This Page Is Intentionally Left Blank sPA PA Ili~F.ST Vo l. VI No. 1, 1985 ISSN 0125 - 7099

Contents

Ancient Beads from Philippine Archaeological Sites by Robert B. Fox and Rey Santiago 4 Theatre and Visual Arts: Some SPAFA objectives Parallelism by Jukka Miettinen 14 The objectives of SPAFA are: The Role of Conservation in Display by Colin Pearson 17 - To promote awareness and appre­ ciation of the cultural heritage of the The Mor Yao Ceremony to Southeast Asian countries t hrough the Honor the Benevolent Spirits preservation of archaeological and histo­ by Orawan Banchangsilpa 24 rical artifacts as well as the t raditional arts; West Java's Increasing Involvement in Overseas Treade in the 13th - To help enrich cultural activit ies in and 14th Centuries by E. Edwards the region; McKinnon 28 - To strengthen professio nal compe­ Preliminary Excavation at Fort tence in the fi elds of archaeology and Canning, Singapore by John Miksic 34 fine arts through sharing of resources and experiences on a regional basis; The Maritime Network in the Indonesian Archipelago in the - To promote better understanding Fourteenth Century by A.B. Lapian 40 among the countries of Southeast Asia through joint programmes in archaeology SPAFA Affairs 46 and fine arts.

The Cover

The Indonesian wayang (shadow theatre) makes use of flat S/lA/JA buffalo parchment puppets which are played against an upright 171~F.ST screen illuminated from behind. The puppets are lacy silhouettes in profile and are manipulated through three long handles, one for the body and one for each arm.

SPAFA Digest is published bi-annually by the SEAMED Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts Coordinating Unit, Darakarn Building, 920 Sukhljmvit Road, Bangkok 11, Thailand. This issue is edited by Dr. Rosa C.P. Tenazas and Felicitas C. Rixhon and printed by the Professional Publishing Co. , Ltd. 59 Soi Sang Chan, Sukhumvit Rd, Thailand, Tel. 391-2962,392-6 130,392-9673. 4 Ancient Beads From Philippine Archaeological Sites

by Robert B. Fox and Rey A. Santiago

The many types of glass and of etched stone beads which were formal trade. The period of Euro­ stone beads which have been made in India had appeared in the pean expansion during the 15th excavated in Philippine archaeolo­ Islands. Glass beads - appropriately and 16th centuries A.D. also saw gical sites provide substantial evi­ described as "Trade Wind Beads" the distribution of countless num­ dence for extensive contacts and probably made in Europe, bers and varieties of glass beads to trade between the Philippines and reached the Philippines through the marginal peoples of Asia and countries of South and East Asia, Arab trade before the Europeans; elsewhere who treasured them in the Near East, and indirectly before Magellan! The Chinese trade many instances above all other Europe, hundreds of years prior of pottery into the Philippines, material items. The total absence to Span ish contact. Glass beads mostly after the 12th century A.D., of glass trade beads among the have been excavated in burial was also an active trade in great Tasaday of Mindanao, when first caves in Palawan which date to numbers of glass and stone beads. seen by the writer, provides addi­ more than 2,000 years ago, sugges­ The majority of the beads which tional evidence for the remarkable ting that they were brought into were brought by the Chinese isolation from the outside world the Philippines through the actual traders, however, were probably of these forest people. movements of people from the made in the Near East and Europe It is not surprising that Magellan south main land of Asia - either for glass beads and wares from the carried with him beads for trade from Northern Indo-China or South West which were traded for silk during the voyage when his ships China. By 200 B.C., unique types reached China at an early date, were to first circumnavigate the during the period of the Warring globe. Or, that the Pilipinos at first States about the 8th to the 3rd Spanish contact were already fami­ century B.C. liar with and prized glass beads. Dr. R. Fox war s former A universal expression of human In 1521, shortly after the ships hBsd of the Anthropology vanity, attractive beads of semi­ of Magellan had reached the Phi­ Division, Nations/ Museum, precious stones and colorful glass lippines, Pigafetta wrote in his Philippintll while Mr. R. Ssn­ have been eagerly sought by chronicle : tiii!JO is s •nior IWtlllrchtlr in people everywhere and at all thtllllfTitl office. When one of our men went _,.,r• for times. The small beads were easily weter, one of tho• people wanted to give him The photogrsphs of btlllds carried over great distances by • pointed crown of melliw gold, of the size used in the snicltl sre illustra­ migrating people. Excavations in of a colona, for six strings of glass beads, tive of tho111 dilcuSitld. Asia and Africa show that beads but the captllin [M~gallan) rafuled to let him benar, eo thet the nati- lhould laern at the were a basic commodity linked wry begiming that we prized our marchandila with the earliest development of ~• than their gold (lie). 5

Later whe n t he ships were at in the type collection. All of these Cebu, Pigafetta noted, the king beads have been assigned to one wore " ... a necklace of great value of three periods of Philippine hanging from his neck." One can prehistory based upon the easily imagine that this necklace archaeological evidences: the Neoli­ was strung with beads of semi­ thic; the Early Metal Age; the precious stones, glass, and gold Developed Metal Age when iron similar to types which are being was common (or present) ; and the excavated today in Cebu by the Age of Contacts and Trade with archaeologists of the University of the East. When the beads are thus San Carlos. arranged, the chronological order in Stone and glass beads are still which each diagnostic type of treasured by the mountain people bead first appears becomes evi­ in the Philippines, as among the dent; as well as when particular Kalinga and Gaddang of northern types of beads were made in the Luzon, who may price individual Ph ilippines. heirloom beads in hundreds of A few types of beads - the pesos. A bead found among the heirloom beads - oontinued to be Kalinga, a type named adungan, used for hundreds of years after is said to have been valued at two they first appeared in the Philip­ water buffalos. The Kalinga have pines. But, when discussing the age about one-hundred names for of heirloom beads, past writers distinct types and classes of glass, have tended to exaggerate their stone, and metal beads. Heirloom antiquity. Beautifu I, translucent beads, like jars, may have genealo­ carnel ian beads - a class of crypto- gies and in the past their possession brought great status to their Late Neolithic Shell Beads owners. from Pal awan .

Types of Beads Under Study

crystalline quartz - first appear in In this paper, 40 types of ancient quantity in sites of the Developed beads will be discussed and Metal Age which begins in some illustrated, providing brief preli­ areas of the Philippines about 200 minary data from a much larger B.C. These carnelian beads are study now being undertaken jointly very different in forms from the by the writer and Mr Rey Santiago large carnelian beads which are of the National Museum and found in burial sites of the Age of Mr. Jose B. Lugay, Glass Techno- Contacts and Trade w ith the East logist, of the San Miguel Corpora­ that date to only a few hundred tion. This on-going research years before Spanish contact (circa involves the study of more than the 12th to the 16th century A.D.). 300 visually distinctive types of It is generally (if not only) these shell, stone, metal, and glass beads later carnelian beads which form which the Museum has excavated. some of the heirloom beads The absolute or relative age of each found among the mountain peo­ of these type beads has been ples, such as the Kalinga and established based upon either C-14 Bontok. Most of the stone beads determinations or the association of of the mountain peoples were dated trade potteries from China, imported in historic or modern Thailand, or Annam. It must be times, however, for they do not stressed that only beads which appear in pre-Spanish archaeologi­ have been recovered during con- Glass Bead from Guri Cave cal sites. Stone beads of antique tro lled .excavations will be included forms are still being made in India 6

for trade. Modern beads of this is now known, were made from Lacking these pieces of techni­ type, including plastic copies, are potassium glasses; those from the cal equipment, the proposed being sold as "antique" beads to Near East, of soda-lime glasses. "Asian Center for the Study of unsuspecting collectors. Soda-lime glasses, howeve r, are Ancient Glass" - a joint project nearly universal in use, but further of the National Museum and the Chemical Composition studies of trace elements in soda­ ·san Miguel Corporation - is at­ lime glasses can still provide clues tempting other lines of inquiry. The study of ancient beads is as to their place of manufacture. Among these are a thorough study incredibly complex and the project The "Trade Wind Beads" - a of the method of manufacture of will require many future decades. number of types have been ex­ the stone, metal, or glass bead. Uncertainties as to the age and cavated in the Philippines - are Pre liminary observations by Mr. provenance of bead types will distinguished chemically, as pointed Jose B. Lugay would suggest that probably always exist. Each visually out by Davison, by an unusually the basic methods of manufacture distinctive type of bead of whatever high content of the element may vary through time. Thus, material -seed, shell, coral, stone, uranium and could have been made specific manufacturing techniques clay, ivory, glass, metal - must be either in Europe or possibly the may be related to known areas of described by standard procedures Near East. Barium has been thought beadmaking in the same way that as to its form, color, material, method of manufacture, and so forth. If made of glass, it is also necessary to estab I ish its specific gravity, its chemical composition, and the possible presence of trace elements, ·such as uranium. The appearance of a trace element can help to establish the origin of a bead. This can only be effectively accomplished through neutron activation analysis or X-ray fluores­ cence analysis of trace elements, as is being done at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of Cali fern ia, by C lai ro C. Davison who is cooperating closely with the On yx bead from Manunggul Cave Philippine bead project. shows how a hole is drilled in a bead. Determination of the origins of glass beads will ultimately depend of as being a diagnostic element "chemical" classes of beads can be upon establishing "chemical" in the early {pre-Han and Han related to known areas of glass­ classes of beads for dated archaeo­ Dynasty) Chinese glass beads, but making. Distinct methods of manu­ logical sites which can then be there is a chemical class of Chinese facturing beads may also be cor­ correlated with traditional areas beads which contains no barium related with "chemical" classes. of glassmaking and specific factory or lead. Old glass beads fFom Ja­ The initial analyses have con­ sites. The problem of the pan - 8th-10th century A.D. - centrated of course upon an widespread trade in the past of raw have a nigh content of lead oxide. exhaustive study of each type of materials used in glassmaking, such There is still another class of bead and of the distribution of as additives used for colorants, Chinese beads - melon type - these type beads through time and makes the designation of bead which have a high percentage of space in the Philippines. origins still more difficult. But lead and no barium. It will be The materials used in bead manu­ considerable progress has been necessary to subject all of the facture, are related ( 1) to the stage made in the study of when and types of ancient glass beads found of technological development in the where, for example, specific addi­ in the National Museum's type Philippines, and (2) to the intensity tives have been used in glassmak ing, collection for analysis of their of external contacts and trade. No such as antimony used as a decolo­ chemical composition, hopefully beads have been found in Philip­ rant. Beads from Europe from the through the use of X-ray Fluores­ pine Palaeolithic sites, such as 9th to the 12th centuries A.D., it cence and Neutron Activation. Tabon Cave in Palawan . The ]

ability of the early Filipinos to drill where, the writer believes, the piecee of jade. The jade - then 1Piit using hard stones and shell for beads early beads of semi-precious stones avery other line of holes. Th 11 forl"''*f the was not achieved until Neolithic rough bead for further grinding but which did carne, including most of the types not entirely eliminate the drilled holas. t imes, when the people had a vastly with cylindrical drill holes Tr.,slucent beads show that t he holes wwe improved stone technology; a excavated in the Philippines, but drilled from both e nds of t he baed which would technology which also made tugg81t that the maximum depth of the drln the jade be~ds ~ i th cylindrical (or one·half of the longHt bead) was appro­ possible boat -building and agricul­ holes probably came from China or ximately 1.5 mm. It Is probable t hat fine ture. Indo-China. It is probable too that quarts sand abrasives were used with a metal drill to make tha holes, perhaps bronze, " a nephrite (jade) bead found in stone drills would make a larger hole (2 to Leta Leta Cave, a Neolithic site, 4 mm.l. It is aleo signific.,t, as may b e -n which has a tiny cylindrical hole of by examining the e nds of the bead, that a larger hole was first mede to guide the smaller less than two millimeters in diame­ drill which made the bore of the bead. ter was carried into the Philippines Mic~~e opic eXAimination of the surfaces from the coastal area of the south of the bead clearly shows the dir.ction of grinding which providH the basil for this mainland of Asia by Neolithic peo­ reconstruction of the method of manufacture ple who had obtained such beads of jade bead a. from technologically more advanced Metal Age cultures before out­ migrating into the Island World of Southeast Asia. The ability of the early Neo lithic peoples in Asia and the Philippines to shape and drill extremely ha rd sta n~ beads is further evidence of the great value of beads and the emphasis which was placed on skilled crafts­ manship ; a craftsmanship which has persisted into modern times in traditional areas of beadmaking, such as India. The method of manufacture of one type of jade bead - Museum Type No. 32-N L - found in Late Neolithic and Early Metal Age cave sites in Palawan is described by Rey Jade bead Santiago, illustrating the sk ills involved: Drilling a Hole This nepiYite bead with a Munsell color of 5 yellow - green 7/4 is 15 mm in length, as During t he Neo lithic, the majori­ ~sured parallel to the axis of the bore, and ty of t he holes (bores) in beads 3 mm in diameter. The bore or hole is llbout 1.5 mm in diameter. The bead appears to be are conical in shape, the hole being cylindrical but careful eXAimination shows that drilled from both ends of the bead. it is actually rectangular in cro.. HCtion in It is probable that hard stones, which the lharp ectg.s have be«~ rounded by grinding. such as chert, were used for drill The length of this bead, as well as others po ints, as Professor H. Otley of the same type, was achieved by drilling tiny Beyer has reported. The ethno­ holes in the stone at right angles t o t he length. of the bead. The individual bead was then graphic record would suggest that broken at the point o f t he drilled holes and t he very efficient "pump drill" finally ground at the ends to partially remove the drill hole&. was known and that a fine quartz Most of theu beads have a grove par.llel sand was used as the abrasive. to the drill hole on one or more sidH which A "pump drill" is still used by the were formed by drilling and t hen ground down. It Is po•ible that this groove is a rHult of the lfugao in northern Luzon. Cylind­ basic method of manufacture - drilling, Jade bead rically shaped drills of chert have splitting, end grinding. Thus, holes were drilled been .recovered in India from In lines covering the entire aurface of aquared 8

the available evidence to state The earliest glass beads which Glass Beads that a gla~s industry was present have been excavated in the Philip­ After the 12th century A.D., in the Philippines during prehisto­ pines were unquestionably imported. ric times. during the Age of Contacts and One large, green glass bead from Trade with the East, the great Dr. T Kane, a Japanese ethno­ Uyaw Cave in Palawan, an Early majority of the beads found in logist, and co-worker of Professor Metal Age site (circa 500-200 B.C.). Philippine archaeological sites were Beyer, believed that extensive is shaped like a cicada and closely manufactured from glass. Beyer, in influences from Philippine "Metal resembles similar Chinese carvings fact, has written that light blue and Cultures" were felt in Taiwan in jade. An assemblage of jade green glass beads and bracelets during the last phase of its prehis­ ornaments form south China or were made in the Philippines. The toric development, notably in the northern Indo-China, moreover, Museum has recovered cullet or great similarities seen between was also excavated in this cave. fragments of raw green glass at glass bracelets found on the eastern The writer feels certain that this Calatagan, Batangas, which would coasta I area of Taiwan and in bead came from Ch ina, although appear to support Beyer's thesis. the Philippines. Professor Chen Chi­ an ;;malysis of the glass does not Cullet of an opaque light blue Lu also points out that glass beads reveal the element barium which glass which had been found by a found among the aboriginal groups has been thought to be characteris­ grave looter was also seen near in Taiwan show Philippines and tic of pre-Han and Han Chinese Pila, Laguna Province, by the Southeast Asian affinities and not glass beads. Colorless cicada beads writer No tools, however, of a Chinese, a view prompted by the of approximately the same date have been found in China, and glassmaking industry - crucibles, high lead content found in the these cicada beads do contain rods, pinchers - have appeared in beads of Taiwan which is also true barium. The Chi nese also made Philippine archaeological sites. for Philippine beads of the proto­ beads, however, which did not Perhaps there were attempts during historic period. It is possible that include either barium or lead. Dr. the protohistoric period to reheat trade beads reached Taiwan from Davison sees possible similarities in and rework glass cullet - cullet the Philippines but the archaeolo­ the form and chemical composition which had been traded into the gical record from Taiwan for of this bead with Egyptian types Phi lippines. It is not possible with beads is still uncertain. (pers. comm.). Glass beads were made in Egypt by at least 1500 B.C.

Eye Beads

Beyer has also discussed and illustrated a number of types of eye or banded beads which he called "Greek" and Roman" types and which he believed reached the islands before the Birth of Christ. But variants of eye glass beads and inlaid beads are international, ap­ Glass bead shaped like cicada pearing, in the La Tene or Late wing from Uyaw Cave, left: side Iro n Age of Europe and are now view, above: view from top. believed to have been made during the first millenium B.C. up until the Han Dynasty in China. Most of the eye beads found among the mountain peoples in Indonesia and Borneo, however, were sent out from England for trade during 9

the 19th cent ury A.D. period of During all of these steps, Miss analyzed are made of a ~a i glasses colonization. This would explain Rogel not es, the bead is handled the type of glass first made b-, the presence of sizable number of by means of a length of wire, Man in the Ancient Near East. eye beads among the T'Boli and the same wire which is used to form Soda-lime glasses, a chemical class, other mountain peoples in the hole of the bead. The wire are included in alkali glasses. Mindanao which is near "British is removed after the eyes have been Lead (and lead-alkali) glass beads Borneo" and their relative rarity added. Metal or improvised bamboo do not appear in the Phi lippines among the groups in the Central thongs are used only when heating until the period of trade with Cordillera of northern Luzon. The the chunk of black plastic prior China, after t he 12th century A.D., Kalinga, nevertheless, have a tradi­ the finger molding. A woman with as based upon Mr Lugay's analysis tional term for a recent type of the help of her husband or to date. In a discussion of the eye bead (Fig. 41) - "Kalum­ someone in the family can com­ trade of glass beads into Island babanga'~ Only one large eye plete all stages in the manufac­ Southeast Asia, Tom Harrison bead of classical type has been ture of about 40 eye beads in three based on his Bornean researches excavated by the Museum staff days. A necklace made entirely of posits two main early sources: at Ca latagan, Batangas, which was plastic beads - a type now bein£ ( 1) beads with no lead or a small loaned to Professor Beyer who purchased by tourist - including amount of lead which came from remarked that it was "an early about a dozen eyebeads and solid the West; and (2) beads with a type" l?). colored plastic beads of black, large amount of lead which came Eye beads of plastic are blue, pink, and red, also made by from the North with the Chinese fashioned today by the T'boli the T'boli, is sold by the T'boli to trade in T'ang-Sung (618-1280 of South Cotabato, Mindanao, in wholesalers for about 15 to 18 A.D.) times or later. Harrisson's attempts to copy the imported pesos who then retail the necklaces views are not inconsistent with the and highly valued ea rlier types. in Manila for about 40 pesos. Tiny Philippine data except that the The ingenious manufacture of eye red, white, and black beads from beads with no lead .(or little lead ) beads was witnessed recently Europe may be added to the neck­ were the earliest types of beads to among the T'boli by Miss Amy lace of plastic beads, the entire reach the Philippines from both Rogel of the National Museum. necklace being called hnumbu. t he West (South Asia and the She writes: Eye beads are worn by the T'boli Near East) and the North (China); only in the form of necklaces and and that the latest types of trade Tt. T'boli produce two tvP• of eye bud• an original necklace containing beads, those with large amounts - • biKk bud with 1 almple white ey• end 1 beld with white •v• which i1 ..,ottld with heirloom eye beads w ill sel l locally of lead, came into the Philippines light blue or pink end red colors. The meterill for about two horses. The eye from the North during the period Ulld in nwking the eye beida il comrnercill bead is called Hunung hadaw. of the "porcelain trade" which pilltic comb1 of tt. colora bleck, white, pink, red, end blue. Bleck comb• melted in tin c.n1 in the Philippines occurred prima­ pver live colll form the body of ell eye budL rily during the southern Sung and While atill 10ft,1 fregment of the bllck pllltic Early Ming Dynasties (1127-1572). II cut from 1 melted chunk which II then Metal Age Beads molded with tt. fingera intu ovel end round Beads which came from China, lhlpes. And while 1till,10ft the ahlpld beld il moreover, may have originated in perforltld with 1 number of holea, depending All of the earliest Metal Age the Near East and even Europe upon tt. eye d•lgn 101111ht, by meena of 1 length of wire. The perforetld bud il then beads which have been excavated - the "West" reheltld to obtlin 1 high polilh. by the staff of the National The color for the •Y• i• obteinld by Museum are monochrome glass IOftening end ltretctting the comb1 into ltring· like lengthl, uaing live coell for the aource of beads or beads of a single color, Manufacturing Methods heet • before. Tt. white ey11 ere mlde by including translucent green types lntening tt. ltring.like white pllltic into the and an opaque red type. Utilizing holes of the bud, efter the bled hll been Mr Lugay's study of the method ret.etld. Tt. whole bud with white ey• il the specific gravity of t he type of manufacture of glass beads then heltld egein to melt tt. white into tt. beads as the basis for establishing from PhHippine sites, when bildt body. Tt. red end blue ..,ota in the cen­ classes of glass (alkali glasses, ter of the white •Y• .,. 1110 IChieved by arranged chronologically, is also in•rting " threlda" of pink, red, or blue colora 2.3 to 2.7 ; alkali-lead glasses, revealing. Metal Age beads were into 1 lhlllow hole In tt. center of tt. white 2.7 to 3.2; and lead glasses, 3.2 formed by glassmaking techniques ev•. It ia finelly hlltld egein over the coell to 4.0), Mr Lugay has shown that to con~~~lidltl the colora end tiD IChilve further known as "dipping," "blowing", poHih. all of the earliest glass beads found and "pressing", whereas "spiral in the Ph ilippines which he has coiling" and "ring coiling" - types 10

