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Colonial Mexico 1519 - 1713

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Encomiendas Government in New Council of the Indies, Viceroy and Audiencia Corregidores Exploration Mixton War The Church The Spanish Inquisition Religious Disputes Virgin of Guadalupe Cultural Life Social Classes Economy Colonial Architecture Colonial ceramics Tequila , Pulque and Wine Bourbon Reforms Mexican Colonial Coins

Map of , click to see

Colonial Mexico: A Guide to Historic Districts and Towns This is a great book on the "silver cities' of mexico. Reads like a novel, not a tour guide

video on Mexican colonial cities While Cortes was conquering the Aztec capital, no one in Spain was aware of it and Cortes conquest was without official recognition . With little preparation, Spain found Maps of Mexico itself a ruler a faraway land many times larger than itself and much more populated .How was it to control and convert such a land that was over two months away by sea ? The Encomiendas

Mexican coins

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Books on Colonial Mexico The Spaniards renamed Tenochititlan 'Mexico City' and rebuilt it as the capital of Nueva Espana ( New Spain ). Cortes granted his soldiers encomiendas ( land grants )which granted an entire town and its Indian population to an encomendero as the treasure hoped for after the conquest of the did not amount to much as much of it had been lost in the retreat of Noche Triste . The Indians owed them tribute as well as forced labor and was a thinly disguised form of slavery . The encomenderos were supposed to convert the Indians and look after their welfare .Spanish encomenderos were usually absentee landlords who lived in faraway cities .Charles V, wanting to protect his new vassals, outlawed encomiendas , but the grants had already been distributed by Cortes . The encomienda system attracted settlers and brought misery and death to many native people as it had in . The system interfered with Spain's control of the new colony and led to rebellions when Spain tried to reform the system in the 16th century when friar Bartolome de Las Casa convinced the crown to introduce the ' New Laws ' granting freedom to Indians unjustly enslaved and easing labor requirements. There was much opposition to this by the Spaniards in Mexico. When similar laws were enacted in Peru an insurrection resulted which took the life of the viceroy .In 1564, the Crown decreed that all encomiendas would cease upon the death of the holder . This incensed the descendants of the conquistadors . Some, such as Alonso de Avila, argued for independence from Spain with the son of Cortes, Don Martin to made king . Alonso and others were soon arrested and beheaded, and Don Martin was forced to go into exile .This ended independence talk at the time and also ended the new law on the encomienda. Over time as the Indians gained more rights the encomiendas faded away . .Despite the stories of fabulous wealth, the number of Spanish colonists was low. By 1560 there were barely 20,000 Spaniards in Mexico . The Indian population was devastated in the early colonial period, with an estimated 70 to 90 percent dying off due to disease, famine and overwork. there were an estimated 25 million before the conquest and a little over a million by 1605 .The Indian population did not revive until 1650 .African slaves were imported to make up for the decrease in the Indian labor pool. 20,000 had arrived by 1553 .Many Filipinos and Chinese entered on the Manila galleons, possibly as many as 6,000 by the 17th century .

Government in New Spain

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Imperial Spain coat of Arms

Cortes was appointed governor and captain general of New Spain in 1522 and he moved energetically to explore new lands and develop the economy .Cortes brought the first stocks of cattle to Mexico as well as sheep and goats and introduced European plants . He paid for the conquistadors wives to come to Mexico from Spain and encouraged his men to marry native women, beginning the first mestizos, children of Spanish and native Mexican blood .

Cortes, who had left Mexico to control his former commander Olid in in 1524- 26 was believed to be dead by the people of Mexico. Enemies of Cortes spread rumors that he cheated the crown. When he returned, he had the enemies hanged, but the Crown remained suspicious and Cortes, hoping to clear his name went to Spain . Charles Big Hat Curio... Art V, while impressed with the gallant nature of Cortes, desired to appoint his own viceroy Print

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in place of the rough adventurers in New Spain and did not reappoint Cortes governor, Buy for $19.99 but made him a marquis with a large estate to get him out of the way . Cortes did not have a noble lineage to be chosen as viceroy . Search For Posters! Council of the Indies, Viceroy and Audiencia

In 1524 Charles created the Council of the Indies ( "Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias" ) to oversee all aspects of the colonies and acting in his name . The Council regulated many aspects of life in New Spain, to the location of churches to what kind of crops could be grown . The king and the Council of the Indies decided New Spain needed a ruler to offset the popularity of Cortes and project the authority of the Crown , a viceroy . The first viceroy was not to arrive in Mexico till 1535. The viceroyalty was to administer a vast territory from California to , Caribbean islands and the Philippines . In 1527, Spain set up the first audiencia, a high court with government functions so court cases would not have to be referred to Spain .Judges (oidores ) of the audiencia were some of the most powerful men in the Indies. The audiencia was to keep an eye on the viceroy for the king .Judges (oidores ) of the audiencia were some of the most powerful men in the Indies.

Guzman In 1529 Nuno de Guzman became became one of three judges in Mexico City which led to one of the lowest points of Spanish administration in Mexico .This period between the rule of Cortes and the viceroys was a time of corruption, graft and injustice as Guzman and the other oidores sought to enrich themselves and gain power .

Zumarraga

Meanwhile, the first bishop of Mexico Juan de Zumarraga arrived in 1527 .Angered by the injustice and mistreatment of the Indians and corruption, he preached sermons condemning the judges at risk to his life. Guzman, fearing his days were numbered by the reports of Zumarraga to the Crown , set off to conquer Michoacan to get back in the good graces of the Crown .Guzman treated the Indians savagely, but explored as far as southern and conquered a large area .In 1538 he went to Spain to answer the charges against him and spent the rest of his life there under house arrest .After the fiasco of Guzman, more care was taken to chose his replacement .Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal who was appointed judge and turned out to be a man of high quality and corrected many abuses .

Mendoza

Don Antonio de Mendoza, count of Tendilla, accepted the appointment as viceroy after three others had declined and arrived in Mexico in 1535. He was related to the royal family . He had special orders to increase the crowns revenues and see that the Indians were better treated before they were decimated as they were in the Caribbean .He worked hard to provide stability and order . The viceroys or vice-kings, created an elegant court which became the center of European society in New Spain . There were long periods of delay in communication with Spain, and the viceroys and when orders seemed contrary to what was needed, the viceroy sometimes noted ' Obedezo pero no complo ' ( I obey but do not execute ). In order to check on the state of affairs in the colonies, the Crown sometimes sent a royal inspector or visitador .The inspector was

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given great authority and usually assumed rule of the colony during his inspection . Sometimes the inspector would travel inconito, sometimes there would be advanced warning .

There were 62 viceroys in New Spain, eventually men born in New Spain would hold this office . Corregidores Provincial administrators were called Corregidores and reported to the viceroy . In the early years these positions went to conquistadors or their sons. The salary for these positions was low and it was expected supplement their income by some sort of abuse of power .Provincial towns were organized by royal decree, all were to have a main plaza, church , royal palace and town hall with streets laid out in a grid pattern .Large cities such as , and Guadalajara were large enough to have cathedrals and grand palaces . The presidios (military towns), pueblos (civilian towns) and the misiones (missions) were the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories in these territories Exploration By 1524, almost all of the Aztec , along with such regions as Colina, the valley of Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec had been brought under control of the colony .Ports were set up such as Acapulco to search for a passage to the East . In the 1540s most the Yucatan was conquered and the city of Merida was founded in 1542 . The city states of the Mayans proved difficult to conquer unlike the centralized Aztecs .A revolt broke out in 1547 which took 20 years and an estimated 500 Spanish lives to quell . The last Mayan state did not fall till 1697 .

A large silver find in in the mid 1540s led to increased Spanish attempts to subdue the north .In the north the borders were slowly extended by missionaries and a few settlers and included most of modern day , , Arizona, California. and Colorado .

Francisco Vazquez de Coronado Mendoza appointed Francisco Vazquez de Coronado to search for Cibola and the seven cities of Gold rumored to exist in the north in 1540 . Coronado set off with 336 Spaniards and hundred of Indian allies . The Indians, wishing to get rid of the gold fevered Spanish quickly, always told the Spanish the gold cities were further on .Eventually, Coronado went as far north as Kansas before returning to Mexico empty handed . The Mixton War of 1540 -41

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Tenamaxtli The expedition had one unintended consequence . A large number of Spaniards who had settled in New Galicia ( northern Mexico ) went on Coronado's expedition, leaving the area undermanned . The Indians, vengeful of their treatment by Guzman took advantage of the opportunity to rebel in the ensuing Mixton War ( 1540-41), led by Tenamaxtli , the most serious revolt of the times .Alavardo himself was killed trying to subdue the Indians and the rebellion ended only after the viceroy led a large army into the area .Mendoza left a flourishing colony when he retired in 1550 with a legacy of strong royal rule .His successor, Luis de Velasco (1550-64) became known as the father of the Indians . The novel Aztec Autumn by Gary Jennings is an account of this war .Nine years after the Mixton Rebellion, it's continuation, the Chichimeca War began and went on for half a century, with the Spanish eventually buying off the Chichimecs .

The Church in Colonial Mexico

The baptism of Indians began with the march of Cortes . The hand of God was seen in the discovery of Mexico, a gift from God for freeing Spain from the Moslems, who were still viewed as a menace. The person ultimately responsible for all the souls in the New World was Charles V, King of Mexico and the Holy Roman . Charles V took this charge seriously, and was concerned for the physical and spiritual welfare of the Indians .

Aztec Autumn by Gary Jennings Cortes recommended that the Crown send the Franciscans, Dominicans and the Augustinians - the mendicant orders and not the secular clergy. The mendicant monks were respected for their vows of poverty , monastic life and humble character . The Franciscan monks were the first to arrive in 1524. They greatly impressed the Indians by walking from Vera Cruz to Mexico City barefoot in their simple friar clothing .They were not seeking a Cibola and riches in gold. Many were influenced by the Renaissance ideas of the time , that they could create an ideal society such as Thomas More's Utopia and St. Augustin's City of God , which would perhaps lead to the second coming of Christ .Some of these communities became self sustaining and even prosperous with their own craft making .

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Cuilapan The friars spread out into the country, often being the first Europeans to explore an area . They built fortess missions across New Spain .Nine million were baptized by 1537. For some friars it was not unusual to baptize 4,000 Indians a day . The friars need churches for all these new Christians and a uniquely Mexican architectural form was created to accommodate these large numbers of new converts . This was the open chapel or capilla abierta, which were covered over in time to create religious complexes such as the one at Cuilapan. By 1540, 50 such churches had been built .

Virgin of Guadalupe

Why was Mexico so quickly converted ? There were some similarities that made conversion easier such as the cross which was a symbol for the god of rain in Mesoamerica and the crucifixion of Christ as a symbol for sacrifice needed for rebirth . The Catholic reverence for saints, with their holidays and elaborate religious processions were similar to Mesoamerican practices . The country's patron saint is the Virgin of Guadalupe, who made her appearance to Juan Diego on the site of an Aztec shrine of the Aztec goddess Tonantzin in 1531 on a hill outside of Mexico City . She was officially declared the patron saint of Mexico after she stopped an outbreak of plague in the city in 1737 .Her shrine there attracts thousands of pilgrims daily . Many anthropologists say she represents a synthesis of Catholic and pre Columbian beliefs .

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Florentine Codex

The priest became great linguists and learned the Indian languages. The also taught Spanish to the Indians and opened universities for Indian nobles , such as.Franciscan college of Santa cruz de Tlatelolco. Some Indians learned Latin so well that they taught it to the Spanish settlers .In the mid 16 century, the friars worked with the Indians to write about their native history and customs in their own language . One of the most famous was by Bernardino de Sahagun, who compiled an encyclopedia of Aztec life, the Florentine Codex. In the process, Indians started to write Nahuatl in the Roman alphabet rather than in pictographs. These became one of the greatest sources of information about Mesoamerican civilization .

The friars helped get laws passed such as the papal bull of 1537 and the New Laws, which declared the Indians were humans and capable of salvation and outlawing Indian slavery .

The Spanish Inquisition

Luis and Dona Marianna de Carvajal being burnt at the stake, Mexico, 1601. They were accused of being leaders of the crypto-Jews

The onset of the Spanish Inquisition in Mexico in 1571 marked the end of the idealistic religious period of Renaissance influenced humanism of the mid 16th century . Idealistic priests and friars were replaced with materialistic clergy and the efforts by Zumarraga were overturned .The new clergy were dependent on settlers tithes and not the church . Charles V was dead, and the new Spanish king, Phillip II ( r 1556 - 1598 ) was more interested in exploiting New Spain's economic wealth than saving souls .The universities for Indian nobles were disbanded . The Inquisition was used in Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella to insure religious unity after expelling the Moslems . Jews were forced to convert or leave and Protestants were forbidden in the Spanish realm . Emigrants were screened before being allowed to go to New Spain . Jews who had converted were suspected of being 'crypto-Jews' and were investigated in New Spain .Pirates from Protestant countries were often burned at the stake for heresy . Priests and civil servants were investigated on moral grounds .Indians

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were not tried for heresy as they were considered childlike, after a famous case in which an Indian faced the Inquisition for practicing old beliefs after converting .

The Inquisition also exercised control over printed works that entered the colony , especially those of the Enlightenment writers. These works did find there way into the private libraries, however .The crime of heresy, which was punishable by burning at the stake ( auto-de-f ) , with the prisoners often strangled first . Auto de fes drew large crowds , the first in the colony was in 1574 .Crimes like adultery, sorcery and blasphemy were punishable by floggings or fines.Only about 50 people were recorded to have been burn at the stake during the 250 years the Inquisition was used in New Spain .

It was used with greater frequency in the 18th century to prosecute those involved in political dissent . The Inquisition was not abolished until 1820 .

Religious Disputes

Jesuits expelled

For the beginning of the colonial period there were religious disputes .The encomenderos resented what they saw as interference in Indian matters .The various orders sometimes fought over control of various territories .There were also quarrels with civil authorities .The most famous of which was an episode between the Jesuits and the bishop of Puebla, Juan de Palafox, who also held civil post and served the viceroy over the wealth of the Jesuits in which the secular church was gained more power . The Bourbon kings, wary of the papal links and coveting the wealth of the Jesuit's had them expelled in 1767 .In 1804 the crown decreed the Act of Consolidation in which the church's funds for charitable works were taken by the state . This was a huge blow to the criollos and the poor of Mexico, criollos depended on church funds as a source of credit and charity in times of famine and disaster .Many criollos were financially ruined by the act and embittered them toward the Crown .In New Spain, this decree led to riots and other disturbances. These were suppressed by summary trials and sentences of perpetual imprisonment, principally in San Luis Potos , and parts of Michoac n.

Cultural Life in New Spain

Sor Juana de la Cruz

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Painting advanced in Mexico with the coming of the Flemish master Simon Pereyns in 1566, who taught many local artist .Miguel Cabrera ( 1695 - 1768 ) became one of the most famous baroque painters in Mexico under the support of the church

.One of the most famous literary stars of the colonial period was a woman, Sor (Sister ) Juana de la Cruz ( 1651 - 1695 ). She wrote poetry, some of it in the Nahuatl language, wrote plays and essays and was an exponent of women's rights .Another outstanding literary figure was Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora ( 1645 - 1700 ) .

Movie about Juana de la Cruz Yo, la Peor de Todas 'I worst of all' in Spanish with English subtitles Jose Joaquin Fernandez de Lizardi wrote what is considered to be the first novel written in New spain in 1816 El Periquillo Sarmiento ( The Itching Parrot )

The printing press arrived in Mexico in 1537 . Permission was need to publish from the viceroy and the bishop . There was no public library and no newspapers until 1805 . The Social Classes

a Mestizo baby, by Miguel Cabrera

What was essential a social caste system and enforced by law . At the top was the white ruling class which made up 1 million out of the population by the end of the colonial period . The top of this group were the Spanish from Spain ( peninsulares), most of these returned to Spain .

Below them were the Spanish born in Mexico the creoles ( criollos ). Creoles could not hold royal office .Only whites were allowed to wear fine silk clothes, be called gentlemen ( caballeros ) and ladies ( damas ). Below them were the people of color with many different terms for the various combinations of Europeans, Indians and African slaves .

Mestizo, persons with one peninsular parent and one indio parent.

Castizo, persons with one mestizo parent and one criollo parent.

Cholos, persons with one indio parent and one mestizo parent. .

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Mulatos, persons of mixed peninsular and negro descent. They were sometimes made into slaves. Zambos, persons who were mixed indio and negro. Euromestizos, Spanish Indian mixture with Spanish characteristics predominating Indomestizos, Spanish Indian mixture with Spanish characteristics predominating

The largest class were the Indians, which were the wards of the church and the Crown . Over the years, the number of African slaves diminished over the years from 20,000 in the 16th century to 6,000 by 1800.

The Economy of New Spain

New Spain was exploited for the benefit of Spain with little reinvestment . Many of the colonists who came to New Spain wanted to make their wealth and return to Spain. The silver bullion was sent to Spain in galleons was enough to pay for administrating all of the American colonies with a surplus .The China trade was established in 1564 silks, ceramics, tea and spices arrived from the Philippines at Acapulco and were transported across Mexico to Vera Cruz and sent to Spain with silver .

Commerce was controlled by royal decree. All trade with New Spain had to be approved by Spain and carried on Spanish ships and through the one official port of Vera Cruz to collect duties .

After about 1560, ships traveled in annual convoys for protection. from piracy . The attacks of the northern European powers on New Spain became an increasing problem . In 1561 French pirates sacked the town of Campeche In 1683 the French pirate Lorenzillo attacked Vera Cruz and took much loot and ..This curtailed trade since for a long time the galleons sailed in a protected convoy once a year .Industries that could compete with those of Spain were prohibited and was trade with other countries, so New Spain produced few manufactured goods for export .One example of this is the olive and wine industry, introduced by friars but eventually banned by Spain as competing with Spanish growers .

gremios

Products for local consumption were permitted to be produced. The were gremios or guilds for each of the crafts such as blacksmiths, tailors, etc , which fixed the price of goods and their quality .To become a master one had to pass an examination and have ones works pass inspection by the guild .

Money makers such as tobacco, silk and cochineal ( insects which live on prickly pear cactus and produced red dye ) were royal monopolies .There were royal taxes of all kinds on land, licenses, etc. The most hated was the alcabala, which was due on almost everything sold, which went from 2 % to as high as 14%. The was also a tax on imports and exports called an almojarifazgo .With the ' free hand ' of economics stifled, industry could not grow and advance, which was to have terrible consequences for Spain's

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colonies and Spain itself . The restrictions, combined with bad roads, bandits and attacks of Chichimecs kept a healthy, diversified economy from growing . These economic restrictions and expensive European Wars caused Spanish power to seriously weaken by the 17th century .

Vaqueros

The Spanish influence on American culture goes far beyond what many might think. The vaqueros or Spanish cowboys as the gringos may call them

By the end of the 16th century the encomiendas were not producing enough due to the Indian labor shortage and lack of Indians to make tribute . Spain turned to the Old World model of , where small plots were consolidated into large estates where wheat was grown and European cattle bred such as longhorn cattle. Raising cattle had more prestige than growing crops. Vaqueros (cowboys ) on haciendas with their silver spurs and wide-brimmed sombreros to protect themselves from the sun grew up to supply the mining towns in the north and export hides to Spain . Some of the haciendas were vast, one family ranch covered over 11 million acres .

silver bar from shipwreck, The output of the American mines was usually shipped to Spain in the form of ingots

Mining however, was of prime importance to Spain . By the 18th century, Spain produced as much silver as the rest of the world combined .In the early colonial period, Indian laborers were forced to work 12 hours a day and death rates were high . Such

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conditions led to rebellions and became hard to obtain laborer . However, rising prices for silver enabled mine owners to pay more for labor which solved the labor problem .

repartimiento

In 1549 the labor obligation was abolished and tribute forbidden for Indians .It was reasoned enough Indians would become laborers if they were offered fair pay, but few wished to. So, a system of forced labor was enacted called a repartimiento or cuatequil . Under this system each adult male Indian had to contribute 45 days of labor a year, usually a week at a time .There were many abuses to this system, which was abolished in the early 17th century, except for mine labor .Employers also lured Indians to become forced laborers under a system of debt peonage, in which Indians were paid in advance at rates they could not repay .The debts were passed down from father to son .

Colonial Architecture

Casa de Montejo, 1549, plateresque style Spaniards tried to recreate the styles of Spain in Mexico, but was modified by the new land. Churches gained a fortresslike appearance because of Indian attacks, thick walls were needed because of earthquakes. The building material in New Spain was more colorful, the red tezontle pumice and polychrome tiles from Puebla became widely used .

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Capilla Real In the early years building were built along gothic, mudejar ( Mooorish ) and romanesque lines . The Moorish style can be seen in the interior and domes of the Capilla Real in Cholulu .In the mid 16th century, the influence of the Spanish Renaissance began to be felt and a style known as plateresque ( silversmith ) with intricate plasterwork bagan to be seen .

The church of Santa Prisca in Taxco, built in the late 18th century, considered one of the best examples of the Mexican baroque style .

The two largest cathedrals were built in Mexico City ( 1563 ) and Puebla ( 1575).

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The Churrigueresque style Cathedral in the silver town of Zacatecas

In the 17th century a more distinctively Mexican style emerged, the ultra baroque Churrigueresque style ( named after Jose Churriguera, a spanish architect ). It reflectes some of the exhuberence of the newly rich crillos of the times, especially the super rich silver barons who built such churches as the Zacatecas Cathedral and the Santiago thatelolco in Mexico City.the sculptures of many of the incredibly intricate facades, alters and other admornments so distinctive of Mexican architecture were unknown Indians and mestizos

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As a reaction to the excess, a more severe, neoclassical style became dominant from about 1780 to 1830. An example is the Palacio de Mineria in Mexico City . Mexico City The Spanish presence in Mexico was concentrated in Mexico City . Before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth rock, Mexico City was a piece of europe in the New world with cathedrals, plazasa, hospitals and universities . Some of the famous sights from the colonial period in Mexico City are :

The National Palace ( Palacio Nacional ) Cortes destroyed the Palace of Moctezuma in 1521 and built a palace fortress.In 1562 the Crown bought the fortress. Iw was destroyed in the 1692 uprising and rebuilt and became the viceroy residence until Mexican Independence .

Metropolitan Cathedral ( Catedral Metropolitana ) Begun in 1573 and worked on for hundreds of years .built on top of an Aztec temple and has been sinking since its construction .There are altarpieces here by the colonial painter Juan Correa .

University of the Cloister of Sor Juana, the former convent of the great poet Sor Juana, built in 1585 .

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Castillo de Chapultepec, built in 1785 as a viceroyal residence and site of the boy heros of the Mexican war .

Basilica Guadalupe, Shrine built around 1700 where the Vigin of Guadalupe was first sighted in 1531 .

Colonial ceramics

Talavera ceramics

Glazed pottery was brought to Mexico from Talavera de la Reina, Spain in the 16th century .Many people consider Puebla, Mexico the home of Mexican Talavera because of the first regulations and standards for determining uniformity and excellence of the traditional Mexican Talavera.Talavera is characterized by bright colors and floral designs .Because of the extensive imports from China to Mexico on the galleons , Chinese ceramic was soon imitated, particularly their designs.

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Guadalajara also bacame a pottery and ceramic center with the high quality of the local clay .

Tequila , Pulque and Wine

pulque production

Tequila orginated in the town of the same name about 65 km northwest of Guadalajara. Tequila was first produced in the 16th century. The Aztec people had previously made a fermented beverage from the agave plant, which they called octli (later, and more popularly called pulque. Pulque has about the same alcohol content as beer . The crown had a monopoly on pulque, which was a major source of revenue .The Spanish discovered that by roasting the hearts of the agave plant and fermenting the liquid they could produce tequila . Wine was introduced early to New Spain , but wine production was controlled in New Mexico as to not compete with Spainish wineries . Recently there has been a revival of wine making in Mexico in northern Baja and near Zacatecas .

Bourbon Reforms

Bourbon Reforms

Philippe de Bourbon, Duke of Anjou, who became King Philip V of Spain

Charles II ( 1661 - 1700 ), feeble in mind and body, the centuries of inbreeding within the Habsburg dynasty was the last of the Spanish Hapsburg kings. When Charles II died in 1700, the line of the Spanish Habsburgs died with him. He had named a great- nephew, Philippe de Bourbon, Duke of Anjou (a grandson of the reigning French king

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Louis XIV ) as his successor.The spectre of the multi-continental empire of Spain passing under the effective control of Louis XIV provoked a massive coalition of powers to oppose the Duc d'Anjou's succession. Almost immediately the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713) began. After eleven years of bloody, global warfare, fought on four continents and three oceans, the Duc d'Anjou, as Philip V, was confirmed as King of Spain on substantially the same terms that the powers of Europe had agreed to before the war.

Philip inherited a ruined Spain beacause of the war with its economy in shambles and the treasury empty .Philip looked to the colonies to improve the economy of Spain .

.The Bourbons streamlined the vice regal administration, replacing 200 low paid, unskilled corregidores and local mayors with 12 regional intendents . The intendents were well paid and experienced administrators and were better able to collect taxes and tribute for the Crown ..The number of Manila galleon fleets increased to two annually . In 1740, the fleet system was suspended as the threat of piracy decreased and abolished by 1789 .Taxes were lowered to encourage silver mining .

Mexican coins

Charles III

These modernizations had the greatest impact under Charles III ( 1759 - 88 ). Charles was a devotee of the enlightenment philosophies then in fashion in Europe and introduced reforms in Spain and the colonies . Under his rule Spain once again became a world power .

Jose de Galvez

In 1765 he dispatched to New Spain Jose de Galvez as visitor general .Galvez took a 5 year tour of the colony and proposed sweeping economic and political reforms. He had two main concerns, improve the economy of New Spain and improve its defenses against foreign powers .The Crown developed a professional army in New Spain during the war to deal with the encroachments of the Russians in the northwest and English and developed colony in and missions in Texas . It broke up old monopolies to permit more ports such as Campeche and Progreso to compete with Vera Cruz and Acapulco . It lowered taxes and promoted silver mining .Silver production rose from 2.2 million pesos in 1700 to 27 million by 1804. Cochineal production also increased, becoming the second biggest export .

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Antonio de Bucareli

The Crown also appointed able viceroys during this period . The rule of Antonio de Bucareli ( 1771 - 79 ) was marked by peace and exceptional prosprity .Another viceroy, Revillagigedo , another able ruler( 1789 - 94 ) created the first public transportation system .

The reforms made New Mexico the most prosperous of all Spain's colonies and made Spain wealthy . By 1810, New Spain produced 75 percent of all the profit from Spain's colonies .Yet little was reinvested in New Spain . the reforms benefited the peninsulares at the expense of the creoles .The new intendents were all from Spain replacing the creoles who usually held the old corregidore positions before . The country was extremely over regulated and taxed . For example, a ranchero needed a permit to to slaughter a cow for his own consumption . The race class system remained entrenched depite the egalitarianism of the Enlightenment and the countries wealth remain concentrated in the white population .

Despite the restrictions on administrative positions, many creoles prospered during this period in business . The creole Count Regla. was the wealthest man in Spain from his silver mines . There were many other creoles who made fortunes in silver mining such as Count Bassoco and Count Valenciana . these Creoles were awarding titles by their donations to the Crown .Creole ranchers and merchants also made fortunes, the Sanchez Navarro family ranch was the size of Portugal .

Resentment toward the privileges toward the peninsulares and their Old World condescension grew and the creoles thought of themselves more and more as americanos . The Bourbon reforms brought no social reforms, but the ideas of the Enlightenment and revolutionary France and America could not be stopped from entering New Spain .King Charles III died a year before the French Revolution and was succeeded by a son lacking in wisdom .

Mexican Colonial Coins

The first coins were minted in New Spain in 1536 .The pillar in the early coins represents the pillars of Hercules, many coins have ' Plus Ultra ' Latin for 'further beyond', the national motto for Spain .By the 18th century New Spain produced as much silver as the rest of the world .

The word doubloon (from Spanish dobl n, meaning double), meaning a double-sided token coin, often refers to a seven-gram (0.225 troy ounce) gold coin minted in Spain, Mexico, Peru, or Nueva Granada.

The Spanish dollar (also known as the piece of eight, the real de a ocho, or the eight real coin) is a silver coin, worth eight reales, that was minted in the after a Spanish currency reform in 1497.It was legal tender in the until an Act of the United States Congress discontinued the practice in 1857. Through widespread use in Europe, the Americas and the Far East, it became the first world currency by the late 18th century. Many existing currencies, such as the Canadian dollar, United States dollar and the Chinese yuan, as well as currencies in and the Philippine peso were initially based on the Spanish dollar and other 8 reales coins.

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The Pillar type coins were produced in Mexico from 1536 to 1572

The shield type were produced from 1572 to 1734

The Waves and pillar type were produced from 1651 to 1773

The Milled pillar type was produced from 1731 to 1772

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The milled pillar bust types were produced from 1771 to 1821, you can see the Bourbon fleur-de-lis

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Cortes: War for Independence Retreat(NocheTriste) 1810 -1821 June 1520 Defeats Aztecs August 1521 Modern View of Cortes

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The war for Independence 1810- 1821

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Jose Marcia y Pavon Congress of Chilpancingo Army revolt in Spain Plan de Iguala Independence

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The Mexican Wars for Independence This perceptive history paints Mexico's 1810–1821 struggle for independence

Unlike in America, where there was a broad groundswell at indignation at English abuses and taxation without representation, only a few conspired for independence in New Spain . There were some military officers kept out of the highest ranks by virtue of being born in New Spain rather than the motherland. Merchants and civil servants exposed to ideas of the Enlightenment and the American and French revolutions. The most radical were the parish priests who saw the suffering of their Indian parishioners firsthand. Most Creoles wished to change the system so that they could have equality with the peninsulares, but not equality for all. The lower classes, the Indians and mixed castes had nothing much to lose, their lot was so hard . They did rebel, but these rebellions were not organized enough to spread far .

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Charles IV

Despite a lack of fervor for radical change as in France and America, events in Europe caused it to be a necessity . Unlike the wise Charles III, his son Charles IV ( 1788 - 1808 ) exploited the wealth of the colonies. The most ruinous decision was to take the charitable funds of the church to help pay for European wars . These church funds were sources of credit for Creoles. The church had to call in their mortgages, destroying many Creoles financially .Uprisings against Charles IV in Spain forced him abdicate in favor of his son in 1808 .

