of butterflies sampled in all the areas

 Species diversity of the butterflies was calculated using Simpson’s Diversity Index.

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Addai and Baidoo.… J. Appl. Biosci. 2013. Effects of forest destruction on butterflies in Bosomkese forest reserve, Ghana

Simpson's Index (D) measures the probability that the individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to the same species (or some category other than species). n(n 1) D   N(N 1) n = the total number of organisms of a particular species N = the total number of organisms of all species (Goetz, 2007). The value of D ranges between 0 and 1. With this index, 0 represents infinite diversity and 1, no diversity. That is, the larger the value of D, the lower the diversity.

Data analysis: Data collected were analysed using the Data on butterflies were quantified in terms of Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and the abundance and species richness. Species diversity was results were presented in means and percentages. calculated using Simpson’s Diversity Index.

RESULTS The number of butterfly counts in the forest types Papilionidae, Hesperidae, Pieridae and Lycaenidae. in Bosomkese Forest Reserve: A total of 119 None of the forest types recorded all the five butterfly individual butterflies belonging to 5 families were families Nymphalidae was the most dominant family in collected from October 2010 to March 2011. Thirty-one all the three forest types (Fig. 1). Apart from being (31) were captured in the undisturbed forest canopy present in all the canopy types, it also recorded the representing 26.05% of the total, 37 individuals in the largest number of butterflies compared with the other slightly disturbed area (31.10%) were collected whilst, families (Fig. 1). Hesperidae was the least abundant the disturbed canopy recorded 51 individual butterflies among the families identified and was absent from the accounting for 42.85% of the total number captured disturbed canopy. Similarly, Papilionidae and Pieridae over the study period. were totally absent from the slightly disturbed and Numbers of Butterfly Families and Species: The undisturbed canopy respectively. Butterfly families identified were: Nymphalidae,

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Fig. 1: Distribution and abundance of butterflies in the three forest types In all a total of 19 butterfly species belonging to 5 Amaurina hecate (L.), Euphaedra zempa (L.) families were identified. The Nymphalidae recorded the cynthia (L.) and Neptis nysiades (L.) occurred in all largest number of species (9), whilst Papilionadae, three canopy types. Similarly, within the Pieridae, which was recorded only in the disturbed canopy, florella was identified in all three canopy recorded only 1 species. Within the Nymphalidae, types (Table 1).

Table 1: Distribution and relative abundance of butterflies in the three forest types Families and individual species of Relative abundance (%) Butterflies UC SDC DC Nymphalidae Amaurina hecate hecate (L.) 3.2(0.84) 2.7(0.84) 1.9 (0.84) italus (L.) 6.5(1.70) 0.0 0.0 Bicyclus dorothea (L.) 12.9(3.40) 0.0 0.0 chalcis (L.) 0.0 21.6(6.72) 0.0

Euphaedra zempa (L.) 3.2(0.80) 2.7(0.84) 9.8(4.20) Charaxes cynthia, cynthia (L.) 3.3(0.84) 10.8(3.40) 11.7(5.04) Neptis nysiades (L.) 22.5(5.88) 18.9(5.88) 7.8(3.40) Psuedacraea eurytus (L.) 3.2(0.84) 5.4(1.88) 0.0 Pentila hewitsonii (L.) 6.5(1.70) 0.0 0.0

Hesperiidae Abantis tanobea (L.) 3.2(0.84) 0.0 0.0 Melphina malthina (L.) 3.2(0.84) 0.0 0.0 Eagaris decastigma (L.) 3.2(0.84) 5.4(1.70) 0.0

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Addai and Baidoo.… J. Appl. Biosci. 2013. Effects of forest destruction on butterflies in Bosomkese forest reserve, Ghana

Pieridae Paseudopontia paradoxa (L.) 6.5(1.70) 0.0 0.0 Catopsilia florella (L.) 3.2(0.84) 2.7(0.84) 13.7(5.88) euippe euippe (L.) 0.0 0.0 13.7(4.20) Mylothris atewa (L.) 19.4(5.04) 24.3(7.60) 0.0 Lycaenidae Stempffera dorothea (L.) 0.0 5.4(1.70) 0.0 Anthene wilsoni (L.) 0.0 0.0 15.7(6.72)

Papilionidae

Papilio dardanus (L.) 0.0 0.0 29.4(12.60) Total 100 100 100 NB. Figures in parenthesis represent dominance (%) of each species in the Bosomkese Forest. Larson, (2005), authored scientific names of butterflies.