also called wound beads - do not appear until the Age of Contacts and Trade w1th tf1e East, after the 12th century A.D. Although the literature would suggest that blowmg of glass was not known in the Ancient Near East until about the first century B.C., a blown bead was recovered in Uyaw Cave, Pelawan, which has been dated to an earlier period - 300 B.C. to 500 B.C. The dating of the artifacts in this cave was based, however, upon cultural associations - the presence of jade and bronze objects and the absence of iron - and the tentative dates for the assemblage of Uyaw artifacts may be a fev. Polychrome glass beads centuries too early. The assemblage of artifacts from Uyaw Cave is extremely early, nevertheless, In the study of beads, as trade appearing on'y after the 12th cen­ around 2,000 years. potteries, the archaeological date tury A.D The "Trade W1nd" must be carefully evaluated. Two beads of the Philippmes were also beads from Manunggul Cave: Cham­ made by dipping, pulling, and ber B, Palawan, have been tentative­ cutting and maybe reheating. These ly grouped by Dav1dson as "Trade would appear to be s1m1lar to Wind Beads" although she noted "Trade Wind Beads" from Africa that the amount of copper colorant which Davidson descnbes as "re­ in these beads was about four times heated canes" higher than in other beads in this "chemical" c ass. She adds that: "These two beads show other pecu- Multicolored Beads 1iari ties." This is understandable for the Manunggul beads were dated by C-14 from associated Polychrome qlass _beads - multi­ charcoal to 190 B.C., whereas the colored beads with complex designs­ classical "Trade Wind Beads" from appear in the Museum's type African Sites date from about the co lection only during the Age of 11th century A. D. to circa 1700 Contacts and Trade with the East, A. D. The C-14 date and archaeolo­ after the 12th century A.D. It is gical associations from Manunggul high'y likely that earlier Ca\e are reliable and it is certain, polychrome beads will be recovered as Davidson suspected, that these 1n the Philippines n dated archaeo­ beads belong to an earlier and logical contexts, for complex variant "chemical" class and are not polychrome beads appear "Trade Wind Beads" The Manung­ elsewhere. as in the Near East, gul glass beads were made by an wh 1ch date to hundreds of years early method described as B.C. "dipping" but the Philippine One distinctive type of poly­ "Trade Wind Beads" which were chrome bead with chevron des1gns all found in sites associated with shows incredible continuity through Ch mese trade pottery were made times. This bead first appeared in Polychrome glass beads by "dipping" or "ring coiling, burial sites at Calata.,an, Batangas, the latter manufacturing technique which are Tagalog graves that date 11

from the late 14th to the early 16th The two beads are very different from It should be apparent from the century A.D. They have also been each other, nevertheless, when examined preceding discussions that there closely under a magnifying lens. The shape of recovered in .sites of a similar age, the older bead from an archaeological site is are few data available pt present on t he protohistoric period, at Bolinao, biconical and unsymmetrical, with the center the exact origins of the glass Pangasinan and in Cebu. And, a (equator) almost round in cross section. The and stone beads which are exca­ upper and lower portions away from the center visually identical type of bead has are unequally faceted due to uneven grinding. vated in Ph ilippine sites. At least been found by t he writer among The Kalinga bead is barrel-shaped and perfectly we do know from the .Philippine the Kalinga of northern Luzon who symmetrical. The cross section perpendicular archaeological record whe'l and to the length is also perfectly round. call it dumat. The Kalinga beads of The hole of the older bead is semicircular what kinds of beads, excluding t his type also appear in extremely at one end and egg-shaped at the other end. glass, were made in the Phrlippines. large sizes. An identical bead of This indicates that the rod used to form the And, if carried into the islands bore was taken out of the bead while the gless even larger size was seen by the was still soft. The newer bead, however, has by man or traded, when and what writer in Beck's small but famous a perfectly circular hole. The craftsman of this kinds of beads appeared during the collection at the British Museum bead was obviously more skilled than the one major periods of Philippine pre­ who made the older bead. but despite great hopes of finding The outer layer of blue color of the o lder history. The method for studying data as to its age and provenance, bead is slightly corroded and hes lost its luster, beads has been establ ished but the the accession record contained only as might be expected, because of its age and research on each distinctive type burial . And the inner layer is green instead of the remark: "origin unknown" cobalt blue. The serrations of tha•older bead of bead which has been found in Mr Lugay has carefully studied are not regularly spaced and they have pounded. the Philippines covering nearly a and compared these two beads - ends. On the newer bead, the innermost white four-thousand year period still serrations are sharp pointed 10 counter-clock· the 15th century example from wise d irect ion like the serrations of a circular needs to be done. Calatagan, Batangas, and the con­ saw. temporary Kalinga type - and The shield pattern of the older bead is pointed at both ends and the shield lengths are observes : unequal. On the newer bead, the shield patterns Philippine Bead Horizons are ovoid at both ends. They have almost equal lengths and they are sp~oed regularly. The new beed looks like a glazed ceramic Beads have not been found, as piece with decorations painted on the surface. noted, in archaeological sites of the To untrained eyes, the two chevron de­ The old bead has a dull appearance. Both beads, Old Stone Age, such as in Tabon corated beads look alike, although their ages nevertheless, were formed by "cesting" or may be centuries apart, for both beads are coating one layer of glass over another. The Cave, although seeds and other similar in that they exhibit the same overlaying differences briefly cited show that tha two perishable materials which could of colors concentric to the hole of the bea6. beads were manufactured in two different have been p1erced by a thorn may Starting from the center, each color band has ways, tha newer bead involving a craftsman 12 serrations - white, cobalt blue, whit-. with more skills, better tools and better glass. have been worn. During the sealing-wax r'ad, white, and finally cobalt blue hundreds-of-thousands of years that It is the serrations which form the characteris­ Pa laeolithic Man lived in the Phi ­ t ic Chevron patte rn. When viewed from the end of the bead facing the hole, however, the lippines, 1t 1s highly probable that serrated bands of color form a beautiful floral Characteristic types of he used at some time ornaments. design. When the Deeds are viewed laterally, such as beads of seeds, or neck­ the blue outermoat layer forms a series of late neolithic shell shield-like patterns joined side by side around beads found in Palawan. laces and armlets woven from plant the baad. fibers. 12

Gold Beads

Beads of the Neolithic or New spp., wh1ch can be gathered on from both ends were commonly Stone Age - Beads of many ma­ nearby reefs. Beads of. porcupine made of Giant Clam (Tridacna gigas). terials are numerous in Neolithic (?) teeth were also present in which Elongated biconical-shaped shell sites, for techniques of grinding and the hole had been ground manually beads are common today among dri II ing stone, shell, and teeth in the softer root of the tooth the Bontok of northern Luzon. were known, beginning by at least using a sharp pointed object; Hard stones, including jade and 6,000 years ago. A Neolithic grave a similar technique was also used microcrystalline quarts, were ground in Duyong Cave, Palawan, which in forming the holes in the croco­ and drilled into beads, but not dates to the 5th millenium B.C. dile teeth from Sa-gung Rockshel­ infrequently, softer stones were yielded perforated shell pendants, ter This would suggest that drilling used including steatite and shale. but no beads. Another grave in was not known during the earliest A quartz bead but having an un­ Sa-gung Rockshelter, Palawan, ex­ phase of the Neal ith ic. The great finished drill hole was excavated cavated by Jonathan Kress of Duke majority of the beads from Leta in the Pato Caves of Late Neolithic University contained a necklace of Leta Cave were tiny, round, thin date, Sorsogon Province. at least 95 corcodile teeth (Fig. 1). and flat disks. The most common of these sequin-like beads were as well as a pendant ider'rtieal to Beads of the Early Metal Age - those found in the Duyong grave. made from the operculum of a Many new types of beads appeared small land snail (Ophisthopqrus Teeth of crocodile prized for magi­ about 500 B.C., when bronze, coreligious purposes are still worn quadrasi Hidalgo) identified by Mr copper. and gold (possibly iron) by the mountain peoples in the Jaime Cabrera of the National were present in Phi lippine archaeo­ Philippines. The date of the Sa­ Museum, found only in Palavyan. logical sites. Most noteworthy, as gung grave is uncertain, according The operculum - the thin plate discussed, are the first types of to Kress, but it is certainly an of shell which is attached to the Early Neolithic grave containing glass beads to appear, as well as foot of the animal and protects beads fashioned from semi-precious the earl1ess necklace yet found in the animal in the shell when the the Philippines. stones, including nephrite jaspe r. foot is retracted of his shell-has a agate, opalline stone, and carnelian. Many types of shell, stone, ana slight indentation on the center of The carnelian beads are not com­ teeth beads were being locally the interior which is easily pierced mon, however, until iron is present manufactured by late Neolithic for stringing and forming beads. in the archaeological sites. Beads times, at least by 1,500 B.C. The use of tiny operculum for made from coral were . also exac­ Leta Cave, a Late Neolithic site at beads was not discovered until avated in Guri Cave, Palawan, El N1do, Palawan, yielded more the field team began to collect and Early Metal Age site. than 5,000 beads of shell, stone, land snails in order to study their and testh. Common were small use as food by Ancient Man in shell beads (Fig.3 and 4) made by Palawan, although the beads had removmg the dorsal surface of been in the Museum's collections cowenes (Cypraea annulus· and for a number of years. Large round Cypraea moneta) and Nassarius beads with a hole carefully drilled 13

Three types of gold beads have panel-like designs are also prsent. to smooth the edges of the holes. been found in Early Metal Age According to Alistair Lamb, these Small beads can only be recovered sites, all being made of worked leaf types of etched stone beads are by arduously sifting all deposits gold. It is possible that gold beads extremely rare in Island Southeast with a fine mesh screen. V isua lly were brought into the Philippines Asia, although common in India identical glass beads of the later before iron. The gold beads of other and the south mainland of Asia. phases of the Metal Age are much methods of manufacture were not The many types of stone beads larger, although still small when compared with the glass beads of common until the Age of Contacts which have been found in early and Trade wit h the East, more than the Age of Contacts and Trade Philippine archaeological sites con­ 1 ,000 years later. with the East. The most striking bead excavated taining iron, beads which may be identified with India, wou ld in an Early Metal Age site in Beads of the Age of Contacts Palawan is banded red-and-white support the view of some scholars and Trade with the East - Formal which to a casual observer would that iron was introduced into the trade between the Philippines and appear t o be made of glass. It is Philippines from India, rather than Asia has been closely identified actually a stone bead, carnelia n, from China. with ceramics because of the great in which the white bands were interest in Chinese, Siamese, and Jade beads continue to be made by caustic etching. Simi lar found in the Developed Metal Annamese pottery. But this trade etched stone beads have been found Age sites and one beautifully a Iso included great quantities of in India. The process of etching polished, dice-shaped bead of hard iron, cloth, and beads. More than st one has been known in India for chert should from a classic early 60% of the types of beads which t housa nds of years and the writer "time-marker" This bead has a are found in the Museum 's collec­ tion date from only the 12th cen­ believes that the early etched stone cylindrical hole which measu res less beads found in t he Philippines came than 1.5 mm. in diameter, evidence tury A.D., a clear evidence of the from this area. of a very effective drilling tech­ intensity of trade "during the proto­ niques. Large glass beads of the historic period. All of the beads Beads of the Developed· Metal Metal Age may also be drilled like from this period are true trade Age - When iron has been identi­ stone. beads of which 81% are glass types. fied in Palawan archaeological sites, The glass beads of the earliest Multicolored glass beads with com­ beginning about the second century phase of the Metal Age - trans­ plex designs now appear in quan­ B.C., colorful beads of semi -pre­ lucent blue and opaque red types­ tity and all trade beads analyzed cious stones are a characteristic are usually extremely small, some include lead in their composition feature - beads of a banded onyx being less than two mm. in length Beads which have been formed by a coiling technique - the wuund and agate, as well as jasper and carne- as measured with the axis of the 1i.an of many shapes. Round beads hole. These were made as long beads - are now present. A number of black flint which have also been canes of glass which were broken of types of glass beads are actually etched with caust ic to form white into small beads and then reheated copies of stone types, a practice 'N ~ich appears to be even more common during the historic period. Mellon beads, possibly of Chinese origin, are invariably excavated in sites associated with trade potteries from Asia. Beads with eye designs, although not of classical form, are present but rare gold beads of com­ plicated types are common only in sites of the protohistoric period and show strlk ing I ndo-1 ndonesian at­ fin ities. Interlocked brass beads id entical to pre-Span ish gold beads were made of brass by the moun­ tain peoples in the Philippines.

Acid etched carnelian bead from Manunggul Cave continued on page 23 14

Theatre and Visual Arts : Some Parallellisms

by Jukka Miettenen

Visual arts and theatre 1 are con­ kok, where SPAFA gave me the art forms served collective ideals nected and re, ated to one another opportunity to get acquainted with with uniform style. in many ways. From the view­ the Documentation of Traditional Visual arts can be of most point of art-and theatre-historical Dance and Dance Drama Project. valuable help in trying to decipher studies. this intimate relationship I owe my thanks to my friends lost theatrical traditions. As a west­ has not yet been taken full advan­ both in Thailand and Indonesia ern example of this, one could tage of. In this and forthcoming who have helped me to understand point out to the classical forms of articles, my intention is to figure their culture. Greek and Roman theatre, which out parallel! isms between theatre The first one of these articles is can be reconstructed not only with and visual arts in Southeast Asia a general introduction into the the help of literary sources but also and , also, to show by some exam­ parallellisms between theatre and with the indispensable help of ples how these parallellisms could visual arts. The second article mosaics, paintings and sculptures. be utilized both in art-historical and handles this phenomena in India The same methods could be ap­ theatre-historical research . and Burma. Classical Khmer culture plied also in Asia if the decisive dif­ These articles are based on a and Thailand are dealt with in the ference between Asia and Europe is licenciate thesis prepared at the third article and, finally, the fourth kept in mind. In Asia, there are University of Helsinki under the article is dedicated to Indonesia. numerous theatrical traditions with supervision of Prof. Lilius (art his­ The various forms of art during a centennial - at t1mes even mi len­ tory) and Prof. Tiusanen (theatre certain period or legacy have their nial- unbroken and living tradition science) . The preliminary work was common sources in collective be­ preserved in detajl up to our times. made possible thanks to my two liefs and ideals. A certain musical They all have their distinct ways of years' term at UNESCO in Bang- tradition can be comparable to its expression and ideals of beauty, contemporary architecture as the which are comparable with respect­ In this connection the word "theetre" visual language of theatre has its ive traditions in visual arts. stands for all "stage arts" i.e. dance, d1nc:e counterpart in visual arts of the From the point of art-and dram1, plays, shadow 1nd puppet m_. period. th~atre-h istorica I studies, these pa­ theatre etc. Behind this phenomena, there rallel! isms are of primal importance. are concrete factors: the claims of By studying visual arts, we can get religion and aesthetic conventions. information about lost traditions or The author is a former In the western world, the break­ about the history of a certain living associate expert of the Office through of modernism at the turn tretdition. Likewise, knowledge of of the Regi.onal Adviser for of the century broke the unity of cor ventions in theatre can help Culture in Asia and the Paci­ culture into various schools of iconographical interpretation of fic, UNESCO. thought and expression, whereas paintings and sculptures. the classical periods of both Europe Most studies dealing with Asian and Asia represent eras when all theatre begin w ith periods so re- 15

mote that early pamt1ng and compositions. In Asia, both visual sculpture provide one of the most arts and theatre are deeply rooted valuable research material. However, in religion. This religious source no such extensive studies are lays for all art restrictions and de­ available in which the art historical mands of sacred art. material, relevant to tbeatrical stud­ Visual arts and theatre meet one ies, were collected together from another also on a very concrete the region of whole Asia. level. Besides the fact that both Such interdisciplinary studies, forms of art illuminate the literary nevertheless, have their pioneers. tradition they both share, they also The late Ananda K. Coomaras­ meet when it comes to visual details wamy, father of Indian art history, of the scenario, masks, costumes and the still practicing researchers, etc. Kapila Vatsayayan in India and in When authentic stage-sets are Indonesia, Edi Sedyawati, who has used, they reflect the impact of studied some parallellisms between visual arts of the period when the visual arts and theatre in his native theatre form was created. In trad i­ land, are among the most important tional Asian theatre, however, pioneers. actual stage settings were originally Theatre and visual arts have a rarely used. In may cases, perform­ common demoninator· they both ance took place on an empty stage, make something to appear, they sanctified like an altar. The visual visualize their contents. They also solutions of such scenes are often apply the same elements, the hu­ connected and linked to conven­ A mask used in Indonesia man body, forms, colours, space tions of religious art. At times, a etc. Visual arts and the theatre of tableaux is designed in the form of a certain period use inevitably same an altar. sculpture. Various types of masks conventions - such as symbols and Theatrical masks are a form of might be repeating ancient artistic intentions. Again, at times the masks are given the same veneration given to cult objects. T he masks veil the individuality of the performer, and he turns into a timeless God, Hero, animal or monster. The use of masks brings the theatre one step closer to the visual arts. The performer's costurne per­ fP.cts the illusion of an animated statue or painting. It also gives a decisive characterization on the human body and its movements­ the same characterization that was given to human body by fashion 3nd visual arts of the era. Theatre and visual arts often share also the same notion of space. A good r>ai r of examples is that of a baroque-stage in Europe and a i .,! . Kabuki-stage in Japan. Same per­ Scene behind the wayang performance spectives, aberrations and illusory effects which characterize Euro­ pean baroque painting were also used on the baroque-stage. The 16

kabuki-stage, on the other hand , is moving eyes, jaws and bending give information about lost broad and low like Japanese hori­ joints, are a close imitation of ac­ theatrical traditions and about zontal scroll paintings. tual theatre performed by living hu­ the history of present-day Puppet-and shadow-theatre com­ man beings. theatrical conventions. bine in an interesting way elements Interaction between puppet-thea­ 2. Acqua intance with the con­ from both visual arts and theatre. tre and "living" theatre has been ventions of tradit ional theatre As objects, puppets belong to the decisive in Southeast Asia. Many real m of visual arts bu t when they can be helpful in the icono­ forms of theatre have adopted their graphical interpretation of are used they become living theatre. narrative material and visual lan­ Of all forms of puppet-theatre, sha­ paintings and sculp tures.- guage straight from the puppet-thea­ dows-theatre comes closest to the 3. Due to t he close relation be­ tre. Very often also, the dance tech­ tween theatre and visual arts, art of painting. The use of only two nique imitates movements of t he one can preserve information dimensions, a surface without puppets. depth, and static serial-like scenes helpful also for studies of the are all featu res clearly reminiscent Above I have briefly tried to ot her· theatre can provide a of painting. In some cases, it can show how closely visual arts and missing link for art historical quite clearly be shown that shadow­ theatre are related to one another research and vice-versa. Not only do they share the same theatre has origin ally developed 4. Parallel changes of style in f rom the art of painting. Puppet­ narrative material but also - as visual arts - make use of same visual arts and theatre provide theatre, on t he other hand, comes material for wide ranging his­ visual and expressive laws. These closer to sculpture with its three torica l conclusions. dimensions, and at times these parallellisms· can be used both in 5. Shadow play approximates the puppets can be even seen as moving the science of theatre and art his­ art of painting in its two di­ versions of their contemporary tory in multiple ways. Here are mension and static picture I ike statues. The very realistic marionet­ some examples: scenes. In Indonesia, shadow tes of Burma and Japan with their 1 Earl y painting and sculpture play and painting have a very close relationship: t he trad 1- tional wayang paintings use the same figures and compositions of shadow play. 6. Puppet t heatre has given the aesthetical ideal for many theatre genres, e.g. Burmese dancer imitating the dance of a marionette. 7 As objects, masks belong to the art of sculpture but in their use, they are an import­ ant element of Living Theatre performan ce such as Balinese Topeng mask, a noble charac­ ter.