It all begtan with a "shout", with Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla calling on the people of New Spain to fight for their independence

There was more turmoil in Spain when Napoleon forced the Spanish Bourbons into exile and place his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1808 .Because Spain was virtually cut off from its colonies during the Peninsular War of 1808 1814, Latin Bullfighting from... Art America was, in these years, ruled by independent juntas. Without a true Spanish Print monarchy, many creoles thought they should rule themselves. The peninsulares Buy for $19.99 thought otherwise .The Inquisition was used to spy against and try those who agitated for reform .By 1810 many secret societies were formed by creoles to fight for independence . Search For Posters!

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Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

One of the first to call for independence was priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in Guanajuato .He became a bishop in 1778 and was investigated by the Inquisition in 1800 for questioning the celibacy of priests ( he had a mistress ), reading proscribed books, doubting the veracity of the virgin birth and the infallibility of the pope and considered the king a tyrant .However, none of these charges could be proved and he was released .However, he lost his position as a rector at the collage of San Nicolas in Morelia .

Ignacio Allende

He became the priest in the city of Dolores in 1803 .A few years later he met the revolutionary Ignacio Allende, a captain of the cavalry .Allende introduced him to his revolutionary coterie and planned an uprising for December 8, 1810. However, the plot was discovered and they decided to strike for independence at once .Hidalgo rang the church bells and summoned his parishioners and delivered his famous grito ( cry ) de Dolores on September 16, 1810. Until he delivered his speech he was a minor figure in the revolutionary movement . In response to his call ' Viva Guadalupe ! ( after the Virgin of Guadalupe, who became an independence symbol, her humble clothes contrasting with the richly decorate virgin of the secular church ) The crowd shouted Death to the peninsulares ! The initial response was enthusiastic . With Hidalgo at their head, they marched for San Miguel, gathering more recruits along the way. They took San Migual without trouble and the local joined the rebels .They started to pillage and Hidalgo could not control them. Next they took Celya and then marched on Guanajuato. There the peninsulares gathered in a makeshift fortress and decided to wait for aid from Mexico City .

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Alhondiga de Granaditas

It never came and over 500 peninsulares were killed holding out in the Alhondiga de Granaditas (public granary) and 2,000 rebels were killed . Hidalgo and Allende felt strong enough at this time to split their forces . Within a month they had taken the important silver mining town of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi and Valladolid .By late October the army had about 80,000 marching on Mexico City .

Site of the battle of Monte de las Cruces

The professional army was defeated by sheer numbers at Monte de las Cruces . The army retreated into Mexico City .An immediate attack on Mexico City might have taken the city and brought independence then . However, Hidalgo had taken heavy losses and was short of ammunition . He was also hesitant to let the mod lose on Mexico City .Over Allendes objection he decided to retreat into toward Guadalajara and the Spanish forces under General Felix Calleja began to regroup .The rebels took Guadalajara .

Battle of Puente de Calderon

The Spanish army engaged them at Puente de Calderon. In the middle of the battle, a Spanish cannon shot hit a rebel ammunition wagon and the resulting explosion caused a panic in the rebel army and thousands of rebels broke rank and ran, turning into a rout .Hidalgo and Allende took what was left of their forces and retreated northward. They were betrayed and captured in the Texas territory and executed for treason by firing squad on July 31, 1811. Their decapitated heads hung of the walls where the Spaniards were slaughtered at Alhondiga de Granaditas for 10 years as a warning .

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Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon

Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon

The popularity of the Independence movement waned after this . The movement was continued under the mestizo priest Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, who had been recruited by Hildago .Morelos organized his soldiers into small bands that carried out guerrilla warfare .By 1813 they won enough territory to encircle the capital .

Congress of Chilpancingo

Morelos then held a congress in Chilpancingo to discuss the plans for the nation once the Spanish were driven out .They issued a Declaration of Independence, those opposed to it were guilty of treason .In their constitution that declared that suffrage should be universal and that slavery and the caste system should be abolished. Government monopolies should also be done away with and replaced with a 5% income tax .Catholicism would remain the official religion of the state .

viceroy

Meanwhile, the Spanish army gathered strength and broke the encirclement, retaking many towns .Gradually, the rebel army dwindled and in 1815 Morelos was captured and executed .With his execution the Independence movement reached its lowest point .For the next 5 years the movement was little more than guerrilla fighting by a number of independent bands without coordination .After awhile only two major bands remained, one led by with about 2.000 troops around Puebla and with about 1,000 around Oaxaca .By 1819, the Spanish viceroy, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca was able to report to king Ferdinand that the situation was under control .He offered a pardon for all who would lay down their arms.

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King Ferdinand VII

Army revolt in Spain

Meanwhile, King Ferdinand had been gathering a powerful fighting force to quell the more serious Independence movements in South America . At C diz, Spain, in January 1820, troops who had assembled for an expedition to America were angry over infrequent pay, bad food, and poor quarters and mutinied under the leadership of Colonel Rafael del Riego y Nu ez .Colonel Rafael Riego declared himself in revolt and thousands of troops followed . The Spanish troops demanded that the king should abide by the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 which affirmed the sovereignty of the people, free speech and curbed the power of the church . If this was not done there would be a military coup .The king, a virtual prioner of the army at this point, yielded to their demands .

Ironically, the Creoles found this change too liberal, and began to support Independence and secretly meet with the former colonel Agustin de Iturbide to be their leader to insur a more conservative government . Iturbide had fought against the rebels for nearly a decade . He resigned from the royal army after being accused of corruption. The Creoles convinced the viceroy to reinstate him in the army .

Colonel Iturbide

Plan de Iguala

In 1820 viceroy Apodaca placed colonel Iturbide in charge of 2,500 men to fight Guerrero . Iturbide marched his force toward those of Guerrero and instead of fighting him asked for a meeting and peace if he could dictate the terms . Guerrero agreed and on Feb 24 they issued the Plan de Iguala, the major points of which were that: independent Mexico would be a , led by King Ferdinand or another European prince , .The would remain the only official church in the country, Creoles and peninsularies would have equal rights. A new army would be created, the Army of the Three Guarantees to enforce the plan .

This was a much more conservative plan than that of Morelos. The revolution of

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Hidalgo and Morelos never gathered support from the conservative upper classes of New Spain, this plan could and military units and common people began to defect to the Army of the Three Guarantees. Priests spoke in support of it from the pulpit . Even many Spanish in Mexico supported the plan since they saw a future for themselves in Mexico, unlike the earlier more radical plans that demanded death or exile of the peninsulares .After many cities fell to the Army of the Three Guarantees, viceroy Apodaca resigned .

Indepence Celebration in Mexico City

Independence

The Crown was not ready to give up New Spain and appointed a new viceroy, Juan de O'Donoju, the last viceroy of New Spain .O'Donoju became convinced that Spain could not hold on to Mexico, and accepted the Plan de Iguala and signed a treaty at Cordoba . One more proviso was added by Iturbide ; if no European leader was available to become the emperor of Mexico, a Mexican congress would chose an emperor, this was to become an important point . On September 27, 1821 , Iturbide marched into the capital with Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria and the army. After so many years of fighting and over 300 years of Spanish rule, Mexico was independent at last . Home Colonial 1821 Mexico 1519 - 1713

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The First Mexican Empire and Agustín de Iturbide - Primer Imperio Mexicano July 21, 1821 - March 19, 1823

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Agustín de Iturbide

As provided by the Plan de Iguala, General Agustín de Iturbide, a Mexican-born criollo ( Creole ) who originally fought for the pro-Spanish royalists but switched his allegiance to the insurgents in the final phases of the war, named a provisional Junta to rule the country, which in turned named him as its presiding officer .The Congress was still independent and some members of it wanted to form a and decreed that no member of the military could hold political office in order to forestall Iturbide 's attempt at becoming . Iturbide knew he had to move quickly if he wanted to seize supreme power. After the declaration of independence on September 27, 1821, it was the intention of Congress to establish a commonwealth whereby the king of Spain, Ferdinand VII, would also be Emperor of Mexico, but in which both countries were to be governed by separate laws and with their own legislative offices. However, as Spain was eyeing to retake Mexico, it did not accept the offer .

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Coin of Emperor Agustin I

On May 18, 1821 , Iturbide had his own troops, the regiment of Celaya. stage a

demonstration on his behalf . They fired muskets and firing rockets in the air, the shouted ' Viva Agustin I, Emperor of Mexico !' and marched onto Iturbide's home with a mob which had followed them . There they demanded their general declare himself emperor at once . Iturbide feigned reluctance, then accepted .The following morning Iturbide appeared at Congress with many of his followers, which intimidated Congress into naming him the constitutional emperor of Mexico .In June Congress declared the position to be hereditary . The heir apparent was Senor Don August, Iturbide's eldest son and his other brothers and sisters were made princesses and princes . Court etiquette was issued, outraging republican factions who found it undignified to be forced to kiss the emperor's hand on bended knee .

On July 21, 1822 Iturbide was crowned emperor , as Agustin I .Iturbide was now emperor of a huge empire, from California in the north to Panama . The old Captaincy General of was also in the empire, which included Costa Rica, , Honduras, , Guatemala, and the Mexican state of .

President Madison was initially eager to extend diplomatic recognition to Mexico, hoping to promote free republican governments . When Iturbide was declared emperor, Madison felt this ' empire ' couldn't last long , but recognized the Empire of Mexico in December 22, 1822 .

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The economy of the Empire

The empire was on very shaky foundations. The war for independence had caused much damage to Mexico, especially the important silver mines, dropping from $26,000,000 minted in 1809 to only $6,000,000 being minted in 1821 .Iturbide and his supporters thought replacing the peninsulares who ended up with most of the capital during the colonial days would rectify the ills of the economy . They underestimated the amount of debt incurred during the war of independence, around 75,000,000 pesos and how it would strangle the economy . The extravagant regime expenses far exceeded its revenue and could only get loans at high rates . The government forced loans from the church and confiscated money from citizens .

More paper currency was printed with the consequent inflation .In order to get the Spanish to agree to leave Mexico, Iturbide agreed to let the Spaniards, who nearly all left, to take the value of their land holding in hard currency, which seriously depleted the currency reserves . As many as 20% of adult males were unemployed . Much of the revenue that was raised went to Iturbide's salary and his military cronies, almost nothing was invested in restarting the economy .

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Vera cruz with the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa The economy began to stagnate and there were increasing criticism against the regime .Some members of Congress conspired against the emperor , but they were betrayed and arrested . Despite this there were more and more protests against an imperial form of government for Mexico by members of Congress .On , Iturbide dissolved Congress in the face of heated criticism .

Santa Anna

The self proclaimed leader of the antimonarchists was the commander of Vera Cruz Antonio Lopes de Santa Anna .Santa Anna was sent to Vera Cruz to drive out the last

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remaining Spanish troops in Mexico in the harbor fortress of San Juan de Ulloa. The Spanish did not leave the fortress till 1825 .On Dec 1, 1822 Santa Anna proclaimed a republic in Vera Cruz .Soon, the old revolutionaries Vicenta Guerrero, Guadalupe Victoria and Nicolas Bravo had joined the movement .

Iturbide appointed Jose Antonio Echaverri in charge of the imperial force to attack Santa Anna .Ironically, Echaverri proved as loyal to Iturbida as Iturbide had been to the Spanish viceroy .Echaverri joined Santa Annas' forces . On February 1, 1823, Santa Anna and the other members of his movement announced the Plan de Casa Mata.The key points of the plan were that Mexico would become a republic and Catholicism was to be the sole religion of Mexico. Iturbide would not be recognized as emperor . Realizing he no longer had support, Iturbide abdicated his throne in February 1823 and left first to Italy and then went to London .

In 1824 he heard rumors that the restored Spanish king, Ferdinand VII was about to undertake a reconquest of Mexico .Iturbide offered his services to the Mexican republic to fight the Spanish, but the national congress, mindful of the lessons of Napoleon's return refused this offer and passed a law that he would be guilty of treason and executed if he returned .

However, Iturbide, unfortunately, did not wait for a reply from Mexico and departed England on May11, 1824 with his family and retainers . He landed at and was recognized by the military commander there, Gen. Garza, who pretending friendship, but betrayed him .The legislature met and decided it must enforce the order set by the national congress and he was executed by a firing squad . The sentence was carried outb at Padilla, July 19th, 1824, less than a week from the time of his landing on the coast, and before an appeal could be made to the general Government at Mexico . Before his execution he declared ' ! Even in this act of my death I recommend to you to love our fatherland and observe our holy religion..I die for coming to assist you, and I die happy because I die with you ." The empress .Madame Huarte de Iturbide died in in 1861 .

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The Early Republic 1823 - 1833 The Early Mexican Republic

The new Constitution President Guadalupe Victoria 1824 -29 President Vicente Guerrero 1829 The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1829 President Bustamante 1830 - 32

The new Constitution

After the collapse of the empire, Mexico was ruled by three military men : Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolas Bravo and Pedro Negrete, all military men . Elections were held to chose congressmen for the new constitutional congress .After the election the new congress met on November 27, 1823 to draw up a constitution . Soon two factions emerged as to whether Mexico should be federalist or centralist. The federalist were more liberal and the centralists more conservative and they were to tranfer power from each other in a bloody manner in the early republic period in Mexico .

The centralist found support among the hacendados , the military and the clergy . The federalist were supported by liberal Creoles ( crillos ) and metizos who drew inspiration from the French and American revolution and the liberal Spanish constitution of 1812 . The centralists argued that the conditions in America were too different from those of Mexico to be used. There was no history of the democratic process and exchange

political ideas that happened in the north . One spokesman said Mexico had " ...buckled for 300 years under the weight of an absolute monarch...we are like children barely out of diapers.." However, the long history of imperial rule and the recent disastrous Mexican empire won the federalist faction when the Constitution of 1824 was draw up and the Estados Unidos Mexicanos was organized as a federal republic of 19 states and four territories . The Central American countries had declared their own independence in 1823 .

There were three branches of government as in the United States to balance power : executive, legislative and judicial . The legislature was to be bicameral, with the upper house as the Senate and the lower house as the Chamber of Deputies . Each state was represented by 2 senators and one deputy for every 80,000 residents . The president and vice president were to be elected by the state legislatures for a 4 year term . The Catholic church regained its monopoly on the spiritual life of Mexicans . The president could become a dictator in times of emergencies. The clergy and military were granted the old Spanish exemption of fueros from civil trials.There was to be a free press and free speech . Indian tribute was abolished . During this period the factions attached themselves to Masonic lodges where they could meet in secret . The conservatives met at Scottish Rite lodges and Liberals meet at York Rite lodges .

President Guadalupe Victoria 1824 -29

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Guadalupe Victoria www.Groupon.com/LA Ads by Google The first president ( 1824 - 29 )chosen was Guadalupe Victoria ( real name, Jos Miguel

Ram n Adaucto Fern ndez y F lix )and Nicolas Bravo as vice president .Guadalupe Victoria ( 1786 - 1843 ) was a former rebel leader, some report him as honest and unassuming and willing to meet with the public, brave in battle, but no an inspiring or talented administrator .As Iturbide did, he spent more on the military than revenues could sustain , A local military strongman emerges during these times, the caudillo .Over 50,000 men were kept under arms. The government sought to support itself through import duties, taxes and monopolies . These were insufficient to pay the huge debt the republic inherited .

These economic troubles and growing factional disputes led to an armed revolt against the president in 1827, led by vice president Bravo , who drew upon the conservatives of the Scottish Rite ( he was the Grand Master ) lodges for support .The York Rite masons , who controlled the army, gathered around the president and the revolt was suppressed

by General Santa Anna . Bravo was exiled to Ecuador .

In foreign relations the Victoria administration did well. Many foreign countries ( except Spain ) recognized Mexico including the Unites States and the Sabine river was accepted as the eastern boundary of the US - Mexican border .

President Vicente Guerrero 1829

The new presidential elections were held in September of 1828. The liberal candidate

was Vicente Guerrero, another rebel hero and the conservative candidate was Manuel Gomes Pedraza , who had served in Victoria's cabinet as secretary of war .The elections results showed Pedraza as the winner. The liberals charged that they had lost due to army intimidation of the legislators . The liberal decided to revolt and chose Santa Anna as their leader .After some fighting , the president elect declined the position and Guerrero became president and Santa Anna was given control of the army .

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Guerrero was a much more active president than Victoria . He foreshadowed future populists moments by inviting the poor to his birthday party , abolishing slavery and other reforms to help the lower classes . Slaves were few in number by this time, but his act increased his support among mulattos. All remaining Spaniards were to be expelled from Mexico . Spanish imports were seen as a threat to the economy and the poor cotton farmers. - The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1829

Spain, which had never recognized Mexico's independence, choose this time to invade its most important former colony .King Ferdinand VII sent an expedition of 3,000 troops departed from Havana in July 1829 under the command of General Isidro Barradas . The expedition included many of the Spaniards exiled in 1827 who wanted to return to the country. The exiles had convinced Barradas that Mexico was eager to return to Spanish sovereignty.They landed near Tampico, which had been abandoned . Guerrero placed Santa Anna in charge of repulsing the invasion. After an initial attack which failed, Santa Anna settled in for a siege . As yellow fever and lack of supplies took its toll, and the Spaniards did not receive the support they expected from within Mexico , the Spanish general surrendered .The Spanish were allowed to go home and the invasion touched off reprisals against the few reaming Spaniards, mainly middle class merchants, who fled the country . With this victory and that off driving out the emperor, Santa Anna became extremely popular .

Guerrero's administration did not long outlast the Spanish invasion .From August 1829 to December he ruled by emergency decree, the most important of which was calling up of the reserves, even after the repulse of the Spanish. Reserves in Jalapa, called for a reduction of the emergency powers and asked vice president Bustamante and Santa Anna to lead them. Bustamante agreed, who portrayed himself as a defender of the constitution .Guerrero set off with a force to attack them, but the capital was taken over by rebel supporters after he left and he retired to his farm in Tixtla .

Guerrero was undone by the fear of a president with dictatorial powers after the emergency had passed and the fear of the upper classes of increased power of the lower classes leading to anarchy . The treasury by this time was also bankrupt. These factors led the Senate to declare Guerrero ' morally incapable' to rule and the minister of war ordered all officers to agree to the Plan of Jalapa of the conservative faction . Guerrero's old supports were removed from office in many places and on the state level. This plan backfired , as this was the kind of act federalism was supposed to prevent and caused resentment of the state officials to the coup .Some of the states, such as Michoacan raised troops to fight the coup and Guerrero returned to fight . However, Bustamante, with army support was able to defeat the forces of Guerrero.This marked a return to power of the conservatives.

President Bustamante 1830 - 32

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Bustamante cut back on the size of the army and renegotiated foreign loans, but he was no better able to revive the economy than Guerrero. He also undertook many repressive acts against the liberals such as curtailing the freedom of the press, using secret police and bullying the congress into compliance . Corruption was rampant .But the incident which caused the greatest public outcry was the execution of Guerrero .The public was roused against Bustamante and Santa Anna took advantage of the situation to become the ' savior ' of Mexico again .Bustamante, Santa Anna and G mez Pedraza, signed the conventions of Zavaleta (December 21-23), by which G mez Pedraza was to assume the presidency and hold new elections. Bustamante was to go into exile, which he did in 1833.Santa Anna gathered his forces and overthrew Bustamante and was elected president in the 1833 election .

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Santa Anna 1794 - 1876

1833 Election Reforms of Valentin Gomez Farias Santa Anna becomes Centralist Changes of Santa Anna Revolt of Texas Land Grants to Americans Outlaws Settlers discontent with Mexico Mexican Reaction Fighting Begins Gonzales Capture of Bexar Battle of the Alamo Goliad Houston retreats San Jacinto Treaty of Velasco Republic of Yucatán and the Mayan Caste War Republic of Rio Grande The President Again Exile and Death

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Santa Anna of Mexico Drawing on archives in Mexico, Spain, Britain, and Texas as well as published sources, Fowler supplies a much-needed corrective to existing impressions of Santa Anna with this balanced and well-written work Library Journal

1833 Election

Santa Anna ( full name Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ) won the election of 1833 as a liberal with the largest majority in history .The vice presidency went to Valentin Gomez Farias, a liberal politician of intellectual distinction .Santa Anna chased after the presidency for at least a decade, but once he had it he soon wearied of it left the day to day running of the country to his vice president while he retired to his estate of Manga de Clavo in Vera Cruz .He was Lone Star Nation on eleven non-consecutive ( 1833 multiple times ,1834, 1835 A well-written history ,1839 ,1841 - 1842 ,1843 - 1844 and 1847 ) occasions over a period of 22 years. of the Texas Revolution and the events leading up to it.

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The Alamo 2004 Dennis Quaid, Billy Valentin Gomez Farias Bob Thornton

Reforms of Valentin Gomez Farias

Farias, began with two major reforms , that of the church and that of the army . To curb the undue influence of the army, he reduced its size and abolished military fueros . The Church was told it should limit its sermons to spiritual matters . Education was to be taken out of the hands of the church .The University of Mexico was closed down because its faculty was made up entirely of priests .The mandatory payments of tithes were made illegal . The total wealth of the church was estimated at 180 million pesos .Nuns and priests were permitted to foreswear their vows .

Santa Anna becomes Centralist

The Church , Army and other conservative groups banded together against these reforms .They appealed to Santa Anna who agreed to led the movement against his vice president and rescinded all of Farias reforms and dismissed him from office . He declared that Mexico was not ready for democracy and set about to build a caudilloist state ( It is usually translated into English as "leader" or "chief," or, more pejoratively, warlord, "dictator" or "strongman". "Caudillo" was the term used to refer to charismatic populist leaders among the people ) .In order to secure power, Santa Anna cast away his former liberal ways and became a conservative centralist .

Changes of Santa Anna

Gran Teatro de Santa Anna

The old constitution of 1824 was done away with and a new one, the constitution of 1836 was enacted . The Siete Leyes (or Seven Laws) were enacted, in which only those with a certain level of income could vote or hold office .The congress was disbanded .The old federalists states were redrawn into larger military districts governed by political bosses loyal to Santa Anna. State were disbanded .The presidential term was extended from four years to eight .Santa Anna was moving to concentrate power . The presidency changed hands 36 times between 1833 and 1855 . The army grew larger at this time to a standing army of 90,000 and even though the country suffered under excessive taxation, the treasury was still bankrupt .Corruption was widespread. Santa Anna became a millionaire . His land holdings by 1845 totaled 483,000 acres .He threw gala balls and had opera houses and theaters built, such as the Gran Teatro de Santa Anna . His official title was ' his most serene highness ' and he also styled himself the " Napoleon of the West .' His busts and statues were to be found throughout Mexico .

Several states went into open rebellion after these acts of Santa Anna: y Tejas, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Durango, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Yucatán, , Nuevo León, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas. Several of these states formed their own governments, the Republic of the Rio Grande, the Republic of Yucatan, and the .The Zacatecan militia, the largest and best supplied of the Mexican states, led

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by Francisco Garcia, was well armed with .753 caliber British 'Brown Bess' muskets and Baker .61 rifles. After two hours of combat, on 12 May 1835, the Santa Anna's "Army of Operations" defeated the Zacatecan militia and took almost 3,000 prisoners. Santa Anna allowed his army to ransack Zacatecas for forty-eight hours. After defeating Zacatecas, he planned to move on to

Revolt of Texas October 2, 1835 to April 21, 1836

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Throughout the colonial period the vast territory of Texas ( 268,584 square miles ) was one of the northern colonial provinces of New Spain . The first Europeans in the area, the Franciscan missionaries and early Spanish settlers in the early to mid 1700s faced attacks by Apaches, Comanches and other Indian tribes .The territory was far from Mexico City a few settlers arrived .There were small towns in the interior, , Nacogdoches, Goliad, and others, which dated from the time of the early Spanish colonization, or which had grown around the Missions established by the Franciscan friars for the conversion and civilization of the Indians .

Stephen Austin

Land Grants to Americans

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Mexican Land Grant

At the beginning of the 1800s, there were only 7,000 settlers .Spain wished to colonize the territory, and in 1821 granted Moses Austin permission to settle as an empresarios with around 300 Catholic families in Texas.

In 1820 he set out for Texas. He was at first coldly received by Governor Martinez of San Antonio, but by the aid of the Baron de Bastrop, a Prussian officer, who had served under Frederick the Great, and was then in the service of Mexico, he obtained a favorable hearing on his proposition to settle a colony of emigrants from the United States in Texas. Austin's petition was forwarded to the central government, and he returned home. On the route he was robbed and stripped by his fellow-travelers, and, after great exposure and privation, subsisting for twelve days on acorns and pecan nuts, he reached the cabin of a settler near the Sabine River. He reached home in safety, and commenced his preparations for removal to Texas; but his exposure and privations had weakened him, and he died from the effects of a cold in his fifty-seventh year, leaving his dying injunction to his son, Stephen, to carry out his project.

Mexico became independent and Moses' son, Steven Austin was granted the same right and after advertising for settlers in New Orleans led 300 ( later called the ' old 300') families to settle a grant on the Brazos river .This was followed by a large influx of Americans entered Texas attracted by the cheap land ( ten cents an acre ) compared with $1.25 an acre in the US .Colonists were also given a 7 year exemption from taxes.

Life in the new land was rough, While at work they kept guard against the Indians, who roved about stealing the stock, at times making a night attack upon a cabin, or murdering and scalping some solitary herdsman or traveler. The Mexicans did nothing to protect or govern the colony. The settlers created a code of laws for the administration of justice and the settlement of civil disputes. The land titles were duly recorded, and a local militia was organized. Austin was the supreme authority, the judge and commandant .In 1827, New Orleans was abuzz with talk of the leagues of land that Mexico was giving to those who would colonize in Texas. By 1827 there were 12,000 Americans living in Texas. By 1835 there were 30,000 Americans and only around 8,000 Mexicans .

Outlaws

Many criminals from Mexico and the United Staes fleed to eastern Texas to escape justice .Fraudulent debtors who had chalked on their shutters the cabalistic letters " G. T. T." Gone to Texas . The outlaws of the neutral ground organized themselves into bands, and fought over land titles and for political domination, and in 1826 commenced

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a war against the Mexican authorities under the leadership of Hayden Edwards, an empresario, whose contract had been annulled on account of the conflicts which had arisen between the claims of his colonists and the original Mexican inhabitants and squatters. This emeute, called " The Fredonian War," was easily suppressed, Austin and his colonists taking part with the Mexican authorities.

Settlers discontent with Mexico

The Mexican government believed the Americans could be integrated into Mexican society, but the societies were too different and tensions increased .Most Americans remained Protestant, even though they could go through the motions of being Catholic if questioned by Mexican officials and few bothered to learn Spanish .

One of the major grievances against Mexico by the Texans was that it was an appendage to the state of Coahuila . There were eventually given 3 representatives in the state legislature ( out of 12 ) buy were easily outvoted by Coahuilans on important matters . Appellate courts were located in faraway .The Americans wanted Texas to be a separate state from Coahuila , but not independent from Mexico and to have its own capital. They believed a closer location for the capital would help to stem corruption and facilitate other matters of government.

Steven Austin traveled to Mexico City with a petition asking for separate statehood from Coahuila. this was not approved and he wrote an angry letter to a friend, which seemed to suggest Texas should succeed from Mexico. The letter was intercepted and he spent 18 months in prison .

The Americans were also becoming increasingly disillusioned with the Mexican government. Many of the Mexican soldiers garrisoned in Texas were convicted criminals who were given the choice of prison or serving in the army in Texas. Mexico did not protect Freedom of Religion, instead requiring colonists to pledge their acceptance of Roman Catholicism; Mexican Law required a "tithe" paid to the Catholic Church. The American settlers could not grow what crops they wished, but as other citizens of Mexico were required to do, grow which crops Mexican officials dictated , which were to be redistributed in Mexico. Growing cotton was lucrative at the time, but most settlers were not permitted to grow it and those that did were sometimes imprisoned .

Mexican Reaction

The Mexican government had reasons to be anxious about the growing American population in Texas .President Adams and President Jackson had offered to buy the territory .There were a number of filibustering expeditions from the United States into Texas to set up an independent, the most famous of which was that of John Long of Tennessee who invaded Texas with a private army and seized Nacogdoches and declared himself president of the Republic of Texas .Long's army was later defeated by the Mexicans, but it event drew more support in the US for acquiring Texas .

The check immigration into Texas from America, which was mostly by Americans from the south with slaves, president Guerrero enacted the emancipation proclamation in 1829 . Most Americans converted their slaves into indentured servants for life to get around this . By 1836, there were approximately 5,000 slaves in Texas.

In 1830, all future immigration from America was forbidden by president Anastasio Bustamente, although thousands continued to pour in through the porous borders . Bustamente also began preparations by making Texas a penal colony, by sending a thousand soldiers, mostly criminals and convicts, to stations in the country.

Santa Anna believed that the influx of American immigrants to Texas was part of a plot by the U.S. to take over the region. and the Mexican garrisons were strengthened .Mexico increased custom duties on exports, increasing the cost of trade with the US . Mexican colonization of Texas was encouraged .

The final straw for Americans in Texas was Santa Anna's' annulment of the Federal Constitution of 1824 and feared they would lived under a tyrant with no representation at all .Many Americans began to argue that they should separate from Mexico, they were also supported by many Mexican liberals. The most active of these was Lorenzo de Zavala, leader of the Mexican Congress in 1823. The Texans choose independence and chose David Burnet as president and Zavala as vice president .

Fighting Begins

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Much of Mexico led by the states of Yucatan, Zacatecas, and Coahuila, promptly rose in revolt of Santa Anna's actions. Santa Anna spent two years suppressing the revolts. Under the Liberal banner, the Mexican state of Zacatecas revolted against Santa Anna. The revolt was brutally crushed in May 1835. As a reward, Santa Anna allowed his soldiers two days of rape and pillage in the capital city of Zacatecas; civilians were massacred by the thousands. Santa Anna also looted the rich Zacatecan silver mines at Fresnillo.

He then ordered his brother-in law, General Martin Perfecto de Cos, to march into Texas and put an end to disturbances against the state.Most American settlers in Texas or Texicans, were on the whole loyal to Mexico before and few were members of the independence party . But after the annulling of the Constitution of 1824, imprisonment of Austin and the news of what had happened at Zacatecas a majority supported the independence movement . On September 20, General Cos landed at Copano with an advance force of about 300 soldiers bound for Goliad, San Antonio and San Felipe de Austin.

Austin was released in July, having never been formally charged with sedition, and was in Texas by August. Austin saw little choice but revolution. A was scheduled for October to discuss possible formal plans to revolt, and Austin sanctioned it.

