SPORTS SCIENCE IDENTIFYING AND DEVELOPING TALENT IN CYCLE SPORT

– Written by James Hopker, United Kingdom

Professional cycling is big business. It is identifying these talented individuals from are very small. As a consequence, there is widely reported that the 2015 budget for the large pool of potentials available is both considerable interest in the potential of Team Sky was in the region of £24.4 million, difficult and complicated. For example, establishing a ‘scientific’ selection process with income from sponsorship providing the 2015 Union Cycliste International (UCI) within elite sport, to identify individuals the majority of the team income1. To ensure report3 estimates 2 billion bike users across with a ‘higher probability’ of podium sponsor publicity and their sustained the world, 500,000 of which are registered success5. involvement in the team, there is a need for competitors, with 15,000 (3%) of these Talent ID schemes are usually concerned success. This is also the case at the Olympic being professional riders across all cycling with identifying morphological or Games and World Championships where disciplines. Therefore, it is clear that some physiological characteristics representative riders compete for their countries. Sporting kind of selection needs to occur in order to of elite athletes in the sport in question. success is often seen as an indicator of identify and nurture the most promising The physiological demands of professional national achievement and is therefore talents, who have the greatest potential to male road cycling are varied, with average a high priority for countries around the achieve success on the international stage. powers of around 220 to 250 W (3.1 to 3.8 world. In this regard, UK Sport’s investment W/kg) being reported during flat stages6,7 in British Cycling has risen from £8.6 HOW ARE TALENTED ATHLETES IDENTIFIED? and 394 W (5.6 W/kg) being maintained for million for the 2004 Olympic Games in While the ability of scouts or coaches to 30 minutes in mountain stages7. However, Athens, to £22.1 million for Beijing 2008, identify talented individuals should not be values as high as 383 W (6.0 W/kg) being £26.0m for London 2012 and £30.6m for underestimated, it is very subjective4 and maintained for more than 32 minutes have the Rio Olympic cycle. As a consequence the chances of identifying children who been reported in the literature8. During road of this level of funding and pressure to have the talent to become a successful sprints, peak values of 1248 W (17.4 W/kg) succeed, teams and nations are desperate senior athlete are remote. From an investor’s have been reported in the literature9. Even to identify and recruit the best athletes, perspective, investing funds in this form of though short in duration (~13 seconds), these with the process beginning at a young talent ID would not be regarded as a wise reported maximal efforts are produced age2. However, effectively and efficiently use of money, as the chances of success following riding for many hours at ~200 W,

416 Table 1

Males Females

Sprinter Time trial Climber All terrain

Age (y) 20 - 30 22 - 30 24 - 26 20 - 34 26 - 28

Height (cm) 173 - 179 176 - 188 175 - 180 180 - 189 167 - 171

Mass (kg) 64.0 - 72.8 70.0 - 75.0 60.0 - 66.0 68.0 - 79.3 60.0 - 62.0

Wmax (W) 395 - 461 521 - 560 404 - 480 410 - 450 312 - 354

Wmax (W/kg) 6.0 - 6.6 7.3 - 8.4 6.5 - 7.5 5.4 - 6.4 5.0 - 5.8

VO2 max (l/min) 4.5 - 5.2 4.8 - 5.7 4.9 - 5.1 5.2 - 5.6 3.6 - 3.9

VO2 max (ml/kg/min) 67.1 - 76.5 70.0 - 86.1 78.6 - 80.9 69.6 - 78.4 57.4 - 64.2

Table 1: Range of physical and maximal physiological characteristics reported in the literature for various professional rider groups. 6 9 Wmax=maximal power output in watts. VO2 max=maximal oxygen uptake. Data obtained from Mujika and Padilla , Menaspa et al , Ebert et al10, Burke11, Preiffer et al12, Wilber et al13, Santalla et al14.