8. Thai puppets are represer~ta­ tions of ch aracters from the Ramakien. In t his regard , pup­ pet t heatre comes close to t he art of sculpture for they are the moving versi ons of their cont emporary sculptures.

Puppets, as objects, belong to the realm of visual arts. 17

followed - the objects come first. The value of conservation advice at the early planning stage will be­ The Role of come more apparent in the follow­ ing sections. Display Case Conservation The display case can be a picture frame, tab le top case, large upright case or even a room. The aim of in Display the case is to provide an aesthetic surround to the object on display but at the same time to protect it from vandals, theft, insects, By mould and adverse environment. Colin Pearson The case therefore plays an im­ portant role in the preservation of the work of art or artefact. The conservation requirements servation in display as discussed When considering the construc­ of a work of art or artefact must n the following sections. The t ion of a suitable display case, not cease once it has left the con­ conservator will have an important one must first decide whether servation laboratory. It must be 1n put regarding the design and environmental control is needed. sorted or displayed in the correct materials of construction of display If the museum or gallery is fully environment, with careful consi­ cases, the environment of displays airconditioned to the recogni sed derations being given to preventive and also the conservation requ ire­ international standards of 20±. conservation measures, otherwise ments for objects intended for 2°C, 50±. 3% relative humidity the object may continue to deteno­ display . This latter aspect is an (Thomson, 1978). then the de­ rate. This is obviously high ly un­ essential part of display plann ing . mands on the display case will desirable, and in addition, is a Objects for display must be not be as stringent as those for waste of t ime and often money se lected as soon as possible so that a non-airconditioned bu ilding. In (for contract work) with regard to pnortties for conservation can be the latter case, and where objects the conservation work carried ou t determined . If su fficient time is not need to be displayed in a special previously. allowed, a conservator may well environment. the design and con­ judge that a certain item cannot go struction of the display case must Planning a Display on display as there is no time to be such that the internal macro When displays are being designed conserve it. Too often a conserva­ environment is controlled. and planned, it is usua l for a tor is asked to carry out cosmetic Bef ore a decision is made, planning committee to be establish­ treatment only, due to this lack of however, concerning the necessity ed involving curators, display preplann ing. Cosmetic conservation for air-conditioning a museum, officers and education officers, or is always full of problems parti­ gal lery, display case etc., it is first their equivalent for sma ll museums. cu larly when objects are left on necessary to monitor the environ­ The committee shou ld include display for a long t ime, and this ment. The level s, and in particu­ a conservator to advise on the shou ld be avoided if at all possible. lar fluctuations of temperature and various aspects of the role of con - It is also unlikely, due to pressures relative humidity, may not be as of work, that when removed from bad as expected. Th is applies in display the object is given the full particular to large old bui ldings, conservation treatment it requires. often used for museums, where Dr. Pearson works at the The conservator may recommend thick walls and high cei lings will Regional Conservation Centre, that certain items, due to their stabilise conditions. Remember, if Centre, Canberra College of fragi le condition and advanced state you do install aircondit ioning, that Advanced. Education, Australia. of deterioration, should never be the system must be well desi gned displayed. Although sometimes and be the best possible and that al)noying to the display com­ it will also be expensive to insta mittee, this advice must be and run. Some museums and 18

galleries have poorly designed and display case are required to achieve for the preservation of collections cheap systems; these often cause satisfactory control. However the is 20±. 2° C and 50±. 3% relative more problems than a non-air­ relative humidity has to be closely humidity (Thomson, 1978). The conditioned building. monitored; if changes occur, the relative humidity must not be Air· Tight Display Case . If the silica gel will need to be taken out allowed to fall below 45% as it will display case is made air-tight, then, and reconditioned. cause desiccation of objects, or rise it is relatively sim ple to control above 65%RH as this is idea l for the macro environment. In addi· the propagation of moulds. In tion, the seals will prevent the Ventilated Display Case . Pro­ humid climate countries, it is entrance of insects etc. However, bably the best display case is one normal to have higher levels, i.e. although relatively simple in that 1s ventilated when a1r will 22±. 2°C and 60±. 3% RH, as theory, 1t is difficult to obtain these conditions are not as expen­ perfect air-tight seals 1n show cases sive to achieve by airconditioning. (Padfield, 1967). The typ1cal gass/ ... the best In add1t1on, the objects within the plastic/metal/wood construct ons museum or ga llery are likely to are often dW cult to sea and they display case come from high temperature and are expensive to construct. In relative humidity environment, and add1t.on, it makes access to the is ventilated ... these objects are less likely to get case for chang ng d sp1ays very damaged when exposed to the difficult. For these reasons air controlled environment. tight display cases are only con· move slowly through the case It 1s not possible to control the structed for spec1al purposes. An as atmospheric pressure and temperature of air without aircon· example where they have been temperature change. One 5 em ditioning facilities. Therefore, any used s for the display of the diameter hole for every 1 m3 of temperature changes outside the Vlamingh Plate, a pewter plate display case . (Padfield, 1967) is display case (or inside from lights, left on the coast of Western Austra· recommended since this wifl etc.) will be transmitted to the air a n 1697 and now on display at provide approximately five air inside the case by thermal conduc­ the Fremantle Museum in Western changes per year tion. In an enclosed space, which Australia. Because of the impor­ Control of Display will contain a certain quantity of tance of this rei ic and the suscep­ water vapour, an increase in tem­ Case Environment tibility of pewter to organic acid perature will cause a decrease vapours, the plate is displayed Dust and Pollution. If the case in relative humidity, and vice versa. in a sealed stainless steel container is already airconditioned, then For example, consider a display with a shatter and heat resistant there is no real necessity to pro· case containing 9 gm/m3 of water glass cover In "addition, through vide special filters over the air in the form of vapour. At 20°C speciat val•tes, the ai r is flushed dut inlet holes. If the air is not con­ this will produce a relative humi· and repla~d with an inert gas ditioned, then, the display must dity of 53% which is acceptable such as nitrogen or argon which be sealed as well as possible, with for display. However, if the then acts ·as the display environ­ a number of air entry holes pro· temperature rises to 25° C, the ment. In the Museum of Mankind, vided. Filters should be placed relative himidity will fall to 39% Burlington Gardens, London, some over these holes to remove dust. which is too low for many materials ethnographic objects which are air pollutants and to prevent causing desiccation. A drop in the particularly humidity sensitive are entrance of insects. An insect temperature to 15°C will increase displayed in sealed cas~ each of screen would obviously be required to 70%, the relative humidity which having its own air-condition­ even when other air filters are not which is above the mould growth ing unit. This the ultimate in envi­ necessary. The types of filters level. On the other hand, if the ronmental control of display cases, that can be used are fibreglass temperature drops below 10° C, but is also very expensive. filters for the removal of dust, the saturation point will be reached The relative humidity inside a and activated carbon filters for air and water will begin condensing sealed display case can also be pollutants (e.g. 500gm of carbon out causing serious problems. controlled using conditioned silica per m3 of display case) . Even without airconditioning gel, discussed further. It has been Temperature and Relative Humi­ facilities, it is possible to control calculated (Thomson 1978). t hat dity. The recommended tempera­ these fluctuations in re lative 20 kg of silica gel per cubic metre of ture and relative humidity ranges humidity. Moisture absorbing 19

materials can be used in the con­ 1978). For very light sensitive a heat and light reflector, how­ struction of the display case. These material such as textiles and paper, ever, also causes colour rendi­ include unvarnished wood, parch­ the illumination should not exceed tion problems, ment. paper, cotton, silk, hessian, 50 lux and the ultraviolet radiation c) clear UV s;~bsorbing varnishes, 2 wool cloth and felted wool. When 30 u watt/lumen (1500 u watt/m ). d) lam inated glass containing a the relative humidity rises, these and for reasonably light sensitive UV filter, materials will absorb moisture and materials, the levels not to be e) UV absorbing perspex (trade when the relative humidity drops, exceeded are 150 lux and 80 u name) the materials will release moisture, watt/lumen (1200 u watt/m2') From experience the most in this way smoothing out the respectively. The illumination can useful filters are the thin UV fluctuations in relative humidity. be measured with a luxmeter or absorbing film and the UV 3 For example, in the m of display absorbing perspex. A suitable case we are considering, the pre­ UV absorbing film is that pro­ sence of I kg of cotton wi II reduce Never place objects duced by the 3M Company, the fluctuations in relative in direct sunlight. known as P70. In addition to humidity by a factor of five times. filtering out the UV, it also has An alternative to absorbing excellent glass retain ing proper­ materials are those adsorbents such light meter (e.g. Gossan 'Panlux' ties in the case of a blow or as silica gel which act by a light meter). and the ultraviolet shock being imparted to the different chemical/physical process level with a UV meter (e.g. UV glass. A similar product in the known as adsorption. Silica gel is Light Monitor Type 760). Madico range is the colourless well known as a desiccant or Ultraviolet radiation is a com­ transparent film FSW 100C1 drying agent, and with the addi­ ponent of sunlight and it is the (Clarke, 1980). Care must be tion of an indicator will change most damaging, having a shorter taken with the coated films colour from blue to pink by the wavelength than visible light. The which although reducing light adsorption of water At this stage, other component of sunlight to be and heat levels are often not it must be dried in an oven to considered is infrared which, with a good UV absorbers. drive off the water. Wtien the longer wavelength than visible light, Ultraviolet. absorbing perspex colour reverts back to blue, the is not as damaging but does (e.g. Plexiglas 201 from Rohm silica gel can be reused. In addi­ produce heat which must be and Haas or Perspe x VA from tion to this use as a desiccant, accounted for in the display design. ICI) is a well used technique for silica gel can be preconditioned by In display cases, there are a nu m­ controlling ultraviolet radiation. holding it at a given relative humi­ ber of ways of achieving the re­ It can be used as a replacement dity, say 50% for five days. If this commended light levels. First, as for glass in display cases or in is then placed in the display case it much ultraviolet radiation as picture frames, placed in front will, by a similar process as the possible must be removed by the of flourescent lights, or used other materials, remove and following methods: to cover individual light sensitive release moisture with changes in i. Never place objects in direct items. relative humidity, smoothing out sunlight. In addition to the jii: Display cases are usually illu­ the fluctuations. damaging effects -of the light, minated by either fluorescent If it is important that the the increase in temperature when lights or incandescent lights. environment inside a display case the sunlight falls on the object Whichever system is used, it be stable, the levels of tempera­ will cause the problems discussed is better if the lights are posi­ ture and relative humidity will previously. tioned outside the case although have to be recorded. This can be ii. Window glass will remove only a this can cause reflection pro­ done with the aid of a dial hygro­ little of the ultraviolet light and blems. If they are incorporai.ed meter and dial thermometer, or for a large proportion will still fall into the design of the case, relative humidity alone, of paper on the object. This can be either· at the side or overhead, humidity indicators which change removed by a variety of filters the case must be wel l vent ai.ed colour with the variation in relative such as : to· allow any heat generateo iO humidity. a) clear UV absorbing films for escape. Lighting. The standards for protecting wrnduws, If fluorescent lights are sed lighting of museum displays have b) thin plastic sheet coated with (much cooler in tempera· re been well established (Thomson, vapourised metal which acts as than incandescent I ghtsl. • 20

Reduce illumination levels by using no direct natural light, only controlled artificial light.

special low UV output bulbs, Care must also be taken with Some of these recommendations such as Philips 47-37 or 27, are the use of commercial products are expensive to implement; available (the number indicates that claim spec1al UV absorbing however others, particularly the colour temperatures of 5,000, properties. Test these before use. correct positioning of displays and 4,200 and 2,700 K respectively). They may not be as effect1ve as the use of curtains, are relatively Normal fluorescent lights pro­ they are cia med to be. Contact i nex pens1ve. duce too much ultraviolet radia­ the Regiona Conservation Centre, Where special illumination levels tion. These low UV output tubes Canberra 1f necessary for ass stance. are required in a display gallery, cost approximately twice that of Having .controlled the ultraviolet consideration must be given to the normal bulbs. component of light, the conserva­ layout of the displays. It is bad to Incandescent light emit an ac­ tor should control the illumina­ enter a dark room from a well lit ceptable low level of ultraviolet tion (lux) next. Remember that the area as the eye cannot adjust radiation, however, they produce effect of illumination is accumula­ quickly. Idea lly, the public should a lot of heat which must be dis­ tive. The amount of damaging be directed through rooms or sipated. A type of incandescent exposure received by an object is galleries which have progressively lamp known as "Cool Beam" equal to the total radiation it lower illumination levels. A display with a built-in reflector is pre­ receives multiplied by the length illuminated by 50 lux can be ferable as it directs the heat of exposure, i.e. if the radiation quite acceptable. from the lamp backwards away level is doubled, the same amount Insects. Insects must be kept from the art work. of damage will be caused in ha lf away from display cases as they can iv. Levels of ultraviolet can be the time. It is necessary to reduce cause a lot of damage. We have lowered by designing an illu­ illumination levels to 150 lux or all seen examples of this in display mination system such that the less for the majority of objects on labels eaten by silverfish and the light falling on the object 1s display except those such as stone, not so apparent damage by other reflected light ooly. If the light ceramic, glass or metal. The illu­ insects to organic materials on is reflected from a wall or board mination levels can be reduced in display. The best method of control coated with wh1te titanium the following ways: is one of preventive conservation, dioxide pa int, then the amount i. Use no direct natural light, incorporating both a routine inspec­ of UV reflected is only 10-20% only controlled artificial light, tion of the display plus the regular of that incident to it. preferably diffused or nflected. application of an insecticide. There ii. Time switches on lights or the is no 'safe' insecticide available that use of curtains can reduce the has a residual effect for more than A word of warning concerning time exposure of light sensitive approximately three months when maintenance of lighting systems. materials to the minimum. the insecticide must be replenished. Where special low UV output iii. Alternating material between There are several ways of fluorescent tubes or "Cool Beam" display and storage (where it applying the insecticide but in no incandescent lamps are used, for should be stored in the dark) case should it be appl ied directly example, care must be taken that will also help to reduce exposure to the object on display. We do when they breakdown they are times. not have sufficient knowledge replaced by the same lamp. It about the long term breakdown may be advisable to have all the Often a conservator will recom­ products of insecticides, and fluorescent tubes in the Museum mend that a certain item can only damage may be caused by the of the same low UV output type be displayed for a given short accumulative effect of repeated to avoid mistakes being made period of time as further display applications over a period of time. which will cause damage to the may cause damage. This recom­ 1. Insecticides that should not be objects on display. mendation must be followed. used include: Aldrin, B.H.C. ' 21

Mould growth wiH bE no problem provided that relatiue humidity within a display case is kept below 65%.

(Gammexane and Lindane), Car­ iv. The method ~ re· A number of showcase materials • bon Disulphide, Carbon isolation s s>:m have been tested and the following Tetrachloride, D.D.I., Dieldrin, secticide problems have been observed Ethylene Dichloride and Hydro­ (Oddy 1975, Hutchison 1977, gen Cyanide. Another, Para­ Padfield et.al. 1982). dichlorobenzene must not be 1. Polyvinyl acetate emulsions, used for ethnographic materials which are the basis of many or any other objects where wood glues, cause severe corro­ resins or gums are present, sion of lead or pewter objects, as these wi II be softened by the they can also tarnish copper insecticide. Dichlorvos, or DDVP and silver Adhesives containing strips (Trade-names - Nuvan, ammonia can cause tarnishing of Shelltox, Vapona, Fl icktrax), a lead, silver and particularly popular form of insecticide, copper, brass and bronze. should also not be used with the carbamates, sudi as =:err. or . Plastic dust excluders and edgi ng cultural collections. They release Multamat (= so or strips can give off harmfu I acidic vapours, expecially in Permethr tn 25 75 Coooex). vapours, such as sul phur, which high relative humidities as found These are con·act oo sen and will cause tarnishing of metals. in South-East Asia, which will can be appl"ed as a . Paints must be allowed to cure damage the material. powder. They ha e a res dua and dry out well before display ii. Naphthalene, in the form of life of approx mate y . rae cases are used. flakes or mothballs, has been months. • Some fabrics give off harmful used as an insect deterrent for Mould. Provided t at t e re a­ vapours usually produced by the many years. It will normally tive humidity within a d spay case dye ng agent. Also dyes must not kill insects, but rather will is kept below 65%, • ere shoo d be fast because if there is a keep them away due to the be no problems v.. th m01.. o grow·h, high humidity problem within smell produced by the Naphtha­ as the spores require a re ative the case, colours may run. lene. If used, the flakes or humidity h 1gher ·han this for Beware of fire-proofing agents, mothballs must not be allowed propagation. This is another reason these can also release harmful to come into contact with the for making every e'fort to control vapours. object. the relative humidity nside a v. Some woods, particularly chip­ iii. Fumigation with methyl display case, particu'arly as high board, give off harmful vapours bromide or ethylene oxide relative humid't es prevail in tropi­ such as formaldehyde. This can (diluted with carbon dioxide) cal and sub-tropical countries, and easily be detected in a new case is used by some orga nisations the usual means of reducing mould by the strong, sharp odour but special fumigation chambers growth by keeping the air moving produced. Woods tested at the are required for this. It is an with fans etc., obviously cannot be Conservation Department of the expensive but effective way of used within a display case. Western Australia Museum (Hut­ killing all insects present; how­ chison, 1977) showed that ever, the gases have no residual Material s of Construction. Often phenolic resins were present in effect and an insect could a curator or conservator does large quantit ies in oregon pine, enter the collection only a few not have much choice as regards ramin ply, marine ply, meranti days after fumigation. In most the materials of construction of a and jarrah in decreasing order countries, commercial or govern­ display case; however, the wrong Formaldehyde gas was present in ment facilities are availa ble for materia Is can cause damage to veneered chipboard and ramin fum igating collections. objects on display. ply. The application of paint 22

films is not always sufficient to to the textile and the other glued fore be protected by shelters prevent the slow release of or tacked to a strip of wood which or by paints systems which will harmful vapours. can be fixed in the display case. require regular maintenance. If If chipboards have to be used Objects that need to be raised for composed of wood or other because of economics, then they display are best supported on organic materials, e.g. canvas, should either be formaldehyde shaped pieces of perspex, attached they must be treated with free (difficult to obtain) or to the wall of the case. Do not insecticides and fungicides - treated with a solution of urea in support objects, particularly these must not harm anyone water (a mixture of 50 gm of ceramics and glass, with nylon touching the object. urea to 75ml of water brushed wire. Under the influence of iii. Vehicles, in particular horse on to each m 2 of wood surface, light, heat and with time, the drawn vehicles, should be sup­ Zenichi, 1975). This is another nylon can deteriorate and might ported at the axles to take the point in favour of the ventilated break. Works of art or historic weight off the wheels. This will display case which would allow items of paper must be framed also avoid direct contact of the the escape of any harmful and matted correctly. If possible, vehicle with the ground which vapours. do not display original can be a source of moisture and The im_portant thing here is photographs. A good copy will be also access by insects such as TEST ALL MATERIALS BEFORE just as effective and there is no teQn ites. USE. You should determine what danger of damaging the irreplace­ Outdoor objects on display have woods, fabrics, adhesives etc., are able original. therefore a continual problem of to be used for constructing the Design and Construction maintenance (that can be expen­ display case and these must be of DispJays sive) and security. tested before use. Oddy ( 1975) It is outside the scope of this Summary recommends heating the material paper to discuss the design and under test with samples of polished methods of construction of display With the emphasis on preventive metal (copper, silver etc.) in a cases. A very useful publication is conservation, ft is possible to design humidified atmosph~re at 60°C that by Bertram, 1982. display cases or units that will in an oven. If tarnishing is to occur, ensure the preservation of the items Outdoor Display it will happen within a few hours. on display. Consideration must be Many objects cannot be The material is considered safe given to the interior environment of displayed in a case but are on open the case, such as the temperature, if there is no tarnishing after 2R display either indoors or outdoors. days. relative humidity and air pollution, These cause particular problems also the control of insects, mould Support Materials. In order to some of which can be overcome support objects, either flat or growth and light levels. In addi­ by methods used for objects within tion, all materials of construc­ three dimensional, in a display display cases, however additional tion should be thoroughly tested case, the correct support materials problems are as follows: should be used . The following before use to assure that they will which should NEVER be used i. Objects on open display are not cause damage to the objects on include drawing pins, nails, staples, very susceptible to being touched display. adhesive tapes. These are all likely by the pub I ic. or furthermore As it may be difficu It for some to cause damage to the object, to van da I ism, therefore some organisations to test materials being with pins and nails rusting and form of security will be re­ used for dispiay case. construction; • adhesives becoming very difficult to quired. advice can be sought from the remove with -time. If pins have to ii. Objects displayed outdoors are Regional Conservation Centre in be used then they must be stainless susceptible to extreme climatic Canberra. In addition, as some of steel (e.g. insect pins). Textiles conditions including heat, water the materials listed in this paper can be pinned or sewn to a backing (possibly ice), dirt and dust, are not available in South-East fabric (tested beforehand) that can air pollution, and bird droppings Asia or the Pacific (this is the then be attached to the display etc. All of these will cause reason why a Directory of Suppliers case. In a similar way, costumes deterioration of the object at a has not been included), the can be attached to a dummy. much faster rate than if it were Regional Conservation Centre For large flat textiles, such as displayed indoors, and more so should be contacted for informa­ tapestries, the use of Velcro is again if displayed in a case. tion and details of suppliers for recommended, one ha lf being sewn The outdoor object must there- specific materials. 23