Gonzales

Colonel Domingo Ugartechea, who was stationed in San Antonio, ordered the to return a cannon given to them by Mexico that was stationed in Gonzales. The Texians refused. Ugartechea sent Lieutenant Francisco Castañeda and 100 dragoons to retrieve it. When he arrived at the rain-swollen banks of the Guadalupe River near Gonzales, there were just eighteen Texians to oppose him. Unable to cross, Castañeda established a camp, and the Texians buried the cannon and called for volunteers. Two Texian militias answered the call. Colonel John Henry Moore was elected head of the combined revolutionary militias, and they dug up the cannon and mounted it on a pair of cartwheels. A Coushatta Native American entered Castañeda’s camp and informed him that the Texians had 140 men.

On October 1, 1835, at 7 p.m., the Texians headed out slowly and quietly to attack Castañeda’s dragoons. At 3 a.m. they reached the camp, and gunfire was exchanged. There were no casualties except for a Texian who had bloodied his nose when he fell off his horse during the skirmish. The next morning, negotiations were held, and the Texians urged Castañeda to join them in their revolt. Despite claiming sympathy for the Texian cause, he was shocked by the invitation to mutiny, and negotiations fell through. The Texians created a banner with a crude drawing of the disputed cannon and the words "Come and take it" written on it. Since they had no cannon balls, they filled it with scrap metal and fired it at the dragoons. They charged and fired their muskets and rifles, but Castañeda decided not to engage them and led the dragoons back to San Antonio. Thus the war had begun

Capture of Bexar ( San Antonio )

General Martin Perfecto de Cos

Next, the Texans captured Bexar, under the defence of General Cos. When General Austin gave his army of volunteers the boring task of waiting for General Cos’ army to starve, many of the volunteers simply left. Throughout November 1835, the Texian army dwindled from 800 to 600 men, and the officers began to bicker about strategy and why they were fighting against the Mexicans. Several officers resigned, including Jim Bowie, who went to Gonzales. The siege of Bexar, which began on October 12,

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1835, would demonstrate how little leadership the Texan "Army" had. Austin had been appointed Commander of all the Texan forces, but his talents were not well suited for military life.

The siege ended on December 11 with the capture of General Cos and his starving army, despite Austin's leadership. The Mexican prisoners were paroled and sent back to Mexico after being made to promise not to fight again. The early victories of the Texans were greatly attributed to their effective hunting rifles, which could fire at distant targets and with more accuracy than the smooth bore muskets of the Mexican infantry.

The remaining Texan army, poorly led, and with no collective motivation, prepared to advance towards Matamoros, hoping to sack the town. Although the Matamoros Expedition, as it came to be known, was but one of many schemes to bring the war to Mexico, nothing came of it. On November 6, 1835, the Tampico Expedition under José Antonio Mexía left New Orleans, intending to capture the town from the Centralists. The expedition failed. These independent missions drained the Texan movement of supplies and men, bringing only disaster for months to come.

Battle of the Alamo

Santa Anna decided to take the counter-offensive. General Cos informed Santa Anna of the situation in Texas, and the general proceeded to advance north with his Army of Operations, a force of about 6,000. The army had gathered in San Luis Potosí and soon marched across the deserts of Mexico during the worst winter recorded in that region. The army suffered hundreds of casualties, but it marched forward, arriving in Texas months before it was expected. Taking Bexar (San Antonio ), the political and military center of Texas, was Santa Anna's initial objective

The defenders inside the Alamo awaited reinforcement. "At dawn on the first of March, Capt. Albert Martin, with 32 men (himself included) from Gonzales and DeWitt's Colony, passed the lines of Santa Anna and entered the walls of the Alamo, never more to leave them. These men, chiefly husbands and fathers, owning their own homes, voluntarily organized and passed through the lines of an enemy four to six thousand strong, to join 150 of their countrymen and neighbors, in a fortress doomed to destruction." No further reinforcement arrived.

The Alamo was defended by about 183-189 men under the command of William Barret Travis and Jim Bowie. Most of the Alamo defenders were white men of Spanish ancestry. Numerous sick and wounded from the siege of Bexar, perhaps raising the Texan military total to around 250, as well as non-combatants were also reported present afterwards. The Battle of the Alamo ended on March 6 after a 13 day siege in which all Texan combatants were killed. The alcalde of San Antonio reported cremation of 182 defenders' bodies; one defender's burial by a relative was allowed. Santa Anna's army casualties have been estimated as about 600 - 1000 troops—the quoted number of Mexican soldiers killed varies greatly. The defense of the Alamo proved to be of no military consequence for the Texan cause, but its martyrs were soon hailed as heroes. The most important result during this time was the 1836 Convention signing of the Texas Declaration of Independence from Mexico, on March 2.

Soon, Santa Anna divided his army and sent flying columns across Texas. The objective was to force a decisive battle over the Texan Army, now led by General .

Goliad

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General José Urrea marched into Texas from Matamoros, making his way north following the coast of Texas, thus preventing any foreign aid by sea and opening up an opportunity for the Mexican Navy to land much needed provisions. Urrea's forces were engaged at the Battle of Agua Dulce on March 2, 1836, which would soon lead to the Goliad Campaign. General Urrea was never defeated in any engagement his forces conducted in Texas.

José Urrea

At Goliad, Urrea's flying column caught Colonel 's force of about 300 men on the open prairie at a slight depression near Coleto Creek and made three charges at a heavy cost in Mexican casualties. Overnight, Urrea's forces surrounded the Texans, brought up cannon and reinforcements, and induced Fannin's surrender under terms the next day, March 20. About 342 of the Texan troops captured during the Goliad Campaign were executed a week later on Palm Sunday, March 27, 1836, under Santa Anna's direct orders, widely known as the Goliad .

"The impact of the was crucial. Until this episode Santa Anna's reputation had been that of a cunning and crafty man, rather than a cruel one...together with the fall of the Alamo, branded both Santa Anna and the Mexican people with a reputation for cruelty and aroused the fury of the people of Texas, the United States, and even Great Britain and France, thus considerably promoting the success of the Texas Revolution

Houston retreats

Houston immediately understood that his small army was not prepared to fight Santa Anna out in the open. The Mexican cavalry, experienced and feared, was something the Texans could not easily defeat. Seeing that his only choice was to keep the army together enough to be able to fight on favorable grounds, Houston ordered a retreat towards the U.S. border, and many settlers also fled in the same direction. A scorched earth policy was implemented, denying much-needed food for the Mexican army. Soon, the rains made the roads impassable, and the cold season made the list of casualties grow in both armies.

Santa Anna's army, always on the heels of Houston, gave unrelenting chase. The town of Gonzales could not be defended by the Revolutionaries, so it was put to the torch. The same fate awaited Austin's colony of San Felipe. Despair grew among the ranks of Houston's men, and much animosity was aimed towards him. All that impeded Santa Anna's advance were the swollen rivers, which gave Houston a chance to rest and drill his army.

Events moved at a quick pace after Santa Anna decided to divide his own flying column

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and race quickly towards Galveston, where members of the Provisional Government had fled. Santa Anna hoped to capture the Revolutionary leaders, and put an end to the war, which had proven costly and prolonged. Santa Anna, as dictator of Mexico, felt the need to return to Mexico City as soon as possible. Houston was informed of Santa Anna's unexpected move. Numbering about 700, Santa Anna's column marched east from Harrisburg, Texas. Without Houston's consent, and tired of running away, the Texan army of 900 moved to meet the enemy. Houston could do nothing but follow. Accounts of Houston's thinking during these moves is subject to speculation as Houston held no councils of war.

Battle of San Jacinto

On April 20, both armies met at the San Jacinto River. Separating them was a large sloping ground with tall grass, which the Texans used as cover. Santa Anna, elated at finally having the Texas Army in front of him, waited for reinforcements, which were led by General Cos. On that same day, a skirmish was fought between the enemies, mostly cavalry, but nothing came of it. To the dismay of the Texans, Cos arrived sooner than expected with 540 more troops, swelling Santa Anna's army to over 1,200 men. Angered by the loss of opportunity and by Houston's indeciseveness, the Texas Army demanded to make an attack. About 3:30 in the afternoon on April 21, after burning Vince's Bridge, the Texans surged forward, catching the Mexican army by surprise. Hours before the attack, Santa Anna had ordered his men to stand down, noting that the Texans would not attack his superior force. Also, his army had been stretched to the limit of endurance by the ongoing forced marches. His force was overwhelmed by Texians pushing into the Mexican camp. An 18- minute-long battle ensued, but soon the defenses crumbled and a massacre ensued.

Popular folk songs and legends hold that during the battle, Santa Anna was busy with and was distracted by a comely mixed race indentured servant, immortalized as 'The Yellow Rose of Texas.'

Santa Anna's entire force of men was killed or captured by Sam Houston's heavily outnumbered army of Texans; only nine Texans died. This decisive battle resulted in Texas's independence from Mexico. Santa Anna was captured when he could not cross the burned Vince's Bridge, and he was brought before Houston, who had been wounded in the ankle. Santa Anna agreed to end the campaign. General , noting the state of his tired and hungry army, marched back to Mexico, but not without protests from Urrea. Only Santa Anna had been defeated, not the Army of Operations, and Urrea felt that the campaign should continue, but Filisola disagreed.

Treaty of Velasco

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Santa Anna surrenders at San Jucinto

With Santa Anna a prisoner, his captors forced him to sign the Treaties of Velasco ( one public, one private ) on May 14. The public treaty was that he would not take up armes against the republic of Texas .The private treaty was to recognize Texas's independence . The initial plan was to send him back to Mexico to help smooth relations between the two states. His departure was delayed by a mob who wanted him dead. Declaring himself as the only person who could bring about peace, Santa Anna was sent to Washington, D.C., by the Texan government to meet President Jackson in order to guarantee independence of the new republic. But unknown to Santa Anna, the Mexican government deposed him in absentia; thus, he no longer had any authority to represent Mexico.

After some time in exile in the United States, and after meeting with U.S. president Andrew Jackson in 1837, he was allowed to return to Mexico aboard the USS Pioneer to retire to his magnificent in , called Manga de Clavo.

When Santa Anna returned to Mexico, the Mexican legislature declared the treaties null and void since they were signed while the president was prisoner . Mexico was too disturbed by its own internal troubles to mount a serious invasion of Texas .

Texas became a republic after a long and bloody fight, but it was never recognized as such by Mexico. The war continued as a standoff.

Santa Anna re-emerged as a hero during the Pastry War in 1838. He was re-elected President, and soon after, he ordered an expedition led by General Adrian Woll, a French soldier of fortune, into Texas, occupying San Antonio, but briefly. There were small clashes between the two states for several years afterward. The war with Texas did not truly come to an end until the Mexican-American War of 1846.

In 1838, Santa Anna discovered a chance to redeem himself from his Texan loss, when French forces landed in Veracruz, Mexico

Republic of Yucatán and the Republic of Rio Grande

After Santa Anna annuled the Federalist constitution of 1824, they were many revolts against the centralisation of power, two actually formed republic besides Texas, the Yucatan and the Mexican states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas formed the Republic of Rio Grande .

Republic of Yucatán and the Mayan Caste War 1847 - 1849

Flag of the Republic of Yucatán

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In 1840, the local Yucatan Congress approved a declaration of independence. Santa Anna refused to recognize Yucatán's independence, and he barred Yucatán ships and commerce in Mexico and ordered Yucatán's ports blockaded. He sent an army to invade Yucatán in 1843. The Yucatecans defeated the Mexican force, but the loss of economic ties to Mexico deeply hurt Yucatán commerce. Yucatan became part of Mexico again in 1843 .the central government rescinded earlier concessions and in 1845 Yucatán again renounced the Mexican government, declaring independence effective 1 January 1846.

Cult of the speaking Cross

When the Mexican-American War broke out, Yucatán declared its neutrality.In 1847 the so-called "Caste War" (Guerra de Castas) broke out, a major revolt of the Maya people against the misrule of the Hispanic population in political and economic control. When Mexico was preoccupied with the war with America, many Maya united under the Mayan-Christian cult of the Speaking Cross to reclaim there land from the whites (dzul ) .This was a cult of a cross carved in a tree in the Yucatan that bore a resemblance to the Maya tree of life, La Ceiba .The Mayans took over the peninsula and almost took the last white stronghold of Merida, when the Mayans abandoned the fight to plant .By 1855, the whites had retaken most of the Yucatán, but some parts remained in control of the cult of the Speaking Cross until the early 20th century .

The government in Mérida appealed for foreign help in suppressing the revolt, with Governor Méndez taking the extraordinary step of sending identical letters to Britain, Spain, and the United States, offering sovereignty over Yucatán to whatever nation first provided sufficient aid to quash the Maya revolt. The proposal received serious attention in Washington, D.C.: the Yucatecan ambassador was received by US President James K. Polk and the matter was debated in the Congress; ultimately, however, no action was taken other than an invocation of the Monroe Doctrine to warn off any European power from interfering in the peninsula.

After the end of the Mexican-American War, Governor Barbachano appealed to Mexican President José Joaquín de Herrera for help in suppressing the revolt, and in exchange Yucatán again recognized the central government's authority. Yucatán was again reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848.

Republic of Rio Grande 1840

The Republic of Rio Grande flag

On January 17, 1840 a constitutional convention was held at the Oreveña Ranch near Laredo. Here it was decided that the Mexican states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas would withdraw themselves from Mexico and would form their own federal republic with Laredo as the capital. After the loss the Battle of Morales the republic moved its capital to Victoria, Texas . There was support from the new Republic of Texas

for the Republic of the rio Grande and 140 Texans joined the army .In November, representatives of Generals Canales and Arista met to discuss the war. During this meeting, the Mexican government offered General Canales the position of brigadier general in the Mexican army in exchange for his abandoning the cause of the Republic of the Rio Grande. General Canales accepted the offer on November 6. Upon this event, the Republic of the Rio Grande failed.

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The Pastry War

In 1838, France demanded compensation for a French pastry chef whose stock was eaten by Mexican troops in 1828. For years Mexico failed to resolve the matter and France demanded 600,000 pesos in payment and when payment. Mexico had also defaulted on millions of dollars worth of loans from France. Diplomat Baron Deffaudis gave Mexico an ultimatum to pay, or the French would demand satisfaction. When the payment was not forthcoming from president (1780–1853), the king sent a fleet under Rear Admiral Charles Baudin to declare a blockade of all Mexican ports from Yucatán to the Rio Grande, to bombard the Mexican fortress of San Juan de Ulúa, and to seize the port of Veracruz. Virtually the entire Mexican Navy was captured at Veracruz by December 1838. Mexico declared war on France.was not received blockaded Vera Cruz with 26 ships and 4,000 troops . Mexico agreed to pay, but France upped the ante to 800,000 pesosfor the cost of the blockading fleet. This was too much for the Mexicans, who sent a few thousand troops to the old fortress of San Juan de Ulua . Thus began the Pastry War .Santa Anna arrived on December 4 . The French landed 3,000 troops and Santa Anna personally led the troops in the street fighting that followed .Santa Anna was wounded in the left leg and had his leg amputated below the knee .The French were driven back to their ships and agreed to their earlier demand of 600,000 pesos.Santa Anna was able to use his wound to re-enter Mexican politics as a hero.

President Again Soon after, Santa Anna was once again asked to take control of the provisional government as Bustamante's presidency turned chaotic. Santa Anna accepted and became president for the fifth time. Santa Anna took over a nation with an empty treasury. The war with France had weakened Mexico, and the people were discontented. Also, a rebel army led by Generals Jose Urrea and José Antonio Mexía was marching towards the Capital, at war against Santa Anna. The rebellion was crushed at the Battle of Mazatlán, by an army commanded by the president himself. Santa Anna's rule was even more dictatorial than his first administration. Anti- Santanista newspapers were banned and dissidents jailed. In 1842, a military expedition into Texas was renewed, with no gain but to further persuade the Texans of the benefits of American annexation.

Exile and Death His demands for ever greater taxes aroused ire, and several Mexican states simply stopped dealing with the central government, Yucatán and Laredo going so far as to declare themselves independent republics. With resentment ever growing against the president, Santa Anna once again stepped down from power. Fearing for his life, Santa Anna tried to elude capture, but in January 1845 he was apprehended by a group of Indians near Xico, Veracruz, turned over to authorities, and imprisoned. His life was spared, but the dictator was exiled to Cuba.

In 1846, the United States declared war on Mexico. Santa Anna wrote to Mexico City saying he no longer had aspirations to the presidency, but would eagerly use his military experience to fight off the foreign invasion of Mexico as he had in the past. President Valentín Gómez Farías was desperate enough to accept the offer and allowed Santa Anna to return. Meanwhile, Santa Anna had secretly been dealing with representatives

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of the United States, pledging that if he were allowed back in Mexico through the U.S. naval blockades, he would work to sell all contested territory to the United States at a reasonable price. Once back in Mexico at the head of an army, Santa Anna reneged on both of these agreements. Santa Anna declared himself president again and unsuccessfully tried to fight off the United States invasion.

In 1851, Santa Anna went into exile in Kingston, Jamaica, and two years later, moved to Turbaco, . In April 1853, he was invited back by rebellious conservatives, with whom he succeeded in retaking the government. This reign was no better than his earlier ones. He funneled government funds to his own pockets, sold more territory to the United States (see Gadsden Purchase), and declared himself dictator for life with the title "Most Serene Highness". The Ayutla Rebellion of 1854 once again removed Santa Anna from power. Despite his generous payoffs to the military for loyalty, by 1855 even his conservative allies had had enough of Santa Anna. That year a group of liberals led by Benito Juárez and Ignacio Comonfort overthrew Santa Anna, and he fled back to Cuba. As the extent of his corruption became known he was tried in absentia for treason and all his estates confiscated. He then lived in exile in Cuba, the United States, Colombia, and St. Thomas. During his time in New York City he is credited as bringing the first shipments of chicle, the base of chewing gum, to the United States, but he failed to profit from this, since his plan was to use the chicle to replace rubber in carriage tires, which was tried without success. The American assigned to aid Santa Anna while he was in the United States, Thomas Adams, conducted experiments with the chicle and called it "Chiclets," which helped found the chewing gum industry. Santa Anna was a passionate fan of the sport of cockfighting. He would invite breeders from all over the world for matches and is known to have spent tens of thousands of dollars on prize roosters.

In 1874 he took advantage of a general amnesty and returned to Mexico. Crippled and almost blind from cataracts, he was ignored by the Mexican government when the anniversary of the Battle of Churubusco occurred. Santa Anna died in Mexico City two years later, on June 21, 1876, penniless and heartbroken. Home Early Prelude to the Mexican Mexican Revolutionary War Records Mexico Obesity Doctor Hottest Mexican Women American War 1846-4 Republic Largest Online US Military Records U.S. trained specialist treats you in Browse 100s Photo & Video Collection. Discover Family Heroes. Mexico for fractions of the cost profiles. Find Your Sweetheart in 1822-33 www.ancestry.com www.ObesityControlCenter.com Mexico! AmoLatina.com

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Mexican American War 1846 - 1848

The Situation after the Independence of Texas The Border Question Not so secret Negotiations Mexican President Overthrown Polk orders to the border Taylor on the Rio Grande The Thornton Affair War is Declared

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Prelude to the Mexican American War

So Far from God: The U.S. War With The Situation after the Independence of Texas Mexico, 1846- 1848This well- written, The United States recognized the independence of Texas in 1837 . Many congressmen comprehensive believed that annexing Texas too soon would led to war with Mexico . The American history of the war president after Texas won its independence. Andrew Jackson , was not for immediate takes into account the annexation . " Prudence," said he, " seems to dictate that we should still stand aloof, political and and maintain our present attitude, if not till Mexico or one of the great foreign powers diplomatic shall recognize the independence of the new Government, at least until the lapse of dimensions as time, or the course of events, shall have proved, beyond all dispute, the ability of that well as the country to maintain their separate sovereignty, and to uphold the Government military. constituted by them."

President Tyler

The following president, Van Buren. also felt America was not ready to go to war with A Glorious Mexico over Texas .The matter of Texas admission to the United States also became Defeat: Mexico embroiled in the slavery issue. If Texas was admitted to the Union it would become a and Its War with slave state and northern states opposed its annexation and the Whig party in the north the United States

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a survey of the were nearly united in their opposition to the annexation of Texas. It required a majority Mexican War of two-thirds of the Senate to annex a foreign territory in accordance with the from a Mexican provisions of the Constitution ; and that, as half of the Senators represented free perspective States, such a majority was at present unattainable and was proved when the measure failed in June 1844 .It was discovered by President Tyler,who was pro-annexation, that what could not be effected by treaty, could as well be performed by a joint resolution of the two houses of Congress. Such a resolution required only a bare majority in each branch .No time was lost by Tyler in making the choice offered to him by the joint resolutions. On the 3rd March, a few hours before his term of office expired, he dispatched a messenger to the American agent in Texas to propose the resolution of annexation to the acceptance of the Texan Government .On the 4th July, Texas consented to be annexed, and the December 29, 1845 , it joined the Union .

This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo American manifest destiny

But more support for annexing Texas and other territories was growing. There was a fear England would purchase California, an under this mistaken belief that Britain actually had purchased California, the American Commodore Thomas Catesby Jones seized Monterey, California in 1842 for a day before returning it took Mexican rule .

President James Polk

In 1844 James Polk won the presidency on a platform that included annexation .Prior to Polk's election, president John Tyler introduced an annexation resolution to Congress, which passed the House of Representatives in January 1845 and the Senate in the next month . Texas joined the Union on December 29, 1845 .

As soon as the joint resolution annexing Texas passed the Unites States Congress, the Mexican minister to the U.S. lodged a formal protest and asked for his passport . The Mexican Senate broke relations with the United States on March 28, 1845 and gave Herrera authority to raise troops and prepare for war . The new president, President Polk ordered army troops to the border and sent navy ships to the Mexican coast . Not wishing to be labeled a war eagle, he made one last effort at peace by sending John Slidell to try to negotiate with Mexican president Jose Joaquin Herrera .

The Border Question

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The matter of prime importance was the boundary dispute between western Texas and Mexico .Throughout Spanish and Mexican history, the western border of the Texas territory had been the Nueces River . In 1836, the Congress of the Republic of Texas claimed the Rio Grande as the western boundary . They based this on the facts that when Texas was under Mexican rule, the Mexican government had allowed some Americans settle in the territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande and that when Santa Anna agreed to withdraw his troops after his defeat and capture at San Juncinto, he withdrew them across the Rio Grande, as per the Treaties of Velasco . However, the Mexican government never formally accepted the treaty . The Americans also claimed the right of self defense against Indian raids from Indians that were said to inhabit the disputed area .The Texans claimed the Rio Grande to its source, which included parts of modern day New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Wyoming, and Colorado.

President Jos Joaqu n de Herrera

Not so secret Negotiations

Slidell also carried secret instructions to try to purchase California ( Mexican ) and the remainder of New Mexico (Nuevo M xico). $5,000,000 was offered for the New Mexico territory and $25,000,000 or more for California . The Mexican press soon found out these secret details and when it became common knowledge in Mexico it caused an uproar . Rebellion was threatened if President Herrera negotiated with the Americans to sell Mexican soil .

Military opponents of President Jos Joaqu n de Herrera, supported by populist newspapers, considered Slidell's presence in Mexico City an insult. After a more nationalistic government under General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, the new government publicly reaffirmed Mexico's claim to Texas; Slidell, convinced that Mexico should be "chastised," returned to the United States.

Mexican President Overthrown

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Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga

While the U.S. was plotting to invade, the Mexicans could not unite in the face this danger and continued their old patterns of conservative-liberal strife. Herrera, with much difficulty, was able to assemble a force of 6,000 men. This was put under the command of the ultra-conservative General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga and sent to the north to San Luis Potos to reinforce Mexican troops along the border . Paredes got as far as San Luis Potos , but instead of marching north against the invaders, in December 14, 1845 he rose in revolt of President Herrera. Paredes was infuriated that Herrera would even allow the American envoy into Mexico .Paredes entered Mexico City on January 2, 1846. On the following day he was named president of Mexico by a junta of notables he had assembled from heads of governmental departments.

Polk orders Zachary Taylor to the border

Zachary Taylor's army in Corpus Christi

President Polk still needed a stirring casus bell for popular support for the war and wanted a show of force to help in the negotiations of Slidell to buy Califorina instead of having to resort to arms . He ordered General Zachary Taylor into the disputed area on August 30 with the seventh regiment of infantry and three companies of dragoons ( Dragoon is the traditional name for a soldier trained to fight on foot but who transports himself on horseback ) ans militia from Alabama, Mississippi,, Tennessee, and Kentucky,about 4,000 in all He was told, " The assembling of a large Mexican army on the borders of Texas, and crossing the Rio Grande with a considerable force, will be regarded by the Executive as an invasion of the United States and the commencement of hostilities.In case of war, either declared or made manifest by hostile acts, your main object will be the protection of Texas ; but the pursuit of this object will not necessarily confine your action within the territory of Texas. Mexico having thus commenced hostilities, you may in your discretion cross the Rio Grande, disperse or capture the forces assembled to invade Texas, defeat the junction of troops uniting for that purpose, drive them from their positions on either side of the river, and, if deemed practicable and expedient, take and hold possession of Metamoras and other places in the country."

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General Zachary Taylor

General Taylor, instead of proceeding immediately to the Rio Grande agreeably to his instructions, stopped at Corpus Christi at the mouth of the Nueces, the extreme point of Texas proper, and Oct. 4th, 1845, wrote to the Secretary, "Mexico having as yet made no positive declaration of war, or committed any overt act of hostilities, I do not feel at liberty under my instructions, particularly those of July 8th, to make a forward movement to the Rio Grande without authority from the war department." As there was no invasion to repel, and as his march into the Mexican territory in time of peace would be an act of aggression, he prudently waited for further orders.

On the 12th January, 1846, the first dispatch was received from Slidell in Mexico, from which it appeared probable that, although the Mexican Government had not yet refused to receive him, it would enter into no negotiation with him, except in reference to Texas. It had been hoped that Mexico would agree to sell California in exchange for the claims against Mexico .The very next day peremptory orders were sent to Taylor to advance to the Rio Grande to try to provoke the Mexican forces in Laredo or Matamoros

General Taylor, in pursuance of orders, commenced his march into the Mexican territory. Not an American, not a Texan was to be found South of Corpus Christi. After proceeding through the desert about one hundred miles, he met " small armed parties of Mexicans who seemed disposed to avoid us." On approaching Point Isabel, a Mexican settlement, and the site of a Mexican Custom House, he found the buildings in flames. At the same time he received a protest from the " Prefect of the Northern District of Tamaulipas'' against his invasion of a territory " which had never belonged to the Texas, an invasion of which no notice had been given to the Government of Mexico, and for which no reason had been assigned. The protest concluded with assuring Taylor that, so long as his army " shall remain in the territory of Tamaulipas, the inhabitants must, whatever professions of peace 'you may employ, regard you as openly committing hostilities, and for the melancholy consequences of these they who have been the invaders must be answerable in the view of the whole world."

Taylor on the Rio Grande On the 28th March, Taylor, without having met with the slightest opposition, planted his standard on the bank of the Rio Grande and placed a battery of eighteen pounders one the east bank of the Rio Grande, opposite Matamoros and started constructing a fort known as Fort Texas, later known as Fort Brown . The new Mexican president Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga was not intimidated by this show of force. He expelled the U.S. envoy from Mexico, declared his willingness to fight, and

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sent thousands of troops to the city of Matamoros. In April 1846, he appointed General as commander of the Army of the North to fight the Americans. Five days after our arms had thus threatened and insulted Metamoras, General Ampudia reached the city with reinforcements, and immediately addressed a letter to the American General, complaining that his advance to the Rio Grande had ' not only insulted but exasperated the Mexican nation," and requiring him within twenty- four hours to remove his camp, and retire beyond the Nueces ; adding, '" If you insist on remaining upon the soil of the department of Tamaulipas, it will clearly result that arms, and arms alone, must decide the question." As Taylor had been sent to Tamaulipas expressly to produce this very result, he took occasion of this letter to hasten the desired crisis.He therefore resorted to an expedient which would compel Ampudia to fire the first shot, and thus, according to the wishes of the Cabinet, to make the intended war, one of defence, "a war by the act of Mexico." There were two American armed vessels at Brazos Santiago, and these he ordered to blockade the mouth of the Rio Grande, thus cutting off all communication with Metamoras by sea. " It will at any rate compel the Mexicans to withdraw their army from Metamoras where it cannot be sustained, or to assume the offensive on this side of the river." Notwithstanding the blockade, the Mexicans did not attack Taylor ; whereupon he determined, it seems, not to remain any longer idle. Accordingly, the very day on which' he informs the Secretary that the relations between himself and the Mexicans remained the same, and when not a single shot had been fired by the latter, he reports, " with a view to check the depredations of small parties of the enemy on this side of the river, Lieutenants Dobbins of the 3d Infantry, and Porter, 4th Infantry, were authorized by me a few days since to scour the country for some miles with a select party of men, and capture and destroy any such parties that they might meet. It appears they separated, and that Lieutenant Porter at the head of his own detachment surprised a Mexican camp, drove away the men, and took possession of their horses." In this affair, Pofter and one man was killed whether any, or how many Mexican lives were sacrificed, does not appear .

The Thornton Affair His next letter of 26th April, reports, on April 24 , what was to be known as the Thornton Affair occurred which gave Polk his cause for war . Taylor wrote "that a party of dragoons sent out by me on the 24th instant to watch the course of the river above on this bank, , ' engaged with a very large force of the enemy, and, after a short affair in which some sixteen were killed and wounded, appear to have been surrounded and compelled to surrender."

It appears that Captain Seth Thornton the commander of the party of with 70 dragoons , acting on the advice of a local guide , investigated an abandoned hacienda, discovered a small body of Mexicans on the summit of a rising ground, about 25 miles from the U.S. camp . He immediately charged upon them ;" but the main body of about 2,000 Mexican soldiers under the command of Colonel Anastasio Torrej n were on the other side of the hill, and therefore unseen, coming up captured the assailants after a battle of a few hours. Another letter, published in the Philadelphia Inquirer , says, " 16 Americans, including Captain Seth Thornton were killed and an unknown number of Mexicans were killed .49 Americans were taken prisoner and held at Matamoros, Tamaulipas.

War is Declared General Taylor, after mentioning the affair in the words we have given, announces to the Cabinet the attainment of the long desired result. " Hostilities may now be CONSIDERED AS COMMENCED." Upon the Strength of this despatch, the President announced to Congress and the world, " Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. On May 13, 1846, Congress declared war on Mexico, despite protests by the Mexican government . Mexico officially declared war on July 7 .

