THIRD SEMESTER M.A. HISTORY PAPER- 3.3
STUDY MATERIAL
HERITAGE STUDIES- MONUMENTS AND SITES
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Prepared by Dr.N.PADMANABHAN Associate Professor 411 P.G.Department of History 2008Admission C.A.S.College, Madayi VOL.II P.O.Payangadi-RS-670358
Dt.Kannur-Kerala.
MA HIS Pr.3.3 (H.S.M. & S) School of Distance Education
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION THIRD SEMESTER M.A. HISTORY PAPER- 3.3 HERITAGE STUDIES-MONUMENTS AND SITES
Prepared by :
Dr.N.PADMANABHAN Associate Professor P.G.Department of History C.A.S.College, Madayi P.O.Payangadi-RS-670358 Dt.Kannur-Kerala.
Type settings and Lay out Computer Section, SDE. © Reserved
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 2 School of Distance Education
CHAPTERS CONTENTS PAGES
I INTRODUCTION TO HERITAGE STUDIES 05-17
II HERITAGE CONSERVATION 18-42
III HERITAGE MANAGEMENT 43-100
IV HERITAGE TOURISM 101-107
V MUSEOLOGY 108-181
VI MAJOR HERITAGE DESTINATIONS IN INDIA 182-208
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 3 School of Distance Education
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 4 School of Distance Education
CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION TO HERITAGE STUDIES
Heritage Studies provides an exciting new approach to the study of history.It develops an understanding of heritage as the public face of history and encourages a critical awareness of the debates around how we interpret and use the past.Heritage Studies explores a number of different key issues: The issue of what is ‘real’ and what is ‘bogus’ history. How the past is represented in forms of public history, such as memorials, plaques, statues, art and architecture. The representation of the past through TV and film. How museum curators and heritage practitioners collect, preserve and represent the past. The role of the heritage industry in modern society. The role of museums and heritage sites in the processes of lifelong learning.
CULTURE
What is culture? How would you describe your culture? What are the parts of your community that join together to create what you consider your culture? Youth from around the world have very different ideas as to how culture is defined.Culture is the customs of a place such as the way we dress, the way we behave, way we talk the music food and so the whole way that a community lives. Culture is very important to us because it is the whole set of beliefs and ideas that we were brought up to be what we are today. Culture is defined as the system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the members of society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.Culture we think there are two kinds of culture. First one is traditional culture. For example: traditional dance, wrestling, horse race and so on.The second one is Social culture. It means civilization and we think this culture is everything that creates intelligent or developed people.Culture to us can be described as an acceptable life style of a particular group of people within their locality.This involves art, thought and customs which consider clothing, food and behavior and or beliefs. What culture means to us is oneness of group living wherein each member of the community grows up with the sense of belongingness and self confidence. This is particularly beneficial to a society because its elements live together under norms which are free from deviant activities. What does culture mean to us? Well, we believe that there are a lot of different answers to this question. Culture can be how you were raised, how you live your daily life, what type of food you eat, how you celebrate holidays, what type(s) of religion you believe in, the area in which you live, etc. Can culture be defined? That is a difficult question. We believe that it can be defined, but that it would take an extremely long time to do it because the definition has such a
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 5 School of Distance Education
wide range of variables. As mentioned before, religion, style, beliefs, food, and time are a part of our definition of culture. However, there are many aspects that we didn’t mention, such as: history of our country/people, child rising, community, geography, language, entertainment, sports, games, etc. What is culture? Culture means our tradition, what we are used to doing. These things include those aspects of life which are related to language, beliefs, arts, morals, food, laws, customs, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society. The aspects that join together to form our community is the language, the food, the types of dress, the customs and the beliefs. We think culture can be defined though it is too vast but since we can define those aspects that make up culture like language, way of greeting, ways of dress, laws, beliefs, customs etc relating a particular people means we can almost define it. Culture are those aspects of life which are related to language, beliefs, laws, customs and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of the society. HERITAGE Heritage is “Anything which has been transmitted from the past or handed down by tradition”.Clearly, the origin of the term ‘Heritage’ seems to be closely associated with Heir, Heredity and Inheritance – anything that is inherited down the generations.Anything, whether tradition, custom, history, religion and religious observances, philosophy, art styles/performing arts, monumental objects and even nature’s manifestations, could be treated as Heritage provided the same has been transmitted from the past. And, further, depending on the nature of the particular object or property, it may be classified, and distinctly identified as ‘Social Heritage’, ‘Cultural