BIBLIOGRAPHY Padfield, T seum 13, pp. 1-23 (and "1961 The Des"gn o useum illustrations 24-55). Anon. Show Cases 1/C London Thomson, G. 1979 Conservation and Restor­ Conference on useum 1964 Relative Humidity- Vari­ ation for Small Museums. Climatology, pp 9-126. ations with Temperature W.A. Museum, Perth, p. Padfield, T., Erhard , 0. in Case Containing Wood, 11 5. Studies in Conservation, Anon. and Hopwood, W. 1982 Trouble in S.::o =. r Science 9, pp. 153-1 68. 1977 Exhibition and Storage and Techno ogy in the Thomson, G. Recommendations for Service of Conservation, 1978 The Museum Environ­ the Small Museum. A.C.T IIC ~.ash-~on. pp. 24-27 ment, Butterworths, Lon­ Division, ICCM, Canberra. Riviere, G. H. and V ssa, =- =. don, p. 270. p. 8. 1960 Museum $00\....ca:ses, Mu- Bertr<;~m, B. 1982 Display Technology for Continued on page 49 Small Museums, Museums Association of Australia Ancient Bead~ .. (N.S.W.), c/o Museum of continued from page 13 Applied Arts and Sciences, Large stone bea:s made of large beads are used as spindle Ultimo, N.S.W., 2007, jasper, carnel an, and q:.rc:nz crystal whorls among the Kalinga. The Australia. llongot decorate every conceivable Clarke, J. of many shapes are typica o"" this period and althouyh raded imo the object with beads. even the shell 1980 Solar Control Films: Use Philippines by the Ch- :se, proba­ of coconuts used. as drinking as Ultraviolet Filters on bly had their or"gins ·n So ih .Asia bowls, if beads are available. Museum Windows. The or India. It is ·ely ·oo · hat many Among the Hanunoo of Mindoro. Country Museum. 32, .PP. beads of European ong r1, such as twenty years ago, small red beads 4-6. types with chevron vere with a white core were literally Hutchison, D. designs, reaching the PI-t ppines in nroto­ their currency. Attractive pendant 1977 Historical Collections, in historic times throuyh ihe Ch 'lese necklaces and chokers of small Conservation in Australia, trade. beads are the outstanding decora­ ICCM, Sydney, pp. 101 - tive item found among the Agta 114. The use of beads as necklaces. of northeastern Luzon. The great Oddy, W.A. armlets, and ear pendan

The Mor Yao Ceremony to. Honor the Benevolent Spirits

by Orawan Banchangsilpa

Gratitude is an important Thai fields, forests, mountains and ri­ Khuen Sahm Kham Duen Sahm", value. Thais express their grati­ vers; dwell in animals and trees; or the third day of the waxing tude to others in many ways : by live in houses, etc.--€ach of which moon of the third month in the paying respects to them, taking has special characteristics and lunar calendar care of them, honoring them, and influence. The subject of this paper is the offering them gifts, for example. We find expressions of gratitude Ceremony to Honor the Benevo­ Gratitude is expressed not only to in elaborate ceremonies which are lent Spirits ("Pitee Liang Phee people,but also to the host of dei­ hosted for spirits that are regard ­ Mor Yao") performed by the ties and spirits that inhabit the ed w ith. special awe or respect - Mor Yao in Kudsi m Kumma i Vil­ for example, the Ceremony to lage. This ceremony to honor all Miss Orawan is a researcher Honor the Rice Spirits performed benevolent spirits, .incl uding the at the Demonstration School of in Pon Swang Village is held be­ spirits who cure the sick, is im­ Chulalongkorn University. Dr. cause people believe that the Rice portant both as an occasion to ex­ Suchitra Bunyarattaphan of the Spirits can help them increase press gratitude to the spirits and National Institute of Develop­ their rice yields. So once a year, as a socia l event. The benevolent ment and Administration assist­ they call upon the spirit s and spirits are believed to guard over ed her in writing this article. give them offerings on "Wan the we ll-being and prosperity of 25

the villagers; also honored are the the thirty to forty partiCipants. coconuts for coconut milk. The spirits who cure the sick, diagnose The ceiling slopes from a height kettle is a substitute for a gourd, the cause of sickness and prevent of about four meters at the front now difficult to find. The gourd sickness. The Mor Yao, or spirit to about two meters at the back. is symbolically significant because doctors, act as med iums for these Offerings ("khai") and utensils the Mor Yao believe that man ori­ spirits in heal ing the sick and are such as bowls and dishes are pre­ ginally came from a gourd. responsible for seeing that the spi­ pared and placed at the back of Four little jars filled with water rits are properly respected and the "pa-rum" for the spirits who are placed beneath the altar, close cared for Thus they will gather cu re the sick. Another set of to each of its four posts. Banana together once a year to honor and offerings await the more respected leaves are placed near the edge of express gratitude to their spirits spirits upon an altar decorated the jars. They are used by the by inviting them to eat and drink with coconut fronds that curve Mor Yao during the ceremony. In and make merry. At the same from each corner to form an arch addition, four big jars filled with time, the Mor Yao will ask the spi- • above it. The altar is located in water are placed outside the "pa­ rits to bring health and happiness front of the "pa-rum" rum" to them, their families, and to all The offerings on the altar con­ Inside the pa-rum, there are a the people participating in the sist of: a dish on which is placed number of cloth-covered trays, ceremony. 13 candles (called "khan 5, khan equal to the number of Mor Yao, 8"), four sections of a banana tree each containing offerings studded with ffowers ("khan ma ("khai"). These offerings are for The Requisites beng"), a dish of betel nuts, plu the spirits who help cure the sick leaves and cigarettes, a small straw and are the same as those used in The ceremony takes place every mat, a small folded mattress and another ceremony, the "Pitee year between March and April pillow, 4 small pots of flowers, 4 Yao" The offerings consist of· when the villagers of Kudsim young coconuts, and a small Khan 5, khan 8, ct>tton threads Kummai have little work to do in kettle. The Mor Yao believe that ("fai hand san"), red headbands the fiel ds and when the flowers to the Buddha does not drink whisky ("fai mad hua"), khan ma beng, be used in the ceremony are in like the spirits, and so provide the a bowl containing uncooked rice, bloom. The date and place for the ceremony are decided by the group of Mor Yao at their conve­ nience - however, the ceremony is never held on "wan phra" or Buddhist holy days (which occur about once a week) when Bud­ dhists go to the temples to pray, listen to sermons and observe re­ I igious commandments. The ceremony is attended by most of the Mor Yao of the village, although only seven to • eight of them actually perform the ceremony. The Mor Yao who is the most senior and who com­ mands the most respect is invited by the rest to be the leader in per­ forming the cerem ony. The " pa-ru m" or shelter, where the ceremony is held, is construct­ ed from straw matting near the Mor Yao's ho•Jse and resembles a small hut. Open only at the front, it is about two meters wide and The Mar Yao performs the dance ritual four meters long to accommodate associated with the ceremony. 26

clothes. The women wear black Phu Thar style "pha thung" (long wrap skirts secured at the waist) yvrth a black (or sometimes white) cloth draped diagonally over the shoulder.

The Music

Musrc was to be provided by the "kan" (the Laotian reed mouth organ or pan pipes) and "krajabpli" (the Thai four-stringed lute) which play a very important role rn the ceremony. Their sound helps the srngrng of the Mor Yao, who are required to sing through­ out the ceremony. The two kan musicians, called "Mor Kan", play loudly, which helps the Mor Yao not to get too tired. The instru­ The Mor Yao dance around the jar in jubilation, ments are played simultaneously, splashing the water on each other. each accompanying a different Mor Yao. Because each Mor Yao may sing a different melody, the instruments play different tunes, two eggs, 16'small pairs of candles the ceremony. In addrtron, white with drfferent rhythms and ranges, tied with flowers ("tian suaj"). a garlands are hung above the cloth, pair of incense sticks, a parr ot to be placed on the necks of the depending on the Mor Yao each is accompanyrng. The krajabpii ac­ bamboo sticks("taleew"),a pair of Mor Yao when the spirits enter candles which branch out at the therr bodies. Dunng the ceremo­ companies whrchever kan the top ("tien nga"). a parr of small ny, the Mor Yao srt at the back of player is sittrng closest to. The music of the kan is the medium candles twisted together, "tien the pa-rum, facing the front. lin", 4 small candles decorated through which the spirits are able wrth gold and silver paper ("tien to come to the ceremony. It also aad"), one large stake-shaped helps the spirits to have a good candle ("tien lim"). and 4 small An Account of the Ceremony time. umbrellas decorated with gold and The Mor Yao took their place silver paper Next to each tray is The following account is based sitting at the back of the pa-rum placed a large bowl of scented on the wnter's observation of the in front of the offerinqs and facing water, a drsh of betel nut and plu Ceremony to Honor the Benevo­ the altar at the f ront. The senior leaves. and certain utensils. There lent Sprrrts performed by the Mor Mor Yao lit a "tren lim" can dre are, also, 1 1ong sword, 4 minia­ Yao at Khun Thar Seenam's House and placed rt on top of a bottle of ture horses, 4 arrows, 4 lances and in Kudsrm Kummar Vrllage rn whrsky and chanted and prayed. 4 ha berds made of bamboo, and 4 Khao Wong distnct of Kalasrn pro­ The sprnts were thus formally in­ guns. All of these offerings are vrnce on Apnl 1-2, 1984. vited and the ceremony begun. paced at the back of the pa-rum. The Mor Yao had already con­ The whisky was then opened and Hung on the back wall of the structed the "pa-rum" (shelter), passed to the kan and krajabpii p

Warding off Evil Spirits

Next came the task of warding off the malevolent spirits who had not been invited to the ceremony. The Mor Yao took up their swords and moved with the musicians to the altar and sang and danced to music around the altar three times, raising one foot slowly, moving it forward and putting it down, then repeating 28

and Chinese shipping under the Southern Sung and the expansionist policies of the East Javanese king­ dom of Singosari. 2 Banten Girang is of interest as it sheds some I ight on the earlier his­ tory of Banten, of which little is known prior to the establishment of the Sultanate in the sixteenth century, and Muara Ciaruteun as it provides a link between the fifth century polity of Tarumanegara West Java's Increasing and the later kingdom of Pajajaran. Both Banten Girang situated on the Kali Banten and Muara Ciaruteun lnvolventent in Overseas on the Cisidane are submontane sites situated some distance from the sea. As in other parts of South­ Trade in the 13th-14th east Asia, river valleys in West Java played an important part both in communication and cultural diffu­ Centuries sion. Both sites would appear to have been occupied for long periods, though whether occupa­ tion was continuous or intermit­ tent is not known. For foreign ceramics to appear at these inland sites there were, pre­ by E. Edwards McKinnon sumably, coastal settlements at which exchange was effected. As yet, however, no port site from this period such as Tuban in the Brantas delta of East Java has come to light in the Banten/Sunda region . There may have been settlements or ports Lacking the grandiose classical number of important habitation near the mouth of the Citarum, east monuments of Central and East Ja­ sites such as Banten Girang and of Bekasi and the modern city of va, archaeologists have tended to Kampung Muara in the Desa Cia­ Jakarta, at the mouth of the Ci­ pay relatively little attention to ruteun Hiliar provide useful data sidane west of Jakarta, at the West Java, where, despite numerous for the reconstruction of former mouth of the Ciujung which flows megalithic remains and early evi­ cultural and historical frameworks. into the Teluk Banten near Pen­ dence of lndianizing influences in In this paper I will review evidence tang, at Banten Lama and at La­ the Citarum and Ciaruteun areas, from excavations at the above sites buan on Teluk Lada on the eastern little or no evidence of permanent which, together with some personal side of the Selat Sunda. Of these architecture remains. 1 However, a observations, give an insight into locations, three have yielded pre­ the area's increasing involvement in Islamic archaeological remains.3 overseas trade at a time when the Historical sources attest Sunda's Malay polities of southern Sumatra, involvement in the pepper trade Dr. McKinnon is connected which had once dominated trade in from at least the thirteenth centu ­ with the Resources Manage­ the Selat Melaka, the Riau archipe­ ry.4 The area was also known as a ment International which is lago and presumably the Selat Sun­ source of gold.5 It is possible that based in Jakarta, Indonesia. da, were suffering from political other commodities such as damar and economic pressure occasioned and rhinoceros horns were also by the expansion of Chinese trade available here.6 Banten G irang

The name Banten Girang derives ... these sherds attributed to the from the Sundanese girang meaning Sung period (960-1280 AD) ... upstream and is therefore equ iva­ lent to the Indonesian or Malay would appear to relate more word hu/u or ulu. It is some 13 km upstream from the old sixteenth precisely to the 13th and 14th century port of Banten or Bantam known as Ba.Dten Lama (Old Ban­ centuries. ten) (Mundardjito, Ambary & Dja­ far 1978, 1 ). The site is situated on the annex, is a further enclosed area The recent discovery of no less southern boundary of the present protected by a double rampart and than three broken quadrangu lar day municipality of Serang some ditch. The site would therefore ap­ stone adzes, recovered as surface one to two hundred metres west of pear to comprise three separate sec­ finds following seasonal cultivation the main Serang/Pandegland/La­ tions; a nuclear area with two smal­ just to the north and to the South of buan road. It covers approximately ler annexes to the south and east. the centre of the site, suggests that 10 hectares in extent being about The defile of the Klai Banten pro­ Banten Girang has been inhabited 440 m overall from north to south vides strong protection to the for a considerable period, and cer­ and some 330 m from east to west. nuclear area on the east and south tainly well before the advent of for­ There are seven small houses within but this natural defence has been eign trade ceramics in the area. the confines of the settlement, al l strengthened by provision of a of which have been bu ilt within the wide, deep ditch at two separate Ceramic Finds past three or four years. parts of the perimeter Due to annual cultivation for rice A further interesting physical Ambari reports a range of cera­ and vegetables and the unfortunate feature of the site is the existence mic material dating from perhaps activi ties of local brickmakers, for­ of the so-called Gua Banten. Th is is the tenth century up to the present mer cultural layers would appear to not, as the name might suggest, a (Ambari 1977, 10) . More recent re­ be greatly disturbed. Despite such natural cave but a series of three rec­ search in Ch ina and elsewhere sug­ disturbance, however, the site may tangular chambers cut into the gests that some of t he dating from yet yield much interesting archaeo­ west bank of the Kali Banten at the the 1976 excavation should be re­ logical evidence and provide a use­ foot of the bank. It is situated im­ assessed. In particu lar, those sherds ful insight into the type of settle­ mediately to the north of a ford attributed to the Sung per iod (960- ment wh ich ex isted in island, sub­ wh ich affords access to the site 1280 A.D.), and t he apparent montane areas of West Java by the from the eastern bank of the river. dearth of Yuan period ( 1280-1368 early second mil lenn ium A.D. It is, It is one of several similar rock cut A.D.) material, would appear to in essence, a fortified promontory chambers which are to be found on relate more precisely to the late (Mundardjito, Ambari & Djafar the west bank of the Kal i Banten . thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 1978,), protected on the east and There are also, in addition to the north by the narrow defile created Historical Background Vietnamese ceramics mentioned by by the Kali Banten, on the west by Ambari, a number of sherds from a now eroded earthwork and on the Local tradition ascribes a long the Thai Sawankhalok and Suko­ south by an earthen rampart and history to Banten Girang. Prior to thai kilns.9 d itch, immediately to the south of the establishment of the Sultanate Among the more recent surface which is a further enclosure, pre­ in the early fifteenth century, it is finds at Banten Girang are a num­ sumably a later annex, also protect­ said to have been the seat of local ber of sherds of some significance. ed by a rampart and a ditch which government8 and thus, presum­ Of these are examples of later Lung sweeps round to terminate on the ably, the seat of a local chief. With Ch'uan greenware, includ ing a sma east bank of the river On the west the establishment of the Sultanate, two fish bowl and a slightly larger bank of the river, but otherwise Maulana Hasanuddin moved the two fish bowl with a swastika Im­ contiguous with the southern seat of power to Banten Lama. pressed between the two fish;10 30

ch'ing pa i vessels of thirteenth to fourteenth century provenance; white glazed wares, including the remains of large bowls with spur­ Maura Ciaruteun first came to the marks on the interior and low, broad footrims and bases; and other frag­ attention of historians in the mid­ ments of heavy, utilitarian gray glazed bowls with a bare ring on Igh century with the discovery of the interior base indicative of a Yuan period provenance (Medley two inscriptions written in a form 197 4, 88) .11 There are also sherds of Tamil Grantha script ... of large jars and basins of coarse stoneware.