Relative abundance of butterflies with respect to Catopsilia florella were dominant in the DC canopy habitat preference : Results of the relative abundance recording 12.60%, 6.72% and 5.88% respectively of the of butterflies in the three canopy types are shown in butterflies captured. Pentila hewotsonii (L.), Bicyclus Table 1. Among the individual butterfly species italus (L.), Bicyclus dorothea (L.) (Nymphalidae), recorded in the undisturbed canopy, Neptis nysiades Psuedopontia parodoxa (L.)(Pieridae), Abantis tanobia (L.) was the most abundant (22.5%) while Abantis (L.), Melphina malthina (L.) (Hesperiidae) were unique tanobia (L.), Melphinia malthina (L.), Eagaris species recorded in the undisturbed canopy and these decostigma (L.), Amaurina hecate hecate (L.), species showed evenness in abundance between 0.84 Eupheadra zampa (L.), Catopsilia florella (L.) and to 1.0(Table1). Two butterfly species Stempfferia Pseudacraea eurytus (L.) were the least abundant dorothea (L.) (Lyceanidae) and Euryphura chacis (L.) (3.2%). In the slightly disturbed canopy (SDC), (Nymphalidae) were unique in the slightly disturbed Mylothris atewa (L.) was the most abundant (24.3%). zone in the reserve. Papilio dardanus (L.) which was On the other hand, hecate hecate (L.), the most dominant among all the species (12.6 %) was Euphaedra zampa (L.) and Catopsilia florella (L.) were found in the DC. Anthene wilsoni (L.) and Colotis the least abundant (2.7%). Other species such as euippe (L.) were found to be the unique species in the Bicyclus dorothea and B. italus were completely absent disturbed canopy. Three species namely Eagaris from this canopy type. Results from the disturbed decastigma (L.), Mylothris atewa (L.) and Psuedacraea canopy (DC), showed that Papilio dardanus (L.) was eurytus (L.) were common in both the undisturbed the most abundant (29.4) with Amaurina hecate hecate canopy and slightly disturbed canopy. (L.) recording the least of abundance of 1.9%. Papilio Species richness and diversity of butterflies in the dardanus was recorded only in the disturbed canopy Bosomkese Forest Reserve: The undisturbed canopy and completely absent from the other habitats. recorded the largest number of species and Dominance of butterflies in the three forests types: consequently had the highest species richness whilst Five (5) butterfly species namely Charaxes cynthia (L.), the disturbed canopy recorded the least species Amauris hecate hecate (L.), Neptis nysiades (L.) and richness (Table 2). In terms of diversity, the undisturbed Euphaedra zampa (L.) (Nymphalidae) and Catopsila canopy displayed greatest diversity of butterflies’ florella (L.) (Pieridae) were found in all the three forest species. The disturbed canopy had the least butterfly types. Neptis nysiades (L.) showed greater dominance species diversity. The value of D ranges between 0 and in both the undisturbed canopy and slightly disturbed 1. With this index, 0 represents infinite diversity and 1 canopy (5.88%) as against 3.40% in the disturbed area. represents no diversity. That is, the larger the value of However, Papilio dardanus, Anthene wilsoni and D, the lower the diversity.

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Addai and Baidoo.… J. Appl. Biosci. 2013. Effects of forest destruction on butterflies in Bosomkese forest reserve, Ghana

Table 2: Species richness and diversity of the butterflies in the Bosomkese forest Reserve betweenDecember 2010 and March 2011. Parameter UC SDC DC Species richness 14 10 8