Heritage’, ‘Religious Heritage’, ‘Artistic Heritage’, ‘National Heritage’, etc. Ashworth and Tim Bridge opine that the link between the preservation of the past for its intrinsic value and as a resource for a modern community or commercial activity is Heritage. Obviously, a Heritage could be of natural or human origin. However, the fact remains that different social groups or cultural entities may not unanimously agree to identify a particular tradition, value or even a monument as an object of Heritage. It will largely depend on their own perception which, in turn, is bound to be influenced by the inter-play of prevailing socio-cultural environment and conditions as well as the overall level of awareness of the society or culture under reference. The contemporary societies would identify something as Heritage that is old, different, and significant – may be unique in their system and which is widely perceived as a symbol of pride. Conventionally, if heritage denotes only ancestral traditions, customs, mores, beliefs and religious practices (peculiar to Indian society before the influence of western culture) as it is these which represent the social fabrics of traditional life, and hence, these should undoubtedly form the basis for developing Heritage Tourism. It is worth mentioning that while Heritage has acted as strong pull force on tourists, tourism, too, has contributed in promoting the “Heritage Ideology”.Tourism, in fact, is a mechanism posited on the phenomenon of human anxiety and curiosity. It exploits the creative urge to interpret, to give meaning. It demands meaning as its lubricant and discovers the meaning sometimes by default and sometimes in cynicism. It may be pointed out that while concern for the built heritage may have cultural origins, the moving force to manage heritage sites comes from the economic necessity of the local tourism economy.Thus; there is a whole gamut of socio-political, scientific and educational as well as economic justifications for the preservation, conservation, management and marketing of a country’s heritage resources.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 6 School of Distance Education
Poon (1989) calls Heritage Tourism one type in the ‘new’ tourism industry, which is characterized by flexibility and segmentation. According to Zeppel and Hall, the international tourism industry has of late seen different trends emerge. Heritage and cultural tourism have featured prominently in these developments as the consumer’s search for new types of visitor experience focused on the value of cultural heritage. Nature, of course, has always attracted the imagination, praise and reversence of the mankind, especially among the avant-grade.Infact, cultural heritage had been, and continues to be, at the centre-state of tourism in terms of tourist motivation, tourist attraction, tourist demand, tourist product and, of course, tourism supply.Frohlich advocates a conceptual transition from ‘Culture in Tourism consists in the modesty and patience of the host community towards the foreign guest’ to one where ‘Culture in Tourism is the modesty and open mindedness of the traveler towards the host community and its cultural situation’.The senior citizens (as tourists) are definitely expected to be interested in these dimensions of tourism, viz., Ethnic Reunion, Pilgrimage, and Cultural and Heritage Tourism. Of late, the term ‘Heritage’ has become a buzz word, being extensively used in various academic and professional contexts.There has been an ever-growing concern for identifying the various manifestations of heritage and for protecting, preserving and promoting them – be it the Cultural Heritage, Social Heritage or Natural Heritage.In fact, the concept is being quoted and referred to so frequently in so many diverse ways that the very meaning of ‘Heritage’ has become rather obfuscated, calling for a certain degree of elucidation.Basically, ‘Heritage’ is an etheral concept or notion. Admittedly, it is there in the form of structures and compositions of stone and mud, metal and wood, incorporating and encompassing certain traditions and myths. But, then, a tradition or a myth is nothing but a collective general belief or faith. However, these myths do reflect at least a part of some historical event or truth as these do not grow in vacuum or without a sub-stratum of facts. Tradition does not strictly need a historian to preserve or perpetuate it; it has an intrinsic ability to survive.But it becomes ‘Heritage’ only when we, and we alone, give it a value-laden significance in anthropogenic terms. Heritage: Concept To quote Oxford, the Reader’s Digest, Wordfinder – Heritage is “(i) anything that is or may be inherited; (ii) inherited circumstances, benefits, etc.(Heritage of confusion); (iii) a nation’s historic buildings, monuments, countryside, etc. especially when regarded as worthy of preservation; and (iv) the Bible (a) the ancient Israelites, (b) the church. According to Littlefield Dictionary of Sociology, Social Heritage is the body of social customs, folkways, mores, thoughtways and cultural achievements which has been received from predecessors.This meaning of the term Heritage is further supported by Collins Dictionary.It explains that Heritage is “Anything which has been transmitted from the past or handed down by tradition”.Clearly, the origin of the term “Heritage’ seems to be closely associated with Heir, Heredity and Inheritance – anything that is inherited down the generations. In terms of the above and many other similar interpretations and explanations of the concept of Heritage, “anything”, whether tradition, custom, history, religion and religious observances, philosophy, art styles/performing arts, monumental objects and even nature’s manifestations, could be treated as Heritage provided the same has been transmitted from the past.And, further, depending on the nature of the particular object or property, it may be classified, and distinctively identified, as ‘Social Heritage’, ‘Cultural Heritage’, ‘Religious Heritage’, ‘Artistic Heritage’, ‘Natural Heritage’, etc. Ashworth and Timbridge opine that the link between the preservation of the past for its intrinsic value and as a resource for a modern community or commercial activity is Heritage.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 7 School of Distance Education