Other Finds

In addition to the quadrangular major river which rises on the came to the attention of historians stone adzes mentioned above, other slopes of the Gunung Gede and in the mid nineteenth century with artifacts recovered as surface finds Gunung Pangrango and eventually the discovery of two inscriptions include eight glass and two stone enters the sea at Tanjung Pasir im­ written in a form of Tamil Grantha beads (one each of banded agate mediately west of the Teluk Jakar­ script eulogising a ruler named Pur­ 14 and carnelian). a Chinese copper ta. The plateau, some three to four navarman and his royal elephant. coin (value one) of the She Tsung hundred metres in length and about In 1971, Tesuh Asmar of the Mu­ emperor (1 068-1 085) with the in­ two hundred metres in width, is a seum Nasional, Jakarta carried out scription Hsi Ning Yuan Pao dat­ veritable natural fortress. Access is a survey of the area and undertook able to the years 1068-1077 and a limited. From the confluence of the a limited excavation in the vicinity small quantity of iron slag. A few Cianter and the Cisadane, a cause­ of the Kebon Kopi inscription. fragmentary animal bones and teeth way leads up from the rivers' edge Asmar reported the existence of have also been revealed by landslips to the plateau. On each of the east­ several megaliths and a stone incis­ at the northern end of the site. ern and western sides, that is from ed with a curvilinear decoration not The coin of the Shen Tsung the defile through which f.lows the mentioned by Vogel. He also ex­ emperor may give us a terminus Ciaruteun and the valley of the cavated sherds of earthenware and antequo for the commencement of Cianten, two steep pathways lead porcelain and fragments of coral the ceramic trade in Banten but it is up past easily defendable slopes to and obsidian. The porcelain sherds, not uncommon for such coins to re­ the plateau. At the southern end of of Chinese origin, were estimated to main in circulation for centuries. the plateau, access from the adjoin­ date from the eleventh to sixteenth Consequently, very little weight can ing high land is limited to a narrow centuries. There were also sherds of be given to a single coin. More accu­ neck of land now barely more than Thai Sawankhalok vessels (Asmar rate or scientific methods of dating a metre wide in parts between two 1971, 421 ). are required. Although dating by gullies which slope away to the Ci­ ceramics is not entirely satisfactory, aruteun and the Cianten. There is Recent Ceramic Finds recent advances in ceramic know­ thus a clearly marked natural ledge do enable one to make rea­ boundary at the southern end of My own observations would tend sonably accurate assessments of the site. Here and there, just below to confirm Teguh Asmar's assess­ dating. 12 the plateau are the vestiges of a ment of the ceramic materials to be thick growth of bamboo which at found at this site although I have Muara Ciaruteun one time may have provided an im­ seen only one sherd which could, penetrable barrier around the site, perhaps, be dated as early as the open only at the points which gave 15 Situated in broken country to 13 eleventh century. The majority the west of Bogar, the kampung or access to the settlement. of sherds visible as surface finds in village of Muara Ciaruteun is set Archaeological evidence attests the fields of Muara Ciaruteun, like upon a steep-sided plateau between that the Muara Ciaruteun plateau those of Banten Girang, appear to the rivers Ciaruteun and Cianten, has been inhabited from about the date from the late thirteenth or both tributaries of the Cisadane, a fifth century A.D. The site first fourteenth centuries or later Here 31

significance. If, as Chau Ju-kua in­ dicates, West Java was in a state of turmoil in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries and rarely visit­ Having acquired a taste of high­ ed by foreign shipping, the recover­ fired foreign ceramics, both ies at ' Banten Girang and Muara Cia­ ruteun suggest that both political Banten and Sunda remained stability and economic opportunity had improved, enabling foreign a vigorous market for imported merchants to participate actively in stone wares and porcelain .... trading. Such ceramics were pro­ bably shi pped directly in Chinese bottoms. Having aquired a taste for high­ fired foreign ceramics, both Banten and Sunda remained a vigorous also are sherds of late Lung Ch'uan and basins. One of the jar fragments market for imported stoneware and greenware, principally bowls and has part of a moulded dragon on it porcelain right up to modern times. large ceramic platters with moulded and another displays an impressed Sites such as Banten Lama and underglaze designs and a bare, un­ "house mark" which is only partial­ Pasar lkan (Old Batavia) are litter­ glazed ring on the base, a sherd ly legible. There are also fragments ed with sherds from the Ming and from a potiche or covered jar with of blue-green glaze Sawankhalok Ch'ing periods. This continuing ribbed sides, the mouthrim of a bas1ns and a body sherd of a Viet­ taste is reflected in the develop­ small jar often seen with an under namese blue and white vase datable ment of a flourishing ceramic in­ glaze design of a dragon around the to the fourteenth or fifteenth cen­ dustry, based ·i n Bandung, which belly or, more rarely, a floral design tunes. produces modern reproductions of and other relatively sturdy frag­ many of the earlier ceramic forms ments. There are also the remains Earlier Ceramics in Java imported into Indonesia in past of ch'ing pai vessels, including the and Sumatra centuries. spout of a small, delicate ewer, a Footnotes potiche with a ribbed cover and a Earlier ceram1cs Imported into bowl with a floral design impressed West Java appear to be confined 1. As long ago as 1925, J. Ph . Vogel re· marked "it is a remarkab le fact - often com­ under the glaze together with frag­ mainly to the eastern part of the mented upon - that, whereas the glorious mo­ ments of white and pale gray bowls :lrovmce, to the area around Kara­ numents of lndo-Javanese architecture are fired on the rim, probably from ~ang.16 In central Java, however, found in Central Java, the earliest documents testifying of Indian influence belong to the kilns in Fukien. Here too are sherds Chinese ceram1cs datable to the Western part of the Island " (Vogel 1925, 15l. of the same heavy, utilitarian gray ninth or tenth centuries have been 2 . On the expansion of Chin- maritime glazed bowls with a bare ring on the found in quantity at sites such as interests, IH, for example Jung-pang Lo (Lo 1955) and more recently Profe110r Wolters' interior which I first saw among the Prambanan and Borobudur and in comments upon index.. of change in the eco­ later material at Kota Cina and East Java in Kediri (Adhyatman nomic and political history of maritime South­ more recently at Banten Girang. 1983). Similar material has been re­ Nit Alia (Wohers 1982, 23). 3. Finds of rouletted earthenware, sim ilar In addition to these remains are covered at Bukit Seguntang and Ta­ to early first millennium rouletted Nrthen­ several other fragments of interest lang Kikim near Palembang in ware from Arikamedu on the southeast coest South Sumatra and tenth to four­ of India, in the Bek ..i/Muara Citarum araa including a single fragment of a (Walker and Santoao 1977) and the existence of large, painted vessel of T'zu chou teenth century material in the Jam­ the " Tugu" inscription near Bek•i (Vogel 17 type displaying part of a black bi area. 1925) indicate early extem1l contects with thi.s p1rt of the Jav1 co•t. A nandi im-ee w• found design over a white glaze, a sherd 1t K~rangantu , Banten Lima in 1906, '(Krom of pinkish buff earthenware with a Conclusions 1914) 1nd a yoni b- from the bank of the bright green copper glaze and the Labu1n river at Labuan (Krom 1914). Amb1ri reports finding 1 f- sherds of Sung/Yu1n pro­ neck of a small temmoku glaze jar. The appearance of sizable quan­ venance It Senten Lima (Ambari 1977, 10). There are also a few sherds of green tities of imported ceramics in the Chau Ju-kua, writ ing in the year 1225, notes and brown glazed stonewares from Banten and western part of Sunda t hat: " In the kingdom of Sin-t'o (Sunda) there is a harbour fo r anchorage with a depth of s•xty kilns in Fukien and Kuantung and from the late thirteenth and four­ feet. Wherever one travels, by water or by land numerous fragments of large jars teenth centuries is surely of some o ne meets with the peoples' dwellings all along 32

the shore." He goes on, " .... there is no regular ain) elevations (Bastin 1973, 63, n324). A ncient China. (Hughes-Stanton and Kerr government in this country, t he peop le are 7. There are three rock cut chambers on 1981). given to brigandage, on which accou nt foreign the west bank at Kerundang about 2 km above 13. Live bamboo hedges, often consisting of traders rarely go th,ere." (Hirth and Rockhill, Banten Girang and another known as Gua thickly planted thorny bamboo, (sur duri) 1911, 70). Tembaga further upstream. were commonly used to protect settlaments in This comment may refer to any of the 8. The Encyclopaedie van Nederlands­ Sumatra. Remains of such defenses which, above locations, though it should be noted that lndie, Volume I, (1917), p. 167, gives the before the advent of firearms, were virtually im­ parts of the Teluk Jakarta have a depth of following information concerning Banten penetrable can still be seen around old villages about 20 fathoms. Whatever archaeological Girang: in the Tanah Karo area of northeastern Sumat­ evidence that may remain for such an anchor· "A village at a short distance, about 1,5 ra, Bengkulu and perhaps elsewhere. age is presumably buried under the mud of km, northeast of Serang* the present day capi­ 14. The Ciaruteun inscription, which lay coastal accretion and successive annual inunda­ tal of the Residency of Banten, where, it is said originally in the bed of the river, has now been tions. It would be interesting to be able to iden­ the capital of the country was formerly until raised up to the plateau and housed in a special­ tify the coastline of the twelfth and thirteenth that of Mnulana Hasanuddin was removed and ly constructed pavillion at Kampung Muara centuries. the seat of t he government moved to Bantam, Ciarutuen. It is opportune here to clear up 4. Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) from Java was for which reason it was named Banten llir what appears to have been a longstanding art first mentioned by Chau Ch'u-fei in 1178 (lower Banten) in contrast to Banten Girang h istorical puzzle, namely that relating to the (Wheatley 1959, 100). Chau Ju-kua notes that (upper Bantenl. " spiders" carved into the stone below the foot­ " The pepper on t he hills (of this country) (Sin­ •actually southeast. p rints of Purnavarman (Vogel 1925, 22/ 24). t'o) is sm all grained but heavy and superior to 9. I have not seen the ceramic material ex­ The footprints are likened to those of Visnu. that of Ta-pan (Eastern Java). The country cavated in 1976 which is thought to include It seems clear to me that the spiderlike repre­ produces pumpkins, sugar cane, bottle grouds, one shard of the early to mid-tenth century. sentations in front of the king' s footprints and beans and egg-plants" (Hirth and Rockhill My remart

venden Oudheidkundigen The Mor Yao .... lation, splashing the purifying and Dienst in Nederlandsch­ frompage27 cleansing water over each other and lndie. black and sweet red glutinuous rice­ catching more fish and shrimps to Lo, Jung-pang with banana was served to the Mor offer to the spirits. 1955 "The Emergence of Yao and musicians, who danced After the water had been finish­ China as a Sea Power and ate at the same time. As the ed and all the fish and shrimps had during the late Sung and music continued, the Mor Yao re­ been offered, the Mor Yao return­ early Yuan periods"Far turned to the pa-rum to take up ed to dance one last round at the al­ East Quarterly 14,4. pp. their swords and moved three times tar, then came back to sit in front 489-503. around the altar - dancing in slow of their offerings inside the pa-rum, Medley, Margaret style as before - to chase away and, to the accompaniment of mu­ 1974 Yuan Pottery and Porce­ uninvited evil spirits. This was re­ sic, sang farewell to the spirits lain. London: Faber and peated in turn with the miniature until the last notes of the kan died Faber. wooden horses, lances, halberds and away. The ceremony was over Muarif and Djafar, H. guns; and then with the lit "tien After the ceremony, the senior 1978 Laporan Penelitian Arkeo­ lim", the "tien aad", and the um­ Mor Yao explained to the writer log i Banten: 1976. Berita brellas decorated with gold and that she had not been conscious of Penelitian Arkeologi No. silver paper being possessed by the spirits, but 18. Jakarta: Pusat Peneli- The senior Mor Yao sang, clap­ only of the sound of the kan and ' tian Purbakala dan Pen­ ped her hands, jumped or danced the rhythm of the krajabpii, with­ inggalan Nasional. according to whatever spirit hap­ out which it would not have been National Museum of Korea pened to possess her. possible to perform the ceremony. 1977 Special Exhibition of In the next stage, small wooden There was a close interrelationship Cultural Relics Found off fish and shrimps were "caught" between the music, singing and Sian Coast. Seoul :Samh­ using the "kradong" and "hae" (in­ movements of the Mor Yao in that wa Publishing Co. struments used for fishing) and the sound of the kan and krajab­ Sutayasa, M.D. scattered around the altar in offer­ pii inspired and governed the move­ 1972 "Notes on the Buni Pot­ ing to the spirits. ments of her body, while at the tery Complex" Mankind The Mor Yao then went out of same time it might have been in­ 8, pp. 182-184. the pa-rum to the four large water fluenced by her singing, which Van Bemmelen, R.W. jars beside which lay a small boat might be loud or soft, fast or slow. 1970 The Geology of Indo­ fashioned from a banana tree which Throughout the ceremony, it was nesia : Volume II, Econo­ contained an oar, black and red the intensity and movement of the mic Geology. Den Haag: glutinous rice, and a small figure re­ music of the kan that was vital to Nijhoff. Second Edition. ,Presenting an evil spirit. The senior each stage - the start of the cere­ Vogel, J.Ph. Mor Yao moved toward the boat mony, the paying of respects to the 1925 "The Earliest Sanskrit with a knife and stabbed the intrud­ spirits, their invitation to the cere­ Inscriptions of Java" ing figure and boat before throwing mony, the making of the holy Publicaties van den Oud­ them away from the area of the water, the drinking of the whisky, heidkundigen Dienst in ceremony. the dancing, the chasing away of Nederlandsch-lndie, 1. After this, everybody went to the evil spirits, the splashing of Batavia. pp. 15-35. dance around the water jars in jubi- water, etc. The krajabpii followed Walker, M.J. and Santoso, S. the kan and set the rhythm and 1977 "Romano-Indian Roulet­ Wolters, Oliver W. pace of the ceremony. Melody was ted Pottery in Indonesia" 1979 "Studying Srivijaya" not important and was essentially Mankind 11, pp. 20-45. B.R.A.S. 52,2. pp. repetitive with minor variations. Wheatley, Paul 1-32. In this way, the music of the kan 1959 "Geographic&! Nc ;es on 1982 History, Culture and Re­ and krajabpii is fundamental to the some Commodit ..: ., in­ ligion in Southeast Asian Mor Yao Ceremony to Honor the volved in Sung Maritime Perspectives. Singapore: Benevolent Spirits - a ceremony Trade" J.M.B.R.A.S. 32, Institute of Southeast which is important and essential to 2, pp. 5- 140. Asian Studies. central beliefs and values of the people of Kudsim Kummai Village in the province of Kalasin. 34

Excavation at Fort Canning, Singapore

by John N. Miksic

A short program of archaeolo­ A related goal was to discover be a useful adjunct to the existing gical research was conducted by a whether any archaeological museum collections. team organized by the Singapore information could be recovered to A short-term program was de­ National Museum for 10 days in compliment the sketchy historical signed to attempt to maximize January 1984. Financial assistance records concerning the island's past. the chances of finding any pre­ was received from the Shell Oil As part of the government's efforts nineteenth century artifacts which Corporation; my travel to and from to reinforce a sense of the national might still be in situ, no easy task Singapore from Indonesia was paid identity, the National Museum in the conditions existing in the by funds from the Ford Founda­ has been closed for most of 1984; island. Indeed I personally tion and Asian Cultural Council. it reopens in early 1985 with a estimated chances of finding such completely remodeled set of exhi­ rema1ns in situ as fifty-fifty. No Research Goals bits designed to emphasize the attempt was made to ensure The Parks and Recreation De­ historical and cultural evolutionary that the sample· excavated would partment of Singapore had under­ sequence of the country. Thus any be representative of the past, taken a project to plan to landscape artifacts illustrating facets of life either statistically or in terms of the area called Fort Canning Hill, during the pre-British period would artifact distributions in space or a park in the center of downtown time. Singapore. Historical and recent documents suggested that archaeological sites might exist on the hill. Thus the Singapore National Museum felt an urgent need to conduct preliminary ex­ cavations before the landscaping work was carried out, in order to determine_ whether any artifacts or structures from any periods earlier than the nineteenth century existed there.

Dr. J. Miksic is a Project Specialist In Archaeology at the Gajah Mada University in Jogjakarta, Indonesia. Fort Canning as it looks today. 35

Research Design only recently become semi-seden­ Thus a search was made to de­ tary but were not yet Muslim (D. termine the most likely spot within Sopher, 1977· 93-94) the park which might have lain In 1846, Karimun was still relatively undisturbed since 1819. notorious as a base for pirates of Once this site was selected, squares the suku Galang. Even after World for excavation (which reached a War II'· some orang /aut from total of 8, covering 50 square Karimun still lived on boats meters of ground surface) were (Sopher 1977· 403). No archaeolo­ laid out. In two areas, intact gical research has been conducted deposits of material dating from the on Karimun, and now it is being fourteenth century were quarried for stone to use in building discovered. the port of Pulau Baai in Bengku­ Excavations were performed in lu, southwest Sumatra. It would natural layers rather than artificial be a very good thing if some levels. No charcoal or other organic reconnaissance could be carried out matter was found, but three in order to determine whether absolute dates have been obtained any archaeological remains still on ceramic mat!=!rial using the exist there. thermoluminescence technique. The second candidate for Lo­ Typological studies have been con­ yueh's location is Singapore ducted on the ceramic materials island. The sole evidence for the recovered. A final report should existence of a civilized society in be published in monograph form Singapore at this c;iate is the Singa­ by the Singapore National Museum pore Stone. This was a large inscrip­ in 1985. tion consisting of about 50 lines which was blown up in 1843. It Early Singaporean History lay on a po int of rocky land on the south side of the Singapore River After Claudius Ptolemy, who mouth, which was being levelled may have included on his map a to construct a fortification. A place name representing an few fragments were however saved. entrepot near Singapore in about Some were sent to the Asiatic Ex cavation site A. D. 150, there is no known re­ Society in Calcutta, where drawings ference regarding any place near of them were published. Based on Singapore until the Tang dynasty, Srivijaya, to his orang /aut follower these drawings, Dr. de Casparis wherein appear references to Lo­ as a form of anugerah (royal of the Kern I nstitude, Leiden, in yueh. The place seems to have bounty.) a personal communication, has possessed no large city nor did Karimun occupies a doubly judged that the script "clearly it send missions to China. strategic location; in addition to suggests 1Oth-11th century." Drs. Two inscnpt1ons have been commanding the southern entrance Boechari of the University of found which might mark the site to the Straits (it is 9 kms. from the Indonesia believes it is no later of Lo-yueh. One is the Karimun southwest tip of Johor and 20 kms. than 12th century. H. Kern himself inscription, 30 kilometers west of from Pulau Rangsang just off the however dated the script much Singapore, in Nagari script of shore of Sumatra), Karimun lies later, around 1230 (G.P Rou ffaer, about A.D. 800-1000, using directly north of the Kampar 1920, p. 55,58). Sanskrit. It states, "The illustrious River mouth which provides access Dr De Casparis and Kern feet of the illustrious Gautama, to the Minangkabau heartland, and suggested th<;~t the language might the Mahayanist, who did possess along which lie such sites as Muara have been Old Javanese. Drs. an armillary sphere." (J. Brandes Takus. According to Tome Pires' Boechari, while venturing no 1932: 21-22~ . Suma Oriental, in the early sixteenth opinion on the language, d iscerns One might theorize that this century. Karimun was inhabited by a closer relationship to letter forms armillary sphere was the gift of Celates. In the late nineteenth from Sumatra. The latter find·ng, a sovereign, such as the ruler of century, Karimun's population had if borne out by direct observation 36