Table 2

Males

Sprinter Flat terrain Climber All terrain

Age (y) 16.9 ± 0.6 16.8 ± 0.7 16.7 ± 0.5 16.8 ± 0.7

Height (cm) 178 ± 4 181 ± 6 173 ± 5 176 ± 5

Mass (kg) 70.4 ± 4.7 70.4 ± 5.5 59.7 ± 4.4 64.5 ± 4.2

Wmax (W) 391 ± 35 398 ± 46 368 ± 4 408 ± 31

Wmax (W/kg) 5.5 ± 0.4 5.7 ± 0.5 6.2 ± 0.6 6.3 ± 0.4

VO2 max (L/min) 4.4 ± 0.4 4.4 ± 0.4 4.0 ± 0.5 4.5 ± 0.3

VO2 max (ml/kg/min) 61.9 ± 4.1 69.4 ± 3.6 67.5 ± 5.0 69.4 ± 43.6

MPO5 (W) 1180 ± 95 1041 ± 141 857 ± 134 1079 ± 116

MPO5 (W×kg) 16.6 ± 0.6 14.9 ± 1.7 14.4 ± 1.7 16.7 ± 1.1

Table 2: Range of physical and maximal physiological characteristics reported in the literature for elite junior rider groups. Wmax=maximal power output in watts. VO2 max=maximal oxygen uptake. MPO5=maximal 5 sec sprint power output in watts. Data adapted from Menaspa et al20.

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with the required power output increasing a high level of efficiency (~22 to 24%) and a Even if a cyclist has the physical prior to the sprint as teams and riders good anaerobic power production ability attributes associated with success in a jostle for the best position (10 minutes (~15 to 17 W/kg) are important for success particular discipline, their potential to before sprint 316 W, 5 minutes 363 W, 1 in elite cycling, regardless of specialty14-17. succeed also depends on other factors minute 487 W)9. For females, the literature However, the rider’s adaptability to such as commitment, motivation and is considerably sparser, with only a few training and the variability of physiological determination21-23. Indeed, there is good studies providing reference values10-13. One protocols used in their assessment, make evidence that at the elite level (whether study10 provides data obtained from 15 top- the utility of these parameters problematic junior or senior), that successful athletes 20 finishers of women’s UCI World Cup road in talent ID systems. Anthropometric and display higher levels of confidence, races. Average power outputs during flat physiological parameters may be useful for motivation, mental toughness and stage races were found to be in the region talent development and training purposes resilience in high-pressure situations than of 192W (3.3 W/kg), 169W (3.0 W/kg) in hilly as they track performance changes well. less successful athletes21,22,24. Moreover, there stages, with 12.4 and 5.3 minutes being spent Since many of these anthropometric and are key motivational characteristics and at power outputs above 7.5 W/kg in flat and physiological factors are also affected by the personality traits displayed by successful hilly stages, respectively. In conjunction with processes of maturation18,19, caution should athletes at all levels of performance25. It is laboratory data from maximal incremental be applied in solely using these variables clear that a unitary approach to talent ID is exercise tests, submaximal constant work for talent ID purposes. It is therefore warranted, in which psychological factors rate tests and maximal sprint tests, it is problematic to try to use data collected and personality profiling are combined possible to identify key anthropometric and from junior athletes to predict their senior with anthropometric and physiological performance characteristics of elite cyclists performance, without somehow accounting profiling to assist in identifying athletes (Table 1). Despite a significant amount of for biological maturation. There is a paucity with the potential to develop into future data on the characteristics of professional of data on elite junior road riders in the champions26. However, questions remain male cyclists, there is minimal data on research literature, with only one study20 outstanding in relation to the key how anthropometric and physiological presenting a comprehensive analysis personality and psychological aspects of parameters differ between specialist road of anthropometric and physiological performance and how those displayed as a cycling disciplines (e.g. sprinter, climber, TT characteristics (Table 2). However, caution junior influence and shape future success as specialist, all terrain rider etc.). Nevertheless, should be applied to the interpretation a senior. clearly within elite endurance cycling, a of the data for talent ID, as it is unknown So what is the evidence? The East German high aerobic capacity (>75 ml/kg/min), whether any of the riders presented in the regime of the 1960s and 70s stands out as a an ability to exercise at a high proportion study went on to successfully compete in leading proponent of talent ID. However, it (>70%) of that for a prolonged period of time, the elite senior ranks. has since emerged that much of their success

a focus on early successes, elitist coaching and talent selection may not be the most effective way of producing elite senior riders. Instead it is clear that talent emerges with the right experience, that is developed over time