Diversity 0.09 0.12 0.15

DISCUSSION The effect of forest destruction on the number of Nymphalidae within the Forest floor of West Africa. butterflies sampled in the three forest types in the Most Nymphalidae are fruit feeding butterflies hence Bosumkese Forest Reserve (BFR): The disturbed their large numbers in the Bosomkese Forest Reserve canopy recorded the largest number of butterflies, an (Larson, 1994a). It is estimated that approximately 900 indication that most of them preferred that habitat. This butterfly species occur in Ghana and most of these was the area where there was enough solar radiation were identified to belong to the Nymphalidae (Larson up to the forest floor as result of the destruction of the (2005). This explains why larger numbers of them were canopy. Most butterfly species prefer open areas where captured in the Forest Reserve. Addae-Wireko (2008) the temperature is relatively high especially during the also indicated that the Nymphalidae are the most early part of the day (Larson, 2005). Similarly, Dumbrell widely known butterfly species in Ghana. This wide and Hill (2005) indicated that butterflies prefer areas distribution of the Nymphalidae could also be attributed where the temperature ranges between 28 oC– 33 oC to their preference for many plant species. Butterflies of with optimum humidity. The least number of butterflies other families have been found to be strictly associated recorded in the undisturbed canopy was as a result of with particular plant species, making them plant high moisture content and its associated low species-specific (Larson (1997). temperature (average 27 oC) which is only preferred by The distribution and relative abundance of some of the species that are adapted to those butterflies in the three forest type in the conditions. According to Larson (1997), most of the Bosomkese Forest Reserve: Most of the butterfly butterfly species, during the early days of African species sampled in the closed canopy are classified as history were recorded in the tropical rain forest areas the forest type of butterflies that tolerate forest but due to changing trends of the nature of the forest conditions. Bicyclus italus, B. dorothea, Pentila most of the species are near extinction or have gone hewitsonii, Abantis tanobea and Melphina malthina into extinction particularly in the sub-Sahara African were sampled only in the undisturbed canopy but countries including Ghana. Human activities such as completely absent from the other canopy types. This farming and logging were responsible for the fewer observation was in agreement with that by Larson and butterfly species in the disturbed canopy Basset et al. Collins (1998) that Pentila sp. Bicyclus sp. and (1998) also indicated that with the destruction of the Melphina sp. are found in greater numbers in forests of natural habitat, many of its animals go extinct and that good quality in terms of the undisturbed nature of the ‘we are losing approximately 100 species of organisms canopy. Bicyclus dorothea also adapted well within the per day’. The slightly disturbed canopy recorded more closed canopy as indicated by Larson (1994a) that butterflies than the undisturbed canopy but fewer than most of these species are attracted to fermenting fruit the disturbed canopy. This may be attributed to habitat and sap oozing from damaged trees, sometimes preference by the butterflies. clogging up banana-baited butterfly trap, but they do Number of Butterfly Families Sampled: The number not visit flowers. He also confirmed that they are of species of butterflies belonging to Nymphalidae adapted to forests of good canopy. Neptis nysiades family was more than any of the other butterfly families was found to be the most abundant species in the identified during the study. Individual butterflies undisturbed canopy and was well distributed in the belonging to this family also accounted for 62.1% of all other habitats. Larson (1995a) indicated that, this the butterflies sampled during the study. Butterfly species is not particularly common in wet rainforest species within the family were also sampled within all areas but is most frequently found in semi-deciduous the canopy types. This might be due to the wide range forests preferring rather open areas or secondary of adaptations as well as wide habitat preference of growth in wetter forest regions. It was rather surprising