of the fragments, would be more Temasik was a place of suffi­ congenial with other sources of Lung-ya-men would cient importance that it appeared evidence regarding the extent of simultaneously in widely separated Javanese political and cultural have referred to the documents. According to Wang, it evidence at that time. had recently managed to defend The question of the ethnic body of water off the itself against an attack from the identity of Singapore's inhabitants Thais which included a one-month at the time forms a separate shore of Singapore siege. The Thai invaders were made though related question. Evidence island. to withdraw only by the approach from later periods suggests once of a Javanese mission (Wang does again that during most of its his­ not say so specifically, but one tory Singapore was inhabited by with them. In either case, the main concludes on its way to China). orang /aut. These sources include route for navigation between the Thus the Javanese route to China Pires; Leonard Andaya (1975: Indian Ocean and South China brought their ships quite close to 41-49); Sopher, and others. Sea seems to have moved very close Temasik, perhaps closer than Pulau Lo-yueh seems to have been to Singapore between 1225 and Satu mu; certainly close enough that important as a rendezvous and 1349. the men aboard ship would be able orientation point for ships. In In 1320, a Yuan mission was sent to observe events occurring there. 1225, another toponym appears to Lung-ya-men to procure tame Wang does not mention that the in the Singapore area which played elephants. Perhaps as a direct Javanese ships actually intended to a similar role: Ling-ya-mon (Dra­ result of this contact, Lung-ya­ call at Temasik. gon Tooth Strait). Chao Ju-ku a men sent a mission to China in By 1365, Temasik was claimed commented in his description of 1325. as a dependency by Majapahit, San-fo-ts'i (Malayu-Jambi) that according to the Nagarakrtagama. "In the winter, with the monsoon, you sail Temasik In the late 14th century, however, a little more then • month end then come to Malay rulers in Sumatra may have l ing·ya-mon, where one-third of the piSSing merchants (put in) before entering this coun­ In Wang's account, the people perceived Majapahit as a weakening try (of S.n-fo-ts' il " of Lung-ya-men lived at a place kingdom. A mission was sent to Hirth and "Rockhill surmise that called Tan-ma-hsi, which China's new Ming court seeking the term referred to Berhala Strait, corresponds to Temasik. This is investiture and commercial ties in south of Lingga Island in the the oldest known use of this term. 1371 In 1377, a Ming mission to Lingga Archipelago. Wang calls its inhabitants pirates Jamb i was however arrested by a About 100 years later, a who bartered what they managed Javanese force and the envoys k i li­ toponym with a slightly different to steal from Fukien traders. ed. This halted Malayu's attempt to transcription, Lung-ya-mem, was According to Mills' interpretation, win Chinese protection against Java. applied to a passage closer to 300 pirate ships were based in In 1389, a prince of Palembang, Singapore. Dr Gibson-Hill Keppel Harbour, perhaps preying Parameswara, seems to have con­ concluded that this term now on ships heading for Singapore ducted a ceremony which signified meant Keppel Harbor, just off the Main Strait. Lung-ya-men would rejection of Javanese suzerainty. A Singapore River mouth. (Gibson­ have referred to the body of Javanese fleet was then sent which Hill 1956: 30) P. Wheatley, 1961 water off the shore of Singapore laid waste the settlements on Bang­ 82). island, or perhaps the complex ka, off the mouth of the Musi River This reference appears in the of water and islands around Singa­ leading to Palembang. This Tao i chih lia, dated 1349 but pore's Southern coast. probably eliminat~d the orang /aut perhaps referring to knowledge Temasik is also mentioned in a base forming Palembang's main line collected about 1330, by Wang Vietnamese annal of 1330, which of defense. Ta-yuan. J.V Mills in his discussion commemorates the death of a Parameswara then fled to Tema­ of Lu ng-ya-men disagrees, Vietnamese prince who could serve sik, which was at that time a preferring to assign the term to as an interpreter for envoys from tributary to Ayudhya, either Singapore Main Strait south of there (O.W. Wolters 1982: 48n. directly or via a relationship to Pulau Satumu, about 16 kilometers 45). A third citation occurs in the Patani. He killed the local chief from Keppel Harbor (Mills, 1970: Javanese poem Pararatom, which and installed himself as ruler. 328) Gibson-Hill was aware of Mills' includes Temasik among a list of In about 1397, however, Parames­ objections but chose to disagree places to be conquered. wara was expelled again, probably 37

by an attacK or threat from n 1436. Although the roots o~ Pre-19th-Century Physical Remains Ayudhya or its Patan i vassal. the dynasty are traced bac to When Raffles et al. arrived in After spending two years n i e Pa embang, little of the story o Sngapore in 1819, a number interior of the Malay Pen nsula the line takes place there. S 1r ~pore o' antiquities sti II ex isted there. his orang /aut followers suggestcc on the other hand forms a '"11ajor These included the Singapore he try aga in to reform a Ma a scene for the first episodes. !'ro-' Stone; a mud wall 16 feet (5 nagara, this time at the mou~h o& a .Volters is of the opimon tha~ meters) wide and 8 or 9 feet river called Bertam. The e-.• much of the Singapore sect ons 2 5 meter) high, with a moat on entrepot was named Me aka, and actually is a symbolic manner o­ the outer side; and a number of in its early years it, too, reques~ed referring to Palembang before ts br ck foundation terraces on the Ch inese protection aga inst Ayuc - eclipse by Malayu-Jambi. The other hi ater known as Fort Canning. ya's requests for tribute. · sources I isted above however Among the foundations were frag­ The chronology of Temas1 m s ggest that such a use of ments of Chinese and local pottery the late 14th century was recon­ S n~oore as a literary motif "in great abundance," and also structed by Prof. O.W. Wo ters n may have been backed up by the Ch inese copper coins with dates The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay e or . of a period when Singa­ such as 967, 1067, and 1085. History. Temasik was st me - pa c:: actually functioned as a port The Malay inhabitants of the tioned in the Wu-peh-chm charts o.: trade.. island refused to set foot on the in the early 15th century, which hill, calling it Bukit Larangan were copied from Arab origina s (Forbidden Hill). According to the (Wheatley 1961 96, Pell1ot. c"ted Our only source for Sejarah Me/ayu, both Sri Tri in Gibson-Hill 1956, p. 42, note Buana, the founder of the Malay 79). Thus the Arab chart makers the history of Singa­ nagara, and his chief, Demang were also familiar with Temasik. Lebar Daun, were buried there, Shun-Feng, ca. 1430, ment1oned pot'e... when it also added the Thufat ai-Nafis, Tan-ma-hsi Strait as a place where Sri Tri Buana's adOpted mother. passengers could change ship (Mills /orrraed the major According to the 1819 inhabi­ 1970: 325). The term Gate of Tan­ Malay nagara is ... tants, one terrace about 40 feet ma-hsi survived as late as 1618 n square formed the grave of "a a Chinese pilot's directory (Gibson­ Sujaroh Melayu. ruler " Regrettably, no source pro­ Hill 1956:59). In 1436, Singapore vides a detailed description of its was a Thai vassal (Wolters 1971 appearance when the forest was 161 ). - on - e scene cleared from around it. for very as a •• tngdom' short.y after, it was altered. A OWfNer possessed lit tie rude structure was built over it, territory (P res, 9~ . vo ume II: and it became known as the Kera­ 262). mat Iskandar Syah. According to Singapura It did howe-~o~er attract Chinese Pro' Wo ters Interpretation, Iskan­ traders who sought "infinite dar Syah was the name adopted by However, in 1462 another quam t es of the b,ack wood that Parameswara in about 1414 when Arabic source refered to Smga­ grows n S1ngapore" (P1res I. he converted to Islam. pura. This is the oldest documented 123). Even m 1604, a map of The cone-shaped summit of the reference to the use of this name Ered ia showed a shabhandar's hill was removed in 1856, when a instead of Temasik. It is likely, off1ce near the Singapore River fort was constructed on it. In 1926, however, that the renaming was mouth. The Portuguese burned the a reservoir was dug into it, and in performed when Parameswara place in 1613 as part of their the soi l just beneath the original usurped control over the island. continuing campaign against the ground surface, a cache of gold Our only source for the history of descendants of the Melaka sultans. ornaments was found, including Singapore during the brief period It is likely that Melaka's founda­ armlets, belt fasteners, and other when it formed the major Malay tion resulted in a gradual siphon­ objects with designs of distinct nagara is the literary work Sejarah ing of trade away from Singapore classical-period affinity. P.V. van Melayu, originally a genealogy of after Parameswara's flight, rather Stein Callenfels said that the the Melaka rulers compiled when than forming the sequel to its kala-heads on the designs reminded the third ruler converted to Islam destruction by Thai forces. him of the best 14th-century 38

Majapahit work. Another ring bore pura are still visible. The northern A total of 229 sherds with a an incised goose design. These slope around the Keramat Iskandar gross weight of 3,675 grams was objects were found slightly uphill Syah most likely to have remained recovered , which could be divided from the KeFamat's location. undisturbed by recent activity into four main types. The small In summary, the classical-period was selected for excavation. size of the sample and the lack history of Temasik-Singapore is Two squares west of the Keramat of comparative material from other vague and more poorly known than yielded intact fourteenth-century nearby contemporary sites make that of other Malay nagaras, none deposits. One seems to have formed these typological conclusions very of which have been extensively ex­ fill or frequently-smoothed terrace tentative. No sherds of the fine­ cavated. All available evidence seems bodied reddish, probably wheel­ surface layers; the other formed to support the supposition that made, burnished earthenware accumulation at the bottom of a after a century or more of modest common at 14th-century east Java­ slope, w1th the ancient stratum but increasing prosperity as a vassal nese sites was discovered. There sealed by an overlymg layer of just of Majapahit and then of were however nine sherds of fine boulders which formed the base for Ayudhya with the name Temasik, paste wares, similar to sherds a cement drain. Singapore was founded by an ambi­ found from Satingphra to Butuan tious and perhaps ruthless descen­ Earthenwares : The types found to east Java from the 9th to 14th dants of the rulers of Srivijaya. His at Fort Canning are not unusual centuries. A total of 44 sherds act in occupying this site was too for sites of this period in the Malay belonged to roof tiles, one of which provocative to the Thai who expel­ Peninsula and Sumatra. No clear could be partially reconstructed. led him, after which a settlement conclusions can be drawn regarding This type of artifact has not been with some foreign trade including the overall form or function of reported from other sites of this export of jungle products main­ most of the earthenware objects period in Sumatra or Malaysia; tained itself rather quietly until found; the remains were too although tiles were in use in east destroyed by the Portuguese. fragmentary. Many seem to have Java at this time. been storage vessels of moderate Stonewares: These sherds fall Progress and Results of Excavation size. None gave indications of into two major classes which have Superficial inspection of Fort belonging to the class of domestic been conventionally designatert Canning Hill in January 1984 cooking ware. This circumstance, "Brittle Ware" and "Kwantung showed that terraces still existed combined with the lack of charcoal Ware" (E. Moore, 1970). Of these, on the east and south slopes of the or bone, supports the conclusion 182 sherds came from bowls, hill. At the northeast corner of the that this was not an ordinary basins, jars, and vases; 253 sherds hill, the remains of the parit Singa- residential area. formed parts of the so-called mercury vessels which may have been used for the transport of liquid mercury. Documentary sources attest to the existence of ·trade in this commodity from the T'ang Dynasty. A place called Lang-plo-lu-ssu in North Sumatra formed one source (O.W. Wolters, 1967· 192-193); ci nnabar sources in western Jambi were mined in pre-colonial times (Ryan Bemmelen, 1944: II, 221). China imported mercury from Persia and Vietnam (where these brittle ware jars have been made), and obtained it from its provinces of Hunan and Shansi. In turn, it was exported to Java, Kedah, and Cambodia. Mercury's uses included playing part in rei igious rituals as medicine, A sample of jars unearthed and in extracting gold from its 39

settlement area still remained on the pia in between the hi II and the shore, near the river mouth. We are left with the impression that Singapura was intended by Para­ meswara to become the successor of Pa lembang but that he was thwarted in his design, to the eventual benefit of Melaka. The rema ins at Singapore have some bearing on the interpreta­ tion of documents concerning the use of Keppel Harbor as a shipping thoroughfare. They do not indicate any use of the waterway before the 14th century; such negative evidence in this case is however A plate found in the It is now generally accepted that not really useful nor conclusive. excavation site cobalt blue design was used on The final conclusion which can be porcelain exported from China drawn from this small research ore. Any or all of these explana­ during the late Yuan Dynasty. przoject is that further archaeolo­ tions could account for the rela­ Wang-Ta-yuan again forms our gical research, including submarine tively large proportion of these earliest documentary source on this archaeology, can be expected to vessels at Fort Canning. On the matter, when he reported that find much more useful informa­ other hand, as Pak Abu Ridho such porcelain was exported to tion on these topic.s. has suggested, the vessels them­ Java. Fourteen sherds of early blue Bibliography selves may also have been used as and white ware were discovered containers for some. commodity at the Keramat site. None seems Andaya, L. during ceremonies. to belong to types produced later 1975 The Kingdom of Johor Among the Kwantung wares are than A. D. 1400. 1641-1728. Kuala Lum­ found large storage jars, with a Summary pur:Oxford University. few basins. Some monster mask The artifacts from the Keramat Van Bemmelen, R. handles were found; one vessel site can be dated to a rather narrow 1944 Geology of Indonesia. 3 had a stamped design of indistinct time span, the fourteenth century. vols. The Hague: M. Nij­ Chinese characters repeated Three ceramic samples were sub­ hoff. between each of the four loop mitted to the Oxford University Brandes, J. handles. laboratory for thermoluminescence 1932 "A Letter from Dr J. Porcelains. The porcelain sherds analysis. These yielded dates of Brandes on the Kerimun can be divided into green glazed 550± 110 years B.P. (1320-1540); Inscription." Journal of wares (celadons), the plain white 440± 90 (1450-1630), and· less the Malayan Branch, Ro­ wares, and the white wares with than 100 years. yal Asiatic Society 10/1 underglaze blue decoration. Anum­ No Thai ceramics were disco­ 21-22. ber of the sherds seem to have vered in the undisturbed strata. Gibson-Hill, C. originated from the Longquao kiln However fragments of a Sawankha­ 1956 "Singapore Old Strait area. Two sherds may be Sung in lok covered box were found in the and New Harbour," date, but the rest are of 14th­ surface layer Given the degree of Memoirs of the Raffles century types. The green-glassed interest shown in Temasik/Singa­ Museum 3 :11-116. wares totalled 153 sherds. pura by the Thai, it would seem Hirth, F. and W.W. Rockhill Plain white wares included that this forms supporting evidence 1911 Chau Ju -kua. St. Peters­ qingbai (33 sherds); Shu-fu (a for the hypothesis that Thai porce­ burg : Imperial Academy specialized type of Oingbai), 10 la in was not exported until around of Science. sherds; Duhua or Ding-type ware 1474 (H. Woodward, 1978). Mills, J.V 26 sherds; and 5 sherds which could It would seem that the Keramat 1970 Ma Huan. Cambr"dge . not be assigned to any specific site was abandoned after the Hakluyt Society. white ware. founding of Melaka. Perhaps some continued on page 49 40

The Maritime Network in the Indonesian Archipelago in the Fourteenth Century*

by A.B. Lapian

Archaeological and linguistic gion. But from the origin and fre­ greater number of names, including evidences show that interinsular quency of missions sent to the those mentioned in the Pararaton traffic in island Southeast Asia, in­ Middle Kingdom. some glimpses most probably because Mpu Pra­ cluding the Indonesian archipelago, can be caught of the local situation: panca, the author of the Nagarakr­ has its roots in prehistoric times. at certain periods, embassies came tagama , had a better knowledge of About early Indonesian commerce, from one partic.ular place while the Archipelago than the writer of an exhaustive study has been made other countries stopped send ing the Pararaton text. But it is also by Professor Wolters (1967). Its missions to China - an indication possible that the Pararaton was only main problem revolves around that the region was being dominat­ concerned with places that still had the identification of toponyms as ed by a particular country, as for to come under Majapahit. Only mentioned in Chinese sources. This example happened during the Srivi­ those sti ll to be subjugated were study and other previous works jaya era (Wolters 1967:230 sqq.). named in the famous oath of Gajah have shown that knowledge about Shipping to the eastern part of the Mada, whereas the places listed by the area leaned heavily on the wes­ Archipelago then was an indigenous Prapanca were already regarded as tern part of the archipelago. For affair Sp ices from Maluku (mainly "tributaries" A remarkable fact is obvious reasons, the "favoured consisting of nutmeg and cloves) that Sunda, mentioned in the Para­ coast" (Wolters 1967, ch. 13) for were gathered at ports in Java and raton, was not included in the Na­ Chinese shipping and trade was Sumatra from where they were garakrtagama. found in this region. It was a con ­ shipped further to the outside Let us now concentrate on the venient meeting place for the India­ world. Cloves and nutmegs, accord­ geographical names as listed by Pra­ as well as for the China- bound traf­ ing to Chinese and Arab sources, panca . Although ca lled by Profes­ fic and the staple-market for pro­ were said to be products of Java sor Kern a "dorre opsomming" (dry ducts gathered from various parts and Sumatra as the secret of the enumeration) of names, he cl aims of the archipelago. route to the Spice Islands was jea­ that it is "more expressive than any Little is known, however, about lously kept (elaborated more in my picture of the power of Java in the "internal" relations within the re­ article of 1965). middle of the 14th century of our •This is • revi* text of the paper diKu.ed at era" (Kern 1919: 13). Dr Pigeaud, the SPAFA Consultative Workshop on R• Indigenous sources covering a sNrch on Maritime Shipping end Trade Net· wider area of the Indonesian archi­ however, writing in the wake of worka in SouthNit As~. Ciurue, Indonesia, 2~ pelago date from the middle of the Professor Berg's demythologization 77 November 1984 - The author wishes to thank the participants for their comments end fourteenth century. The Pararaton of a "Greater Majapahit" (Berg suggestions that enable him to improve the text. (from about 1350) mentions the 1951-52). doubts "whether Majapa­ names of Bali, Dompo, Seran, hit authority at any time has been The author works as Assis­ Gurun, Tanjungpura, Suncla, Palem­ of much consequence in most tant Director of the National bang, Haru, Paha ng, and Tumsaik. Institute for Cultural Studies countries mentioned in the list" The Nagarakrtagama (1365) gives a (Pigeaud IV, 1962: 29). He also in Jakarta, Indonesia. 41

observes that Prapanca's know'edge "'Oere are tour big groups as toponyms of Suak-kandis and Kota­ of geography "seems chaotic' as arra11ged by the poet Prapanca. kandis nearer the Jambi coast "there Is not much order in t e ...... ,e first is what he called "the where old ceramic remains have list" (ibid.) . Lack of proper kPo.-.­ country of Malayu" which is for us been found {Bambang 1983). ledge of geography is indeed a s p · ~e ·s.and of Sumatra (Canto 13, After Kandis, the list of Prapanca often shown by writers of the P8Sl s~anza 1 and stanza 2 verse 1 ). The mentions Kahwas and Manangkab­ as well as of the present. Pro~esso .. second group is called "the island wa (Minangkabau), also in the vici­ Krom (1919: 261) also assu~es o: Tanjung-Nagara" or the present nity of Jambi. We can draw the that the poet's "I imited geograo"'­ sand of Kalimantan (Borneo), list- conclusion that relations between cal knowledge" partly accounts :or eo ., Canto 13, stanza 2, verses 3 Java and Minangkabau were estab- the fact that "no fixed line s ana 4 and Canto 14, stanza 1 The 1ished through the great rivers on observed in the sequence of pace ~r - .. d one (Canto 14, stanza 2) is the east coast of Sumatra. names. Partly, he says, the arrange­ sa o to belong to Pahang ("sakaha­ The next sub-group lies to the ment of names must be attributab e .·.an Pahang"), consisting of place north, i.e. Siak, Rokan, Kampar, to poetic requirements of metre. names :ound in the Malay peninsu­ and Pane (Panai). These naryles still Perhaps both explanations are la -"-e remai nder is grouped to­ exist today as names of rivers. In valid. But to put "order" into a ge-..rer as those lying "to the east geographical order from south to number of names depends on a :ro...., ~he Javanese country" (sawe­ north the arrangement should be : specific "line" of thinking, and th1s ~an ikanang tanah Jawa). Seen in Kampar-Siak-Rokan-Panai. The fol­ should not necessarily be of a geo­ re·rosoect this fourth group seems lowin~ sub-qroups also. consistinq graphic nature. Besides a concern to ne an ear y precursor of the pre­ of Kampei-Haru-Mandailing, Tu­ for rhythmic order as requ ired by war oroo nee of the "Grote Oost" miang (Tamiang)-Perlak-Barat {Seun­ the metre, the arrangement can also Great East . jamborahat?), and Lwas-Sa-mudra­ be ruled by other considerations, lamuri present difficulties as they for example, a listing based on The Sumatra Group seem to be interspersed among chronological order· a more distant each other. If the identification is place may have established earl ier ~ ~e Sumatra-group begins with right, then Mandailing is too contacts, commercially or pol iti.cal­ Jamb •o ()lhed by Palembang, and far south from Kampei (Pulau Kam­ ly. The list can also be made not tne other way round. Jambi, pai) and Arun, Barat is much according to ranking of importance, un 'ke ?a efT'bang, was not men­ farther west from Perlak and Ta­ political as well as economic, of the tioPed n tl')e famous pa/apa-oath miang, while L{a) is again too countries mentioned. Sometimes of GaJah Mada. so ·t can be assum­ far south from Samudra and Lamu­ relative positions (like interdepen­ ed that by that t me Jambi was ri. Here perhaps the information dencies) have also to be taken into already under the power of Majapa­ gathered by Prapanca from mer­ consideration. In a later period, for h it. It stands to reason that in the chants and travelers was not clear. exarryple, the VOC had to deal with list o~ Prapanca Jamb takes prece­ But the possibility remains that Sumbawa through the Sultan of dence to Pa embang. Closer ties bet­ the location of toponyms should be Gowa, and with Banggai by way of ween Jamb1 and kingdoms in Java found elsewhere and that the com­ Ternate. The sequence of names have perhaps been started in earlier bination of names represents certa­ can also be due to commercial con­ periods, especially seen in the in forms of alliances. venience : certain goods had to be context of Jambi's rivalry with Pa­ The three remaining names of delivered first to some distant place lembang (Srivijaya). The Pamalayu the Sumatra group: Satan, Lam­ in exchange· for· products which are exped ition of Kertanegara went to pung, and Barus, are too far apart found in another market place, and Jambi first. And in later times (De­ from each other to form a separate so on. But for whatever reasons the mark, Mataram) relations with sub-group. If Satan is correctly poet had made up the list, at a Jambi were also significant. placed at present day Batam island, glance we can recognize a certain Returning to the Majapahit era, it must have been the major island order of groupings, suggesting per­ the importance of Jambi is clearly port off the eastern coast, surpas­ haps particular relationships. In any evident as more place names point sing Bangka, Belitung, Bintan, and case, this list of geographical names to this area : Karitang, Tebo, and the Lingga archipelago which later reveals that Majapah it established a Dharmacraya are places located became more important. It is in­ wide range of overseas contacts. In further upstream in the present pro­ teresting to note that the island os other words, the list may hint at vince of Jambi. The next name, Bangka was not mentioned the existence of certain sea-routes. Kandis, is still preserved in the although it was already known ·n 42