Heritage: Interpretation This kind of interpretation should not, however, be taken to suggest that anything, or, for that matter, everything, should be considered as Heritage on the simple criterion that it has been inherited, without taking into account the time span, the relative significance and/or the nature of the inherited entity.For, then, one will have to decide whether the wealthy traditions should also be considered as Heritage. There is simply an infinite variety of things, traditions and/or values which a contemporary society or culture inherits from its predecessors.Clearly, each of these cannot be considered a Heritage.Any absolutist, unqualified criterion would indeed be misleading, and the “anything” inherited from the past must first be properly qualified before it could be specified as “Heritage”.For Example, this “anything” must, in some manner and degree, be “uncommon”; has a relatively older origin; has a distinct trait or charisma, in turn owing to its relation with some eminent personality or some significant event or happening; and perhaps most importantly, something which evokes some degree of adoration and pride of association with among the people so that they would like to preserve and perpetuate it. Obviously, a Heritage could be of natural or human origin.However, the fact remains that different social groups or cultural entities may not unanimously agree to identify a particular tradition, value or even a monument as an object of Heritage. It will largely depend on their own perception which, in turn, is bound to be influenced by the inter-play of prevailing socio-cultural environment and conditions as well as the over-all level of awareness of the society or culture under reference.All the same, diverse manifestations would become predominant or relatively more significant depending upon the common social thought process of the given period or milieu.Thus, something taken to be a prime Heritage at one time may take a back seat subsequently while a less eminent factor may take the front seat. A typical example in this context could be the ongoing controversy as to whether the Gate Way of India and the India Gate are to be taken as our Heritage or as symbols of our slavery. Another pertinent question in this regard is as to why a particular bird, animal or plant comes to be perceived as Heritage at a particular point of time.Is it because of its time-tested significance in maintaining and sustaining the natural, ecological equilibrium or is it because it was/or is on the verge of extinction and needs to be preserved for the same purpose; or simply because some beliefs or myths have come to be structured around it so that there has been some sort of an “irrational” urge to adore and preserve it, and this urge continues to predominate? Yet another related question could be: ‘Why the tribal areas, remote rural settings or countryside are now viewed as our Heritage with ever-growing pull/magnetism’? Is it because of the dissatisfaction with the present and the apprehensions about the future that are inducing us to look to such areas with some kind of nostalgia to equate what is beautiful and liveable with what is old or past? Or is it a fad/fashion consistently emerging in so-called modern societies towards what is still closer to prime values, remote or much less developed? Is it because identifying a remote area gives a psychological satisfaction of being superior or is it because of the strongly growing urge to understand the developmental history of man and feel a sort of psychological closeness to its roots? According to Uzzell heritage interpretation often runs the risk of being sentimental or nostalgic in its view of the past.Moreover, ‘who considers a tiger or a tribal area to be a symbol of Heritage’, is it taken in the same spirit by the local society both in a so-called advanced area and in a lesser developed area? Thus, the very process of justifying an area, object or tradition as a Heritage may often lead to many questions conflicting views and logistics.Summarily, the
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 8 School of Distance Education
contemporary societies would identify something as Heritage that is old, different, significant – may be unique in their system and which is widely perceived as a symbol of pride.Conventionally if heritage denotes only ancestral traditions, customs, mores, beliefs and religious practices (peculiar to Indian society before the influence of western culture) as it is these which represent the social fabrics of traditional life, and hence, these should undoubtedly form the basis for developing heritage tourism.There traditional features ironically now only manifest strongly in the social life of people in rural communities.Even the developed countries of today do possess their own unique customs and traditions.The process of industrialization has however destroyed those and imposed upon the society, instead, the current features of modern city life – Industrial Heritage. Heritage: Import In this study, the purpose is not only to go into the concept or philosophy of Heritage but also to