418 and had the potential to become rowing and basketball Olympians. Following a series of assessment events, athlete test data from anthropometric, strength, endurance, power and agility tests were benchmarked against data collected from previously successful Olympians. This data was added to expert coach opinion in order to identify those with the most potential to develop and thrive in a world class sporting environment. More recently, British Cycling has launched a similar talent ID campaign titled Discover Your Power, which aims to target powerful 15 to 21-year-old males and females who might be the next generation of Olympic and Paralympic track cyclists. Specifically, the scheme aims to identify individuals who have raw speed or power, which may enable them to be fast-tracked into their high-performance programme. In professional cycling, several teams have developed talent ID systems. One example is a partnership between Team Giant-Alpecin and the German Cycling Federation (BDR). The partnership runs German talent days in an attempt to identify young riders (17 to 20 years) who demonstrate the potential to become elite riders of the future. The talent days provide the opportunity for riders to gain coaching and guidance © Lars Ronbog/FrontzoneSport/Getty Images © Lars Ronbog/FrontzoneSport/Getty from the professional team and the BDR. However as discussed later in this article, it was built on a legacy of doping and other Salzwedel for cycling) were drafted in by is important that talent ID and development extreme practices that represent the more Australia to assist in the development and starts at an early age and is sustained over unsavoury side of elite sport. Nevertheless, implementation of a national talent search a prolonged period of time. As a progression certain elements of the old East German programme. This nationwide programme route for talented riders and staff to bridge system were incorporated into Australian pinpointed a handful of talented athletes in the gap between national and world class programmes of the 1990s, specifically the each focus sport, with the Government then performance levels, many of the World Tour need to identify the right athlete for the investing millions of dollars into supporting teams (e.g. Cannondale, AG2R, Europcar) right sport. Following a dismal display in these individuals at both local and national also run successful development teams. the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games, the levels. This approach was undoubtedly Talent ID schemes are not solely the Australian Government decided to overhaul successful as it boosted Australia’s medal domain of national governing bodies or their system of identifying and developing haul from five in Montreal to 60 in Sydney. governments. In 2002, the UCI opened talented athletes. They subsequently formed Cyclists such as Robbie McEwen and the World Cycling Centre (WCC) in Aigle, the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS), which Cadel Evans being notable products of the Switzerland, with a broad range of aims was tasked with identifying and offering programme. related to the promotion of cycle sport scholarships to talented athletes across a Some other nations have attempted across the world. As part of its work, the range of Olympic sports. In anticipation of similar talent ID approaches, albeit on a WCC and its four satellite centres (New the 2000 Games in Sydney, the AIS tested smaller scale and with more a focused Delhi, India; Potchefstroom, South Africa; every child in Australian schools for their remit. For example, prior to the London 2012 Taejang-li, South Korea; Shuzenji, Japan), athletic potential and compiled a bank of games, a partnership between UK Sport and aim to provide opportunities for talented fitness and basic body measurements to the English Institute of Sport introduced riders from continents and nations with identify a ‘best fit’ sport for each individual. the ‘Tall and Talented’ programme aimed at traditionally lower resources or facilities A number of former German Democratic identifying athletes aged 15 to 22 years who to compete against the more established Republic coaches and scientists (e.g. Heiko were over 180 cm (female) or 190 cm (male) cycling nations. Specifically, the UCI’s

SPORTS MEDICINE IN CYCLING TARGETED TOPIC 419 SPORTS SCIENCE

aspiration is to create and develop a high- of the Mountains jersey at the 2015 Tour de IS TALENT INNATE? performance structure that operates at France. There is debate within the literature as all levels, from talent ID through to the Despite such schemes and national to the relative importance of nature versus coaching of both junior and elite riders. trends, there is minimal evidence that nurture in the careers of elite athletes. Riders identified by local coaches are these talent ID strategies have consistently Research has started to identify specific invited to attend a training camp at one of contributed to the sporting success of top genetic profiles of non-elite athletes, the WCCs where they undertake a series of sporting nations2. There is also limited claiming to be able to account for up to 66% physiological tests and are benchmarked research on what constitutes sporting of the variance in sporting performance29. against standardised criteria. These tests excellence and how this might vary across However, even though genetic factors might involve a total of four ‘all-out’ efforts, 2 x different disciplines within cycle sport, as influence which sport non-elite individuals 6 seconds with 234 seconds recovery in well as between sports. Moreover, it could are most likely to successfully compete between, 1 x 30 seconds with 330 seconds be argued that talent ID is very reductionist in, elite performance is not necessarily recovery and 1 x 4 minutes. While at the in its approach and fails to appreciate that well predicted from genetic factors30. training camp, riders are also assessed sporting excellence is not solely related to a Nevertheless, elite athletes competing at the for their attitude towards training and specific set of physiological attributes, but pinnacle of their sport are likely to possess competition and are taught certain life rather determined by a unique combination a rare combination of gene variants that skills necessary for a career in elite cycling of attributes, attitudes and behaviours28. predispose them to obtaining the required (e.g. basic nutrition and meal preparation). In this regard, talent ID approaches (at phenotype for world-class performance31. Particularly promising riders are then both immature and mature stages of Not only may genetic inheritance selected to continue training at the WCC development), often fail to capture the influence success in cycling, but also in Aigle. Several WCC riders have been multiple interactive and compensatory the time of year a particular rider was successful in making the transition to processes that take place within and born. The ‘relative age effect’ refers to a professional cycling teams, including between innate capabilities, psychological disproportionate over-representation of the Eritrean Daniel Teklehaimanot, who behaviours and the environmental elite athletes born at the beginning of became the first African to wear the King conditions2. any given competitive year, versus an