the Srivijaya period (the inscrip­ tion of Kota Kapur of 686). How­ ever, it must also be remembered that a river Satang is found in the The bricks found close to Tanjung island of Bangka, a Pulau Satang are identical in form and measure­ (or Betang) can be found near Beli­ tung, while another Pulau Satang is ment with those of Trow ulan. part of the Lingga archipelago. That Lampung and Barus are mentioned together may be an indication that meet. The other two are st111 cAtSt­ lana with Tanjung Puri as principal shipping to Barus (on the north­ ing names in the present provtnce town is mentioned separately west coast of Sumatra) could have of Central Kalimantan. Thus it is (Canto 14, stanza 1, verse 4) and, called first at the harbour(s) of still to be solved why Kuta Lingga tnstead of Melanau in Sarawak, Lampung. is mentioned in the same breath should be identified with the pre­ Kingdoms rise and wane also in wtth Samptt and Kota Wanngtn, un­ sent Telok-malano on the west Sumatra. It is, therefore, not sur­ less the case ts dismissed again as coast in the bay of Sukadana. As prising that of the above-mention­ betng mere geographical ignorance we know, the later Javanese king­ ed places only a few remained in on the part of the poet. The next doms of Demak and Mataram en­ the sixteenth century as reported sub-group(s), i.e. Sambas-Lawai joyed good relations with Sukada­ by Tome Pires. These are, from (Melawai), Kadangdangan ( Kenda­ na . north to south, Lamori, Aru, Ro­ wangan )-Landa ( Landak)-Samedang kan, Siak, Kampar, Minangkabau, (Semandang)-Tirem (Peniraman) The Malay Peninsu la Group Jambi and Palembang. On the west are to be found close together in coast, the harbour place of Baros West Kalimantan. After Kalimantan, all the names is still of importance. Lampung is The following sub-group consist­ listed in Canto 14, stanza 2, point now divided into Tuland Bawang ing of Sedu (Sadong) in Sarawak to the Malay Peninsula. First Pa­ and Sekampung, while Barat may (Maludu Bay), Solot (Sulu), and hang which, according to the text, be the same as "Melabah or Day" Pasir, represents a sea-route circum­ was the most important place : the Instead of Samudra and Parlak the navigating the island. Then comes others "belong" to Pahang, of names of Pasai and Pidie are men­ Baritu (Barito) and Sawaku (the which the principal is Hujung-Medi­ tioned. But Prapanca's choice of island of Sebuku) in South Kali­ ni located in Johore. Then come the name Samudra instead of Pasa i mantan. The three last names are Lengkasuka (in Patani), Sai, Kalan­ may have been dictated by the Tabalung, Tunjung-Kute, and Mala­ tan, and Tringgano (Trengganu). metre. In the sixteenth century, no. Tabalung (Tabalong) is located These are, together with Pahang, many kingdoms on the east coast in Amuntai, Tunjung- Kute is Kutai places on the east coast. The fol­ were more or less in a subordinate on the east coast, and Malano is lowing sub-group is made up of position to Malaka. present day Melanau in Sarawak Pakamuwar, Dungun, Tumaski, and (Pigeaud IV, 1962: 32). According Sanghyang Hujung. Professor de The Island of Tanjung Nagara to Uka Tjandrasasmita, archaeolo­ Josselin de Jong locates the first gical remains are found in the area two names, i.e. Paka and Muwar, The Kalimantan-group or "the of the Tabelong river, close to the near Kemaman, while Dungun is island of Tanjung Nagara" starts town of Tanjung which is located the North Cape in Kem~man. Tu­ with Kapuas and Katingan. Here on the confluence of the rivers Ta­ masik is Singapura (according to the name Ka-puas does not refer to belong and Jaing. The bricks found Gerini) or Johore (according to Pel­ the river of the same name in West at the site are identical in form and liot). Sanghyang Hujung (Sening Kalimantan, but rather to Kuala measurement with those of Trowu­ Ujung) lies between Malaka and Se­ Kapuas in Central Kalimantan lan, a major town of Majapahit. In langor The sub-group Kelang-Keda­ which is closer to Katingan (the the light of this discovery the name Jerai is, like the previous one, also Mendawai river). Then comes the Tunjung-Kute should be read as on the west coast but farther north. sub-group consisting of Sampit, two names: Tanjung which is on For the two last names of. Kanjap Kuta-Lingga, and Kuta-Waringin. Of the Tabelong river, and Kutai on and Niran, as yet no satisfactory the three, the middle one is identi­ the east coast where early Hindu identification has been found. The fied with Lingga in Sarawak where inscriptions dating from the fifth text suggests that they are in one the rivers Lingga and Satang Lupar century A.D. have been found. Ma- island and that the name Kanjap is 43

known in Arab sources (Kanjab). They are tentatively placed either in the Riau-Lingga archipelago or in Van Eerde's identification of Uda Karimun (De Jesse n de Jong 1956). with the Talaud islands is based The route to the eastern region begins, naturally, w'th Bali (Canto on Professor Kern's information 14, stanza 3). Here two principal that the indigenous name of places are ment oned Badahulu and Lwa-Gajah 'Lo-Gajah). The Talaud is Tal -oda. next name of Gurun. having the principal place of Sukun, ·s located (by Van Eerde) n the 1s and of accept the assumption that the I ist t he "trio" referred to here of Nusa Penida. Van Fraassen (1976: is indeed chaotic, for in the next which Uda is made, should include 295). however, seems to prefer the I ines the names refer again to the the two preceding .. names of Ban­ identification made by Professor same island, but whereas the former taeng and Luwu(k). But if we Teeuw, viz. that Sukun shou d be is still a matter of conjecture, the maintain the hypothesis as posed found in north-west Lornbok (i. e. names ( Lombok-M irah and the Sak­ by Van Eerde by locating Uda in Tanjung whose old narne vvas So­ sak cou ntry) are more convincingly the Talaud archipelago, then Luwuk kong). while the two names of connected with Lombok. should preferably be identified with Gurun (Gorong=Gerung) stand for The fact, however, that Gurun is present day Luwuk, a small harbour the whole island of Lombok ·n­ mentioned twice in different places on the east coast (122 7'E, 19'S). cluding also the other slands of suggests that we are dealing with From here strong currents go in Nusatenggara. two different names as in the case a northern direction, so that ships Those that follow are further of Solot and Seran. Therefore, the can reach the northeastern coast of east : Taliwang, Dompo Sap dentification of the second Gurun Sulawesi and the Sangir-Talaud Sanghyang Api, Sh ima, Seran and with the Gorong islands to the east island rather easily. Perhaps, the hy­ Hutan Kadali. Except for Ta wang of Seram should be accepted. Men­ pothesis that the old kingdom of Lu­ which is located in the western part toned after Hutan Kadali (Buru or wu (the oldest in Bugis traditions)• of Sumbawa, the places of Dompo the Su a islands) and Seran, Gurun had its former seat on this coast be­ Sapi, Sanghyang Api (i. e. GunuPg is not out of place. Those that fol­ fore the Bugis moved to the gulf of Api or Sangeang) , and Sima are a low from another sea-route, startin!:l Bone (personal communication by found in the eastern ha f of the with Lombok-Mirah and the Sak­ Professor Mattulada) has some vali­ island. Seran is the island of Seram sak country (Sasak). in West and dity. Another problem is whether in Central Maluku. For Hutan East Lombok respectively, that the ships sailed from Lombok to Kadati, an ingenious solution was is, if we follow Rouffaer, or, if Bantaeng, or whether a straight found by Rouffaer (1915: 645 the interpretation of Van Eerde is connexion between Majapahit and seq.) who places it in the island of preferred, both in East Lombok this port in Sulawesi exists. How­ Bu ru or the Su Ia island to the north (Pigeaud IV, 1962: 34). Mentioned ever, we know that in the later of Seram. Thus the sequence of the in the same stanza (4) after Lom­ period, the Bugis had direct con­ I ist presents no d ifficu Ities. The bok, are the countries of Banta­ tacts with the island of Lombok. next name of Gurun (not to be con­ van, Luwuk, and Uda. The first Van Eerde's identification of fused with the first 'homonym two names are in Sulawesi, Viz. Uda with the Talaud islands is bas­ which stands for Nusa Penida or Bantaeng and Luwu to the north, in ed on Professor Kern's information Lombok) has been identified as the the gulf of Bone. The country (or that the indigenous name of Talaud Gorong archipelago to the east of countries) of Uda is placed by Van is Tal-oda. However, the explana­ Seram. Although mentioned in the Eerde in the Talad archipelago. tion that the name is derived from first verse of the next stanza, this Although later other scholars have Tau(n)-laude (Steller & Aebersold Gurun should be grouped together agreed with this ident ification, it 1959: 485), meaning people (tau ) with the preceding names. must be remenbered that it is still of the sea (laude, the Indonesian Of course, we must also take into a matter of conjecture: the so-cal l­ /aut) is most plausible. Curiously account Teeuw's interpretation that ed "three major islands" can be enough, the word uda (or udaka ) both Gurun are to be identified placed elsewhere in this ·eastern in Old-Javanese and Sanskrit means with lombok. In this case, we part of the arch ipelago. Perhaps "water" (Zoetmulder 1982: 2098), 44

thus supporting again the view that adds that the name was found even lands of Banda , Ambon, and Malu­ Uda should be placed in the Talaud in earlier sources of the early 16th ku. Nowadays, the name of Maluku archipelago. century. Barnes, however, suggests is applied to the whole province of The following three names repre­ that the name should refer ttl the is­ which Banda and Ambon are im· sent anot her sea-route : Makasar-Bu­ land of Pantar lying between Lam­ "portant parts. The name "Maloko'' tun-Banggawi. The places are easily bien ( Lembata) and Alar (Barnes of the text is correctly identified ident ifiable. Butun or Butung was 1982: 409-410). In fact, Van Fraa­ with what is known as the " proper until recently the seat of a kingdom ssen (1976 : 296) did mention Ka­ Moluccas", viz. the clove producing with the same name, and Banggawi yan in Pantar as a probable location country in the northern part of the is Banggai which in later times be­ of Galiyao. Moreover, a very recent province. However, to locate it in came a vassal of Ternate. Makasar is article by Dietrich ( 1984:317-326) Ternate (as has been done repeated­ the name of an ethnic goup in confirms Barnes ' suggestion. ly by previous scholars) is some­ South Sulawesi. The present town The next names of Sumba and what anachronistic. Maluku stands of Ujung Pandang, formerly known Solot (Solar) do not present prob· for the collective unity of Maluku­ as Makasar, was the harbour of the lems for 1dentificat1on. This is not Kie-Raha (the four Ma luku moun­ twin k1ngdom Gowa-Tallo. During the case, however, with the name tains), comprising of Ternate, Ti­ the Majapahit era, however, the to­ of Muar Several places haven been dore, Bacan, and Jai lolo. Ternate ponym Makasar could perhaps be mentioned in connexion with it. became m the course of time the identified with the old principality the Kei islands, Honi-Moa, or Sa pa­ most important of the four, at least of Siyang which was the most im­ rua, as is suggested by Rouffaer at the time when the first Portu­ portant political power among the But Van Fraassen offers a better guese sh ips arrived in the 16th cen­ people of Makasar (Pelras 1973: Solution by relating it to "Bata­ tury. But orig1nally Bacan occupied 47). It is also interesting to note china de Muar" which frequently the leading position as told by local that the two major ethnic groups of occurs in Portuguese texts and tradit ion (discussed in my article, South Sulawesi - Bugis and Maka· which should be identified with the 1984). In the 17th century, the Su l­ sar - are not mentioned at the peninsula of Hoamoal in the island tan of Bacan was already referred same t ime. This may be an allusion of Seram (Van Fraassen 1976: 296, to as "het onvermogende Coninkje to the fact that the kingdom of Ma· see also Dietrich 1984:320). He van Batchian" (the poor little king japah it had separate relations with of Bacan), though in the time of each of them. Another interesting ... Maloko is correctly Majapahit, it was still the major feature is the link made between power of Maluku. Accord ing to Butung and Banggai. This will be identified with. . . the local belief, the origina l seat of elaborated below when we come proper Moluccas, the Bacan . was in the island of Makian to Maluku. whose importance as a clove pro­ After Banggawi, the names of clove producing ducing island has been described by Kunir (Pulau Kunyit, south of country ... many writers. Pu Iau Lau t), Gal iyao ( Kangean) , In this context, the name "Bate­ and Salaya(r) can be grouped to· rightly observes that Cortesao's ex­ ch ina de Mora" wh ich according to gether Van Fraassen (1976:295) planation of geogra phical names Portuguese and Dutch writings (in­ doubts whether Kunir should be mentioned in the Suma Oriental cluding Valentyn's) was the old located at Pualu Kunyit in the pre­ (Cortesao I, 1944: 209-210) was name for the island of Halmahera sent province of South Kalimantan, not correct. I also would like to add can easily be explained. As Bacan, especially as we are dealing here that in the original text of Tome in the old texts also spelled Batjan, with places .east of Java. But he Pires only three names," Amborn, Batchian, or Batschian, had dwindl­ could not give another alternative. Ytagoay, Vulmicalao" are mentioned ed into a small principality when There is, however, a Tanjung Kun­ whereas Cortesao gives five names the Portuguese arrived , its former ing in the island of Komodo which in his translation : "Amboina, Hitu, role in the area had been forgotten is still in the neighbourhood of Ka­ Haruku (Ytagoay ), Honimoa, Nusa so that folk etymology must have lao. Van Fraassen prefers to identify Laut ( Vulmicalao )" I inked the island's name with the Ga liyao in that place rather than in The I ist of eastern countries ends bigger power of China, hence " Ba­ the isl and of Kangean . He also re­ with the names of Wandan, Amb­ tochina" With regard to "Bato· minds us of the remarkable fact wan, Maloko, Wwanin, Seran, and china de Muar" which points to tbe that " Gallejau" appeared in a 17th· Timur The first three are easily re­ island of Seram, the same link can century Dutch text; Barnes (1982) cognizable as the famous spice is- be established with the old power 45

of Bacan. After all, Portuguese and (more references are given in my In the Bird's Head area, the posses­ early Dutch sources do mention article, 1984a). After the decline of sion of Timor cloth is a most presti­ Bacan's claims on several places in Bacan, Tidore continued to have re­ gious status symbol. In addition, Seram. lations with Maluku and Raja Am­ "kain Timur" is also a valuable item Mora is the name of an old king­ pat. in the exchange of bridal gifts. Seen dom, probably the first, in Halma­ In the I ist of Prapanca, neither in this context,a better familiarity hera having its centre in the present the name of Papua nor that of Raja with local conditions and a more district of Tobelo. According to Ampat (or Kolano Fat) is found. detailed study of historical geo­ local belief, the Mora people- who Instead, we have Wwanin (Onin) graphy including wind patterns and are regarded as the original inhabi­ which is located in the Bird's Head sea currents, supported by archaeo­ tants - are still wandering around peninsula of Irian. The second logical evidences may hopefully although now invisible to the produce a more refined picture human eye. The historical existence than has been obtained until now. of the people of Mora can be attest­ ... Study of historical Also local legends and myths may ed by Portuguese sources, and the serve as useful clues for further name still survives in the island of geography ... sup­ inquiry. Morotai ("Mora-of-the-sea", in Bibliography contrast to Moro-tia, "Mora-of­ ported by archaelo­ i.e. Boxer, C.R. and P.Y. Manguin Miguel Roxo the-land"). gical evidence may de Brito's narrative of his voyage to the Raja A Portuguese text from about Empat, May 1581 - November 1582." Archi­ 1544, most probably written by pe/ 18 ( 19791: 175-194. produce a more re­ Brandes, J . L.A. Pararaton (Ken Arok) of Antonio Galvao, has recorded an her Boek der Koningen van Tumapel en van old legend about the origins of the fined picture ... Majapshit. Vertt. Bat. Genootsc:hap LXII , kings of Bacan. They are said to be 1920. Cortesao, Armando The Suma Oriental descendants of one of four eggs Seran is also placed by Rouffaer on of Tome Pires. 2 Vols. London, The Hakluyt which was found being guarded by the coast of Irian, i.e. in Kowiai, Society, 1944. a serpent. The eggs gave birth to De Josselin de Jong, P.E. " Malayan and South New Guinea. This coast and Sumatran place names in cl-ical Malay litera­ three boys and one girl. When they the Bird's Head have had a long ture." Malayan Journal of Tropical Geography grew up, the boys became kings of, tradition of trade connexions with IX (19561:61-70. respectively, "Bachao" (Bacan). Dietrich, Stefan "A note on Galiyao and the Maluku, especi all y with eastern early history of the Solor. Alor islands" Bijdr. "dos Papuas", "Botum e Bemguay" Seram and the Gorong islands. We Kom. lnst. 140 (19841 :317-326. (Butung and Banggai). while the girl are fortunate to have a Spanish text Generate Missiven van Gouvemeurs-Generaal became the wife of the king of Lo­ en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oos­ by Miguel Rojo de Brito ( 1581-82) tindische Compagnie, II. The Hague, Martinus loda in northern Halmahera (Jacobs describing trade activities in these Nijhoff, 1964. 1971 80-83). The legend - "crea districts (Boxer and Mangu in Jacobs, Hubert Th. Th. M. A treatise on the quem. quiser" - thus establishes a Moluccas (c. 1544)... Rome, Jesuit Historical 19 79). Although the Relacion dates Institute, 1971. link between Bacan and the other from the 16th century, conditions Kern, H. "Een Oud Javaansch geschied· Maluku powers through the female might be the same in the Majapahit kunding gedicht uit her bloetitijdperk van I ine, while placing Bacan on the Majspshit." Verspreide Geschriften, VII- VIII. era. In fact they have not changed K rom, N.J. Hat Oud.Javaansche lofdicht same footing with Butung-Banggai much in the 17th century and even Nagarakrtagama van Prapanca ( 1365 A.D .I. and the Papua (i.e. the Raja Ampat) later when the Dutch have estab­ The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1919. islands. It is a curious co-incidence Macknight, C C 'The nature of early lished themselves in Banda and Am­ maritime trade: some points of analogy from that Butung and Banggai are again bon (Generale Missiven II, 1964: the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago." closely linked together as in the list 679). World Archaeology 5 (21; October 1973: 198- of Prapanca (Canto 14, stanza 5). 209. The last name in the list of Pra­ Meilink-Roelofsz, M.A.P. Asian trade and Or, perhaps, it is not a co-incidence panca is Timur which is easily re­ European influence in the Indonesian archipe­ at all but an evidence that in the cognized as the island of Timor lago between 1500 and 1630. The Hague, Mar­ past, at least until the 14th century, tinus Nijhoff, 1962. The question remains, however, Pelras, Chris1ian " Les premieres donnees the two countries had more inti­ why Timor is mentioned after the occidentales concernant Delebes-sud." Bijdr. mate relations (political, economic, places in Irian instead of in the K on. Inst. 133 ( 19771 :277-260. or cultural?) thi'ln today. Pigeaud, Theodore G. Th. Java in the 14th group of Sumba and Solar Com­ century, a study in cultural history. The Hague, Closer relations bet•~o~een Bacan mercially, Timor is important to Martinus Nijhoff, 1960 and 1962. and the land of Papua are recorded several ethnic groups in Irian for in Portuguese and Dutch sources they imported their much valued continued on page 49 46

National Institute of Cultural Stud­ SPAFA Affairs ies. Mrs. Suleiman talked on the "Maritime Routes in the Classical Period" where she stressed the need to study further the problem SPAFA Convenes concerning the identification of toponyms from historical sources. "The Maritime Network in the Workshop on Early Indonesian Archipelago in the 14th Century" was the subject dealt with by Mr Lapian which reflected the process of procurement and distri­ Maritime Trade bution of trade goods as well as trade alliances. Dr. Ambary, on the other hand, concentrated on the maritime trade commodities found in archaeological sites of Indonesia. The Philippine delegation com­ posed of Dr. Jesus Peralta, Chair­ man of the Anthropology Divison; Mr Wilfreda Ronquillo, Senior anthropologist; and Mr Rey Santia­ go, Senior Researcher, all from the National Museum in Manila, pre­ pared a j.oint paper entitled "Pre­ historic Maritime Trade in the Philippines." Their paper presented a chronology of underwater archa­ eological activities conducted in the country.