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The Mexican American War

Comparisons of Mexico and America American Plans for the Invasion of Mexico Gen Taylor in Matamoros Battle of Resaca de la Palma Preparations for the invasion of Mexico The March on Monterey Surrender of Monterey Conquest of New Mexico and California Return of Santa Anna Siege of Vera Cruz Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo The Gadsen Purchase

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Comparisons of Mexico and America

At the outset of the war Mexico had a population of 7 million and a bankrupt and stagnant economy, while the US had a population of 20 million and a dynamic and growing economy . The contrast between the armies was even more pronounced . The Mexican military lacked a professional officer corps and its army was in great want of resources . Mexican soldiers were often fed and cared for by their women who followed the troops. The army had antiquated short range artillery and solders often only fired their guns for the first time in battle . Lack of medical services meant the wounded often had to be abandoned .The US, in contrast had a professional officer corps and the most advanced artillery, including So Far from God: the U.S. Army horse artillery or ' flying artillery ' ,which played a decisive role in several key The U.S. War With battlesThe violence of the war and its unjust nature was very tramatic to Mexican pride and is still a Mexico source of resentment for Mexicans today which can be seen in the Reconquista movement in This well-written, Mexico to recover the lost Mexican territories . comprehensive history of the war takes into account the political and diplomatic dimensions as well as the military.

American Flying Artillery

Both sides used smoothbore muskets, but the frontiersman's rifle of the time, with its spiral grooved bore was much more accurate .The rifle, was expensive and the US Army was slow to adopt it .Mexico had no small arm factories of its own , and had to make do with obsolete European discards

A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States The Mexican American War from a Mexican perspective

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The Mexican- American War Early photograph of American dragoons entering Saltillo. This History Channel Dragoon were soldiers trained to fight on foot, but trained in horseback riding and combat .The name probably derives special, hosted by probably from the dragoon's primary weapon, a carbine or short musket called the dragon, like a fire breathing dragon. Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of American Plans for the Invasion of Mexico both countries

Map of the Mexican American War

The plan of the campaign in Mexico for the year 1846, seems to have been arranged jointly, by consultations between the President, Secretary at War, and General Scott .The President declared that in his opinion, " the immediate appearance in arms of a large and overpowering force," would be the best means of producing peace.

At this time, General Scott, as commander of the army, was stationed at Washington, engaged in arranging and superintending the various staff duties of the army. He would be naturally consulted on the plans to be formed, and the means to execute them. The whole detail of the physical and social condition of Mexico, were almost utterly unknown in the United States, and that information on these topics had to be obtained by inquiry and study, before even a general of the army could make prudent military arrangements.

The American strategy called for a three pronged offensive . General Stephen W. Kearny would leave from Fort Leavenworth with the army of the West and occupy New Mexico and California with 1,500 hundred men . The Army of the Center under Doniphan would was ordered to northern

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Mexico and the Army of Occupation would head for Mexico City under Zachary Taylor.

Gen Taylor in Matamoros

Three days after the Thornton affair, the camp of Captain Walker's Texan Rangers was surprised, and several killed and wounded. . This was between Point Isabel andMatamoros. In the mean while, it was ascertained that a large body of the Mexican army had crossed the river (Rio Grande) above, 3 and that another corps was about to cross below. General Taylor was convinced that the object ol attack was Point Isabel, which had been left in care of a small detachment, and where a large depot of provisions invited the enemy. Leaving an unfinished field-work, under the command of Major Brown, and garrisoned by the 7th infantry, with Lowd's and Bragg's companies of artillery, he marched for Point Isabel on the 1st of May, with his main force, and arrived on the next day.

The departure of General Taylor with his army, furnished the enemy in Matamoras with the opportunity for a safe attack on Fort Brown. At five in the morning of the 3d of May, a heavy bombardment was commenced from the batteries in Matamoras, and continued at intervals till the 10th, when the defenders of the fort were relieved. In this defense, Major Brown, Captain Hawkins, and Captain Mansfield were greatly distinguished, both for skill and gallantry. The former was killed by a shell, and the defense was vigorously continued by Captain Hawkins. Captain Mansfield was an engineer officer, under whose direction the fort was built, and by whose skilful conduct the defenses were increased and strengthened during the siege.

The siege of Fort Brown was raised by the arrival of the victorious army of Taylor, which had just fought the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. It appears that General Arista, who was now in command of the Mexican army, had assembled in all about eight thousand men at Matamoras, and being well advised of the strength of the American forces, thought the time had arrived for a decisive blow.

The capture of Captain Thornton's party had also emboldened the Mexican troops. Arista saw that Point Isabel, the depot of large quantities of provisions and military munitions, was comparatively defenceless. To take this place would, therefore, both cut off the supplies of Taylor's army, and leave it isolated in the heart of the enemy's country. The plan of Arista was to cross the Rio Grande, get in the rear of General Taylor's army, capture Point Isabel, and then fall on the American army. The plan was judicious, and was only prevented from being carried out, by the accidental infor- mation brought to General Taylor by one of Thornton's party sent in by the Mexican commander !

Battle of Palo Alto

Death of Major Ringgold at Palto Alto, who was an officer of the ' flying artillery' was one of the 5 Americans who died in the battle

The next day (the 8th) the march was resumed, and at noon the enemy was discovered drawn up in battle array upon a prairie three miles from the Palo Alto. The army was halted, and the men refreshed

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at a pool.

At two P. M., the army advanced by heads of columns, till the Mexican cannon opened upon them, when they were deployed into line, and Ringgold's Light Artillery on the right, poured forth its rapid and deadly fire on the enemy. The Mexican cavalry, mostly Lancers, were on their left, and were forced back by the destructive discharges of artillery. To remedy this, General Arista or- dered Torrejon, general of cavalry, to charge the American right. This he did, but was met by the Flying Artillery, under Lt. Ridgely, and by the 5th Infantry. The Lan- cers were again driven back. At this period the prairie grass was set on fire, and under cover of its smoke the Americans advanced to the position just occupied by the Mexican cavalry. Again a Mexican division of Lancers charged, under the command of Col. Montero, but with as little success. The continuous fire of artillery disordered and drove back the enemy's columns. On the left wing of our army, attacks of the Mexicans were met by Duncan's battery, and by other troops of that division. The combat on our side was chiefly carried on by artillery ; and never was there a more complete demonstration of the superior skill and energy of that Arm of service, as conducted by the accomplished graduates of West-Point. He who was the life and leader of the Light Artillery, MAJOR RINGGOLD was in this engagement mortally wounded, and died in a few days

The battle terminated with the possession, by the Americans, of the field, and the retreat during the night of the Mexicans. Arista, dating his despatch, says, " in sight of the enemy, at night" This might be true ; but he was in retreat, and took a new position several miles off, at Resaca de la Palma. A ravine here crossed the road, and on either side it was skirted with dense thickets. This ravine was occupied by the Mexican artillery. The position was well chosen ; and with troops better skilled in the use of artillery, and with greater energy of body, might have easily been defended.

Battle of Resaca de la Palma

General Taylor had encamped on the field of battle, from which he did not depart till two p. M. the next day. In two hours, the American army came in sight of the Mexican array. The dispositions of our troops were soon made. A battery of artillery, under Lt. Ridgely, moved up the main road, while the 3d, 4th, and 5th Regiments of Infantry deployed on either flank to support it and act as skirmishers. The action commenced by the fire of the Mexican artillery, which was returned by Ridgely's bat- tery and by the infantry on the wings. In this firing, the Mexican cannon were well managed by Generals La Vega and Requena, and the effect began to be severely felt on the American lines. It was necessary to dislodge them and this duty was assigned to Captain May of the Dragoons. It was here that this officer became so distinguished. The charge was gallantly made. The Dragoons cut through the enemy. The artillerymen were dispersed, and General La Vega taken prisoner.

The Dragoons, however, had advanced beyond support, and in turn fell back on the main body. The regiments of infantry now charged the Mexican line, and the battle was soon ended. Their columns, now broken by successive charges, were unable to bear the continued and well-directed fire poured upon them by both infantry and artillery. They fled pre- cipitately from the field, and were rapidly

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pursued by the American rearguard. The Mexicans lost many prisoners, and ceased not their flight till they either crossed or were overwhelmed in the waters of the Rio Grande. In these engagements neither cowardice nor feebleness was attribu- ted to them. They fought gallantly, behaved well, and were only conquered by that union of physical strength and superior skill, with which some nations are fortunately gifted, by the natural influence of climate and the artificial developments of science.

Preparations for the invasion of Mexico

From the period at which the American army occupied Metamoras, after the battle of Resaca de la Palma, both the general government at home, and the officers of the army on the Rio Grande, were busied with preparations for an advance into the interior of Mexico. The Rio Grande was assumed as the military base-line of operations, although the real base was necessarily the Mississippi.

More than three months were consumed in these preparations. In the mean time, the Mexican villages of Reinosa, Comargo, Mier, and Revilla surrendered, and were occupied. Comargo, a town about one hundred and eighty miles above the mouth of the Rio Grande, was the point selected as the depot of supplies. Here the various divisions which were to compose the particular army of General Taylor were gradually concentrated. The entire army of General Taylor consisted of about nine thousand men.

The March on Monterey

A small portion was assigned to garrisons, while the main body, numbering six thousand six hundred, were destined for the march to Monterey. On the 20th of August General Worth began his march for Monterey, the capital of New Leon ; and on the 5th of September, the general- in-chief left Comargo, leaving that town garrisoned by about two thousand men. Worth reached Ceralvo about seventy miles on the 25th of August, and at that point sent out reconnoitering parties, who discovered strong bodies of the enemy in front. Being reinforced, he advanced to the village of Marin, where the entire army was in a few days concentrated under the command of General Taylor.

Battle of Monterey

Monterey The city of Monterey is situated in the valley of the San Juan ; and in the rear, and around it, rise the mountain ridges of the Sierra Madre.

In front, the road from Ceralvo and Marin entered the town. On the heights, in rear of the town and beyond the river, works were erected which commanded the valley and the approaches from the north. Above the Saltillo road was a height upon which was the Bishop's Palace, and near it other heights, all fortified. In front of the city was the Cathedral Fort, or citadel, which was regularly fortified, and about two thousand yards in front and below the Bishop's Palace. The opposite side of the city, to the left, as

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the Americans approached, were forts also erected, and there were barricades in the streets of the city.

Siege of Monterey

Both the natural and the artificial defenses of Monterey seem to have been very strong. Notwithstanding this neither the extant of the defenses nor the garrison within them seem to have been known to the American army previous to its arrival in front of the city.

The army, however, pressed forward, and on the 19th of September arrived at Walnut Springs, three miles from Monterey, having met with no more serious resistance than that of skirmishing parties of Mexican cavalry.

Monterey was then under the command of General Pedro Ampudia, and the garrison under his command consisted of about seven thousand regular troops, and two or three thousand irregulars. Notwithstanding this strong garrison, superior in numbers to the American army, General Taylor thought it possible to carry the place by storm, with the bayonet and the artillery.

In the afternoon of the 20th of September, General Worth, with his division, was ordered to make a detour to the right turn the hill of the Bishop's Palace take a position on the Saltillo road and, if practicable, carry the enemy's works in that quarter. This movement was executed during the evening, and the troops remained upon their arms, just beyond the range of the enemy's shot. During the night two 24-pounder howitzers and ;i ten-inch mortar were placed in battery against the citadel.

On the morning of the 21st the main battle came on. Twiggs' and Butler's Divisions, supported by the Light Artillery, were both ordered forward ; May's Dragoons, and Wood's Texan Cavalry, were detached to the right, to the support of General Worth. A column of six hundred and fifty men, with Bragg's Artillery, was ordered to the left, to attack the lower part of the town. The point of attack was designated by Major Mansfield, who accompa- nied the parly in its advance. The front defense here was a redoubt, into the rear of which, in spite of its fire, the column rapidly moved, and commenced its assault on the town. Here it was opposed by entrenched streets and barricaded houses. On one of these the company of Captain Backus succeeded in getting, and fired upon the redoubt. Garland's force, however, were with- drawn. It was then that General Taylor ordered up the 4th Infantry, and the Volunteer regiments from Ohio, Tennessee, and Mississippi, commanded by Colonels

Mitchell, Campbell, and Davis. The two last regiments, with three companies of the 4th regiment, advanced against the redoubt. The last companies being in front were received with a deadly fire, which killed or disabled one-third of the men, and they were compelled to retire. The brigade of General Quitman (Tennessee and Mississippi) pushed on, and with the aid of Captain Backus's company (on the roof of a house) captured the fort, with its cannon and ammunition. In the mean while the Ohio regiment, with General Butler and Colonel Mitchell, entered the town to the right, and advanced against the second battery, but the fire was so severe that the regiment was withdrawn ; General Butler, who had advanced with it, being wounded. The guns of the first battery were turned upon the second, and Colonel Garland was again ordered forward with an- other column. They were compelled to pass several streets trenched and barricaded, and after another severe contest retired in good order. Up to this time, it is ob- vious, no important success had been obtained against the lower

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town. The Mexican cavalry had also made severa. charges, but always unsuccessfully. On the same day (the 2 1st) Worth's Division had advanced to the right, defeated the enemy, and carried several fortified heights. At night General Taylor ordered a large part of Twiggs' and Butler's Divisions back to Walnut Springs a portion remaining to guard the battery in the ravine, while Gar- land's command held the captured redoubt on the enemy's extreme right.

The Surrender of Monterey, retreat of Mexican troops

At dawn of the 22d, Worth and his Division, which had bivouacked on the Saltillo road, recommenced the advance. The height above the Bishop's Palace was stormed and taken ; when the Palace and the guns of both were turned upon the enemy below. The guns of the Citadel continued, during this day, to fire upon the American positions ; but General Taylor made no important movement in front. The turning of the enemy's position by Worth, and the capture of the Bishop's Palace, gave a new face to affairs. This was the key to Monterey, and General Ampudia concentrated his troops in the heart of the city. General Taylor, on the morning of the 23d, found nearly all the works in the lower part of the city abandoned. He immediately ordered General Quitman to enter the place ; but here a new resistance was made. The houses were fortified, and our troops actually dug through from house to house ! On the upper side of the city, Worth's Division had also gained a lodgment. The firing continued during the 23d the Americans having possession of the greater part of the city, and the Mexicans confined, in their defence, chiefly to the Citadel and Plaza. That evening (at 9 p. M.) General Ampudia sent in propositions to General Taylor which, after some negotiation, resulted in the surrender and evacuation of Monterey. The main part of the capitulation was, that the Mexican troops should retire beyond a line formed by the Pass of Rinconada, the city of Linares, and San Fernando de Prezas ; and that the forces of the United States would not advance beyond that line before the expiration of eight weeks, or until the orders or instructions of the respective governments should be received.

The Mexicans marched out with their arms, and the terms were unusually favorable to them. For this concession there were strong reasons. A change of government had just taken place in Mexico, believed to be favorable to peace, and to have reduced the citadrl of Monterey would have cost the lives of many men. Besides al! this, the American army had but a short supply of provisions, and were one hundred and eighty miles distant from their depot. The American loss in this battle was (killed and wounded) four hundred and eighty-eight, a large portion of whom fell in the attacks of the 21st on the lower town.

End of the armistice

The War Department did not choose to continue the armistice ; but, on the 13th of October, directed General Taylor lo give notice that the armistice should cease, and that each party should be at liberty to resume hostilities. In communicating this notice to General Santa Anna, then in command of the Mexican army, General Taylor took occasion to suggest the idea of an honorable peace. To this the Mexican chief replied, " You should banish every idea of peace while a single North American, in arms, treads upon the territory of this republic."

Conquest of New Mexico and California

Immediately after the opening of hostilities in the valley of the Rio Grande, of which notice has been taken in preceding chapters of this work, among the expeditions which were organized by the Federal authorities, was one to move against, and take possession of, California and New Mexico, two provinces, in the northern part of the eneraj^'s country.' The command of this expedition had been vested in General Stephen W. Kearney, and the force under his command embracing the First regiment of Missouri Mounted Volunteers, under Colonel Alexander W. Doniphan ; two companies of light- artillery {Captains Weighiman' s and Fischers), from St. Louis ; five troops of the First regiment United States dragoons ; " The Saclede Rangers," a volunteer troop, from St. Louis, and two companies of infantry (volun-teers), from Cole and Platte counties, Missouri, under Captains Augney and Murphy sixteen hundred and fifty-eight men in all, with twelve six-pounders and four twelve-pound howitzers, had rendezvoused at Fort Leaven-worth ; and the most energetic measures had been adopted to insure its early departure and its ultimate success.In Northern California, Mexican General José Castro and Governor Pío Pico fled further south into loyalist Mexico. When Stockton's forces, sailing south to , stopped in San Pedro, he dispatched 50 U.S. Marines. The force entered unresisted on August 13, 1846. It is known as the Siege of Los Angeles, the nearly

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bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. Stockton, however, left too small a force in Los Angeles, and the Californios, acting on their own and without help from Mexico, led by José Mariá Flores, forced the American garrison to retreat in late September. More than 300 reinforcements sent by Stockton, led by U.S. Navy Captain William Mervine, were repulsed in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, October 7 through October 9, 1846, near San Pedro. 14 U.S. Marines were killed. The rancho vaqueros, banded together to defend their land, fought as Californio Lancers. They were a force the Americans had not prepared for. Meanwhile, General Stephen W. Kearny, with a squadron of 139 dragoons, finally reached California after a grueling march across New Mexico, Arizona and the Sonora desert, on December 6, 1846, and fought in a small battle with Californio Lancers at the near San Diego, California, where 22 of Kearny's troops were killed. Kearny's command was bloodied and in poor condition but pushed on until they had to establish a defensive position on "Mule" Hill near present-day Escondido. The Californios besieged the dragoons for four days until Commodore Stockton's relief force arrived. Later, their re-supplied, combined force, marched north from San Diego on December 29, entering the Los Angeles area on January 8, 1847,[24] linking up with Frémont's men. With U.S. forces totaling 607 soldiers and marines, they fought and defeated a Californio force of about 300 men under the command of captain-general Flores, in the decisive Battle of Rio San Gabriel,[25] and the next day, January 9, 1847, they fought the Battle of La Mesa. On January 12, 1847, the last significant body of Californios surrendered to U.S. forces. That marked the end of the war in California. On January 13, 1847, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed.

On January 28, 1847, U.S. Army Lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman and some army units arrived in Monterey, California. The next day, the famous Mormon Battalion commanded by fellow dragoon, Lt. Col. Philip St. George Cooke arrived at San Diego after making a remarkable march from Council Bluffs, Iowa Territory. Other U.S. forces continued to arrive in California. On March 15, 1847, Col. Jonathan D. Stevenson’s Seventh Regiment of New York Volunteers of about 900 men started arriving in California. All of these men were in place when word went out that gold was discovered in California, January 1848.

Return of Santa Anna

The defeats at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma caused political turmoil in Mexico, turmoil which Antonio López de Santa Anna used to revive his political career and return from self-imposed exile in Cuba in mid-August 1846. He promised the U.S. that if allowed to pass through the blockade, he would negotiate a peaceful conclusion to the war and sell the New Mexico and Alta California territories to the United States. Once Santa Anna arrived in Mexico City, however, he reneged and offered his services to the Mexican government. Then, after being appointed commanding general, he reneged again and seized the presidency.He began to revtalize the army at San Luis Potosi, in a few months he had assembled an army of 25,000 .

Battle of Buena Vista

Tell Santa Anna to go to hell ! , Gen Taylor's reply to Santa Anna's demand for surrender

On February 22, 1847, Santa Anna personally marched north to fight Taylor with 20,000 men. Taylor, with 4,600 men, had

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entrenched at a mountain pass called Buena Vista. Santa Anna suffered desertions on the way north and arrived with 15,000 men in a tired state. He demanded and was refused surrender of the U.S. army; he attacked the next morning. Santa Anna flanked the U.S. positions by sending his cavalry and some of his infantry up the steep terrain that made up one side of the pass, while a division of infantry attacked frontally along the road leading to Buena Vista. Furious fighting ensued, during which some U.S. troops were routed, but were saved by artillery fire against a Mexican advance at close range by Captain , and a charge by the mounted Mississippi Riflemen under . Having suffered discouraging losses and word of upheaval in Mexico city, Santa Anna withdrew that night, leaving Taylor in control of Northern Mexico. Polk distrusted Taylor, whom he felt had shown incompetence in the Battle of by agreeing to the armistice, and may have considered him a political rival for the White House. Taylor later used the Battle of Buena Vista as the centerpiece of his successful 1848 presidential campaign

Siege of Vera Cruz

On March 7, 1847, a force of 70 troopships approached Veracruz and two days later began to bombard the city with the goal of taking Mexico City .Rather than reinforce Taylor's army for a continued advance, President Polk sent a second army under General , which was transported to the port of Veracruz by sea, to begin an invasion of the Mexican heartland. Scott performed the first major amphibious landing in the history of the United States in preparation for the Siege of Veracruz. A group of 12,000 volunteer and regular soldiers successfully offloaded supplies, weapons and horses near the walled city. Included in the invading force were Robert E. Lee, , Ulysses S. Grant, and Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson. The city was defended by Mexican General Juan Morales with 3,400 men. Mortars and naval guns under Commodore Matthew C. Perry were used to reduce the city walls and harass defenders. The city replied as best it could with its own artillery. The effect of the extended barrage destroyed the will of the Mexican side to fight against a numerically superior force, and they surrendered the city after 12 days under siege. U.S. troops suffered 80 casualties, while the Mexican side had around 180 killed and wounded, about half of whom were civilian. During the siege, the U.S. side began to fall victim to yellow fever.

Battle of Cerro Gordo

Scott then marched westward toward Mexico City with 8,500 healthy troops, while Santa Anna set up a defensive position in a canyon around the main road at the halfway mark to Mexico City, near the hamlet of Cerro Gordo. Santa Anna had entrenched with 12,000 troops and artillery that were trained on the road, along which he expected Scott to appear. However, Scott had sent 2,600 mounted dragoons ahead, and the Mexican artillery prematurely fired on them and revealed their positions. Instead of taking the main road, Scott's troops trekked through the rough terrain to the north, setting up his artillery on the high ground and quietly flanking the Mexicans. Although by then aware of the positions of U.S. troops, Santa Anna and his troops were unprepared for the onslaught that followed. The Mexican army was routed. The U.S. army suffered 400 casualties, while the Mexicans suffered over 1,000 casualties and 3,000 were taken prisoner.

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On the same day, another army attacked the Convent of Churubusco, which was defended by troops under Pedro Anaya as well as the St. Patrick Battalion of of US deserters of mostly Irish descent, who felt a kinship with Catholic Mexicans and were subject to discrimination in the US army . The Battalion fought until their last shot was spent and surrendered . The deserters were court martialed and many were hung, those that were not had the letter 'D' branded on their checks .

Battle of Chapultepec

On September 8, 1847, in the costly Battle of Molino del Rey, U.S. forces had managed to drive the Mexicans from their positions near the base of guarding Mexico City from the west. However Army engineers were still interested in the southern approaches to the city. General Winfield Scott held a council of war with his generals and engineers on September 11. Scott was in favor of attacking Chapultepec and only General David E. Twiggs agreed. Most of Scott's officers favored the attack from the south including Major Robert E. Lee. A young Captain Pierre Beauregard gave a text book speech that persuaded General Pierce to change his vote in favor of the western attack. Scott officially declared the attack would be against Chapultepec.

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Antonio López de Santa Anna was in command of the army at Mexico City. He understood that Chapultepec Castle was an important position for the defense of the city. The castle sat atop a 200-foot (60 m) tall hill which in recent years was being used as the Mexican Military Academy. General Nicolás Bravo however had less than 1,000 men (832 Total including 250 10th Infantry, 115 Queretaro Battalion, 277 Mina Battalion, 211 Union Battalion, 27 Battalion and 42 la Patria Battalion with 7 guns) to hold the hill including 200 cadets, some as young as 13 years old. A gradual slope from the castle down to the Molino del Rey made an inviting attack point.

According to the military records at the General National Archives in Mexico City, Chapultepec Castle was only defended by 400 men, 300 from de Batallón de San Blas under command of Lieutenant Colonel Felipe Xicoténcatl, and the castle's garrison of 100 men, including the cadets.

Scott organized two storming parties numbering 250 hand picked men. The first party under Captain Samuel Mackenzie would lead Gideon Pillow's division from the Molino east up the hill. The second storming party under Captain Silas Casey would lead John A. Quitman's division against the southeast of the castle.The Americans began an artillery barrage against Chapultepec at dawn on September 12. It was halted at dark and resumed at first light on September 13. At 08:00, the bombardment was halted and Winfield Scott ordered the charge. Following Captain Mackenzie's storming party were three assault columns from George Cadwalader's brigade of Pillow's division. On the left were the 11th and 14th regiments under Colonel William Trousdale, in the center were 4 companies of the Voltigeur regiment under Colonel Timothy Patrick Andrews, and on the right were the remaining 4 Voltigeur companies under Lieutenant Colonel Joseph E. Johnston. Pillow was quickly hit in the foot but ordered the attack forward. Andrews's column followed Mackenzie out of the Molino and cleared a cypress grove to their front of Mexican troops as Trousdale and Johnston moved up on the flanks. The attack stalled when Mackenzie's men had to wait for storming ladders to arrive, and there was a lull in the battle.

To the southwest, 40 Marines led Captain Casey's storming party followed by James Shields' brigade of volunteers north towards Chapultepec. Again the storming party stalled while waiting for ladders, and the rest of Shields' men halted in the face of Mexican artillery. The scaling ladders arrived, and the first wave ascended the walls. In fact so many ladders arrived that 50 men could climb side by side. George Pickett (later famous for "Pickett's Charge" and the Battle of Five Forks during the ) was the first American to top the wall of the fort, and the Voltigeurs soon planted their flag on the parapet. Colonel Trousdale's column supported by Lieutenant Thomas J. Jackson's artillery faced superior numbers of Mexicans in a spirited defense. Newman S. Clarke's brigade brought new momentum to the fight on Pillow's front. General Shields was severely wounded when his men poured over the walls, but his troops managed to raise the U.S. Flag over the castle. Caught between two fronts, General Bravo ordered a retreat back to the city. Before he could withdraw, Bravo was taken prisoner by Shields' New York volunteers. The Mexicans retreated at night down the causeways leading into the city. Several Mexican cadets wrapped themselves around Mexican flags and jumped from the walls disregarding height to prevent the seizure of the Mexican flag from the attackers. Santa Anna watched disaster befall Chapultepec while an aide exclaimed "let the Mexican flag never be touched by a foreign enemy".Los Niños Héroes

During the battle, six Mexican military cadets refused to fall back when General Bravo finally ordered retreat and fought to the death against superior U.S. forces. Their names were: teniente(lieutenant) Juan de la Barrera, and cadets Agustin Melgar, Juan Escutia, Vicente Suarez, Francisco Marquez and Fernando Montes de Oca. One by one they fell; when one was left (Juan Escutia), and the U.S. forces were about to kill him, he grabbed the Mexican flag, wrapped it around himself and jumped off the castle point. It is said that the American commander saluted the cadaver of Escutia wrapped in the Mexican flag.

A moving mural decorates the ceiling of the palace, showing Juan Escutia wrapped in the flag, apparently falling from above . A monument stands in Chapultepec Park commemorating their courage. The cadets are eulogized in Mexican history as the Los Niños Héroes, the "Child Heroes" or Heroic Cadets.The battle had been a significant victory for the U.S. Lasting throughout most of the day, the fighting had been severe and costly. Generals Twiggs and Shields had both been wounded as well as Colonel Trousdale. The heaviest losses occurred during Quitman's attack on the Belén Gate. Every member of Quitman's staff had lost their lives in the close fighting on the causeway.

Santa Anna lost General Bravo as a POW, and General Juan N. Pérez was killed. In a fit of rage Santa Anna slapped General Terrés and relieved him of command for losing the Belén Gate. In his memoirs Santa Anna branded Terrés as a traitor and made him the scapegoat for the defeat at Mexico City.The efforts of the U.S. Marines in this battle and subsequent occupation of Mexico City are memorialized by the opening lyrics to Marines' hymn. "From the Halls of Montezuma..." is a reference to the Chapultepec Castle, also known as the Halls of Montezuma. The Marine Corps also remembers this battle with the "blood stripe" on the dress blues uniform of NCOs and Officers, who took over 90% casualties.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

President Polk, ambitous for a larger slice of Mexico of Mexico than he had originally detailed to envoy Trist . There were supporters in Mexico and the US who thought the US should annex all of Mexico . President Polk tried to recall Trist, but was unable to communicate with him .

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848 by American diplomat Nicholas Trist, ended the war and gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, established the U.S.-Mexican border of

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the Rio Grande River, and ceded to the United States the present-day states of California, , Utah, and parts of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Wyoming. In return, Mexico received US $15,000,000—less than half the amount the U.S. had attempted to offer Mexico for the land before the opening of hostilities—and the U.S. agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts that the Mexican government owed to U.S. citizens. The acquisition was a source of controversy at time, especially among U.S. politicians that had opposed the war from the start. A leading U.S. newspaper, the Whig Intelligencer sardonically concluded that

The Gadsen Purchase

By 1853, with the 15 million already spent, Santa Anna decided the treasury could only be saved by selling more Mexican territory to the US .The US wanted the Mesilla Valley in lower New Mexico and Arizona to build a new railroad in California .Santa Anna agreed to sell the land for $10 million. By doing so. Santa Anna alienated the liberal opposition that he found himself exiled for the eleventh and last time. The liberals proclaimed the Revolution of Ayutla . Home

Prelude Revolution of Ayutla, to the 1857 Constitution Mexican War of the Reform American 1857-61 War 1846-4

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Revolution of Ayutla

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The outcome of the Mexican American War with the loss of half of Mexico's territory shocked the Mexicans into seeking a new direction to perserve the country . The last straw with the old order came with Santa Annas selling yet more Mexican territory with the Gadsen Purchase in 1853 . The Revolution of Ayutla was named after The Plan of Ayutla announced in the town of Ayutla on March 1, 1854 ,which sought to remove Santa Anna and convening a constituent assembly in order to draft a federal constitution .The Revolution of Ayutla brought together some of the most creative minds in Mexico .The new liberal government ushered in a new era known as the Reform ( .), which set about to dismantle the old military and church led conservative state and bring about a new secular, democratic state .This brough them into conflict with those who supported the old order and eventually led the country to civil war .