highlight the ever-growing significance of Heritage as a tourism product.It would be worth mentioning that while the Heritage has acted as strong pull force on tourists, tourism, too, has contributed in promoting the “Heritage Ideology”.Tourism has its own idiosyncratic way of behaving and it produces characteristic results. In a real sense, tourism is creative of culture. Tourism is generative in that it stimulates the creation and recreation of new meanings for traditional practices.Really, tourism is a mechanism posited on the phenomenon of human anxiety and curiosity.It exploits the creative urge to interpret, to give meaning.It demands meaning as its lubricant and discovers the meaning sometimes by default and sometimes in cynicism.In fact, tourism is the mechanism while interpretation is the means, for everything has to be sifted through human mind. It may be pointed out that while concern for the built heritage may have cultural origins, the moving force to manage heritage sites comes from the economic necessity of the local tourism economy.Thus; there is a whole gamut of socio-political, scientific and educational as well as economic justifications for the preservation, conservation, management and marketing of a country’s heritage resources. Tourism, to a great extent, feeds off a wide range of heritage, with monuments and movable treasures on the one end to indigenous cultures, ideas and images on the other.The difference between the old and the new touristic situations, apart from the sheer numbers of travellers, is that it is now the fashion to formulate a heritage message, necessarily of selected information, for their entertainment and, perhaps also, education.Donald Horne describes the implication of the interaction between the tourist and heritage.In his view, in so far as “reality” does not exist in itself and it is we who create it, each society and each age has different versions of what “reality” might be.This makes the tourist experience a voyage through many different dreamlands. Heritage Tourism According to Zeppel and Hall the international tourism industry has of late seen different trends emerge.Heritage and Cultural Tourism have featured prominently in these developments as the consumer’s search for new types of visitor experience focussed on the value of cultural heritage.Nevertheless, cultural heritage manifested in monuments, museums, art galleries, historic sites, fairs and festivals, religious places and observances, folk arts and traditions etc. have been perennial source of tourist attraction over the centuries. In fact, cultural heritage had been, and continues to be, at the centre-stage of tourism in terms of tourist motivation, tourist attraction, tourist demand, tourist product and, of course, tourism supply.Indeed, there has been a tremendous upsurge in the touristic demand for cultural attractions, especially with the advent of the 19th century.As for now, cultural tourism in itself has emerged as a major form of tourism both in the national and the international contexts.The consistent inter-play of cultural awareness
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 9 School of Distance Education both on the demand and the supply sides of tourism has resulted in the promotion of specific cultural perspectives as distinct tourist attractions in themselves.Accordingly, Rural Tourism, Urban Tourism, Tribal Tourism, Agri Tourism, Farm Tourism and Countryside Tourism have already emerged as well-defined forcii of tourism within the broader framework of cultural tourism product.This development has, in turn, directly or indirectly attached the ‘Special Heritage Value’ to each of these appeals.Thus Prentice argues that the heritage business is far from homogeneous phenomenon with different attractions serving specific tourism and leisure markets, each with their own needs and requirements. Likewise, tourist demand for various art forms, including architecture, painting, classical and folk dances, instrumental and vocal music and even music instruments, because of their value as ‘legacy’, has shown an ever-growing trend amongst the domestic and international tourist. Religious centres, observances and rituals, religio-socio-cultural fairs and festivals, have all become significant globally because of the keener interest developing among the tourists for each of them.Nature, of course, has always attracted the imagination, praise and reverence of the mankind, especially among the avant-grade. Frequent references made in the scriptures, poetry, literature and their eloquent depiction in paintings, and sculptures aptly reflect that the forests, wild-life, landscapes, rivers and lakes etc. were all perceived as rich legacies by the contemporary societies and cultures ever since the dawn of human civilization.This tradition not only continues unabated but has, in fact, become stronger as the bounties of nature are being pushed back relentlessly while, at the same time, the significance of their continuance for sustenance and well-being of humankind is being increasingly recognized.As a result, not only the wilderness areas, parks, sanctuaries and bio-sphere reserves are today being recognized as Heritage but even the individual plant and animal species, rivers, mountain peaks and the like manifestations of nature are increasingly assuming the status of “Rich Heritage”.Thus, in India, not only are the national parks identified as National Heritage but also the tiger and the peacock have been identified as the National Animal and the National Bird respectively. This is indicative of the interest in, and the concern for, the preservation of these species. Heritage, in all its forms, whether of predominantly natural or of human origin, is sought by many