Additional areas of studies rela­ The participants to ting to maritime shipping and trade the workshop networks were recommended by Thai Reports participants to the SPAFA "Con­ sultative Workshop on Research on Maritime Shipping and Trade Net­ The Thai country reports were works in Southeast Asia" conduct­ prepared by the following members ed at Cisarua and Banten in West The workshop was attended by of the delegation: Dr. Suebsang Java, Indonesia, from 20-27 No­ delegates from Indonesia, the Phi­ Promboon, Dean of the Faculty vember 1984. lippines and Thailand, consultants of Liberal Arts of Thammasat Among the topics for studies and observers from Australia, University; Mr Vidya lntakosai of suggested to be taken up in future France, Great Britain, USA and the the Underwater Archaeology Pro­ SPAFA wmkshops and seminars SPAF A Member Countries. The ject, Fine Arts Department; and were the following: terminology of papers presented disclosed results Prof. Chusiri Chamoraman, Faculty ships; shipwreck site archaeology; of respective researches with a few of Arts, Silpakorn University. Prof. iconography of ships; protective advancing re-interpretation of data. Chusiri summarized the historical legislation; megalithic culture as Country reports from Indonesia and archaeological evidence of the related to seafaring people; ports, were prepa·red by Mrs. Satyawati existence of trans-shipping routes, harbours and human resources; Suleiman and Dr. Hasan M. Ambary, ports and other trading centers in vocabulary of' trade goods, local Senior Research Officer and Head Peninsular Thailand in her paper tradition and old maps; and more of the Islamic department of the entitled "Notes on Some Place­ on recoveries of trade commodities, National Research Center of Arch­ Names in Peninsular Thailand dur­ from ceramics to metalcraft, from aeology, respectively, and Mr A.B. ing the 12th and 14th centuries nautical archaeological sites. Lapian, Assistant Director of the A.D." ·47

The paper of Dr. Suebsang, "Evidence of Early Contacts Be­ for Southeast Asian historiography. entitled "The Siamese Maritime tween Thailand and Neighboring He stressed the importance of Trade A.D. 1351-1511", traced the Countries." From Dr. Anthony working on a historical atlas of development of Siamese commer­ Reid of the Research School of Southeast Asian sea routes. cial activities starting from tributa­ Pacific Studies, Australian National A researcher of EFEO, Dr. Vi­ ry trading to direct trading with University, came the reminder that viane Sukanda-Tessier presented China which led to the rise of the foodstuffs such as rice, salt, sugar, some insights on the role played by Ayuthaya reign. etc., formed the bulk of the trade Sunda in maritime relations in her Mr. Vidya spoke on the under­ items followed by cloth, ceramics, paper "Notes on Sabrang, i.e., water archaeology project of Thai­ metalware, spices and slaves. He Country on the Other Side of the land covering eight sites on the Gulf also paid attention to the trade Sea" which was based on the study of Thailand : Ko Kram, Ko Kradat routes used i'n the shipment of of classical Sundanese literature. these goods in his paper "Trade in Trat Province, Samae San, Prasae, The excavation at Fort Canning, Goods and Trade Routes in South­ Ko Talu, Rang Kwian, Samud­ Singapore, was the subject of Dr. east Asia, 1300- 1700." ngan and Ko Samui. John N. Miksic, Project Specialist The impact of trading of textiles in Archaeology, University of Gajah Aside from the papers presented on the people along the maritime Mada. He gave a preliminary ac­ by_ the official delegates, supple­ trade routes of Indonesia was count of the background of the mentary reports prepared by con­ emphasized by Ms. Paramita R. project and the archaeological work sultants to the workshop were dis­ Aburachman, researcher at the being done. cussed. Following were the subjects National Institute of Cultural Stud­ pnd authors of these additional ies, in her "Observations on the papers: Impact of Trade Goods." On the Other Participants Dr. R.P. Soejono, Director of the other hand, Mr. Abu Ridho, Spec­ National Research Center of Archa­ ialist, National Museum of Indo­ The other consultants and obser­ eology and concurrently, Director nesia, attempted to trace trade vers to the workshop were as fol­ of the SP AF A Sub-Centre for routes through a comparative study lows: consultants-Mr. Uka Tjandra­ Archaeological Research in Indone­ of ceramic assemblages from coastal sasmita, Director, Directorate for sia, spoke on "Maritime Shipping and riverine sites believed to be theiProtection'and Development of in Prehistoric Times in Indonesia ·: old shipping harbours. His paper Cultural Heritage; Dr. R. Soekmo­ He mentioned that, so far, archaeo­ was entitled "The Meaning of Cera­ no, Faculty of Letters, University logical evidence of maritime ship­ mics Found in the Sea of Tuban, of Indonesia; Mrs. Soejatmi Satari, ping is available only from the East Java, for Tracing the Sea Head of Classical Department, Na­ Neolithic Period. Cave paintings Route in the Archipelago." tional Research Center of Archaeo­ support the evidence of early An overview of archaeology of logy; observers- Mr Bastomi Ervan, maritime activities according to Mr shipwrecks in Asia and Southeast SPAF A Governing Board Member Kosasih, a researcher of Puspan, Asia was presented by Mr Jeremy for Indonesia; Ms. D.O. Bintarti, whose paper was entitled "The Green, Head of the Department Head of Prehistory Department, Role of Ships as Illustrated by Cave of Maritime Archaeology, Western National Research Center of Arch­ Paintings." Australian Maritime Museum. tie aeology; Dr. J. Dumarcy, EFEO; emphasized the need for more Dr. Aurora Roxas- Lim, Asian Cen­ studies of shipwrecks to resolve ter, University of the Philippines; Trade Goods problems on maritime trade, the Dr. Noerhadi Magetsari, Dean, problem of identification of cera­ Faculty of Letters, University of In­ The study of trade goods from mics by provenance and attribution, donesia; Mr. Santoso Soegondho, different perspectives was the theme ship construction and others. Researcher, National Research Cen­ of four papers. Dr Pronchai Suchit­ Meanwhile Dr Pierre-Yves Man­ ter of Archaeology and Mrs. Es­ ta, Head of the Department of guin, Charge des Recherches, EFEO, peranza Gatbqnton, formerly of the Anthropology, Silpakorn University, in "Sailing Instructions for South­ lntramuros Project, Manila, Philip­ focused on ancient artifacts of east Asian Seas (15th - 17th Centu­ pines. foreign origin, especially the Dong­ ries) : A Virtually Untapped Source", The workshop was co-ordinated son style drums and beads and described the kind of technical by Dr Rosa C.P Tenazas, Assistant other ornaments of stone and glass literature he was referring to and Co-ordinator, SPAFA Co-ordinating found in Thailand in his paper discussed its usefulness as a source Unit, Bangkok, Thailand. 48

SPAFA: From Thai Sub-Centre Holds Training Project to Centre on Conservation The SEAMEO Project in Archa­ the Regional Centre, will provide eoloqy and Fine Arts (SPAFA) will the operating funds of the Centre. be reconstituted into a Regional All SEAM EO Member Countries are A three-month trammg pro­ Centre. The change in its status was expected to participate in this un­ l)ramme on "Research Methods for approved by the SEAMEO Council r:lertaking. At the moment, only ln­ Conservation of Organic Materials" at its 20th SEAMEC Conference r::tonesia, the Philippines and Thai­ I l=ebruary - May 1985), was con­ held in Manila in February 1985. lanr:l are SPAFA active members. cluded at the SPAFA Thai Sub­ The SEAMES Director, Dr Adul SPAFA will become the 6th Centre in Bangkok. A total of 10 11\/ichiencharoen, was enjoined to SEAMEO Centre. The five others trainees from the Philippines, Indo­ spearhead the necessary action to are, namely· BIOTROP, INNO­ nesia and Thailand had the oppor­ effect the transition of SPAFA to a TECH, RECSAM, RELCand SEAR­ tunity, in addition to regular lec­ Regional Centre. He will be assisted CA. TROPMED will continue to tures, of observing conservation by the Ministry of Education of function as a Project. methods conr:lucted at other insti­ Thailand and the SPAFA Co-ordi­ SPAFA was launched in March tutions in Thailand. The training nating Unit in this effort. The plan 1978. As a Project, its structure course covered, among others, the of action will be submitted to the comprises of a Co-ordinating Unit following important subject mat­ Council in the next SEAMEC Con­ which is based in Bangkok and a ters : general conservation methods; ference in 1986 for approval prior network of Sub-Centres located i:1 museum storage; photographic do­ to its arjoption. the active Member Countries. In the cumentation of archaeological ob­ Meanwhile, SPAFA will continue Present system the Sub-Centres are jects; radiography; chemical ha­ to implement its current five-year the actual venues of programmes zards; scientific examination of Development Plan (1981-1986) and anr:l activities that were drawn up set the stage for the second five­ for implementation in the Develop­ year Development Plan (1986-1991). ment Plans. The Royal Thai Government, having expressed willingness to host

organic mater.ials; introduction to and Mr. I. Gusti Ngurah Putra from insect pests in museums and their the branch offices for the Preserva­ chemical control; and factors in the tion of Historical and Archaeologi­ deterioration of organic matters. cal Heritage in Jogyakarta and Bali, The Philippine participants were respectively. Mr Rogelio C. Aquino and Mr Re­ The participants from Thailand nata B. De los Santos from the were Mr. Sakchai · Sisingha, Mr. Conservation Laboratory Depart­ Turasak Visitchainusorn and Mr ment of the National Museum and Manoon Songalayanavit from the Miss Cecilia Magboo of the National branch offices of the National Historical Institute. Museum in Chiengmai, Kamphaeng­ lnr:lonesia's trainees were Mr phet and Songkla, respectively, anq Roby Aryanto from the National Mr Chatchai Romsonthi from the Research Centre of Archaeology Department of Archaeology, Silpa­ Training Participants in Jakarta and Mr Imam Sunaryo korn University. 49

1971 The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay History. Ithaca: Cornell University. Personnel Exchange 1982 History, Cu lture, andRe­ ligion in Southeast Asian Programme Held Perspectives. Singapore: Institute of Southeast SPAFA worked out two program­ A survey of prehistoric cave Asian Studies. mes for Personnel Exchanges in the paintings both in Indonesia and Woodward, H. areas of Fine Arts and Archaeology Thailand will be the main focus of 1978 "The Dating of Sukhothai for F.Y. 1984/1985. A meeting of the exchange programme in archaeo­ and Sawankhalok Cera­ experts in the Fine Arts from the loby. Archaeologists from the Phi­ mics : Some Considera­ SPAFA Member Countries including lippines, Indonesia and Thailand tions." Journal of the the Directors of the SPAFA Sub­ will be undertaking cultural visits to Siam Society 66/1 1-7 Centres for the Fine Arts in the archaeological sites on the island Maritime Network ... Philippines, Indonesia and Thailand, of Sulawesi in Indonesia and in from page 45 was convened in Jogjakarta, Indo­ Thailand. The Personnel Exchange Rouffaer, G.P. "Oudjavaansc:he eilandnamen nesia, from April 21 to 27, 1985. Programme in archaeology is sche­ in de Groote Oost: Sergili, Seran (Ceran), The main purpose of the meeting duled for implementation in late 8oeroe (Hoetan Kadali)." Tijds. Aardr. Genoot· was to evaluate the concluded June and early July 1985. tehap 32 (1916): 642-649. activities and prepare for the few Steller, K.G.F. and W.F. Aebersold San­ giree6·Nederland6 woordenboek met Nederlt~nds· that were still to be conducted Fort Canning ... chiedenis van de Ambon68 eilanden': 8ijdr. before the end of the current Deve­ Kon. lnst. 132 ( 1976}. 293-305. lopment Plan (1981 -1986). Logis­ from page 39 Wolters, O.W. Early Indonesian Commetce. Moore, E. A Study of the Origins of Srivijaya. Ithaca, N.Y. tics problems were among the im­ Cotnell Uniwrsity Press, 1967. portant items taken up in the agen­ 1970 "A Suggested Classifica­ Zoetmulder, P.J. with the collaboration of da. tion of Stonewares of S.O. Robson Old Javanese -English dictionary. Martabani Type," Sara­ 2 pans. The Hague, Maninus Nijhoff 1982. Also, in preparation for tlie im­ References to my anicles are: wak Museum Journal 18/ 1966 - " Beherapa tjatatan mengenai plementation of activities in fine 36-37• 1-78. djalan dagang . maritim ke Maluku sebelum arts in the 2nd 5-Year Development Pires, T abed xvi. Madjalah 1/mu·ilmu Sastra Indo· Plan (1986-1991). the activities flftia Ill: 63-78. 1944 The Suma Oriental of 1984 - "The diwrsified unity of Maluku­ were prioritized in thefr order of Tome Pires. ed. and trans. Kie·Raha, its historical development.'"Stlrtes" importance in compliance with by A. Cortesao. London : in Southeast Asia: From " Tradition" to "Mo­ dernity': ed. by Kenji Tsuchiya. Kyoto Uniwr­ Council's directive for only 10% Hakluyt Society, seconcl increase in the budget per year. sitv, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyo­ series, vol. 89. to. Among those present at the meet­ Rouffaer, G.P. 1984a - " Masalah perbudakan dalam sejarah Indonesia (Hubungan antara Maluku ing were: Mr F.X. Sutopo, Director 1921 " Was Malaka emporium of the Directorate of Arts and con­ dan Irian Jaya)." Paper presented to the Semi· voor 1400 A.D. genaamd nar Peneli tilln Maluku dan Irian Jays, Ambon, currently Director of the SPA FA Malajoer?" Bijdragen tot January 1984. Sub-Centre for the Performing Arts de Taal-, Land - en The Role of ... in Indonesia; Dr I. Made Bandem Volkenkunde van Neder­ from page23 of the Indonesian Dance Academy landsch-lndie 77 ·1-174, Walston,S,(Ed.) (ASTI) in Bali; Professor Virginia F 359-567. 1978 Con68rvation in Australia, ICCM, Agbayani, Director of the National Sopher, D. Sydney,P.145 Arts Center and Concurrently Di­ 1977 The Sea Nomads. Singa­ Werner,A.E.A. rector of the SPAFA Sub-Centre for pore: Singapore National 1972 Conservation and Disp lay,(i) Environ­ Fine Arts in the Philippines,and Mr Museum. mental Control. Museums Journal, 72, Taveesak Senanarong, Director-Ge­ Wheat ley. P. pp . 58~ neral of the Fine Arts Department 1965 The Golden Khersonese. Weintraup,S.,8allard, M and Ziek,R. and concurrently Director of the Kuala Lumpur: Universi­ 1978 Museum lighting and Deterioration Supplement to AATA, 15, No. 1,pp. SPAFA Thai Sub-Centre in Thailand. ty of Malaya Press. The informal meeting was chai red 260..J64. Wolters, O.W. Zenichi,H. by Miss Suchitra Vuthisathira, Co­ 1967 Early Indonesian Com­ 1975 Removal of Formaldehyde Odour ordinator of the SPAFA Co-ordina­ merce. Ithaca : Cornell from Plywood, Chemical Abstracts, ting Unit in Bangkok. University Press. 82, 27-045 50

Scheduled SPAFA Programmes and Activities Until June 1986 SPAFA's Current Development Plan, 1981-1986, would be end­ ing in June 1986. Fiscal Year 1985/ 1986, therefore, would be witnessing the implementation of the remaining activities schedul­ ed at the various Sub-Centres. Indonesia A Consultative Workshop on Archaeological and Environmental Studies on Srivijaya will be convened in Sumatra with the coopera­ tion of the SPAFA Sub-Centre for Archaeological Research. This would be the culminating activity on the SPAFA Programme on Research on Srivijaya which was started in 1979. The Workshop would run for two weeks in selected sites in northem Sumatra at Padang, Prapat and Medan from 15 to 29 September 1985. At the same time the SPAFA Sub-Centre for the Performing Arts will be starting its programme of research and documentation of ethnic music in south Sulawesi which is a counterpart to an activity laready conducted in northeast Thailand in late 1983 and early 1984. The Indonesian Field Research on Ethnic Music is expected to commence sometime in September lasting until October 1985.

The Philippines The Philippine Sub-Centre for Fine Arts would be holding the last activity of a package of 4 programmes on research and docu­ mentation of ethnic music namely,the Consultative Workshop on Researches and Documentation of Ethnic Music in early 1986. The first of these activities constituted the Training Course in Field Music Research that was implemented under the supervision of Dr. Jose Maceda of the College of Music, U.P., Diliman Quezon City among the Sadanga in the Mountain Province in 1983. The next activity was actual documentation work among the Phu Thai in northeast Thailand by the Thai trainees under the continuing supervision of Dr. Jose Maceda. The third activity is the projected ethnic music research in Sulawesi, Indonesia (mentioned above), by the Indonesian trainees as well as other experts in the region. Dr. Maceda would continue to serve as primary consultant to the music research and documentation project in Indonesia. Full reports on the three activities enumerated are expected to be distributed and serve as bases for discussions at the Consultative Workshop scheduled in early 1986 in the Philippines.

Thailand The SPAFA Thai Sub-Centre is preparing for the following scheduled activities: Training Porgramme on Ceramics of East and Southeast Asia from October to December 1985, Technical Workshop on Ceramics in December 1985 which is expected to cover also previous SPAFA activities on indigenous pottery and trade ceramics since 1981; and a last Training Course in Under­ water Archaeology for the current Development Plan, scheduled for January to March 1986.