Juan Alvarez

Santa Anna returned to power in a coup in 1852 and sought to fashion himself the new Mexican emperor, insisting he be called His Most Serene Highness and creating an even more centralized state .In Guerrero, Juan Alvarez rose against the Santa Anna regime with widespread peasant support . After over a year of guerrilla warfare, the neighboring states of Morelos, Michoacan , Oaxaca and Nuevo Leon joined the revolt . The army garrisons in Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi denounced Santa Anna, who went into exile in August 1855 and Alvarez rode into Mexico City in trimuph and became provisional president .Ignacio Comonfort became secretary of war and Benito Juarez secretary of Justice . This began the peroid known as the Reform as the liberals began to dismantle the old conservative state .One of the first acts was to abolish the fueros, the special courts for members of the clergy and military and make them go to civil courts for cases dealing with civil or criminal law.

Alvarez becomes President Almost as soon as Alvarez entered the capital, the liberal coalition began to fall apart over the fueros law. The moderates ( moderados) favored compromise, while the liberals (puros) refused .The leader of the young, socially motivared intellectuals was Benito Juarez , a Zapotec Indian from Oaxaca, sought to reduce the power of the church while Ponciano Arriaga wanted drastic land reform and Ignancio Comonfort was a moderate on most issues .Alvarez tried to balance these various interests in his cabinet,

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but gave up and named Comonfort his successor .

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Ignacio Comonfort

In 1856 President Comonfort issused a law prohibiting the Church from owning property not directly related to its operations to break up the vast landholding of the church . These holding would be put up for sale at a public auction .

The 1857 Constitution ( Constitución Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos de 1857 ) In accordence with the The Plan of Ayutla , delegates met to draft a new constitution and was debated between the moderates and liberals .The Constitution of 1857 was modeled after the one of 1824, the major difference being that the legislature was to be unicameral instead of bicameral to make it stronger in case of dictatorship and the president was to be limited to one four year term . The Constitution of 1857 had more liberal declarations than the one of 1824. In the new constitution, freedom of speech, press, assembly and education were declared as was habeas corpus. While freedom of religion was not declared, the Catholic Church was not declared to be the state church .The church was not happy with this and issued decrees attempting to nullify the new constitution and threatened excommunication for those who sought to purchase church property at auctions .The pressing conflict for most Mexicans was wether to swear allegiance to the new Constitution. They would be heretics if they did so in the eyes of the church and traitors if they did not in the eyes of the state .this conflict led to the vicious war of reform.

The War of the Reform 1857-61 ( La Guerra de Reforma de México )

Felix Zuloaga

The subsequent War of the Reform raged in Mexico from 1858 to 1861. Like most Mexican Wars this one began with a plan, the Plan de Tacubaya, declared by the conservative general Felix Zuloaga and a junta of conservative genrals and clergy who led a coup (golpe) , dissolved the Congress and arrested Juarez. President Comonfort was unable to resolve the issue and resigned, but was able to free Juarez and other liberals while he still hels some power .Liberals in the provences declared their support for the new Constitution and Reform laws . The army declared Zuloaga the new president and Juarez managed to escape where the liberals declared him president and started a three year war .The liberals established their capital in Veracruz where they could gather custom duties and arms .For the first two years, the better trained conservative army won most of the major engagements with the liberals .The civil war was very vicious .Captured prisoners on both sides were often shot . Priests who refused sacraments to liberals were shot as were doctors in conservative held areas who treated liberals .

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Benito Juarez

The liberals nationalized church lands and declared freedom of religion .By 1860 the war began to favor the liberals with the leadership of the generals Ignacio Zargoza and Jesus Ortega and infighting among the conservatives.In late 1861 the liberals won a victory against the conservative general Miramon at San Migual Calpulalpan and the liberal army entered Mexico City . With the War of the Reform over, Mexico needed peace to rebuild after the devastation it had wrought .However, this was not to be .Juarez won the presidental election of 1861, but the liberals were divided on what punishment should be given to their enemies .The new president chose a more lenient policy, which angered to more radical liberals and kept the new government in a state of turmoil .But the biggest problem was yet to come. Juarez inhereted a bankrupt country. The sale of church lands had not brought in as much income as was hoped and the economy was stagnant .Mexico's foreign creditors began clamoring for repayment of debts, some over fifty years old .The Mexicans still owed 80 million in foreign debts, and 64 million of this was owed to the British .The conservative President, Miramon had borrowed heavily as well from the half brother of Napoleon III of France. Juarez repudiated the debts of the conservatives , but this did not satisfy the foreign bankers .To get some breathening space for the economy to revive, Juarez declared a two year moratorium on payment of the foreign debt .On October 31, 1861, Spain, England and France agreed to the Convention of London which declared an occupation of the Mexican coast until their claims were satisfied through custom duties .France, under the leadership of Napoleon III, sought to use the opportunity of the crisis and the American Civil war to establish a colony in the New World . In december, 1861, 6,000 Spanish troops landed at Veracruz, followed by seven hundred British soldiers and two thousand French . when it became apparent that the French sought to conquer Mexico, Spain and England withdrew their troops . Home Mexican French Intervention American Second Mexican War Empire1864-7 1846-47

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French intervention and the Second Mexican Empire 1864 - 1867

Coins of the Second Empire of Mexico

Napoleon III and his plans for Empire

Napoleon III had a more grandiose plan than debt collection when he sent troops to The Crown of Mexico . Urged on by his own dream of emulating the great Napoleon and his Spanish Mexico:Maximilian wife Eugenie, he was determined to make France great again .He also wished to build a and His Empress canal and railway across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to make another great Carlota. Joan engineering feat like the Suez Canal .Napoleon III convinced the Austrian archduke Haslip Maximilian von Habsburg that the Mexican people would welcome him as a king . America was too involved with its own Civil War to enforce the Monroe Doctrine and Napoleon sent an expeditionary force of 27,000 to Mexico .As mentioned before, the Spanish and British withdrew their troops when they learned of the French intentions .

Vera Cruz. western that takes place in the Second Empire in Mexico

The Battle of Puebla

The French defeat at Puebla

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The French marched on from the coast to Mexico City under the command of Charles Latrille. The French expected to be welcomed by the conservatives and the clergy .The Mexicans dug in at Puebla and heavily fortified it under General Ignacio Zaragoza, where around 4,500 Mexicans troops faced off against around 6,000 French. The French expected the Mexicans to retreat in the face of an aggressive assault and attacked recklessly. The French ran low on ammunition and many of their troops were weakened by sickness .On May 5, 1862, the Mexican forces managed to drive back the French to Veracruz and the date became the major Mexican Celebration of Cinco de Mayo .The Mexicans lost 83 men while the French lost 462.

Ferdinand Maximilian and his wife Marie Charlotte

Upon hearing of the disaster at Puebla, Napoleon ordered 30,000 reinforcements .It was a year before the French army was prepared to march again .The French bombarded Puebla, under the command of General Jesus Ortega after the death of General Ignacio Zaragoza of typhoid fever, for days and forced it to surrender after a siege of two months .The French army under Marshal Elie Forey took Mexico City on May 31 after the Juaristas evacuated north to San Luis Potosi.

Captain Jean Danjou

The Battle of Camaron

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One battle at this time, that of Camaron on April 30, 1863, in the state of Veracruz became one of the most famous in the annals of the French Foreign Legion .Here, 60 legionnaires under the command of Captain Jean Danjou, who had a wooden hand, met a force of roughly a thousand Mexican guerrillas where they fought until only five legionnaires and Captain Jean Danjou survived. They surrendered and freed in a prisoner exchange .

map of operations during the French Intravention in Mexico

Maximilian becomes the Emperor of Mexico

On June 3, 1863 the french commander selected a provisional government of 35 conservatives .The executive triumvirate was made up of General Juan Almonte, General Mariano Salas and Bishop Pelagio Labastida .In October 1863 a delegation of Mexican conservatives visited Ferdinand Maximilian in Europe and made an offer for him to become the emperor of Mexico .Maximilian agreed if this was accepted by the Mexican people themselves .A plebiscite was held in Mexico under the control of the French Army, which of course approved him .Before Maximilian left Europe he met with Napoleon and it was agreed that Maximilian would pay the salaries of the French troops which would remain in Mexico until 1867.He was proclaimed Maximilian I, Emperor of Mexico on April 10, 1864.

French Legionnaires

The Administration of the Emperor

Ferdinand and his wife Marie arrived in Veracruz in May of 1864 where they were coldly welcomed by the local people .On June 12 they arrived in Mexico City after paying his respects to the Virgin of Guadalupe at the Basilica of Guadalupe .An imperial court was established at Chapultepec Castle .Once a week he opened the castle to the public to hear the concerns of the people and toured the provinces.He declared a free press and declared a general amnesty to win the support of the people .

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French bombard Alcapulco

To the dismay of his conservative allies, Maximilian upheld several liberal policies proposed by the Juárez administration – such as land reforms, religious freedoms, and extending the right to vote beyond the landholding class. the emperor refused to suspend the Reform Laws that would return church lands and even levied forced loans against it . The emperor , a Mason, considered himself an enlightened despot and in addition to this hoped to gain Mexican liberal support . He drafted a new constitution which provided for a hereditary monarchy, religious toleration , equality under the law and did away with debt peonage . He sought to use the clergy as civil servants and pay salaries in order to do away with tithing and fees .He even named Jose Fernando, a moderate liberal, as secretary of foreign affairs . The liberals, for the most part were not impressed by these actions and Maximilian only succeeded in alienating them both liberals and conservatives.Maximilian consorted with prostitutes, and Carlota out of fear of catching a disease refused to sleep with him, creating a succession issue. This was solved by adopting the grandson of the first emperor of Mexico.

Dark Days for the republicans

Juarez withdrew to San Luis Potosi and then to . French forces then forced his small army further north to modern day Ciudad Juarez across the border from El Paso .The empire was its strongest from 1864 to 1865. Marshal Bazaine defeated Porfirio Diazin Oaxaca after a six month siege. After its fall, the republicans only held four states, Guerro, Chihuahua, Sonora and Baja.

The Emperor issues the Black Decree

In October 1865, the emperor believed Juarez had fled to the US , which was not the case .The emperor then issued the infamous Black Decree decree mandating the death penalty for all captured armed Juaristas. There would be no courts-martial or pardons by the emperor .Within a few days two Juarista generals were captured and shot. This decree, however, was to lead to the own death .The French, however, had trouble pacifying the country due to guerrilla warfare and the French were hated in much of the country for their drastic counter guerrilla actions.

American Support for Juarez and a Confederate Offer

Juarez realized he need more support and sought aid from the Lincoln administration, which had never recognized Maximilian's government .After the downfall of the Confederacy, Secretary of State Seward began applying pressure on Napoleon III and allowed Juaristas to purchase arms in the US .Three thousand Union veterans joined the >Juarista army and the Mexican coast was blockaded. General Grant ordered 42,000 men under Sheridan to Brownsville, across the river from the imperial army under the command of Tomas Mejia and it looked as if the US would invade Mexico on behalf of the Juaristas, but nothing came of it .

After the fall of the Confederacy, General Joseph Shelby and his men rode south into Mexico to offer their services to Emperor Maximilian, who declined to accept the ex- Confederates into his armed forces. However, the emperor did grant them land for an American colony in Mexico.

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Napoleon withdraws Troops, the Empress Pleads

With these considerations and the rising power of Prussia, Napoleon began to withdraw his troops in late 1866 and urged Maximilian to abdicate. This left Maximilian in a dangerous position and considered abdicating his throne, but his wife, saying he must maintain Hapsburg dignity, talked him out of it. She would travel to Europe herself to talk with Napoleon and to the Pope, but to no avail and later suffered an emotional collapse.During the remainder of her life (1867-1927) she believed herself still to be the empress of the Mexicans

execution of Maximilian and Generals Miguel Miramon and Tomás Mejia, Harper's Weekly

Downfall of the Emperor

Juarez and his army assumed the offensive in the spring of 1866 .During the summer the republicans captured Saltillo, Monterey, Tampico, Durango and later in the year Guadalajara and Oaxaca. The end came in the city of Queretaro where the last of the French troops in Mexico were marching to Veracruz to leave Mexico under Marshal Bazaine, who urged the emperor to join him.the last french soldier left on March 16. Portirio Diaz, who escaped his captors after the fall of Oaxaca, took command of the army of the East and defeated a conservative army outside Mexico City and put the capital under siege .

The emperor is Betrayed

Maximilian took command of a few thousand Mexican imperial troops but was surrounded by a republican army four times as strong .The battle began on Feb 19, 1867 and the defenders held of the republicans for almost a hundred days .On May 11 he decided to attempt an escape through the enemy lines. However on May 15, 1867, before he could carry out this plan,a member of the imperial cavalry betrayed the emperor and opened a gate to the beseigers and Maximilian was captured , along with Miramon and Mejia .

Reasons for the Execution of the Emperor

Juarez decided that the emperor would be tried by court-martial, and the emperor's death decree of 1865 that had executed so many left little room for compassion . It was also felt that Maximilian might return and would make the new government look weak . He was also popular and even venerated by some of the Mexican population and it was feared they might rally around him in the future .He was executed by firing squad on June 19, 1867 on the Hill of Bells (Cerro de las Campanas) together with his Generals Miguel Miramón and Tomás Mejía.Two days late diaz captured Mexico City from the conservative armies . Over 50,000 Mexicans had lost their lives fighting the French and the country was devestatedafter a decade of warfare. However, it was a vindication for the republicans and the Constitution of 1867, the power of the church and conservatives was broken and a sense of Mexican nationalism began to grow .It also introduced French ideas, fashion and culture into Mexico . Liberalism became associated with independence from foreign aggression .However, the lack of a central authority for so long increased

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regionalism and banditary which would lead to future domestic strife .

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War of the Reform 1857-61

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Restored Republic 1867-76

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The modern begins with the liberal victory of 1867. Juarez immediately set about making economic, political and educational reforms. Schooling was made mandatory, a railway was built between Veracruz and Mexico City and to increase commerce a rural police force, the was established to check banditry. Juarez sought to lessen the political conThere was still some unrest among the peasants for land rights that flared into rebellion in Nayarit under Manuel Lozada and in Oaxaca by the brother of Porfirio Diaz .

Juarez and his followers spent the next decade trying to consolidate their victory and implement the reforms of the Constitution of 1867 . There was still antagonisms from the conservatives, but it did not break out into civil war as it had in the 1860s .

Juarez's Third Term

Juarez entered Mexico City to jubilation on July 15, and immediately called for a presidential election and announced himself a candidate for a third term against General Jesus Ortega and General porfirio Diaz .The 1857 Constitution limited the president to one four year term and did not permit reelection. The previous terms could be argued to have been an emergency situation since it was during the French Intervention .Despite this, Juarez won the presidential election an was sworn in late 1867 .

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rurales

The Juarez administration focused on rebuilding the economy and creating a stronger educational foundation for Mexico . Matias Romero was named secretary of the treasury who developed a plan for the development of the transportation system and exploiting Mexico's mineral resources rather than industrialization to rebuild the economy .To secure the roads, a rural police force was established, the rurales, an by 1869 they contributed to the stability of the countryside and repaired Mexico's image of a land of lawlessness to foreign investors .Tariffs and taxes were reformed to encourge investment .

Repairing the Infrastructure

Metlac Bridge

One of the most important projects of the era was the development of the Mexico City - Veracruz railway which was finished in 1872. The land between the cities was quite rugged and was a geat engineering feat, especially the bridging of the Metlac River chasm that was 900 feet wide and 375 feet deep . In 1860 Mexico only had 150 miles of railway, in contrast with the US which had over 30,000 miles .Despite being majority owned by an arch conservative, Juarez smoothed the way for the Ferrocarril Mexicano or Mexican Railway Company because he believed in the importance of the raiway to the country was greater than politicsdespite objections to it in Congress .Roads were improved and telegraph lines went up all over the country .

Educational Reforms

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In 1867, Juarez appointed a commission to reorganize the education system of Mexico .The curriculum was changed to place more encourage science and math and primary education was made obligatory and free for the first time .Many murals extolling these new ideas were painted on the school walls themselves, beginning the Mexican muralist movement .

Juarez Runs for a Fourth Term

By the presidental election of 1871, Juarez decided to run for a fourth term against the advice of many friends on the law of the Constitution of 1857 .Two of his former supporters ran against him Sebastian Lerdo de Eejada,the former secretary of foreign relations who had the support of the professional classes and the upper classes, and Porfirio Diaz, who had the support of the military and conservatives . Both Diaz and Lerdo attacked Juarez for violating the Constitution of 1857 and the election was hotly contested .When the ballots were counted, none of the candidates had the required majority and according to the Constitution of 1857 the matter must be decided by Congress, in which the Juaristas held power and Juarez was reelected . In recation to this Diaz announced his Plan de la Noria and rose in revolt against Juarez for violating the Constitution on November 8, 1871. Diaz was not able to gather much support and the army Diaz raised was quickly defeated by the .

Juarez died in office of a heart attack on July 19, 1872 and Sebastian Lerdo de Eejada, who was then chief justice of the Supreme Court became acting president till new elections could be held in October , where he defeated Diaz easily .

The Lerdo Presidency

Sebastian Lerdo

Lerdo continued the polices of Juarez and streesed the need for peace and order to promote the economy . A raiway was planned to connect Mexico and the US and across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Lerdos had a goal of connecting all state captials to Mexico City by telegraph was not attained, but he through this effort 1,600 miles off telegraph line was put up .Between 1870 and 1874 the number of schools doubled. A Senate was added to the legislature in 1875 and Lerdo thought this would add his centalization efforts .

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Battle of Tecoac

In 1876, following the pattern of Juarez, Lerdo sought a second term in spite of the Constitution of 1857 . Lerdo was reelected on July 24, 1876, with a small majority and amid charges of fraud. He had made himself unpopular by the means he took to secure his reelection, by his disposition to limit state rights in favor of a strongly centralized government,Diaz again raised his banner of rebellion with his Plan de Tuxtepec and again raised an army. This time he had more support and his army defeated a federal army in at the Battle of Tecoac on November 16, 1876. This left Mexico City wide open and Lerdo fled to America on a steamer from Acapulco .

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Diaz and the Porfiriato 1876-1910

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Diaz Porfirio Diaz Paul Garner A new When Porfirio Diaz (1830-1915) ( full name: José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori ) ,who biography of was a Mestizo, of Mixtec and Japanese ancestry on his mother's side,seized over control the of Mexico in 1876 that had an empty treasury, huge foreign debts and a large controversial bureacracy whose salaries were in arrears .Despite the efforts of the liberals mining, the Mexican dictator who main engine of the economy, still had not recovered from the choas of the preceding was toppled by decades .Farming methods had changed little from colonial days . Like Juarez before the 1910 him, Diaz felt the key to modernizing the country was to pacify it so foreigners would Revolution invest in it . Mexico was still troubled by banditos , agraian revolts and revolt in favor of the ousted President Lerado on the US border .Theses Diaz delt with forcefully and had the leaders executed shortly after capture and greatly increased the power of the rurales . The era of Porfirio Díaz’s government from 1876-1911 is known as the Porfiriato and its motto was ' Order and Progress.' During his 33 year rule, Mexico entered the industrial age .

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video of life in Mexico during the Porfiriato (Spanish)

Within several years of taking power most European and Latin American countries recognized Diaz's government, but the US held out The US had several claims against Mexico over debts and banditos crossing into US territory .These raids almost led to war with the US in 1877. Diaz came to an agreement with the Americans and agreed to repay over 14 million in claims .Diaz reduced the number of civil servants to ease the burden on the treasury and tried to stimulate trade and crack down on smuggling . At the end of his first term, Diaz was true to his ' no-reelection ' pledge and did not seek another term . For once Mexico had a peaceful transfer of power and foreign governments began to believe Mexican politics was maturing .Diaz threw his support behing Manuel Gonzalez, who won the election with a large majority in 1880 .

President Gonzalez 1880 - 84

Gonzalez lost his right arm during the sieges of Puebla in 1867

Gonzalez strove to modernize the country, but the strain was too much for the treasury .During his administration, the railway from Mexico City to El Paso, Texas was inaugurated and the Banco Nacional de México was founded He felt he could not cut back on foreign repayment and railroad construction, so he cut the salaries of government officials .The administration of Gonzalez was accused of corruption and graft and Gonzalez himself was accused of sexual improprieties .Diaz ran again for president in 1884 and easily won . In the future he would not be bothered by his former ' no-reelection' pledge . Díaz had the constitution amended, first to allow two terms in office, and then to remove all restrictions on re-election.

The Return of Diaz and economic Progress

Diaz continued his moderization drive and the country had great economic growth .Jose Limantour, secretary of the treasury, made economic changes such as changing tariffs, switching Mexico to the gold standard and getting more favorable foreign loans for Mexico and reduced corruption .By 1890, the Mexican treasury was running in the black .

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one of Jose Posada calaveras(skull) cartoons,satirizing life among the upper classes

There was a marked increase in railroad construction during Diaz's rule, from 400 miles of rail in 1876 to 15,000 by 1911 and greatly helped transform the country from its backwardness .Diaz had the laws changed to be more favorable to foreign investment and the mines, such as silver and cooper mines , became much more productive .silver production increased from 24,000,000 Pesos in 1877 to 85,000,000 Pesos in 1908. After the turn of the century oil exploration began in earnest , which large oil fields in Tampico and Tuxpan being exploited and soon Mexico was one of the largest petroleum prducers in the world .

The army was moderized and observers were sent to America, France and . Soldiers were given modern uniforms and more modern weapons and the army was reduced in size .

The Price of Peace and Economic Progress

Diaz kept the country free of civil war but at a cost .He kept himself in power through a skillful use of persuasion, threats and intimidation and strong arm tactics of the rurales and federal army and even assassination. Elections were held, but they were shams for the most part, manipulated by the powerful . From 1892 onwards Díaz's perennial opponent was Nicolás Zúñiga y Miranda, who lost every election but always claimed fraud and considered himself to be the legitimately elected president of Mexico.The press was tightly censored. generals were shifted from one military zone to another to keep them from amassing political power . Powerful Mexicans who cooperated with the Diaz regime were rewarded with lucrative contracts and concessions . Diaz himself did not seem to amass a personal fortune .

Land Grab

The effects of the Díaz regime were greatly felt in agrarian land reform and land was increasingly concentrated into the hands of the privileged. By 1910 only 2 percent of the population held title to land . Only 10 percent of the Indian communities held land. Many farmers were forced into debt peonage to survive .Land was confiscated from orginal owners and land much land seized from the church reform laws or deemed 'public' land was sold to Diaz favorites for a pittance .

Hunger

The hacendado owners used their vast tracts of land to grow export crops, and by 1910 their was less maize produced than in 1877. Prices increased and many Mexicans started starving .16 percent of the population was homeless . In 1910 life expectancy was 30, in contrast to 50 in the US at the time .Peasant uprisings became common and were put down mercilessly .The Yanqui Indians of Sonora battled the government for years, but were finally defeated and forced to work on large plantations as chained slaves .Diaz was advised by cientificos, who promoted a scientific based social Darwinistic agenda. They promoted science, but many of the cientifico advisors saw the indians as unteachable and a drag on society . It seemed a

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waste to educate them or better their plight .The high mortality among the Indians was seen as Social Darwinism at work .

Under Porfirio Díaz laws had been implemented which gave foreign investors the title of large sections of land and concentrated land holdings and many of the poor were forced off their land .Some Hacienda owners amassed vast landholding, such as Don Terrazas in Chihuahua .Foreigners also were given ownership of large areas of Mexican resorces in order to develop them .

This painting by Alfaro Siqueiros shows Diaz trampling the Constitution

The Economic Depression of 1907-08 The slowing US economy and high inflation cause the economy to fall into a depression by 1907. Prices for the basics of life were increasing while wages remained the same or fell .In some areas wages fell 20% while living expenses increased 80 %. the laissez- faire policies of the Porfiriato did little to provide relief .The middle and upper classes supported the Porfiriato when the economy was good . Now, they were suffering as foreign banks tightened credit and the government raised taxes . They joined the poor and the Indians in demanding government change in increasing numbers .

Downfall of the Porfiriato There were cracks showing in the pax Porfiriato. The new economic expansion did not trickle down and wages remained low for workers, who often worked in appaling conditions .The educational reforms Diaz promoted also helped bring about the Porfiriato downfall as a greater number of the educated and members of the growing middle class were insulted of the charade of democracy under Diaz .Like many powerful leaders before, he had overstayed his welcome .By the early 1900s there were three national opposition groups formed, some advocating violent overthrow.

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The Regeneracion

By the early 1900s there was more opponents to Diaz's rule,such as the Flores Magon brothers , who published Regeneracion which exposed the excesses of the Diaz government. They were forced into exile an went to San Anontio, where Diaz sent an assassin to silence them. After this, they went further inland into the US for safety to St.Louis where they continued to publish Regeneracion and smuggled it into Mexico which helped fuel the anti-Diaz movement . They organized a revolutionary party. In St. Louis in 1906 they issued a plan which resounded with many Mexicans who launched strikes throughout Mexico .

In a 1908 interview with the U.S. journalist James Creelman, Díaz stated that Mexico was ready for democracy and elections and that he would step down and allow other candidates to compete for the presidency. Many liberals supported the governor of Nuevo León, as a candidate for the presidency, although Bernardo Reyes under the orders of Díaz never formally announced his candidacy. Despite Reyes silence, however, Díaz continued to perceive him as a threat and sent him on a mission to Europe, so that Reyes was not in the country for the elections.

The 1910 Election

Madero

Francisco Madero , an upper class politican who was affected by the plight of the peons under the dictator Porfirio Díaz, wrote the influential book on the presidential succession and argued that Mexico should return to the Constitution of 1857 with free press and free elections .Modero was a member of the upper class whose family owned large estates. He thoght political, not social reform would solve the nation's problems and social and land reforms were not part of his platform . Madero did not like Diaz's dependence on foreign capital and the growing domination of American businesses .Madero became involved in politics and ran for president of an Anti-re-electionist party as Diaz himself had done so long ago .Diaz had him jailed on trumped up charges at San Luid Potosi during the election in 1910 with many other anti re- electionists throughout Mexico . Despite what he had told Creelman, decided to run for president again .When the official results were announced by the government, Díaz was proclaimed to have been re-elected almost unanimously. This caused aroused widespread anger. Diaz began plans for his last hurrah. In September he would be 80 as well as the 100th anniverary of Mexican Independence and huge celebrations were held in which more was spent than for education that year.The poor were rounded up as to not offend the foreigners who came to the celebration. On his release and subsequent flight to the US, Madero issued his Plan de San Luid Potosi from San Antonio, which called for the nation to rise in revolt on November 20.Town after town responded to the call of Viva la Revolucion ! The guerrilleros were supported in the countryside as well.

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rebels fire on federal positions at Ciudad Juarez

Diaz was not prepared to give up and sent army units all across Mexico to control the rebellion. In Chihuahua, the rebellion continued to grow under the leadership of and local leaders such as placed themselves under his command .On Jan 2, 1911 the rebels destroyed a large federal army sent against them. In late 1911 Orozco and Villa convinced Madero that the rebels should use most of their force to take Ciudad Juarez. At the last minute,Madero changed his mind and called of the attack, afraid stray shells might land in nearby El Paso, brings the US into the conflict . Orozco ignored this order an launched an attack. On May 10, the outnumbered federal commander surrendered .Madero was angery at Orozco for ignoring his order and did not give him a position in his cabinet and showed that the coalition was falling apart . After the victory at Ciudad Juarez, others towns such as Tehuacan, Durango and cuatla fell to the rebels .the press began to turn against Diaz and many federal troops began deserting. Diaz realized his time was over and sent negotiators to talk with Madero .In the following Treaty of Ciudad Juarez Diaz agreed to resigned and left for France .Diaz had been overthrown, but the revolution had just started .

In 1915, Díaz died in exile in Paris. There was tremendous economic advance during the Diaz years, yet there is no Ciudad Diaz today or even a street named after him . His rule became associated with social and political abuses that were too great . The progress enjoyed by the upper classes came at the expense of the masses .

Afterwards, Mexico was racked by 10 years of fighting known as the where successive leaders tried to create a stable government . Home Restored Mexican republic Revolution 1867-76 1910-20

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The Mexican Revolution (Revolución Mexicana) 1910 -1920 Time Line of the Mexican Revolution

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Yaqui Indians of northern Mexico who have been captured after uprising against unjust seizure of their land. Sold as debt peons slaves to the infamous henequen (for rope and twine) plantations in the Valle Nacional,Yucatan where they faced a life expectancy of 6 months. It was cheaper to buy more Indian slaves than to keep them alive.Yanqi Indians made up a large part of the army of Obregon and fought with a desperate fury. Conditions such as these lead to the Mexican Revolution .Photo from the muckraker Villa and Zapata: book Barbarous Mexico by John Kenneth Turner A History of the Mexican Revolution The Revolution from 1910 -20 was very devastating to Mexico. An estimated 2 million were killed But it also A detailed history destroyed the privileges of the Creoles and the virtual caste system gave rise to the mestizo nation , a sense of of the national pride and appreciation of Mexican culture called mexicanidad and a greater respect for women . revolutionaries Feudalism and debt peonage was ended , land was redistributed and unions were permitted to protect the rights of the workers .

Pancho Villa documentary

And Starring video on the Mexican Revolution by the Mexican government Pancho Villa as Himself In May of 1910, Haley's Comet appeared over Mexico, a traditional Indian portent of war and disaster. (2003)Antonio However, below in Mexico, everything seemed well on the surface in the pax porfiriana. President Diaz, who Banderas as had rules Mexico with an iron fist since 1876 was soon to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the start of the Pancho Villa Mexican War of Independence against Spain and Diaz's 80th birthday. Lavish celebrations were held on the elegant Reforma Boulevard and half a million Mexicans came to watch. Leaders of the world heaped praise on the industrial progress and political stability brought about by Diaz. But underneath, anger was simmering over the injustice of decades.To stop the cycle of military revolts he offered pan o palo (bread or the stick).

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Ambitious political and military leaders were put on the gov payroll with high salaries or faced imprisonment or execution. "A dog with a bone neither bites or barks."

Diaz, while professing to respect the progressive institutions which Juarez, turned Mexico into a dictatorship and the constitutional government to a government which no longer depended for its sovereignty on the will of the people, but solely upon the army .

federal soldiers

Following the advice of his cientifico (scientist) advisers who believed the Indian and mestizos (who made up 90% of the population) were only good for manual labor and their belief in social Darwinism, this huge class of people was not educated and systematically cheated of their land. Believing the Hacienda (large estates) were more efficient than traditional methods, many Indians and campesinos (farmers) lost their farms and became virtual slaves on the large haciendas. The growth of railroads lead to a property bubble and Indians and farmers were tricked out of their land and the ommunial egidos (shields) lands which had existed since the Spanish Conquest. Farmers went into debt peonage as they were tricked out of their land,often working on their former farms that had been taken by the haciendas. Poverty increased and workers wages remained low . Most large companies were foreign owned,paid little or no taxes and paid low wages. Foreign companies exploited Mexico vast oil and mineral wealth that benefited only the Mexican wealthy elite. .Decades of injusticeonly needed a spark to explode.