tourists and constitutes and fundamental attraction of many destination areas.Poon calls Heritage Tourism one type in the “new” tourism industry, which is characterized by flexibility and segmentation.However, tensions often exist between the maintenance of special places for posterity and the provision of access for contemporary tourists.Difficult decisions are to be made concerning: whose heritage is to be valued; whether it is to be preserved, restored or renovated; and how is it to be marketed and interpreted to tourists.The various forms of Heritage that are particularly important from tourism point of view can be conveniently classified and structured as per the following format.Nevertheless, not all aspects of heritage, especially culture, are amenable in full or to the same extent to the process of commoditization necessary in order to exchange culture for capital. At times, there is lot of controversy about the role of tourism in the protection and conservation of Heritage as the conservationists are generally of the view that touristic use of Heritage leads to its deterioration.However, the fact remains that tourism has not only contributed in reidentification and revaluation of various heritages but has also been directly instrumental in their protection and conservation. The example of national parks, monuments and variety of fairs and festivals the world over is a strong testimony to this fact. Indeed, the touristic popularity and appreciation with relation to heritages not only creates a social awareness about them with a deep sense of pride or belongingness amongst the local populace but also helps in creating a greater concern among the people and institutions towards their conservation.This is one important reason that the monuments popular among the tourists are better protected and conserved today as compared to the ones with lesser or no touristic appeal.The realization about the role and contribution of tourism as a saviour of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 10 School of Distance Education
Heritage villages-a-villages the strongly increasing urge among tourists for the various manifestations of heritage is, in fact, motivating the tourism enterprises, organizations and destinations to zealously protect whatever heritage they have, add new dimensions to their significance and even try to create new heritages, the so-called ‘Created Heritages’, to encash the growing tourist interest in this context.These different aspects of the aforesaid proposition can be illustrated and exemplified by architectural and monumental heritage like Ajanta, Ellora, Elephanta, Khajuraho; concept of ‘Heritage Hotels’; and creation of ‘Theme Parks’, respectively.
HERITAGE CLASSIFICATION HERITAGE
Socio-Cultural Heritage Natural Heritage
Religious Historical Art & Lifestyles, Fairs and Institutions Physical Biotic Architecture Traditions, Festivals of Excellence Lores & Legends
-Pilgrimage -Historical -Architecture -Settlement -Religious -Scientific -Geomorphic -Flora –Fauna Religious & Archaeo- -Sculptures Pattern -Social -Academic features Rich Forms Centres logical -Paintings -Dress -Cultural -Religious Mountains Unique -Traditions Site -Art Styles -Commercial -Spiritual Deserts Rare & -Observance -Museums Galleries/ -Cuisine Glaciers Endangered -Rituals Settlements museums -Social -Water -Ruins Classical Ceremonies Bodies -Dance -Lores Rivers Folk -Legends Lakes Instrumental Classical & Falls -Music Folk -Land Scapes Vocal -Musical Instruments – Classical & Folk
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 11 School of Distance Education
Let us now look at the direction in which Heritage Tourism has of late been moving and the implications thereof.The new movement towards “green” or “eco” tourism have been seen by many as positive developments towards a less disruptive future, and the creation of an image as a heritage/cultural resort as a way to a secure future.In addition to this, technological innovation and attitudinal change are likely to be the key-stones of advances in future heritage presentations. Technology is now poised to allow a simulated-replicated experience so real as to be dubbed “virtual reality”.The Japanese experience in the form of the “furusato sonsei” (or old village) campaign since the eighties and the “Rekishi Kaido” (or History Road) project since 1991 in political, cultural and social contexts are apt exhibits of how a “National Heritage” is constructed from a diverse collection of localities and facts linked together by tourism. Heritage Product. Importantly, it is apparent that heritage presentation may take many forms, and, in that every process, it is susceptible to many sorts of distortion for many kinds of reason, the situation is essentially problematic in so far as their audience, too, is diverse and may, in fact, be bringing to the fore and expressing a variety of aspirations which call for the assortment of cultural configurations under reference. In tourism terminology, presenting a single product to a global audience is neither pragmatic nor practical.Therefore, the idea of developing a “Global Product” that is, all things to all men is naturally an attractive one to the actors and directors of travel and tourism industry.Kenichi Ohmae opines that ‘in most cases creating a global product means building the capability to understand and respond to customer needs and business system requirements in each critical market’. In this context, each of the three main elements – Heritage, Tourism and the Global Product – consist of a wide range of sub-sets with each itself being in a state of change, the change being both physical and perceptual. Even though each element may be fixed geographically, the bilateral relationships