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Addai and Baidoo.… J. Appl. Biosci. 2013. Effects of forest destruction on butterflies in Bosomkese forest reserve, Ghana that it was most abundant in the undisturbed canopy. been found to thrive well in the drier regions of the Mylothris atewa was first discovered within the Atiwa transitional zone, between the forest and savannah Forest Range in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Most M. which explains their presence in Ghana (Larson, atewa are forest butterflies, but some penetrate into the 1995b). According to Larson, (1994c) Papilio sp and Savannah along rivers and only handfuls are Colotis sp for example cannot penetrate forests of good savannah-adapted (Larson 1994a). Occasionally, they quality where the moisture content is high; hence they may be found on flowers but are mainly fruit-feeding are purely savannah butterfly species. A.wilsoni thrives butterflies. This explains why they were more dominant well in much drier forest of the Northern Ghana and in the undisturbed and slightly disturbed canopies. was first observed around Upper West Region of was most abundant in the slightly Ghana (Larson, 1994c). Euryphura chalci was more disturbed canopy area of the reserve. Their dominance abundant and unique than Stempffera dorothea in the was no surprise as this butterfly species prefers dry- slightly disturbed canopy. Euryphura chalci can tolerate forest conditions but quickly migrates to the deep forest and adapt well to the forest of secondary growth and area when the area is cleared (Larson 1995a). E. more importantly open and drier forests than chalcis is strictly a forest type of butterfly. Papilio Stempfferia dorothea which can only adapt when the dardanus was most abundant in the disturbed canopy primary forest is cleared (Larson, 1995c). Most of the than any other species even though Anthene wilsoni, species that thrive well in the undisturbed canopy also Colotis euippe euippe, Catopsila florella and Charaxes have the tendency to survive in the slightly disturbed cynthia cynthia were equally abundant in the same area canopy. This may be due to the similarity in the although to a lesser extent. All these butterflies conditions prevailing in the two areas within the forest especially Papilo sp, Anthene sp and Colotis sp are reserve. On the contrary, due to wide differences in categorically labelled as savannah butterflies (Larson, environmental conditions, P. dardanus, C.euipe and 2001). Papilio sp is common in degraded forests and A.wilsoni were not observed in the undisturbed and open spaces where the land is most cultivated. It was slightly disturbed canopies. This was because most of therefore not surprising that this butterfly species was the species observed in the disturbed canopy can also found only in the disturbed canopy. Larson (2006) be observed on even a brief walk through agricultural stated that even though it is found in all types of forest, lands and village forest zones, though the species– it does not penetrate the wetter forest types. It is mostly composition differs from locality to locality. Very few found in drier forests, but is now probably most would ever be encountered within forests of good common in the garden shrubs of major towns and in quality (Larson, 1994c). agriculture areas with trees and crops (Larson, 1994c). The effect of forest destruction on species richness The effect of forest destruction on the distribution and diversity in the three forest types in the and butterfly dominance in the three forest types in Bosumkese Forest Reserve: The undisturbed canopy Bosumkese Forest Reserve: Five genera namely recorded high species richness and consequently high Charaxes, Amaurina, Neptis, Euphaedra and Catopsilia diversity in the butterfly species. This was due to the were found to tolerate a wide range of environmental heterogeneous nature of the vegetation in the conditions; hence they are described as ubiquitous undisturbed canopy which attracted butterflies of species (Larson, 2005). They can survive in both open different species. Over the years the decrease of and closed forests whether dry or rain forest even closed forest has led to the development of secondary though Catopsilia, Euphaedra and Charaxes were more habitats, ranging from laterite to almost rock-like soil dominant in the disturbed canopy. The forest habitat with hardly any vegetation to derived savannah, various seems to provide conducive habitat for Pentila combinations of mixed agriculture, and finally tree crops hewontsonii (L.), Bicyclus italus (L.), Abantis tanobia such as cocoa and kola nuts. In such areas butterfly (L.), Psuedopontia paradoxa (L.) and Bicyclus dorothea diversity has decreased considerably and true (L.). These species thrive best in dense undergrowth ubiquitous species have thrived, while some savannah where it may be difficult to capture them (Lewis, 2002) species of butterflies have invaded these degraded hence the smaller numbers trapped. However, Colotis forests. However, a small number of species have euippe (L.), Anthene wilsoni (L.) and Papilo dardanus greatly benefited and are now much more common in (L.) were very much adapted to the disturbed canopy West Africa than they ever were (Larson 2005). This hence their dominance over other species. They have explains why species richness as well as diversity was

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Addai and Baidoo.… J. Appl. Biosci. 2013. Effects of forest destruction on butterflies in Bosomkese forest reserve, Ghana much lower in the disturbed canopy than the therefore directly related to species richness of a undisturbed canopy. The species diversity was locality (Hamer et al., 1997).

CONCLUSION The undisturbed canopy recorded the largest number of only species recorded in the destroyed canopy, an species and therefore the highest species richness and indication that this species is adapted to open areas of species diversity compared to the other two forest the forest. Forest resources serve as sources of types. This was an indication that human activities have livelihood for man and other animals. It is therefore negatively affected the butterfly species. Five butterfly necessary for the forest to be used in a sustainable families belonging to 19 species were identified in the manner for the use of future generations. forest reserve. Papilio dardanus (Papilionidae) was the

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