Both Federal and revolutionary armies made good use of 9,000 miles of railroad tracks laid during the Diaz years. Trains were often used as weapons themselves, packed with explosives and sent off as rolling torpedoes to destroy enemy trains and positions.

The election of 1910 provided a spark, started by Diaz himself. In an 1908 interview with the American James

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Creelman, he claimed he would not run for office in 1910 and would even allow opposition parties to run. Previously, the press was controlled by Diaz and no one would run against him. However, when 1910 came,he decided to run for re-election anyway and any rivals were suppressed.

Francisco Madero decided to run against Diaz. Madero came from a rich hacienda family, but was genuinely concerned with the plight of the poor. He took an interest in politics and in 1908 wrote a book calling for free ,which tapped into the growing anti-Diaz sentiments of the time. Madero was an unusual person for the times. He neither drank or smoked, was a vegetarian followed his own spiritual form of religion and wanted peaceful change through democracy. Madero ran for president and too the dismay of Diaz, Madero campaign, crossing the country on trains giving speeches quickly gained momentum. Diaz had Madero thrown in jail on trumped up charges and won the election of June 21,1910 with the usual vote stuffing and intimidation.

Madero was jailed in San Luis Potosi, while there he drew up his Plan of San Luis Potosi and called for Mexicans to rise up against Diaz. During this time the unconnected anti-hacienda rebellions led by Pancho Villa in the north and Zapata in the south grew in strength.Madero escaped to America and was able to reenter Mexico after Villa seized Chihuahua. from federal forces. By May 10

Pancho Villa (June 5, 1878 – July 20, 1923) A mestizo bandito ( Mexicans distinguish between banditos and ladrones (thieves). A ladron steals from his neighbors, banditos,on the other hand rob from the rich) who became the commander of the División del Norte (Army of the North ), started as a bandit making raids on wealthy cattle ranches in northern Mexico. His birth name was Doroteo Arango and took the name Pancho Villa to honor a fallen bandit leader. Villa's men are mostly miners from the north. His men are known as dorados 'golden ones' because of their golden hued uniforms and rode into battle crying Viva Villa ! Viva la Revolucion !.Famous for their cavalry charges,often led by Villa himself. Villa tried to give each soldier a horse to make his army more mobile .Legendary as a cavalry commander and nicknamed El Centauro del Norte (The Centaur of the North) he was defeated by Obregon who used WWI tactics in the decisive Battle of Celaya in 1915. He fought the Revolution for Land reform and equal education. He caused Americans under Pershing to invade Mexico after killing Americans and raids into America, but was never caught.He was assassinated in 1923 after retiring .

Emiliano Zapata (August 8, 1879–April 10, 1919) Was a small landholder and horse trainer who battled in court against Diaz's land reforms in the small central Mexican state of Morelos .He became a general of the army that formed in that state, the Ejército Libertador del Sur (Liberation Army of the South), commonly known as Zapatistas. The Zapatistas were mainly poor peasants who wished to spend much of their time working their land to produce an income. As a result, Zapatista soldiers tended to serve for several months at a time, and then return home to spend most of the year farming. He fought the Constitutionalist Carranza after Huerta was defeated. Carranza put a bounty on Zapata's head, and a federalist officer pretended to defect to Zapata's side and killed him in an ambush . Villa stood 6 feet tall and was a well built 200 pounds,most noticeable feature were calculating eyes according to those that met him.

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Pascual Orozco (28 January 1882 – 30 August 1915) When Francisco I. Madero called for an uprising against Díaz in 1910, Orozco was an enthusiastic supporter and, on 31 October of that year, was placed in command of the revolutionary forces in Guerrero municipality. Madero promoted him to colonel, and in early 1911 to brigadier general, remarkably, these promotions were earned without any kind of military knowledge or military training. On 10 May of that year Orozco and his subordinate general Pancho Villa seized Ciudad Juárez After Díaz's fall, Orozco became resentful at Madero's failure to name him to the cabinet or a state governorship. Orozco was particularly upset with Madero's failure to create a series of social reforms that he promised at the beginning of the revolution.On 3 March 1912 Orozco decreed a formal revolt against Madero's government. Madero ordered to fight the rebellion. Huerta's troops defeated the orozquistas in Conejos, Rellano and Bachimba finally seizing Ciudad Juárez. After being wounded in Ojinaga, Orozco was forced to flee to the United States.In the USA he met with Huerta in New York to make plans to retake Mexico.He was killed on Aug 30, 1915 in Texas while trying to return to Mexico.

Madero was jailed in San Luis Potosi, while there he drew up his Plan of San Luis Potosi and called for Mexicans to rise up against Diaz. During this time the unconnected anti-hacienda rebellions led by Pancho Villa in the north and Zapata in the south grew in strength.Madero escaped to America and was able to reenter Mexico after Villa seized Chihuahua. from federal forces. Diaz sent armies to Morelos to deal with Zapata and to the north to attack Villa.In April the forces of Madero, Orzoco and Villa lay siege to Ciudad Juarez. By May 10th this city had fallen in bitter house to house fighting watched by Americans across the river in El Paso and rebellions against Diaz break out throughout the country. Crowds on the Zocalo ( main square ) in Mexico City chanted 'Death to Diaz!" By May 21 Diaz's offer to resign is accepted by Madero. Francisco de la Barra, the ambassador to the U.S. would serve as interim president. Madero entered Mexico City in early June to cheering crowds . Would this be an end to the bloodshed. There was another portent as the earlier Haley's Comet. Almost as soon as Madero stepped off the train in Mexico City, it was rocked by a major earthquake killing over 200. Diaz goes into exile in France and dies four years later. His nephew, Felix Diaz will come into the picture soon.

The Madero Presidency November 6, 1911 – February 18, 1913 Modero had unleashed a tiger. Now let's see if he can control it. Porfiro Diaz, on his way to exile

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Map showing locations of major areas of activity during the Mexican Revolution

After Diaz resigned, the secretary of foreign relations, Leon de la Barra, became the interim president . During this time, Zapata and his forces in Morelos were ordered to disband and President Barra sent General Victoriano Huerta to see that it was done .These two came in conflict and Zapata blamed Madero for the attack.

On October 1, 1911 Modero won the national election . Madero allowed freedom of the press,which had been gagged since Diaz. However, both the liberal and conservative papers began to criticize him for lack of action and letting the economy flounder.

When he became president he was besieged with demands from all side and found the Revolution meant different things to different people and the more radical elements were displeased by his moderate steps at reform . Madero seemed to think once democracy was established other pressing problems,such as land reform could be solved by mutual agreement. Madero came to the decision that the hacienda owners must be paid for their hacienda lands, but the government had no money with with to pay them. this infuriated Zapata,who consider the hacienda owners as thieves that stole the land. Zapata Some, such as Zapata wanted land reform to break up the hacendados, but Medero only appointed a commission that did not come to much .Madero appointed family members, some of them conservative, to important posts, which undermined the reforms he advocated .He gave out government contracts to family businesses, to many this looked like old style corrupt government . Some argued that the new administration represented neither the principles of the Revolution nor even the theoretical reformism of Francisco Madero himself. It represented simply the private interests of the Madero clan. They pointed to the fact that throughout this regime not a single measure was instituted tending toward the amelioration of the vast evils endured by the people since the Diaz cuartelazo of 1876.

Possible Japanese plans in Mexico

To what extent the rising power of was involved in Mexico during these years will probably never be absolutely known. It is not without significance, however, that in the later years of the Diaz regime Japan made strenuous but unavailing efforts to obtain a naval base on the Mexican coast; and that more than four hundred Japanese veterans fought in the ranks of Madero's army, while many thousands of them who applied for enlistment were only refused by the revolutionary authorities out of deference to the prejudices of the Mexican volunteers. Diaz himself was of Japanese ancestry .

Discontent with Madero and Rebellion

The labor reformers were also disappointed and strikes continued. Educational reformers were also disappointed , even though Madero opened more schools he did not have enough funds to make more

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sweeping changes .Modero soon found himself facing revolts on many fronts . In November Zapata declared his Plan de Ayula and recognized Orozco as head of the rebellion which grew in size .On August 8 Madero orders Gen.Victoriano Huerta sent to with 1,000 federal troops and forces Zapata to demobilize part of his peasant army. By Aug 10 Huerta orders Zapatas arrest and he flees into the countryside.

Gen. Huerta

Madero was also criticised by conservatives as being anti-business. Madero levies tax on oil companies to pay for education, angering American ambassador .

Former General Reyes also launched a rebellion, but he did not have mach support and he surrendered to federal forces . A third rebellion was launched by Emilio Gomez, who was angry that Modero replaced him as vice president for Jose Suarez and by Jan the forces of Gomes had taken Cuidad Juarez .Orozco, who had reached an agreement with Madero, convinced the Gomez forces to give up their fight, but this showed how weak the new government was .

Orozco in turn rose against Madero with a well equipped 6,000 army, supported by the powerful Terraza and Creel hacienda families of northern Mexico who feared land reform. Orozco became resentful at Madero's failure to name him to the cabinet or a state governorship and the slow pace of land reform .and on March 3 went into open revolt. In his Plan Orozquista, Modero was attacked for corruption and putting too many relatives into high positions .Orozco planned to march on Mexico City Orozco amassed a large army and the federal army was defeated at Rellano and its commander, Jose Salas, committed suicide .

Prisoners were commonly executed by all side. In some cases prisoners were lined up 2~3 deep to save on bullets. Knowing this fate many chose to fight to the death

Modero place Gen. Huerta in charge of the army , supported by Villa. Huerta saw Villa as an ambitious competitor, and later accused Villa of stealing a horse and insubordination and had Villa sentenced to execution.. Reportedly, Villa was standing in front of a firing squad waiting to be shot when a telegram from President Madero was received commuting his sentence to imprisonment, from which Villa later escaped. Huerta was able to defeat Orzco's forces and Orzco was forced to flee to the U.S.

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Villa after being given a last minute reprieve by Madero from execution by Huerta

More rebellions

Felix Diaz

Then, yet another rebellion broke out in Veracruz, on Oct 12, 1912 led by Felix Diaz, the nephew of Porfirio, led mostly by supporters of Diaz .Diaz and his forces later were forced to surrender . Modero, feeling compassion for Diaz, did not order his execution, an action which would cost him his life .Diaz was sent to prison in Mexico City close to Gen. Reyes, and together they plotted a coup . Coup against Modero

Decena Tragica

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video of the Decena Tragica

On February 9, 1913 the students of the Military Academy of Tlalpan, near Mexico City, broke into the prison where General Bernardo Reyes and Felix Diaz were confined and set them free. This was the signal for a general uprising of the troops stationed in the city. At the head of several battalions Felix Diaz marched on the arsenal, where the garrison received him with enthusiasm. From that moment the cuartelazo was in full command of the situation. Mustering some five thousand men, powerfully fortified, and equipped with practically inexhaustible supplies of ammunition, the started what was in reality a sham battle with the government troops. For days a raking fire from the opposing forces swept the city from end to end. The practised mili-tary on both sides received little hurt, but over six thousand helpless non-combatants, many of them women and children, were slaughtered in the streets. The other maer coup leaders were and Gen.Reyes . Reyes was killed by a machine gun burst and Diaz took control and retreated with his forces. Modero sent Huerta to command his troops .For the next 10 day or Decena Tragica as it is known in Mexico, Mexico City was engulfed in battle in which thousands of civilians were killed .

On Feb 17, Modero summoned Huerta and asked how long this would continue and Huerta assured him it would over the next day . And indeed it was as Huerta threw his lot in with the rebels .Madero came to an agreement with the rebels in the American Embassy and the agreement is known as the Pact of the Embassy. The American ambassador, Henry Wilson wanted an end to the civil war since it was bad for American business interests and was against Modero since he taxed oil production . Three Presidents in One Day

Huerta Madero was arrested by General Blanquet and later vice president Suarez was arrested as well .In order to give his rule some legality Modero was forced to resign and Pedro Lascurain was sworn in as president with Huerta made secretary of the interior .Lascurain then resigned and Huerta became president as there was no vice president .And so Mexico had three presidents in one day .On Feb 21, 1913, Modero and Suarez were killed while being transferred to prison .It is still not known if Diaz, Huerta or someone else ordered the murders .

The Dictatorship of Huerta 1913 -14 Within a few days federal generals and state governors began to pledge support to Huerta .However, not all did . Coahuila Governer did not recognize the new government and neither did the Governers of Chihuahua, where Poncho Villa took control of the anti-Huerta forces and Sonora, where Alvaro Obregon took control of anti-Huerta forces there with an army made up off Yaqui Indians.They of course declared a plan, the Plan de Guadalupe, which had no social reform goals, just the ouster of Huerta. Zapata in Morelos in the south also rebelled under the banner of Tierra y Libertad ( Land and Liberty ), seeing no hope for land reform with Huerta or the rebels to the north.

Huerta's regime was harsher and more brutal than Diaz's. Huerta jailsed110 members of Congress and 100 Madero supporters are executed.The press,which had been free under Madero, is again gagged as it was in Diaz's time. Felix Diaz is shipped off to Japan on a diplomatic mission . Huerta is supported by conservatives, the Catholic Church (which lost land and power in the last century) and the American business community. The hard drinking Huertaoften goes from bar to bar at night and his aides must track him down to sign papers.

All males between 15 and 40 were obliged to serve in the army in areas under Huerta's control and many were gathered at bar,bull fights and walking on the streets. Using these tactics he created a 200,000 none too loyal army

Soldaderas - Women in the Army

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Woman had traditionally follwed their husbands in armies of Mexico to fed and care for them . Those that followed the revolutionaries into battle were called , often fought with their husbands as well .They were celebrated in folk songs, such as La Adelita .

The first order of business for Huerta was to restore peace . Initially, Huerta was successful against the revolutionaries in the north and south .In early 1914, huerta controlled two thirds of Mexico, the major ports and most large cities .This was reversed by an infusion of militery aid from the US .By March and April, 1913 the rebels in the north and south were scoring important victories against Huerta In May, the rebels to the north announced that all federal soldiers who were captured would be executed on the spot, and the tempo of the Revolution became even more violent . Huerta decided he needed to greatly enlarge his army, then only numbering about 50,000, in order to pacify the country.Huerta ordered ultimately ordered the army enlarged to 250,000, much of which was done under forced conscription. Many of these soldiers surrendered or were of such poor quality as to be useless .As his military position began to crumble, Huerta muzzled the press and a network of secret informers was employed. Soon the prisons were full of political prisoners. Political assassination was also used .Increasing protests against Huerts's rule by the legislature and both houses were dissolved by Huerta .

The economy began to suffer as Huerta packed many working men into the army .Huerta issued worthless paper currency as did the rebels in the north and south and in other states . By 1913 there were over 20 different paper currencies in Mexico .The US also refused to recognize Huerta's government, despite the action the American ambassador Henry Wilson. It is easy to label Huerta's regime as a conservative reaction, but Huerta tried to make some improvements despite the situation. More funds were allocated to education and to improve the lot of the Indians. Huerta was half Huichol Indian himself .He increased the taxes on the lands of the hacendados, which would force the owners to sell some of their lands .

American Occupation of Vercruz

President Wilson, decided Huerta would have to go . First he tried supporting the rebels in the north and when this was not enough he decided on military intervention .In early 1914 ordered an American fleet to patrol Mexican waters . The US learned that the German ship Ypiranga would arrive in Veracruz with arms for Huerta on April 21. Wilson gave orders for the occupation of Vercruz and hundred of lives were lost in securing the city . This heavy handed act led to outrage among the Mexicans and America stores in the country were looted and other anti-American acts occurred .

The Americans, under Wilson imposed an arms embargo after taking Veracruz. The Constitutionalists in the morth still received military aid from the US .The economic and military situation of Huerta became untenable and Huerta decided to resign on July 8, 1914 .The years following this were even more chaotic and the country descended into anarchy as the battles between the revolutionaries for power began .

In 1914, Venustiano Carranza decided that a convention should be held of all revolutionary factions at Aguascalientes to decide on a provisional president of Mexico. The convention chose, against the wishes of Carranza, Eulalio Gutierrez as provisional president . Villas' troops marched to Mexico City to install Gutierrez .The convention exposed the differences between the fighters. The Zapatistas Villistas wanted land reform and Indian rights, while the Carrancistas and Obregonistas were more concerned with adhering to the Constitution and it was obvious that this was a calm before the country was engulfed in another civil war .

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Villa in throne chair, seated next to Zapata at theit meeting at Xochimilco

In December 1914, Villa and Zapata meet for the first time in Xochimilco and agreed upon their disdain for Carranza ' middle class' revolutionaries and agreed to support each other . By early 1915 civil war was raging in many states and Eulalio Gutierrez abandoned Mexico City which Obregon took unopposed .By now there were many who claimed to be president: Eulalio Gutierrez, who had fled to Nuevo Leon, Carranza, roque Garza by the Zapatistas and Pancho Villa in Chihuahua. None of these governments recognized the currency or laws of the other .

War of the Generals

Battle of Celaya The northern generals-Obregon,Carranza and Villa claimed they wanted to reestablish the constitution of 1857 and were sometimes called the Constitutionalists.

This chaotic situation was cleared somewhat by the most famous battle of the revolution, the battle of Celaya . Here Obregon engaged Pancho Villa, who had never been defeated in a major battle . Pancho Villas major strength was his cavalry. by this time World War I was ragging and Obregon noted in battle reports how barbed wire stopped cavalry charges . In early April, Villa attacked with an estimated 25,000 and his forces were cut down by Obregon machine guns while they tried to surmount the barbed wire. Villa lost an estimated 4,000 killed, while Obregon only lost over a little over a hundred killed .this battle weakened Villa and led to his eventual defeat . The Constitutionalists were gaining the upper hand and the US decided to back the Constitutionalists by giving Carranza diplomatic recognition in October 1915 .

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one of the many children soldiers used by all sides in the Revolution

Pancho Villa, who had sought diplomatic recognition from the US for years was incensed and began to attack US civilians .On Jan 9, 1916, Villistas murdered 15 American mining engineers at in Chihuahua .On March 16, 1916, 485 Villistas invaded America and attacked the town of Columbus, New Mexico, killing 18 Americans .The clamor for intervention was immediate .President Wilson sent a small expedition of 6,000 troops under General John ' Black Jack' Pershing into northern Mexico. Pershing could not locate Villa and recieved no help for the local people, who were pro-Villa. Carranza began to get nervous about having American troops in Mexico and ordered Pershing to withdraw. Pershing was not ready to retreat and continued south where he clashed with Carrancista troops. After this he was ordered to withdraw slowly north and did not leave Mexico until Jan 1917.

The Constitution of 1917

Mexican teachers trained in America during the Carranza presidency. The new constitution guaranteed universal education for all and not just for the children of the wealthy and middle class as had been done in the Diaz years. The new Constitution drawn up in Queretaro provided the principles that govern Mexico to the present.

Carranza's position grew stronger and it was decided to have another convention to draw up a new constitution. Not wanting to lose control of this convention as he had at Aguascalientes, no Villistas or Zapatistas were allowed .The delegates met a Queretaro and Carranza drafted a constitution similar to that of 1857, with stronger executive control. This was unacceptable to the radical reformers led by Francisco Mugica, who held a majority and voted in major reform articles .The power of the church was limited, the delegates seeing it as a historic block to many reforms .Education was to be secular.Lands illegally seized during the Porfiriato were to be restored . Only nationals or foreigners who declared themselves Mexican could own property .There was to be an eight hour workay and a six day workweek and a minimum wage .Workers were allowed to unionize and go on strike . Carranza agreed to the constitution with great reluctance, but signed it in order to have enough support to become president in the next election, which he won in March, 1917 .

The Carranza Presidency

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Carranza When Carranza took office in May, 1917, there was still civil war raging and the economy was in shatters .The paper currency was worthless. Gold and copper production, the main engine of the economy, were down over 50% since the Revolution .The transportation system was wrecked and food shortages drove up the price of food .Carranza had no plan to fully enforce the new Constitution, only a little land was redistributed, and that was mostly from his political enemies . Strikes were put down by the army. while World War I was still going on , and Carranza received a proposal by Arthur Zimmermann, the German foreign secretary, for German help in retaining the land lost in the Mexican American War if Mexico entered into a formal alliance with Germany .Carranza, realizing this was a pipe dream, turned the offer down, but did maintain neutrality in the Great War . The Zapatistas were of course angry over the slow pace of land reform and stayed in revolt. Carranza sent federal troops under General Pablo Gonzales into Morelos who took many Zapatista towns but was unable to Zapata. The campaign there was some of the most violent of the Revolution . Zapata was assassinated in April 10, 1919 by Colonel Guajardo of the federal army, who pretended to defect to the Zapatista cause .While rid of one adversary, Alvaro Obregon, Plutarco Callas and Adolfo de la Huerta rose in revolt in Sonora and began marching with an army on Mexico City .In May, Carranza was forced to flee Mexico City as this army approached and he was assassinated by one of his own guards in Tlaxcalantongo.Villa's power in the north was greatly weakened and he went into retirement in 1920. He was assassinated in 1923 .There is debate as to when the revolution ended, as far as major military action, it ended with the death of Carranza. An estimated 1.5 to 2 million people are estimated to have been killed during the Revolution. Obregon became president in 1920 and set about reconstructing the country . Home Diaz and Obergon, Callas the Meet Mexican Ladies Assemble It In Mexico Mexican Furniture and the The Porfiriato Beautiful Mexican Women Seeking Let CaliBaja Manufacturing Rustic Furniture Manufacturers Love & Marriage. Join Free Now! Assemble Your Product For Less Hacienda furniture disscounts 1920-1934 1876- www.MexicanCupid.com www.CaliBaja.com www.santaferustic.com 1910

http://mexicanhistory.org/revolution.htm[5/20/2010 2:51:59 AM] Obregon and Callas 1920 - 34

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Mexico in the 1920s

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The Obregon Presidency 1920 - 24

Alvaro Obregon, lost his right arm in 1915 in the battle of Santa Rosa

Obregon was elected president in 1920 and set to work to implement the 1917 Constitution. The beginning of his administration coincided with the economic slump that followed WWI . Unemployment was high in the vital mining industries and there was widespread hunger . The price of oil remained stable and by 1921 Mexico was the worlds third largest producer of petroleum which was a large source of government revenue .

Jose Vasconcelos

To implement reforms in education, Obregon named Jose Vasconcelos as secretary of education. Vasconcelos open many rural school and tried to integrate Indians into mainstream Mexican society .Under Vasconcelos Diedo Rivera, Jose Orozco and David Siqueiros began painting their famous murals to educate the public on the reforms of the Revolution .Under Article 3 of the new Constitution , education was to be secular and free at the primary level . This was difficult to do since the state did not have the funds or educators to educate all Mexican children , and even though Vasconcelos and Obregon were anti-clerical, they allowed some church schools since they were better than no education at all .

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Man Masters the elements Diego Riveria 1927 Fresco at Chapingo

Diego's work depict the past oppression of indians and the lower classes. The works of Siqueiros are also leftist in nature, depicting the oppressors in an ugly manner . Union membership also grew greatly during the Obregon administration . The main labor union, CROM rose from 50,000 members in 1920 to an estimated 1,2000,000 by 1924 .

Obregon started a modest land redistribution of the haciendas in order not to stall the fragile economy and by 1924 had redistributed about 3,000,000 acres .

Americans and especially the American oil interests were upset by Article 27 of the new constitution that specified that only Mexicans or Foreigners who declared themselves Mexicans could have sub-soil and land rights . Because of this, President Harding withheld recognition to Mexico from 1920 to 1923 .In 1923 Obregon and the Mexican senate were able to make a 'work-around' to relieve American concerns and recognition was extended in 1923 .

Rebellion

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Adolfo de la Huerta

The political landscape had not completely calmed down since the Revolution and the question of the 1924 presidential election as Obregon chose Plutarco Calles as his successor . Callas, a known radical caused the conservatives, military men and church groups to launch a revolt led by Adolfo de la Huerta which only lasted a few months. Calles won the election of 1924 and was to remain Mexicos president until 1934 .

President Plutarco Callas

Plutarco Callas

Callas had a radical reputation and landowners feared for their land, church leaders feared a greater lost of power and the industrialists feared higher workers wages .From the beginning Callas let it be known that he would not follow the cautious and moderate policy of Obregon. He was the most strong willed president since Diaz and became more dictatorial over time, not afraid to use the army against enemies and to jail them .The world economy was over the postwar slump and the Mexican economy revived as well .Callas redistributed 8,000,000 acres between 1924 and 1928 and instituted agrarian reforms and irrigation projects to boost agriculture .Wages rose through Callas' support of unions. Callas continued Obregon's educational policies and stressed teaching Spanish to Indians to bring them into Mexican society .A Department of Public Health was started to improve sanitation , give out vaccinations and inspect markets and restaurants .

The Cristero Rebellion

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Cristeros

Unlike Obregon, who decided not to strongly enforce the anti-clerical articles of the Constitution of 1917, Callas decided to do so which had violent consequences .In 1926 , the archbishop of Mexico, Jose Mora y del Rio, declared Catholics could not accept the Constitution of 1917. Angered, Callas struck back by outlawing religious processions and closing church schools , monasteries and convents . On July 31, 1926 the archbishop declared a religious strike which lasted 3 years .Catholic leaders in Jalisco, Oaxaca, Zacatecas and Michoacan began to organize the faithful against the government will the rallying cry of Viva Cristo Rey ! .government outposts were attacked, government teachers were killed and government schools were burned down .In April a train was dynamited by the Cristeros killing over a hundred .The war became more violent as soldiers declared they would kill one priest for each teacher killed and looted churches .The rebellion weakened and gradually wound down, but there were still some outbreaks as late as 1928 .In 1929 a peace was worked out with the church agreeing to stop religious instruction in schools and to register priests. The government agreed that it would respect the integrity of the Church and not try to outlaw it .Between 1926 and 1934 at least 40 priests were killed. There were 4,500 priests before the rebellion,by 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government

The Assassination of Obregon

The Constitution of 1917 had recently been revised to provide for a six year presidential term and legal re-election .Under these circumstances, Obregon ran again and won the election of 1928, however, he was never to assume office. He was assassinated on July 17, 1928 by Jose de Leon Total, a Cristero supporter who considered the assassination to be divinely inspired .There was great public interest in his trial and he was sentenced to death .

1928 - 34 , Callas the

There were three presidents after the assassination, but they were puppets of Callas , who named himself the Supreme Boss ( Jefe Maximo ) to keep order. Callas created an political party the PNR ( Partido Nacional Revolutionario ) which would control Mexican politics for years to come and today is known as Partido Revolucionario Institucional

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(PRI). In the election of 1928, former education secretary Jose Vasconcelos ran against the Callas puppet Pascual Ortiz Rubio. Vasconcelos ran under the old 'no re-election' banner, but Rubio won under allegations of fraud .Callas gave the military great power withing the PNR, in order to forestall future coups against the civilian government . Callas became more conservative as time wore on, by 1928 there was much less land redistribution and rural school openings .The government withdrew its support for unions. The Red Scare reached Mexico in the late 20s and early 30s.. After a large demonstration The Communist Party was outlawed in 1930 and the Gold Shirts,supported by Callas, a fascist group attacked Jews , Communists and Chinese. There were widespread accusations of corruption in the government and many former radicals were disgusted by the 'millionaire socialists' who lived in luxury . Home Mexican Cardenas and Revolution Hottest Mexican Women Tired of Barbara Boxer? Oil Browse 100s Photo & Video profiles. Find Your Boxer has a Democratic primary opponent. Stop Nationalization 1934-40 1910-20 Sweetheart in Mexico! lockstep liberalism! AmoLatina.com www.KausforSenate.com

http://mexicanhistory.org/1920s.htm[5/20/2010 2:52:32 AM] The Presidency of Lazro Cardenas 1934 - 40

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The Presidency of Lazro Cardenas 1934 - 40

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Cardenas

Calles decided to throw his support behind Cardenas, a Governor of Michoacan, think he would be able to control him as a puppet . With Callas' support, Cardenas was able to carry the 1933 PNR convention and was elected in July, 1934 Cardenas cut his own salary in half and did not move into the presidential palace but kept his own home .This became the presidential residence of Los Pinos, and Chapultepec Castle was converted into into the National Museum of History.Cardenas decided he would not be a Callas' puppet and would proceed with the reforms of the Revolution. The major factor that let Calles' control the last few presidents was his control of the army. Cardenas made moves to make himself supported by the army as well such as raising army pay and improving army education .By 1935, Cardenas felt strong enough in his position to start removing Callas supporters from high posts and in the army .when Callas realized what Cardenas was doing he openly criticised Cardenas .

Callas sent into Exile

In the Spring of 1936 Cardenas had Callas and his supporters arrested and sent on a plane to exile in the US .As he had in Michoacan, Cardenas often met with common people to hear their concerns .He did not use bodyguards, which endeared him to the people .

Cardenas was determined to fulfill the Revolutions pledge to redistribute land which had ceased under Calles' rule . By his first term he had redistributed 49,000,000 acres. As before, the redistributed land did not go to individuals but to the community ejidos .The lands were sometimes worked by an individual or by the community. Some cooperative projects were started, such asLaguna ejido which grew cotton .Cardenas established the Banco de Cedeito Ejidal to help fiance projects for ejidos .By the 1940s more than half of Mecicos cultivated land was held by the ejidos and the large haciendas no longer existed .

Cardenas also worked to stregthen the labor unions and weed out the corruption of the major union CROM by forming a new union , the CTM.

Cardenas decreed the end of the use of capital punishment ( usually in the form of a firing squad). Capital punishment has been banned in Mexico since that time.

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Mexico was better able to weather the Great Depression with its oil income and had cash resevers of around $15,000,000 in 1930 .As the depression went on, the country burned up its reserves and as exports dived, the Peso weakened and the economy worsened .

Nationalization of the Oil Companies

In 1936, Mexican oil workers went on strike against low pay and better working conditions against the foreign oil companies.The matter was sent to an arbitration board, which ruled that the oil companies should increase wages by one third and improve working conditions. The foreign oil companies refused to comply Cardenas ruled they were in contempt and on March 18, 1938 Cárdenas nationalized Mexico's petroleum reserves and expropriated the equipment of the foreign oil companies in Mexico. This move was extremely popular with the Mexican people and huge celebrations were held and it was the high water mark of the Revolution .The railway Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México was also nationalized in 1938 and put under a "workers administration".