between any two of them will be dynamic, in so far as each one is changing through time and in perception. Every heritage product – created or genuine – has to be based on some theme or storyline as the failure to develop, interpret and present the country’s widespread heritage in an attractive and professional manner means little interest for the visitor.The range of themes and storylines framework should provide cohesion/consistency and organization for heritage attractions, unspecific areas, since major attractions have the potential to suggest a storyline which is complemented by a range of smaller attractions in the locality.Disneyland, an imagineering approach, using means like ‘show project producer’ and ‘theatre professionals’ has given rise to the notion of Heritage Industry besides having the status of a Global Heritage Product. Heritage: Indian Context The Indian context can, of course, be brought up as a touch-stone for the relevance/applicability of the manifestations of heritage mentioned above.India is a country where the diversity and extent of its heritage underpin much of its appeal and fascination as a tourist destination. Much of its natural heritage is embodied in the Himalayas and landscape features while other forms of its cultural heritage are enshrined in the architectural forms.This heritage is duly complemented by mythopoeic traditions and customs of its population in the rural and urban environment.Cultural heritage (e.g. language, customs, performing folk and fine arts, etc.) combines with a diverse historic and artistic heritage. As regards the changing interpretation of heritage in India over time, it can be stated that there was a time when each Hindu festival was associated with a particular community – Raksha Bandhan with the
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 12 School of Distance Education
Brahmins, Diwali with the Vaishyas, Dasehra with the Kshatriyas and Holi with the Sudras. However, during the last few centuries, all festivals have come to be celebrated by all the communities, though the form has varied from place to place. In the context of heritage preservation and conservation, the Indian culture has always taught men to love and respect nature, seeing themselves as part of it. Wildlife conservation, too, had its origin in India in the remote past as killing animals and felling of trees were not only illegal but were considered anti- social and irreligious. All these manifestations do show that India has the potential to be a power-house in tourism. The challenge to us all is to convert and manage this enormous potential in a dynamic and systematic manner. Education in tourism development and management skills is, therefore, the order of the day to meet this objective. Properly trained, equipped and motivated human resource alone can effectively tap the vast potential of heritage tourism in India in the coming decades. Conclusion In the sphere of tourism, countries have courted a world market, their chosen object of enticement, more often than not, being heritage.But from an anthropological point of view, the problems of commodification of culture are only too apparent and cultural marination is profound. Tourism distorts reality, obliging people to produce themselves for tourist consumption.Wood and House (1991), the authors of the ‘Good Tourist’, unequivocably says, ‘Inevitably, constant contact with alien customs and cultures results in a weakening of native traditions and values’. And that the Third World is particularly susceptible to becoming victim to tourism is readily visible. How much cultural (and, indeed, physical) exploitation can these societies be expected to bear before seeing the tourist industry as a latter-day colonial power, over which they have no control, and which adversely affects their lives in far reaching ways? On the other hand, the rapidity of industrialization, urbanisation and westernisation in the developing countries especially, whilst making the country rich, has also triggered a deep sense of unease about the potential erosion of traditional culture and identity.Heritage tourism development exacerbates the social tension generated from the interaction of modern development and traditional cultural identity.It may be desirable to taste each other’s cuisine and fun to enjoy each other’s dress style. But, if that peripheral process begins to wear out the sphere of inner, traditional cultural values, people will return to emphasizing their differences and undergo a kind of cultural backlash. There is an ongoing debate on the extent to which heritage resources, genuine or created, can be used in a sustainable way for tourism development, since some heritage sites and landscapes may be located in sensitive natural environments.Practically, unrestricted and unplanned growth in green tourism destinations, places natural heritage and the renewable resource at risk of depletion and damage.Therefore the implicit question: Is heritage tourism a short-term phenomenon? The inherent challenge for heritage attractions be it form the public or the private sector, is to balance economic objectives with the long-term educational goals of heritage interpretation and to avoid short-term, technological solutions. In case, such objectives can integrate a vital conservation role, the long-term interest in the nation’s heritage and cultural resources is likely to be sustained.But this will need a well-thought out, palpable and more result oriented management programme to disperse visitors through out the country rather than allowing them concentration at key destinations, avoiding damage to diverse range of heritage resources. Besides, as tourism develops further, it can vary well be expected that it will realize and accept the responsibilities of its role in a highly complex and very sensitive process of human interaction in a matrix of psychology, ecology, culture and time.Clearly; this is an enormous intellectual and ethnic challenge to an industry preoccupied with logistics, marketing and profit margins.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 13 School of Distance Education