420 the relative age effect impacts on initial Junior development squads and pro- involvement in cycling or the extent of early grammes are not the sole route to the career success. development of talent seen at elite level. It has been shown that at the elite level, IT’S NOT SOLELY GENETICS talent in one sport may be metamorphosed Some individuals display skills and into another talent in another sport36. aptitudes at a young age and become elite For example, in talent transfer schemes, junior riders without the apparent need to established elite athletes with specific skills undertake many years of training. Indeed, and body types are matched to another success within the junior ranks is often used sporting discipline. Rebecca Romero first as a method for selection to a performance won Olympic silver as a rower in the development programme34. However, it quadruple sculls at the Athens Games of is not certain that these riders go on to a 2004, took up cycling in 2006 and then career at the elite level or vice versa, an went on to win two gold medals for Great individual who lacks the innate precursors Britain at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. This for performance will never excel. Indeed, type of evidence suggests that athletes retrospective and prospective data from on such programmes can reach the same Schumacher et al35 demonstrate that in a level of performance as their elite peers sample of 4432 athletes over a 22-year period, within 1 to 2 years of the transfer of sport37. 29.4% of elite cyclists had participated in However, notwithstanding this specific the junior World Championships and that example, support for the widespread use 34% of the participants in junior World of ‘mature age talent identification’ and Championships later participated in major ‘talent recycling’ is scarce. Moreover, both elite cycling competitions. Thus, a young of these processes are beset by the same rider’s talent potential is not a stable innate limitations as traditional talent ID models; trait, but something that is constantly namely, they attempt to identify talent transforming during the maturation using anthropometric, physiological and process. Schumacher’s data also suggests performance ‘snapshots’. There is also no © DAVID STOCKMAN/AFP/Getty Images STOCKMAN/AFP/Getty © DAVID that a high proportion of riders are lost at strong evidence to support the notion that a junior level or are missed due to lack of an athlete’s success can be attributed to the underrepresentation of those born at the opportunities and thus never make the skills they acquired in their previous sport37. end. Indeed, in the youth ranks of elite transition from junior to senior rankings. cycling where the calendar year dictates age It is unclear why this might be the case, TALENT ID MUST BE SUPPORTED BY A categorisation, there is high likelihood of although the process of maturation is SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME selection bias as riders are often chosen due likely to reduce the predictive ability of Environmental factors are thought to to physical, behavioural or psychological talent ID tests and performance at a junior play a key role in the progression of junior maturity, which then becomes self- level. It could be speculated that as riders athletes into the elite ranks38. The use of a reinforcing over the years. Indeed, data move from junior to senior ranks and scientifically-informed talent ID system will collected data from 5928 riders32 between physiological attributes of elite cyclists only be successful if it is incorporated into 1980 and 2014 found that riders with birth become more homogenous, psychological an effective talent development programme dates of January to May represent a greater aspects become the key determining factor in which athletes are provided with the proportion of pro-peloton than riders with for sporting success. If this suggestion optimum environment for nurturing birth dates in months June to December. holds true, it is intuitive to presume that their abilities. The talent development Cycling is not alone in displaying a relative the model of cycling performance is programme provides the opportunity for age effect, a recent review by Cobley et likely to be different between junior and the best resources to be targeted at those al33 suggests it also exists in sports such as senior riders and might provide another individuals with the greatest potential of basketball, baseball, ice hockey, soccer and explanation as to why some fail to make becoming elite athletes. volleyball. However, this evidence is not the transition. Alternatively, a rider who Many factors are involved in – conclusive and there are plenty of examples fails to demonstrate the required skills and influence the process of – talent in elite cycling where the relative age and aptitudes at a young age should not development, including; access to an effect does not stand up; Alberto Contador, be completely disregarded; it might be effective coach who can provide expert Vincenzo Nibali and Tom Boonen all have that they develop the required skills and tuition to develop both physiological and birthdates later than May in the calendar aptitudes during their junior years, only psychological skills25, access to the right year. Therefore, more research is needed reaching the elite level within the senior facilities, parental pressures and the support to fully understand the extent to which ranks. network39. However, research investigating