In the US there was outrage and some called for intervention. However, the new American president, Franklin Roosevelt had a policy of nonintervention in politics south of the border and the matter went to a commission, which ruled Mexico should pay the US companies 24 million . Cardenas established PeMex to manage the oil industry, but started in a weak position since many of the technicians and engineers had left .The US, also refused to sell the Mexicans spare parts .While this move was popular, it hurt the economy. Foreigners were afraid to invest in Mexico as did many wealthy Mexicans.

Oil income was a major source of income for the government, and as production declined the national debt rose .Land redistribution slowed down after 1938. In the election of 1939, deciding Mexico needed to move in a more conservative stable direction, he threw his support behind Avila Comacho, who won the 1940 election . Cardenas was aware of the devastation the Spanish Civil War was causing Spain, and decided to moderate his course to prevent the same from happening in Mexico .Cárdenas allowed thousands of Spanish refugees enter Mexico after the defeat of Republican Spain by Franco .

It is often said that Lázaro Cárdenas was the only president associated with PRI who did not use the office to make himself wealthy. He retired to a modest home by Lake Pátzcuaro and worked the rest of his life supervising irrigation projects and promoting free medical clinics and education for the nation's poor. He also continued to speak out about international political issues and in favor of greater democracy and human rights in Latin America. Lázaro Cárdenas died of cancer in Mexico City in 1970 . Home Obergon, Camacho Callas and the World The War II Cristero War 1920- 1934

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The Presidency of Avila Camacho 1940 - 46 and World War II

Camacho

Many predicted Cardenas would give his support to Francisco Mugica, a well known revolutionary . The conservatives, afraid of more socialization, promoted Juan Andreu . Cardenas, however, threw his support behind secretary of war, Avila Comacho, who was relatively unknown and called the ' Unknown Soldier.' He was known to be much more conservative than Cardenas and openly professed his faith. The leaders in the PRM felt they needed a more conservative leader with a possible world war luming .Camacho won the election of 1940 and took the reforms of before into new directions. Less land was redistributed, and emphasis was placed on giving land to individual owners, not the ejidos and fostering private ownership. More emphasis was placed on private initiative in education. Under the slogan' Each one teach one', every literate person from the president on down was to instruct one or more illiterate s to read and write .Industrial expansion was encouraged by creating a government owned bank to help finance new industries and well as tax exemptions .

World War II

members of the 201 squadron

After the Germans attacked the Russians,the government of Comacho followed a pro-Allied course .That day after Pearl Harbor, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the Axis powers .There was not much support for joining the War. However, on May 14 and May 24, Mexican tankers were torpedoed by German submarines and Comacho declared war .Property owned by Axis owners were seized and a secret radio station relaying information to u-boats was discovered .Squadron 201 of the Mexican airforce was sent to the Japanese theater where the saw action in Taiwan and the Philippines .15,000 Mexican soldiers fought in the war, on a variety of fronts. Mexico provided many materials to the allied war effort and Mexican industry developed greatly . Mexican workers were allowed to enter America to supliment the depleated workforce. By the time the war ended there were over 300,000 Mexican workers in America .

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1947 - 2009

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Miguel Aleman 1947 - 52

Miguel Aleman was the first civilan president since Carranza . Postwar Mexico was prosperous and booming .Mexico had a healthy surplus after the war and Aleman launced a number of large public works projects such as the Morelos and Falcon Dams helped increase agricultural output , irragate vast tracts of land and tripled Mexico's Mexico: electrical capacity by 1952 .The railway was modernized and the Mexican segment of Biography of the Pan-American Highway was finished in 1951 .Women were allowed to vote in 1952 PowerA .Pemex built new refineries and pipeline and doubled its production from 1946 to 1952 History of .Aleman used his influence to help bring the 1968 Olympics to Mexico . Modern Mexico 1810- 1996

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http://mexicanhistory.org/aleman.htm[5/20/2010 2:53:45 AM] Mexican History 1947 - 2008

The Mexican The main library of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, cover with murals by Juan O'Gorman. Mafia Because of corroption, there were no books on the bookshelves. Money for books had been 'diverted.'

A new University City was built to house the National University in 1952, one of the most modern in the world atthe time .America was able to count on Mexican support in the Cold War and loans from the Import-Export Bank flowed into Mexico .However, all was not well . There was large scale corruption, strikes were supressed by the army and the pay of teachers was so low that there were not enough to staff the new schools .and fewer than half of school age children went to school .

Ruiz Cortines 1952 - 58

Cortines began to confront the problem of corruption of the past administration . The Mexican economy continued to do well and a devaluation of the Peso in 1953 helped stabilize the country and bring in more investment .Afraid that Aleman may have overtaxed the economy with his huge projects, he did not undertake and new large projects .The population of Mexico had doubled in 30 years to 32,000,000 a people poured into the cities , but being a Catholic country, the issue of birth control was skirted around .

Adolfo Mateos 1958- 64

Mateos was one of Mexico's most popular postwar presidents .Many young Mexicans identified with the young Mateos (47) much as young Americans of this generation did with J.F.K. He continued land redistribution, nationalized foreign utility concessions and movie industries by buying controlling stock, implemented new social welfare and rural education programs .While he was more leftist leaning than Cortines, Communists were not tolerated and arrested .Strong economic growth continued. Large housing projects were started to deal with house the numerous people flocking to the cities , some of the largest housing 100,000 people .Industry was given incentives to locate away from Mexico City .In 1960, the urban population surpassed the rural population .Mateos maintained diplomatic relations with Cuba after Castro took over, much to the chagrin of the US . The Chamizal border issue with the US was solved where the Rio Grande had changed course south by returning the land to question to Mexico and making a concrete lined channel in the area .Criticism of the one party system continued to grow during the Mateos administration as the electorate grew sophisticated.In response, Mateos added an amendment to the Constitution to make it easier for opposition parties to gain ground .Almost as soon as he left office he suffered a stroke and lay in a coma

http://mexicanhistory.org/aleman.htm[5/20/2010 2:53:45 AM] Mexican History 1947 - 2008

until his death in 1970 .

Gustavo Diaz Ordaz 1964 - 70

Ordaz was a conservative with an agenda that favored business and the economy grew 6%. and the tourist trade greatly increased .But he is most remember for his supression of civil liberties during the turbulent late 60s .Diaz had fired the reform minded president of the PRI, Carlos Madrazo and annulled elections where oposition parties won mayoral elections in Tijuana and Mexicalli . Students at the National University were the first to organize protests and many university campuses exploded in violence and strikes, sometimes with federal troops being called in .

Tlatelolco massacre

Mexico won the bid to host the summer games of 1968 .In July 26, 1968 leftist students gathered to celebrate the anniverary of the Cuban Revolution, which was met with riot police and erupted into a large street riot .In the following days there were more riots. Huge demonstrations were held on many universities . On August 27, there was a huge demonstration of half a million people and the government moved tanks and troops in , the following clash led to some deaths.In September students occupied many buildings and threatening to disrupt he Olympics .Diaz ordered troops into the buildings .and 500 demonstratoers were put in jail .For two weeks bands of students roamed the streets, barricading streets and burning buses .On October 2, 1968 another strike was called for at Tlatelolco. After the rally ended and the demonstrators failed to disband, the army used tear gas and clubs .The army claimed they were fired upon and opened up with their machine guns. However it started, several hundred people were killed .

http://mexicanhistory.org/aleman.htm[5/20/2010 2:53:45 AM] Mexican History 1947 - 2008

Despite this, the Olympic Games themselves were free of violence. On Oct 1969 on the anniversary of Tlatelolco., underground groups set off bombs at government offices and government buildings .

Ordaz launched the Border Industrialization Program in which established next to the border that assembled goods .Raw materials from US factories were assembled by low wage workers and exported duty free to Mexico.

Luis Echeverría 1970 - 76

Echeverría, former secretary of the interior, became president in 1970 .Caught in the inflation of the early 70s, he tried to order price controls on basic items .He was one of the first presidents to give an endorsement of birth control .The unemploed went to the big cities and started squatter towns. One of the largest, outside Mexico City had a population of 2 million in the 1980s. The government was forced to recognize it and it was named Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl .Many started to go to America illegally. The official bracero prgoram ended in 1964 .

Robberies and kidnappings , the bane of other Latin American countries, started in Mexicoby guerrilla groups and there was insurrection in Guerrero that took a year to put down . During his period, the country's external debt soared from $6 billion in 1970 to $20 billion in 1976. This caused the ruling party, at least in terms of its economic policies, to gradually lose prestige at home and abroad. In September, 1976, the Peso was devaluated 60 % and a month larer it was devlued a further 40%. By 1974, about 70,000 Mexicans worked in 450 maquiladoras. By the 1970s the population of the bodertowns such as Ciudad Jarez surged .Since 1973, maquiladoras have also accounted for nearly half of Mexico’s export assembly. Wages were low and workers conditions were bad .Despite this and the building of a booming tourist industry in the Yucatan, Echeverría was unable to remake the state led economic miracle of the postwar years.

Jose Lopez Portillo 1976 - 82

Jose Portillo came to power during the jump in oil prices during the oil embargo and the sudden world oil glut that sent Mexico into recession .His opponents internationally and domestically accused López Portillo of "rampant corruption," "excessive overseas borrowing," galloping inflation (which continued with his successor), and responsibility for devaluations of the peso.In September, 1976, to make exports more competitive, the Peso was devaluated 60 % and a month larer it was devlued a further 40%.¡Defenderé el peso como un perro! – "I will defend the peso like a dog!" It earned him the nickname 'El perro' (The dog) and having people barking at him.

http://mexicanhistory.org/aleman.htm[5/20/2010 2:53:45 AM] Mexican History 1947 - 2008

In 1974, huge new oil reserves were found in Chiapas and Tabasco, with the rising oil prices after the OPEC embargo, suddenly Mexico was a wealthy nation .In 1982 oil made up 78% of imports . Plans were made to make Mexico self-sufficient in food production and billions of dollars were invested in rural development .Despite the oil boom, by the end of the Lopez administration, the trade deficit approached 12 billion dollars and was 18 % of the GDP by 1982. The total debt climed to 80 billion dollars .The oil prices fell and the economy was devestated .Mexico could not meet its debt repayments. The US federal Reserve and the IMF stepped in to bail Mexico out .

Miguel de la Madrid 1982 - 86

During his tenure, the economy only made weak progress, crushed by the huge debt from the oil boom years .Madrid was not as free as his predeccors to manage the economy with the restrictions placed by the world Bank and the IMF .The Peso was devalued again and fell from 80 to 155 Pesos to the dollar .Price controls were lifted on thousand of commodities and bread, for example, increased 100% in price .Public spending was cut by one third .Mexico renegotiated its debts and had to commit 53% of the federal budget to repayments. Even thought the economy contracted an estimated 6% yearly in the 80s, foreign investors and banks were encouraged to invest in Mexico again by the government actions .

On Sept 19, 1985 , a 8.1 earthquake devastated Mexico City and the next day a 7.3 earthquake hit and killed at least 10,000 and caused more than $4 billion in damage .Over 100,000 were left homeless .Madrid's The goverment was slow to respond and grassroot movement sprang up.Madrid's popularity was severly damaged .More loans were necessary to deal with the problem and the national debt soared to 96 billion dollars .

There were now violent protests against the PRI for corruption, fraud and strong arm election tactics .Inflation increased on an average of 100% a year. During de la Madrid's presidency, he introduced liberal economic reforms that encouraged foreign investment, and widespread privatisations of outdated state-run industries and reduction of tariffs, a process that continued under his successors. He joined the removed protective tarrifs from mamy products to be able to join the GATT ( General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ) in 1986 .

http://mexicanhistory.org/aleman.htm[5/20/2010 2:53:45 AM] Mexican History 1947 - 2008

Hoping to regain the popularity lost after the earthquake, Madrid started a policy to deal corruption and the demands people always faced for mordidas or bribes .Some progress was made with political corruption as well, and the conservative opposition party PAN was premitted to win some elections .

Carlos Salinas de Gortari 1988 - 1994

In the election of 1988, Cuauhtemoc Cardenas on the new FDN party, was believed to have gotten more votes than the PRI candidate, Carlos Salinas .But vote counting was interrupted by a mysterious computer failure. In the end Salinas won with barely over 50%.Salinas tranformed Mexico's state dominated economy into one of private enterprise and free trade , the high point of which was the NAFTA agreement .

masked ELZN fighters

In 1994 a new Zapatista uprising , EZLN, started in Chiapas against corruption, Indian abuse and its own government . Their main spokesperson is Subcomandante Marcos .The group takes its name from , the anarchist commander of the Liberation Army of the South during the Mexican Revolution, and thus see themselves as his ideological heirs.It was led by The president responded with military repression, but reports of the national and international media , forcing a change in government policy and a negotiatin through the church .

Also in 1994, Salinas' chosen sucessor, Luis Colosio was assassinated in Tijuana .He reformed the Clerical Laws which had forbidden Catholic priests from voting, and established a new relationship between State and Church, which had been severely damaged after the Cristero War. The new laws also allowed the Catholic churches to own their own buildings.

http://mexicanhistory.org/aleman.htm[5/20/2010 2:53:45 AM] Mexican History 1947 - 2008

He has been vilified for the economic crisis Mexico plunged into after he left office .Salinas privatized Telmex and 400 other state owned businesses, the government owned provider of telecommunications service and placed the owner of the newly formed company into the name of a formerly unknown person by the name of Carlos Slim Helú. Debts repaments was reduced to 29% of the GDP and the economy grew 5 %in 1991 .During Salinas' term drug trafficing grew into a huge business after the UD crackdown on shipments from Columbia .Salinas and his advisors pursued a policy of allowing the Peso to become highly overvalued and led to a run on the Peso in December 1994 .Because of large scale corruption and the assassination of Ruiz Massieu which led to the arrest of Salinas brother Raul, Salinas has become one of the most reviled figures in Mexican history, behind Cortes and Diaz . In 1997 he moved to Ireland, which does not have an extradition treaty with Mexico .Many Mexicans feel corruption has bankrupted the country. Raul Salinas is estimated to have $300 million abroad .Some allege that the huge prices paid during the privatization shows drug money was involved .

Ernesto Zedillo 1994 - 2000

Within days of taking office, the Peso suddenly collapsed , known as the December Mistake, and led to an economic recesssion . The crisis ended after a series of reforms and actions led by Zedillo. US president Bill Clinton granted a $50 billion loan to Mexico, which helped in one of Zedillo's intiatives to rescue the banking system. Foreign ad Mexican investors withdrew billions from Mexico, putting the country in an economic tailspin .He replaced en masse the notoriosly supreme court. Zedillo was able to make some headway against Mexico's crime lords .He reformed politics so that power was peacefully transferred to a non PRI successor, Vicente Fox .

Vicente Fox 2000 - 2006

Fox was Mexico's first non=PRI president .In 2000, Vicente Fox decided to run for President of Mexico. In spite of opposition within his party, Fox secured his candidacy representing the Alliance for Change, a political coalition formed by the National Action Party and the Ecological Green Party of Mexico.Vicente Fox was one of the few Presidents to avoid a major economic upheaval during office, however economy grew at a slow pace .GDP growth dropped to an average an average of 2.2% during Fox's administration. Since globalization has contributed to the competition and advent of low-cost offshore assembly in places like Taiwan, China, and countries in , maquiladoras in Mexico have been on the decline since 2000: According to federal sources, approximately 529 maquiladoras shut down and investment in assembly plants decreased by 8.2 percent in 2002.

http://mexicanhistory.org/aleman.htm[5/20/2010 2:53:45 AM] Mexican History 1947 - 2008

Felipe Calderon 2006 - present

On July 6, 2006, the Federal Electoral Institute announced the official vote count in the 2006 presidential election, resulting in a narrow margin of 0.58% for Calderón over his closest contender, PRD candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador. However, López Obrador and his coalition alleged irregularities in a number of polling stations and demanded a national recount.On September 5, 2006,unanimously declared president- elect by the tribunal Calderón has also stated that the challenge is not between the political left or right, but a choice between "the past and the future." In his interpretation, moving toward "the past" would mean nationalization, expropriation, state control of the economy, and authoritarianism, while "the future" would represent the contrary: privatization, liberalization, market control of the economy, and political freedom

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Home Camacho Mexican history time line World War II

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Pre-Columbian History TimeLine

Time era name Mexico World 40,000 BC Pre-agricultural Last Ice Age Neanderthal man dies out era

11,500 oldest human remains found in Mexico 11,500 year old skull

8,000 BC Landbridge to Siberia goes Agriculture beings in underwater Middle East Mural Art, Baja 7,500 BC 7,000 Large animals vanish, Walled city of Jericho less rainfall 5,000 5,000 evidence of agriculture at 5,000 Sea divides Britain - Tehuacan from Europe 3100 1st Egyptian Dynasty 2700 Great Pyramid built 2,500 Indus civilization 2,000 2,500 Knossos founded Archaic era Pottery appears 2,350 Sumerian empire founded 2200 Xia Dynasty China 1850 Stonehenge started 1,500 BC 1300 Tlatilco figurines, Lake 1760 China Texcoco 1,750 Hammurabi 1304 Rameses the Great

1,500 Terracing and chinampas (floating gardens)

1400 earliest ballcourts found in Paso de la Amada 1200 Beginning of Olmec Culture 1300 1300 Rameses the great 1200 1232 Israelites in Canaan 1100 1122 Zhou Dynasty China

1000 1050 Dorians invade lower greece 900 San Lorenzo abanonded by Olmecs, La 900 Venta becomes Olmec center Oldest Olmec writing found 800 Pre-Classic era 814 Carthage Founded 700 776 1st Olympic Games 700 750s Height of 752 Rome founded 600 500 Oldest Zapotec writing End of Assyrian Empire

Height of Olmec 563 Buddha born 500 Culture 551 Confucus born 559 Cyrus founds Persian Empire

400 480 Battle of Thermopylae 460 Age of Pericles 400 300 323 Alexander dies at

http://mexicanhistory.org/timeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:54:46 AM] Timeline of Mexican History

Decline of Olmecs Babylon 200 100 150 0 Cholula Pyramid started Height of 100 civilization 200 150 AD Pyramid of the Sun 250 constructed 300 26 BC

Mayan Classic Age

450

400 476 AD

Classic Era

900

500 rise of Xochicalco, El Tajin, Cholula 632 Death of 600 650 Teotihuacan sacked rise of Zapotecs in Oaxaca Muhammad 700 800

900 900 981 Vikings in dominates Greenland much of central Mexico 1000 1066 Hastings 1100 1st Crusade 1100

1200 1215 Magna Carta

1300 Post Classic Era 1325 Aztecs found Tenochtitlan 1428 1453 Fall of 1400 Constantinople 1521 Columbus 1500 1600

After Arrival of Spanish TimeLine

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Year Mexico Americas Europe Asia Martin Luther 1517 Cordoba expedition nails his 95 Theses

1518 C Juan de Grijalva expedition o Cortes leaves Cuba for Mexico l 1521 o 1521, the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was conquered n 1522 Cortes was appointed governor and captain general of New i Spain a 1524 l Council of the Indies created

http://mexicanhistory.org/timeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:54:46 AM] Timeline of Mexican History

1527 Audiencia est in New Spain 1531 M vision of the Virgin of Guadalupe e 1533 x Mexico City University founded 1536 I first coins minted in New Spain 1537 c the New Laws outlaw indian slavery o 1540 Coronado searches for Cibola 1541 Mixton War of 1540 -41 1546 Chichimeca War N 1547 u Mayan War against Spanish for 20 years 1560 e ships travel in annual convoys for protection 1563 v cathedral in Mexico City started a 1564 Trade with China Established 1571 E Spanish Inquisition in Mexico till 1820 Battle of Lepanto s 1588 defeat of p Spanish Armada a 1610 n Santa Fe colony founded 1619 a Jamestown, Virgina founded

1624 Virginia becomes a crown colony 1642 English Civil War 1644 begins 1692 Salem witch trials

1695 Sor Juana de la Cruz dies Peter the Great in Europe 1697 last Msyan kingdom of Canek capitulates Treaty of Utrecht ends War of the Spanish 1700 Bourbon Reforms start under Philip V of Spain Succession Britain granted asiento to supply slaves to the Spanish America 1713

1750s paintings of Miguel Cabrera French and Indian War till 1763 Rousseau 1762 publishes Social Contract 1764 Jose de Galvez in New Spain Stamp Act 1767 Jesuits expelled Cook in Pacific 1769 Missions est in California 1773 Boston Tea Party 1775 American Revolution starts 1785 Castillo de Chapultepec built US Constitution 1787 signed

Washington first French English Convicts sent to 1789 president Revolution Australia begins Louisiana 1803 Purchase

1804 Silver production rises to 27 million Pesos Napoleon crowns himself emperor

1808 Napoleon invades Spain

1810 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla's 1810 Grito de Dolores (call for Argentina independence) independent

Paraguay, War between the 1811 Miguel Hidalgo executed by firing squad on July 31, 1811 Venezuela US and Britain independent

1813 Jose Marcia Morelos issues a Declaration of Independence, Constitution Napoleon exiled 1814 to Elba

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Battle of New 1815 Morelos executed Orleans Waterloo

1820 coup in Spain, Colonel Iturbide joins the rebels

e m Mexican Independence from Spain, September 27, 1821 , Iturbide marched into the capital with Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe 1821 p Peru independent I Victoria and the army r Iturbide declares himself emperor of Mexico e Santa Anna Plan de Casa Mata to oust the emperor

E Monore Doctrine 1823 a Iturbide goes into exile issued r l Central America leaves Mexico y Iturbide returns to Mexico and is executed 1824 R 1st pres of Mexico President Guadalupe Victoria 1824 -29 e 1829 p President Vicente Guerrero u Spanish invasion of Mexico 1830 b President Bustamante 1830 - 32 l 1833 I Santa Anna pres Carlist Wars in c Spain 1835 Revolt of Texas 1836

1838 Pastry War, French blockade Opium War S Yucatan Congress approved a declaration of independence, a rejoins Mexico in 1843 1840 n Mexican states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas declare t federal republic with Laredo as the capital a 1842 Hong Kong given to UK A Santa Anna exiled to Cuba, Texas joins the Union 1845 n n Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga overthrows Herrera a Mayan Caste War, Santa Anna returns to Mexico May 13, 1846, Congress declared war on Mexico 1846 May 8, 1846,Battle of Palo Alto M September 21–23, 1846Battle of Monterrey e 1847 x Feb 23 Battle of Buena Vista i Sept 12 Battle of Chapultepec c Revolutions a throughout n Europe 1848 Feb 2 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Gold discovered A in California m Communist Manifesto 1852 W Santa Anna returned to power in a coup 1853 a Gadsen Purchase Taiping Rebellion Starts 1854 r Plan of Ayutla to remove Santa Anna Crimean War 1855 Santa Anna defeated and exiled, Juan Alvarez president W Constitution of 1857, modeled after the one of 1824, president a can only serve one term, reforms conataining power of church and military 1857 r

War of the Reform starts o army declares Zuloaga the new president f Liberals under Juarez win the War of the Reform, Juarez first 1861 R Indian president American Civil War

http://mexicanhistory.org/timeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:54:46 AM] Timeline of Mexican History

e Starts f Spain, England and France agreed to the Convention of London Spain, England and France land troops, blockade demanding repayments of debt. England and Spain depart, French troops 1862 stay. Napoleon III wants empire French defeated at Puebla 1863 F French install Maximilian as emperor Gettysburg r e French withdraw from Mexico, Maximilian executed, Constitutional Cuban rebellion Meiji era starts in Japan , 1867 n c Republic restored against Spain great industrialization h

1871 Juarez Runs for a Fourth Term despite no re election article of Franco-Prussian the Constitution of 1857, Diaz launches 'no re-election' revolt War

1872 Mexico City - Veracruz railway finished Juarez dies in office, Lerdo becomes president 1875 Senate was added to the legislature Lerdo runs for and wins presidency again, Diaz revolts again, 1876 P defeats a federal army in Tlaxcala, Diaz rules in an era known as o the Porfiriato 1876 - 1911 1880 r Manuel Gonzalez president f Banco Nacional de México was founded i Diaz wins pres again, has the constitution amended, first to allow 1884 r two terms in office, and then to remove all restrictions on re- i election a 1900 t growing opposition to Diaz's rule Boxer rebellion o 1890 Mexican treasury has a surplus 1898 Spanish-American Boer War War Ford begins 1908 Diaz announces he will not seek re-election, but does anyway assemble line production Francisco Madero runs against Diaz, who had Madero jailed . Diaz becomes pres over with fraud, public anger 1910 Japan annexes Korea Madero issuses call for Revolution on November 20 Beginning of the Mexican Revolution Ciudad Juarez surrenders to the rebels Orozco and Villa M Diaz resigns 1911 e Modero wins election Qing Dynasty overthrown x Orozco rebels against Modero I Felix Diaz rebels in Veracruz c Coup starts against Modero on Feb 9 a Decena Tragica in Mexico City n Gen Huerta changes sides 1913 Modero arrested and murdered R Huerta becomes president e Coahuila Governer Carranza does not recognize Huerta v Huerta greatly enlarges army o Americans occupy Veracruz, hundreds killed by naval fire, l widespread anger at the US WWI starts u Huerta resigns 1914 t Carranza holds convention at Aguascalientes First Battle of I Eulalio Gutierrez as provisional president the Marne o Divid by land reformers Zapatista and Villa and Constitutionalists n Carranza and Obregon Obregon takes Mexico City as Gutierrez flees Battle of Celaya Obregon defeats Villa US recognizes Carranza 1915 Villa, angry at not getting US recognition , kills 15 Americans in Mexico and attacksColumbus, New Mexico Pershing ordered into Mexico to catch Villa, leaves in 1917 emptyhanded Zimmermann Telegram Russian 1917 Constitution of 1917, church power limited, foreigners not allowed Revolution to own land Carranza elected president Zapata assassinated by federal army 1919 Alvaro Obregon, Plutarco Callas and Adolfo de la Huerta rise in revolt Carranza assassinated by own guard while fleeing 1920 Obregon becomes president

http://mexicanhistory.org/timeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:54:46 AM] Timeline of Mexican History

1921 Mexico is the world's 3rd largest oil producer Facism Starts in 1923 Villa assassinated America recognizes Mexico Italy Obregon supports the CRON union 1924 Adolfo de la Huerta leads short lived revolt Radical reformer Plutarco Callas becomes president

1926 C Cristeros War begins, gov fights church ends 1934 Lindbergh flies r across Atlantic I Obregon assassinated, Callas rules till 1934 through puppets 1928 s Callas creates national party PNR, later known as PRI, which t holds power till the 2000 e r o Cardenas president s Hitler becomes 1934 Cardenas starts major land redistribution Fuher Mao's Long March W Callas forced into exile a r

1936 Cardenas nationalizes foreign oil companies PeMex founded Spanish Civil War 1939 WWII starts 1940 Comacho becomes president

1942 Mexico declares war on Axis after tankers sunk by u-boats, Revolution in Mexican Air force fights in Pacific Argentina 1946-50 Aleman president, major dams built, University City Korean War 1954 Women allowed to vote Dien Bien Phu falls Castro takes over 1959 Cuba

1968 Tlatelolco massacre China Cultural Revolution Mexico City Olympics

1970-76 Echeverría president Coup in nationalization of banks, population control urged Oil boom years 1976-82 Oil prices sink, economic crisis foreign debt crisis

1985 Mexico City earthquake

Salinas president free market and private enterprise policies Zapatista uprising 1988-94 Drug trafficing grows Peso overvalued NAFTA signed Zedillo president 1994 - 2000 the Peso suddenly collapsed , known as the December Mistake, and led to an economic recesssion 2000-2006 Vicente Fox first non PRI president

Mexican-American War Timeline Mexican Revolution Timeline

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1821 The New Republic of Mexico grants lands in the sparely populated Texas state on the condition settlers convert to Catholicism and assume Mexican citizenship. The Mexicans hoped this to help control raids by Commanches and stop possible expansion into the area by the United States by integrating these new settlers into Mexican society.

Mexican land grant 1835 Many Americans come to settle in Texas. By 1835 there were 30,000 Americans and only around 8,000 Mexicans .Mexico orders halt to American immigration, but Americans continue to cross the border to settle.

President Santa Anna abolishes the federal , replaces it with a new centralist constitution. The militias of Mexican states ordered to be disbanded. Many states, including Texas revolt, fearing they would live under a tyrant with no representation.

Oct 2 Texians revolt against Mexico. 1836

March 6 Fall of the Alamo

April 26 Santa Anna captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco, which he agreed to withdraw his troops from Texan soil and recognizes Texas independence .Mexican government deposed him in absentia and disavows his treaty. Mexico

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still regards Texas as part of Mexico,but is too weak by internal disturbances to try to regain it.

1838

Pastry War Santa Anna becomes a hero fighting the French ( 1838 Pastry War) and losing part of his leg to shellfire and re-elected president.

1844 Dec 6 in Mexico City troops rise against Santa Anna, who is overthrown. The mutineers select Gen. Jose de Joaquin de Herrera as president.

June 3 Santa Anna exiled to Cuba, where he plots his return as his hero Napoleon did from Elba island.

1845 U.S. President John Tyler, who has become president after the death of president Harrison (who died on April 4, 1841 from a cold, a month after delivering a two hour inaugural speech on a cold and rainy day) wishes to annex Texas to gain prestige for a new political party he wished to found. The Senate rejects an annexation treaty due to anti- slavery forces,such as former President Martin Van Buren, who were afraid Texas would become a slave holding state.

1845

Republic of Texan $10

Feb 28 Congress annexes Texas in a joint resolution. The Texan claim to the Rio Grande boundary had been omitted from the annexation resolution to help secure passage after the annexation treaty failed in the Senate.

March 1 United States Congress votes to annex the Republic of Texas 1845

1845 Pres. Polk March 4 Expansionist James K. Polk (49) becomes president of the US. One of the goals of his administration is acquire California and New Mexico from Mexico. The main interest was San Francisco Bay as an access point for trade with Asia.Polk claims the Rio Grande as the

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boundary between the U.S. and Mexico .Americans base claims on the Treaties of Velasco. Mexico, however, had never ratified these treaties, 1845 which were signed by Santa Anna while he was a prisoner in Texas. The disputed area had never been a part of the viceroy of Texas under Mexican rule, but had been parts of Tamaulipas, Coahuila, Chihuahua and Nuevo Mexico .