NATURAL HERITAGE Natural heritage is the legacy of natural objects and intangible attributes encompassing the countryside and natural environment, including flora and fauna, scientifically known as biodiversity, and geology and landforms (geodiversity). “Natural heritage” is an important part of a culture, encompassing the countryside and natural environment, including flora and fauna, scientifically known as biodiversity.These kind of heritage sites often serve as an important component in a country’s tourist industry, attracting many visitors from abroad as well as locally.Heritage is that which is inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations.The term “natural heritage”, derived from “natural inheritance”, pre-dates the term “biodiversity”, though it is a less scientific term and more easily comprehended in some ways by the wider audience interested in conservation biology. “Natural Heritage” was used in the United States when Jimmy Carter set up the Georgia Heritage Trust while he was governor of Georgia; Carter’s trust dealt with both natural and cultural heritage.It would appear that Carter picked the term up from Lyndon Johnson, who used it in a 1966 Message to Congress.President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Wilderness Act of 1964. “Natural Heritage” was picked up by the Science Division of The Nature Conservancy when, under Jenkins, it launched in 1974 the network of state natural heritage programs.When this network was extended outside the USA, the term “Conservation Data Center” was suggested by Guillermo Mann and came to be preferred. LEGAL STATUS. This is copied an important site of natural heritage or cultural heritage can be listed as a World Heritage Site by the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO.The UNESCO programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity, As of 2006, there are 830 World Heritage Sites: 644 cultural, 162 natural, and 24 mixed properties, in 138 countries.The 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention established that biological resources, such as plants, were the common heritage of mankind or as was expressed in the preamble: “need to be preserved as part of the world heritage of mankind as a whole”. These rules probably inspired the creation of great public banks of genetic resources, located outside the source-countries. New global agreements (e.g., the Convention on Biological Diversity), now give sovereign national rights over biological resources (not property).The idea of static conservation of biodiversity is disappearing and being replaced by the idea of dynamic conservation, through the notion of resource and innovation.The new agreements commit countries to conserve biodiversity, develop resources for sustainability and share the benefits resulting from their use. Under new rules, it is expected that bio-prospecting or collection of natural products has to be allowed by the biodiversity-rich country, in exchange for a share of the benefits. CULTURAL HERITAGE Cultural heritage (“national heritage” or just “heritage”) is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations.Often though, what is considered cultural heritage by one generation may be rejected by the next generation, only to be revived by a succeeding generation.Physical or “tangible cultural heritage” includes buildings and historic
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 14 School of Distance Education
places, monuments, artifacts, etc., that are considered worthy of preservation for the future.These include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or technology of a specific culture. Heritage can also include cultural landscapes (natural features that may have cultural attributes).Recently heritage practitioners have moved from classifying heritage as natural as man has intervened in the shaping of nature in the past four million years. The heritage that survives from the past is often unique and irreplaceable, which places the responsibility of preservation on the current generation.Smaller objects such as artworks and other cultural masterpieces are collected in museums and art galleries.Grass roots organizations and political groups have been successful at gaining the necessary support to preserve the heritage of many nations for the future.Significant was the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage that was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972.As of 2008, therefore are 878 World Heritage Sites: 678 cultural, 174 natural, and 26 mixed properties, in 145 countries.Each of these sites is considered important to the international community. A broader definition includes intangible aspects of a particular culture, often maintained by social customs during a specific period in history.The ways and means of behavior in a society, and the often formal rules for operating in a particular cultural climate.These include social values and traditions, customs and practices, aesthetic and spiritual beliefs, artistic expression, language and other aspects of human activity.The significance of physical artifacts can be interpreted against the backdrop of socioeconomic, political, ethnic, religious and philosophical values of a particular group of people. Naturally, intangible cultural heritage is more difficult to preserve than physical objects.