SPORTS MEDICINE IN CYCLING TARGETED TOPIC 421 SPORTS SCIENCE

the influence of some of these factors in from a British Cycling coach. From here, will never reach the pinnacle of the sport. shaping an athlete’s development and approximately 100 are invited to become Therefore, following identification, talented progress towards the elite ranks is sparse. apprentices in a national programme. riders must be supported by an effective What is clear from the literature is the need Shortlisted riders are invited to become talent development programme which to consider the development of an athlete part of the British Cycling Junior (15 to 17 nurtures and supports them in the correct over a prolonged period of time, termed years) or Senior (17 to 21 years) Academy, environment to assist them in achieving long-term athlete development (LTAD)40. before finally progressing on to the Podium their full potential. However, unfortunately Athlete development must be prioritised Programme. At the pinnacle of their talent to date there are no long-term prospective over the focus on early career success, development programmes, British Cycling studies that aid the understanding of where coach and team selection is based on currently supports 49 ‘Podium Athletes’ how elite performance is affected by just a few individuals2. As outlined by the aiming to medal at the next Olympics and interventions at a junior level. aforementioned work by Schumacher et al35, a further 61 ‘Podium Potential Athletes’ only ~30% of elite senior riders at the World whose performances suggest that they Championships had been elite juniors. For have realistic medal winning capabilities at this reason, a focus on early successes, elitist the subsequent Olympic Games. However, coaching and talent selection may not be while the LTAD model has been widely used the most effective way of producing elite and advanced coaches’ understanding of senior riders. Instead it is clear that talent the importance of physiological variables, emerges with the right experience, that is biological maturation and implementation developed over time38. Indeed, starting the of training in young athletes, the development process at a young age will limitations of this approach also need to References assist in ensuring the individual undertakes be acknowledged. Firstly, the LTAD model is Available at www.aspetar.com/journal the amount of deliberate practice that is currently not well supported by empirical required on the pathway to elitism41. evidence42. Moreover, there is a danger that if Various models have been suggested the LTAD model is followed in a literal sense, that characterise such LTAD. In cycling a late some athletes may be written off at an early specialisation model has been proposed in stage if they do not meet certain criteria which a general approach to early training based on average scientific benchmarks42. is emphasised, prior to specialisation Finally, as outlined above, talent ID and occurring during the teenage years40, using development cannot be seen as a single a staged approach: formula for success; instead it should be 1. FUNdamental stage viewed as a complex multi-factorial system 2. Learning to train that is highly dependent on the individual 3. Training to train athlete in question. It is clear that more 4. Training to compete work needs to be undertaken to refine the 5. Training to win LTAD model in regard to developmental 6. Retirement/retraining issues in children and adolescents and in A number of national sports federations terms of how physical athletic performance have implemented various versions of can be improved at the various stages of an the LTAD model. In cycle sport, examples athlete’s career. include USA Cycling, Cycling Canada and Cycling Australia. An example of a long- CONCLUSIONS term developmental pathway in cycling High-performance cycling appears to is provided by the British Cycling Rider depend on a multitude of factors such Route programme. This performance as genetics, training, the environment pathway aims to assist the progression of in which the athlete is positioned, riders towards the elite ranks. Go-Ride, the encouragement and social support and foundation of British Cycling’s development the effect that these have on the individual programme offers a safe and fun way to athlete’s physical and psychological James Hopker Ph.D. introduce young riders to cycle sport and capabilities. However, the mechanisms of Senior Lecturer a platform to improve bike handling skills. these interactions are not clear and further School of Sport and Exercise Sciences Talented riders aged 12 to 15 are invited research is required to optimise the talent University of Kent to attend one of a number of the regional ID process. What is clear is that without the schools of racing across the UK, where they optimal environment in which the rider has Canterbury, United Kingdom are provided with training and guidance the opportunity to learn and develop, they Contact: [email protected]

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