Pres Herrera March 28 Mexican Senate breaks off negotiations, gives interim President Herrera. authority to raise troops and prepare for war. Herrera preferred peaceful negotiations.

March 6 Mexican ambassador in Washing requests passport-Mexico regards Texas as a breakaway province

July 4 Anglo-Americans in Texas accept U.S. terms for annexation

Gen. Taylor July 22-23 Polk orders Gen. Zachary Taylor to depart Fort Jessup, Louisiana into Texas with 1,500 troops. on the transport Alabama.

July 31 Taylor camps with army at Corpus Christi near the mouth of the Nueces River, regarded by Mexico as the Mexican-Texas border. By late Oct 3,500 regulars have gathered.

Nov 29 Former U.S. Congressmen John Slidell arrives at Veracruz to try to negotiate with the Mexican government'. He is authorized to offer $25 million for the disputed Rio Grande border area in Texas and Mexico's provinces of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico. Mexicans considered this an insult to national honor.. When Mexican President JoseJoaquin de Herrera considers receiving Slidell in order to peacefully negotiate the problem of Texas annexation,he was accused of treason and deposed by followers of Santa Anna, but regains power.

Sept 15 Interim president Herrera wins election and becomes president.

Dec2 - Polk reinstates the Monroe Doctrine and calls for western expansion

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Gen.Paredes Dec 14 Herrera, assembles a force of 6,000 men. This was put under the command of General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga and ordered north to fight the Americans. Paredes got as far as San Luis Potosíi but instead of marching north against the invaders, in December he turned back to the capital and overthrew President Herrera.

Dec 29 Texas becomes the 28th state of the United States Mexico breaks diplomatic relations with the United States 1846

Flag of the Yucatan Republic ( 1841-1848) Jan 1 Yucatan declareds its independence from Mexico and its 1846 neutrality in the war with the United States

Jan 2 General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga enters Mexico City, declared President of Mexico.

Feb 10 –Mormons begin their migration west from to the Great Salt Lake,

March 5 Federally commissioned explorer John C. Fremont approaches Monterey with a 60 man survey team, is ordered to leave 1846 California by Mexican authorities after stir up patriotic enthusiasm among the American settlers there. Fremont entrenches on Gavilan (Mount Fremont) and is surrounded by a 350 man force under Gen.Jose Maria Castro. Fremont retreats after four days under cover of darkness.

March 8 Gen. Taylor is authorized to move south into disputed territory.

1846 March 28 Gen. Taylor reaches the Rio Grande. The Mexican commander in Matamoros,Col. Francisco Mejia, considers this an invasion of Mexican territory, but is not authorized to attack. Taylor erects a camp named Fort Texas with 2,200 men. Mejia has 3,000 men under his command.

April 2 Gen. Mariano Arista appointed in command of the Army of the North to confront the Americans 1846 April 11 Gen. Arista reaches Matamoros, Taylor ordered to return to Corpus Christi within 24 hours. Taylor refuses.

April 25 a 1,600-strong Mexican cavalry detachment under Gen.Torrejon attacked a 70-man U.S. patrol that had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande at Carricitos. The Mexican cavalry routed the patrol, killing 16 U.S. soldiers in what later became known as the Thornton Affair after Captain Thornton who was in http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanAmericanWarTimeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:55:20 AM] Mexican American War Timeline

command. 1846 May 3 Mexican artillery opens heavy fire against Fort Texas. Maj. Jacob Brown killed by shellfire, Fort Texas renames Fort Brown in his honor, which later becomes Brownsville.

1846

May 7 Battle of Palo Alto. Gen.Arista with 3,300 confronts Taylor's 2,300. American 'flying artillery' wreak havok on Mexican lines. Mexican cavalry charge under Torrejon who are disperesed by accurate fire. Mexicans withdrawl by evening with 400 casualities, Americans have 9 killed. 1846 May 8 Resaca de la Palma Gen.Arista deploys his forces in an empty lake bed with his army in a narrow line. Taylor attacks his center, overrunning the Mexican artillery. Mexicans retreat across the Rio Grande. Mexican losses 200 killed, 39 Americans killed.

May 13 U.S. Congress declares war on Mexico 173-14 in the

1846 House, 40-2 in the Senate after learning of the Carricitos. incident.

May 17 Matamoros Taylor crosses Rio Grande and takes , which has been abandoned by the Mexican army. Arista retreats toward Linares, Nuevo Leon,losing many men in the desert. Arista resigns command

to Gen.Jose Maria Ortega.

May 19 blockade of Tampico starts

1846 May 20 Blockade of Veracruz starts. Revolts against Parede in Guadalajara.

1846 June 12 America reaches compromise with Britain over Pacific Northwest with the Canadian-U.S. border set at the 49th parallel. 6,000 man Mexican government army arrives to besiege Guadalajara

July 4 American settlers in California declare themselves independent of Mexico and establish 'Bear Flag" Republic.

July 7 Mexican Congress declares war on the U.S.

Aug 5 Gen.Jose Mariano Salas deposes Paredes as president.

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Aug 16 Santa Anna returns to Veracruz after exile in Cuba on a British ship.Washington believes he will help conclude a peace.

Aug18 Gen.Kearny occupies Santa Fe without a fight.

Aug 19 Taylor marches toward Mier and Camargo with 3,200 regulars and 3,000 volunteers, leaving 4,700 for garrison duty.

Sept 15 Santa Anna enters Mexico City to great reception

Sept 19 Taylor arrives at Monterrey with 6,645 troops,which is defended by a formidable citadel,called the Black Fort by the Americans. the Mexican commander Ampudia has 7,000 Mexican regulars and 2- 3,000 militia.

Sept 24 Most of Monterrey in American hands after fierce house to house fighting, Ampudia asks for terms. Mexican army allowed to march out with arms. Americans suffer 120 killed, Mexicans 700 casualties.

Sept 23 Californio guerrillas under Servulo Verda attack a 48 man American garrison in Loa Angles, forcing them to surrender.

Sept 28 Santa Anna departs Mexico City to San Luis Potosi, gathering a 21,500 man army in four months.

Nov 13 Taylor occupies undefended Saltillo

Nov 30 The U.S. decides to transport another army to Veracruz to attack Mexico City, to be led by Gen. Winfield Scott.

Dec 2 Santa Anna inaugurated as president

Dec 25 El Paso taken by Doniphan, Mexican lose 100 in cavalry charge, no Americans killed.

Dec 26 Taylor arrives at Brazos de Santiago (near BrownsvilleTexas)

Dec 28 Stockton and Kearny with 600 men attack Flores with 450 men and retake Los Angles, the last Mexican stronghold in California. 1847 Jan 13 Lt.Richey, who is carrying Scott's campaign plans to Gen.Taylor is killed trying to buy provisions in Villagran, the plans are forwarded to Santa Anna at San Luis Potosi.The Treaty of Cahuenga ends the fighting in the Mexican-American War in California http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanAmericanWarTimeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:55:20 AM] Mexican American War Timeline

Jan 28 Santa Anna decides to attack Taylor after learning of his deminished strength from the captured plans. The vanguard is the San Patrico Company of Irish-American deserters of a 20,000 man Mexican army. Only 14,000 survive the grueling desert march to Encarnacion. 1847 Santa Anna prepares to attack Taylor's positron at Coahuila.

Jan 30 – Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco.

Feb 20 a 400 American recon unit spots 4,000 Mexican cavalry in advance of Santa Anna's army at Hediona Ranch and ride back to warn Taylor. Taylor decides to fall back with his 4,800 troops to Buena Vista Hacienda, an easier to defend narrow pass.

1847

1847

Feb 22 Battle of Buena Vista Shortly after sunrise, Santa Anna's 18,000 appear and sends a surrender order to Taylor, who rejects it ( 'Tell Santa Anna to go to hell !'). Indecisive firefights for high ground ensues.The flying artillery breaks up Mexican attacks. Mexicans lose 1,800, Americans lose 267 killed with 1,500 desertions.Santa Anna orders a retreat at night toward Agua Nueva. Taylor retires toward Monterrey.

Feb 28 Battle of Sacramento. American force entering Mexico from El 1847 Paso of 924 under Doniphan attacks 2,400 Mexican force of the Sacramento River north of . Mexicans lose 300 killed, most in a 800 man cavalry charge. America lose one killed and occupy Chihuahua City.

March 9 American landing at Veracruz.8,600 soldiers land by nightfall.. Siege of Veracruz begins. 1847 March 21 10,500 return with Santa Anna to San Luis Potosi.

March 28 Veracruz surrenders

April 14 Battle of Cerro Gordo Santa Anna deploys 12,000 raw 1847 troops and 43 field pieces on the National Highway to Mexico City to block the American advance. A flanking maneuver and frontal assault breaks the Mexican line.Special Cavalry Division. Army Corps of Engineers Capt. Robert E. Lee discovered a mountain trail around Santa Anna's position Mexican troops retreat in panic, 3,000 Mexican prisoners 1847 taken.Americans lose 63 killed.General Santa Anna, caught off guard by the Fourth Regiment of the Illinois Volunteer Infantry, was compelled to ride off without his artificial leg, which was captured and is still displayed in Illinois.

April 20 American army enters deserted Jalapa.

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April 21 Santa Anna arrives at Orizaba and begins to reassemble 1847 4,000 of his defeated troops.

May 15 Scott's army enters Puebla with no opposition

1847 May 28 Scott has lost 3,000 volunteer militia as the terms of their enlistment has expired.and is left with 5,820 - to few to attack Mexico City and wait for reinforcements.

June 14 Perry in a squadron of steamers takes Villahermosa in Tobasco. Mexican guerillas surround American garrison there., forcing the American garrison to leave by July 19.

July 8 Scott is reinforced at Puebla by 4,500 troops.

Aug 7 Scott begins offensive against Mexico City. Scott now has 14,000 troops, 2,500 of which are sick.

Aug 10 Mexican fortify El Penon Hill with 7,000 troops and 30 cannons.

Aug 19 Americans have breakthrough at San Geronimo, a surprise attack kills 700 Mexicans, Mexicans flee across river at Churubusco and Coyoacan. The San Mateo Convent is taken with some of the San Patrico Battalion, 30 out of 69 are executed.

Aug 20 Santa Anna flees back to Mexico City, Mexican loses are 4,000 dead and 3,000 captured. Americans have lost 139 killed.

Aug 22 Scott grants Santa Anna a truce,hoping he will ask for terms.

Sept 7 Americans learn Mexicans have fortified a strong position at Molino del Rey. Scott sends 3,500 under Worth to take it, which falls after a fierce battle. Americans lose 116 killed.

Sept 12 Scott orders to bombardment of the hilltop castle of Chapultepec, the last major defense before Mexico City, defended by 260 defenders under Gen.Bravo, 50 of which are cadets. The next day the lower defenses are overcome in a fierce hand to hand struggle.Scaling ladders are brought up and by 9:30 AM Col. Joseph E. Johnsons troops have unfurled American flag atop the castle. Six cadets fight to the death, one jumping to his death holding the Mexican flag and are known as los Ninos Heros today.(Boy Heros). Santa Ana flees Mexico City.

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Sept 14 Scott's army enters Mexico City main square by noon. A couple of days of severe rioting follows. Santa Anna regroups at Guadalupe.

Sept 15 Santa Anna resigns in favor of Chief Justice Manuel de le Pena y Pena.

Oct 8 Santa Anna ordered to turn over military command to Rincon and prepare to stand trial for his conduct of the war.

Nov 10 Mazatlan is taken after Mexican garrison withdraws.

Nov 11 elections held in unoccupied parts of Mexico. Anaya become interim president.

1848 Jan 24 gold discovered at Sutter's Mill, in Coloma, California

Feb 2 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed. America takes California,Nevada,Utah,Colorado,Arizona and New Mexico, Mexico loses 55% of its pre war territory. (2/3 if Texas is included) America pays $15 million in compensation and assumes responsibility for $3,5 million in claims by U.S. citizens against Mexico.Mexicans living in lands ceded ( about 80,000) were to be treated as U.S. citizens.

July 31 last of 18,300 American troops depart Mexico 1876 Santa Anna dies in obscurity in Mexico City. Buried at Tepeyac Cemetery, near Guadalupe Hidalgo

1929 Last veteran of Mexican-American War,sailor Owen Edgar, dies Home

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Web MexicanHistory.org

Mexican Revolution Time line Revolución Mexicana 1910 - 1920

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April 20 Hailey's Comet appears, many Mexicans believe is a harbinger of war,pestilence and death.

Sept 27 Porfirio Diaz proclaimed president for his eighth term. Diaz had quickly modernized Mexico at great cost. Diaz was a general who became a hero fighting the French Intervention of 1864-7. He was the top military commander under reformist President Juarez and became president after his death in 1876. To stop the cycle of military revolts he offered pan o palo (bread or the stick). Ambitious political and military leaders were put on the gov payroll with high salaries or faced imprisonment or execution. "A dog with a bone neither bites or barks."

Following the advice of his cientifico (scientist) advisers who believed the Indian and mestizos (who made up 90% of the population) were only good for manual labor and their belief in social Darwinism, this huge class of people was not educated. Believing the Hacienda (large estates) were more efficient than traditional methods, many Indians and campesinos (farmers) lost their farms and became virtual slaves on the large haciendas. Poverty increased and workers wages remained low .

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Most large companies were foreign owned,paid little or no taxes and paid low wages. Foreign companies exploited Mexico vast oil and mineral wealth that benefited only the Mexican wealthy elite. Decades of injustice only needed a spark to explode. 1910 Francisco Madero, a reformer from a wealthy hacienda family ran against Diaz and was thrown in jail after becoming too popular. Madero was unusual for his period. He didn't drink or smoke, was a vegetarian and practiced a spiritual form of religion.

Oct 11 Madero, head of antireelection party escapes from imprisonment in San Luis Potosi and flees to Texas. He issues his Plan of San Luis Potosi,declared the election to be illegal and urged a rebellion against Diaz.

Nov 19 Madero enters border into Mexico after Villa captures Chihuahua. Madero and Villa meet for the first time.

Nov 20 Madero calls for an uprising. Pascual Orozoco launches uprising in Chihuahua.

1911 Jan 30 Orozoco attacks federal garrison in Ciudad Juarez. Garrison relieved by federal troops 3 days later.

Feb 13 Revolutionary Jose Luis Moya occupies Durango

Feb 26 Moya's band captures town of Zacatecas

1911

March 6 Madero forces attacks federal garrison at Casa Grandes and driven off with 100 out of 800 followers killed. Madero joined by other local leaders, including a 32 year old local bandit Doroteo Arango, better known as Pancho Villa. Villa's men are mostly miners from the north. His men are known as dorados 'golden ones' because of their golden hued uniforms and rode into battle crying Viva Villa ! Viva la Revolucion ! Famous for their cavalry charges,often led by Villa himself. 1911

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March 24 Emiliano Zapata takes command of 800 man revolutionary band after leader Pablo Torres is killed by federales. Many Indians lost 1911 land to large haciendas during the Diaz years. Zapata and his followers began a revolt against this with the banner Tierra y Libertad !' ( Land and Liberty.')

March 26 Moya captures Ciudad Lerdo.

April 3,500 under Madero, Orzoco and Villa lay siege to Ciudad Juarez.

May 7 Revolutionary outbreaks throughout Mexico, Diaz offers to resign. Moya killed in heavy fighting at Zacatecas. 1911 May 10 federales in Ciudad Juarez surrenders, Madero and Villa can now supply their forces with modern weapons.

May 13 Orzoco and Villa demand some federal officers be executed. Madero refuses, soon Orzoco and Villa leave Madero.

May 14 Torreon is taken by revolutionaries. 303 unarmed Chinese massacred.

May 21 Cuernavaca is taken by Zapata, Madero signs Treaty of Ciudad Juárez with Diaz..Díaz agrees to abdicate his rule and be replaced by Madero.

May 25 Rioting in Mexico City. Diaz resigns and boards German liner Ypiranga. Foreign Minister Francisco Leon de la Barra becomes interim president. Diaz 'Madero has unleashed a tiger; let’s see if he can ride it."' Diaz dies in Paris four years later.

June Earthquake kills 207 in Mexico City, Madero enters city.

June 22 Orozoc's army enters Chihuahua City and makes it their headquarters.

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Aug 8 Gen.Victoriano Huerta sent to Cuernavaca with 1,000 federal troops and forces Zapata to demobilize part of his peasant army.

Aug 31 Huerta orders Zapata's arrest, Zapata flees into the countryside

Nov 6 Madero wins presidential election and takes oath of office. Slow to take action on land reform ,insisting the hacienda owners be paid for the land lost and loses liberal support. Also criticised by conservatives as being anti-business. Madero levies tax on oil companies to pay for education, angering American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson. Pascual Orozoco,once an ally of Villa, raises a well equipped army of 6,000 in the north, supported by powerful hacienda landowners. He plans to march on Mexico City. Madero turns to Gen.Victoriano Huerta to deal with Orozoco.

Nov 9 In Texas, revolutionary leader Emilio Vazquez Gomes calls for revolt against Madero

Nov 25 Zapata proclaims land reform to take hacienda lands. Hacienda owners pressure Madero to subdue Zapata.

Nov 27 Zapata disavows support for Madero for not giving land to peasants Feb 15 Gen. Juvencio Robles begins terror campaign against Zapatistas, burning several Zapatista towns

March 3 Orozoco rises against Madero. Orozoco rebels load train with explosives and rams it into a train full of federal soldiers at Rellano station

April 12 Huerta orders execution of Pancho Villa for Villa then resends http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanRevolutiontimeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:55:54 AM] Mexican Revolution Timeline

order. Huerta defeats Orozoco, forcing him to flee to the US.

April 26 Col. Pedro Leon mutinies in Mexico City. Revolt fails and Leon is executed.

1912

Oct 16 Nephew of Porfiro Diaz, Brig. Gen Felix Diaz, raises conservative revolt against Madero in Veracruz, is arrested

1913

1913

General Mondragon Feb 9 Decena Tragica ' ' (Feb 9-18) Felix Diaz and Gens.Mondragon and Ruiz mutiny against Madero with 2,400 men. 300 killed around presidential palace. Diaz freed.Madero reappoints Huerta as military commander. Huerta order Ruiz and all rebel cadets executed by firing squad.5,000 civilians killed

1913

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Feb 11 Artillery duel breaks out with mutineers. 500 civilians killed. 1913 Gen.Huerta sees this as a chance to become president.. He despises Madero and has long planned to overthrow him. Huerta seizes Madero, Vice Pres. Jose Suarez and cabinet.

With support of US Ambassador Henry Lane, Huerta and Diaz come to an agreement . Huerta would become temporary president. In the next election, Huerta would see to it that Diaz was elected,while Huerta would remain as the military strong man.New president refused to recognize Huerta's government, Lane recalled.

Feb 22 Madero is murdered. Huerta government claims that bodyguards were forced to shoot Madero and Vice President José María Pino Suárez, during a failed rescue attempt by Madero's supporters. In reality Huerta ordered the murders. Huerta turns Madero's brother Gustavo over to Diaz's men,who murder him.

Huerta's regime harsher and more brutal than Diaz's. Huerta jails 110 members of Congress. 100 Madero supporters are executed.The press,which had been free under Madero, is again gagged as it was in Diaz's time. Felix Diaz is shipped off to Japan on a diplomatic mission . Huerta is supported by conservatives, the Catholic Church (which lost land and power in the last century) and the American business community.

All males between 15 and 40 were obliged to serve in the army in areas under Huerta's control and many were gathered at bar,bull fights and walking on the streets. Using these tactics he created a 200,000 none to loyal army.

Feb 24 The Gov. of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza rebels against Huerta. Soon others launch rebellion. Announces the , calling for the overthrow of Huerta and the restoration of the Constitution of 1857, limiting church power. http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanRevolutiontimeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:55:54 AM] Mexican Revolution Timeline

March 9 Villa escapes from prison in El Paso, returns to Mexico and raises army against Huerta.

March 13 Alvaro Obregon from Sonora rises against Huerta and captures Nogales. The army of Obregon was filled with displaced Yaqui Indians . The northern armies of Villa, Obregon and Carranza operated independently and did not trust one another .

March 17 Orozoco becomes brigadier in Huerta's army.

March 26 Venustiano Carranza, a politician and rancher from Coahuila, was forefront in the opposition against Huerta, calling his forces the Constitutionalists, with the secret support of the United States. On March 26, 1913, Carranza issued the Plan de Guadalupe, which was a refusal to recognize Huerta as president and called for a declaration of war between the two factions.

April 15 Obregon defeats Huerta forces along US border.

April 21 Zapata besieges Huerta garrison at Cuautla. Federal train blown up,killing 100 federal troops, federals round up civilians.

May 13 Obregon stops federal advance at Santa Rosa

May 30 Zapata declares war on Huerta. Villa defeats federal force at San Andres

Sept 29 Villa captures Torreon, all federal officers executed,shooting prisoners routine on all sides

Oct 14 Villa fails to defeat federal garrison in Chihuahua City

Nov 15 Villa takes Ciudad Juarez by commandeering a coal train and sneaking into town.. Several hundred executed.

Nov 23 Federal force defeated at Tierra Blanca by Villa close to Ciudad Juarez. Villa becomes provisional governor of the state of Chihuahua.

Dec 8 Villa occupies Chihuahua City 1914 Jan 10 Huerta forces defeated at Ojinaga, end of Huerta resistance in Chihuahua.

March 12 Zapata besieges Cuautla with 5,000 men. City taken, all federal officers executed.

March 22 Second Battle of Torreon. 12,000 under Villa attacks http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanRevolutiontimeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:55:54 AM] Mexican Revolution Timeline

10,000 strong federal garrison and drives them off with heavy loses

April 5 Villa defeats 12,000 strong Huerta force at San Pedro de las 1914 Colomias

April 8 Zapata forces now in control of most of Morelos

April 9 Tampico Affair Carranza's forces were ten miles from the prosperous oil town of Tampico.. There was a considerable concentration of U.S. citizens in the area due to the immense investment of American firms in the local oil industry. Several American warships commanded by Rear Admiral Harry T. Mayo settled in the area with the expectation of protecting American citizens and property. Americans sailors detained by Huerta soldiers and released. American Rear Adm. demands formal apology and the American flag raised ashore with a 21 gun salute. The Mexican commander refuses.

April 14 Wilson orders Atlantic Fleet to Mexico

1914

April 21 800 American seamen and marines land at Veracruz.Snipers open fire on Americans, 4 Americans killed. 400 more Americans are sent ashore.Eventually 3,300 sailors and 2,000 marines land. Sniper fire continues.126 Mexicans and 17 Americans killed.Resentment against Americans grows in Mexico.Arms and supplies from Germany to Huerta cut off.

1914 April 26 Fortress San Juan de Ulua surrenders to Americans. American forces remain most of the year

May 4 Obregon besieges Mazatlan

May 14 The movie The Life of General Vila , starring Villa himself ( now believed to be lost) opens in New York. Villa became a folk hero in

1914 the U.S, through such writers as John Reed,sent to Mexico by Metropolitan Magazine.

June 10 Battle of Zacatecas Toma de Zacatecas (Taking of Zacatecas) One of the bloodiest battles in the Revolution .Pancho 1914 Villa's División del Norte(Division of the North) decisively defeated the troops of General Luís Medina Barrón defending the town of Zacatecas. The great victory demoralized Huerta's supporters, leading to his resignation on July 15. Huerta goes into exile in Europe. Enters US to try to reenter Mexico. Kept under house arrest in El Paso till his death in 1916.

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1914 June 25 Battle of Orendain Obregon's Army of the Northwest defeats Huerta forces, who lose 2,000 and many supplies. Revolutionaries enter Guadalajara

August 15, Álvaro Obregón signed a number of treaties in Teoloyucan in which the last of Huerta's forces surrendered to him and recognized the Constitutional government.

August 20 Army of Obregon enters Mexico City. Carranza makes a triumphal entry into Mexico City and becomes president.

Sept 14 Zapata breaks with Carranza for not implementing stronger social reforms, begins to distribute land to peasants

Sept 22 Villa refuses to acknowledge Carranza as president. Obregon agrees to go to the field to destroy the army of Villa.

Nov 6 The constitutional Convention of Aguascalientes recognizes Eulalio Guiterrez as interim president. Carranza refuses to accept and is declared a rebel.Guiterrez appoints Villa as military commander to drive Carranza from power.

Nov 12 Zapata declares war on Carranza

Nov 18 Villa and Zapata advance on Carranza, who departs for Veracruz.

Nov 23 last American troops leave Veracruz.

Dec 1 Villa and Zapata meet at Xochimilico in Mexico City. Their combined armies of 50,000 march through city. Some Villiaistas rob churches and rape. Villa himself rapes a Frenchwoman manager at the luxury Hotel Palicio and was reported worldwide. The Zapaista army is mostly orderly. 1915 1915 War of the Generals

Jan5 Obregon takes Puebla City with 12,000 troops

Jan 15 Carranista army defeats Villiaista army and takes Guadaljara

Jan 28 Obregon reenters Mexico City, abandoned by Villa and Zapata.

March 10 Obregon departs Mexico City

1915

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April 6 Battle of Celya Obregon army of 6,000 cavalry,5,000 infantry has decisive victory over Villa's 20,000 man army.Villa loses 4,000 killed in frontal cavalry attacks on Obregon's trenches ,barbed wire and machine guns. 6.000 taken prisoner. Villia's tactics do not fare well against Obregon's 20th century trench warfare methods of currently used in WWI. 1915 April 16 Obregon occupies Salamanca

June 1 Battle of Trinidad Villas masses 19,500 horsemen and 6,000 cavalry against Obregon's 9,400 cavalry and 14,500 infantry. Obregon loses right arm to shellfire.Hill succeeds him. Villa's forces exhaust forces in repeated assaults.Villa has 8,000 causalities and retreats north,his days as a leader of a large northern army are over.

Carranza now shifts his attention to the south to deal with Zapata in Morelos and dispatches General Pablo Gonzalzez, known as the general who never won a battle . Despite using terror tactics,is unable to defeat Zapata .

Zapatista coin

June 2 Wilson threatens intervention if unrest in Mexico continues.

June 5 Oaxaca declares itself a sovereign state

June 24 Huerta and Orozco are arrested in El Paso trying to enter Mexico.

July 6 Obregon resumes command of the army

August Orozco murdered in El Paso

Oct 19 US,Argentina and other Latin American countries recognize Carranza as president, US cuts off arms supplies to Villa, angering him.

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Nov 1 Villa with 6,000 remaining troops attack Agua Priesta and are beaten off. 400 desert Villa.

Nov 18 inconclusive Battle of Hermosillo, Villa losses many of his remaining 5,000 followers. Retreats with only 1,400.

1916 Jan 16 Villa's forces attack train, killing 16 Americans

March 9 Villa enters US and raids town of Columbus, New 1916 Mexico with 500 riders. 100 Villistas killed and 18 Americans.

March 15 Pershing enters Mexico 3,000 men to pursue Villa, has 9,000 in late April. Villa wounded trying to overrun Carrancista garrison at Guerrero

July Carranza informs Pershing that further penetration west,south or east will be contested.

June 20 Carrizal Skirmish between Americans and Carrancista garrison 74 Mexicans and 10 Americans killed

May 2 Carrancista Gen. Gonzales attacks Zapatists forces in Morelos, with air support.30,000 man army occupies every major town in the 1916 state.

May 15 Felix Diaz joins Oaxaca's separatist movement and is

defeated

June Gen. Gonzales overrun main Zapatista headquarters at Tlaltizapan,many civilians executed

July 6 Villa rejoins his followers at San Juan Bautista Aug 1 Carranza calls out troops to break up strike in Mexico City Sept 16 Villa infiltrates Chihuahua City at 3 AM. Takes much booty and gives speech,gaining more recruits Sept Zapata threatens Mexico City, seizes water pumping station and destroys rail lines,then retreats Nov Zapatistas blow up train,killing 400

Nov 23 Villa defeated outside Chihuahua City and retreats

Dec Carranza holds constitutional convention at Queretaro. Approved on Feb 17, 1917 It allows freedom of religion, workers allowed to form labor unions,child labor prohibited,equal pay for men and women. The government had the right to redistribute land http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanRevolutiontimeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:55:54 AM] Mexican Revolution Timeline

Dec Zapatistas regain control of most of Morelos

Dec Villa surprises garrison at Torreon, killing 2 generals and causing a third to commit suicide, departs

Jan 7 Villa raids Santa Rosalia, executing 300 prisoners and Chinese.. Zapata retakes Cuernavaca.

Jan 16 Zimmermann Telegram German offers Mexico material aid in 1917 the reclamation of territory lost during the Mexican-American War and the Gadsden Purchase,Carranza formally declined Zimmermann's proposals on April 14, by which time the U.S. had declared war on Germany.

May 1 Carranza officially becomes president after election Oct many town in Morelos fall to Carrancistas, Zapatista army weakened by outbreak of Spanish influenza, Zapata flees into mountains with a few followers 1918 April 6 Zapata killed by troops of Carrancista officer who pretended to mutiny..Following Zapata's death, the Liberation Army of the South slowly fell apart June Villa captures Juarez, driven off by US troops 1919 June 1 Obregon announces he will run for president 1920 Carranza's term of office almost over and cannot run again because of declaration of 'no reelection' He throws his support behind Ignacio Bonillas, the ambassador to Mexico,believing he would become his puppet.

March many Obregon supporters arrested, Obregon harassed, flees Mexico City. 1920 April 13 Obregon calls for uprising against Carranza. Supporters, including Villa rally to his side.

May 7 Carranza flees to Veracruz, taking national treasury ( 5 million in gold and silver) and 10,000 followers.A 1920 dynamite laded train smashes into the lead train,killing 200. Carranza retreats with 100 followers. Meets guerrilla leader Rodolfo Herrero who professes loyalty, but murders him while he is sleeping.

May 24 Adolfo de la Huerta, Gov. of Sonora is made interim president 1920 July 22 Villa telegraphs Huerta requesting amnesty, Huerta gives a 25,000 acre estate

July 20 Villa and six bodyguards are ambushed while driving, Villa killed

Nov 30 Obregon elected president

Nov 30 De la Huerta Uprising Huerta accuses Obregon of corruption and calls for overthrow of Obregon. A large part of the federal army follows Huerta. http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanRevolutiontimeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:55:54 AM] Mexican Revolution Timeline

Jan 24 Battle of Eseranza Huerta forces defeated, Huerta flees Mexico. Minor revolts and mutinies in following years, but large scale fighting is over. An estimated 2 million are thought to have died as a result of the Revolution.

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http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanRevolutiontimeline.htm[5/20/2010 2:55:54 AM]