The impulse to preserve artifacts. Objects are important to the study of human history because they provide a concrete basis for ideas, and can validate them.Their preservation demonstrates recognition of the necessity of the past and of the things that tell its story.In The Past is a Foreign Country, David Lowenthal observes that preserved objects also validate memories. While digital acquisition techniques can provide a technological solution that is able to acquire the shape and the appearance of artifacts with an unprecedented precision in human history, the actuality of the object, as opposed to a reproduction, draws people in and gives them a literal way of touching the past.This unfortunately poses a danger as places and things are damaged by the hands of tourists, the light required to display them, and other risks of making an object known and available.The reality of this risk reinforces the fact that all artifacts are in a constant state of chemical transformation, so that what is considered to be preserved is actually changing – it is never as it once was. Similarly changing is the value each generation may place on the past and on the artifacts that link it to the past. Intangible cultural heritage. The concept of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) emerged in the 1990s, as a counterpart to the World Heritage that focuses mainly on tangible aspects of culture.In 2001, UNESCO made a survey among States and NGOs to try to agree on a definition, and a Convention was adopted in 2003 for its protection.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 15 School of Distance Education
Definition According to the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, the intangible cultural heritage (ICH) – or living heritage – is the mainspring of humanity’s cultural diversity and its maintenance a guarantee for continuing creativity.It is defined as follows:
Intangible Cultural Heritage means the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage.This intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity.For the purposes of this Convention, consideration will be given solely to such intangible cultural heritage as is compatible with existing international human rights instruments, as well as with the requirements of mutual respect among communities, groups and individuals, and of sustainable development. This Convention – like the World Heritage Convention – developed a listing system (Representative list and Endangered list).The Intergovernmental Committee is currently working on criteria and procedures, and first inscriptions will be made in 2008 or 2009. Oral history Intangible cultural heritage is slightly different from the discipline of oral history, the recording, preservation and interpretation of historical information (specifically, oral tradition), based on the personal experiences and opinions of the speaker.ICH attempts to preserve cultural heritage ‘with’ the people or community by protecting the processes that allow traditions and shared knowledge to be passed on while oral history seeks to collect and preserve historical information obtained from individuals and groups. Oral continuity Intangible cultural heritage is passed orally within a community, and while there may be individuals who are known tradition bearers, ICH is often broader than one individual’s own skills or knowledge.The processes involved in the continuation of this traditional knowledge constitute one of the most interesting aspects of our living heritage. Each member of the community possesses a piece of the shared knowledge.Crucial knowledge is passed on during community activities, frequently without any conscious attention to the process. Cultural Tourism Cultural tourism development is community-based, participatory and designed to improve the economic and social well-being of local residents in addition to the concerned institutional and physical environment. It also pinpoints the need for careful planning to protect the integrity of sites and minimize harmful impacts.Moreover, the host community needs to plan ahead to ensure that cultural tourism sustains and benefits local communities socio-culturally as well as economically and is not meant simply for minting money for governments or private entrepreneurs.The cultural tourist wants to discover the country and its culture with comprehensive understanding and to achieve all this expects knowledgeable explanation, interaction and feed-back. If, instead of going for commercialization of culture, tourism endeavours to satisfy its obligations towards society and culture, it will be more than a step forward in the direction of the desired end.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 16 School of Distance Education
Frohlich (1993) advocates a conceptual transition from ‘Culture in Tourism consists in the modesty and patience of the host community towards the foreign guest’ to one where ‘Culture in Tourism is the modesty and open mindedness of the traveller towards the host community and its cultural situation’.For this, an open dialogue between the two, i.e., society and tourism, can go a long way in ensuring the sought-after end in the right spirit. However, Hewison (1987) expresses a more forthright view by suggesting that instead of manufacturing goods, we should manufacture heritage. “Instead of miasma of nostalgia, we need the fierce spirit of renewal; we must substitute a critical for a closed culture, we need history, not heritage”.
Ethnic Tourism
The tourism literature reveals that the term ‘Ethnic tourism’ has been oftenly used to connote two different meanings.The one and most commonly used is ethnic tourism implying the search for exotic cultures and two, travels motivated by purposes of ethnic reunion.It is argued that the search for the exotic is more in practice while travel for ethnic reunion has a tendency to become synonymous with VFR travel.Ethnic tourism is marketed in terms of the quaint customs of indigenous and other exotic people.It is sometimes also referred as a combination of culture and nature tourism.That is, an indication that the identification of ethnic tourism is concerned with visitations to exotic and generally marginal destinations is reinforced.Ethnic tourism is travelling for the purpose of observing the cultural expressions of life styles of truly exotic people.Such tourism is exemplified by travel to Panama to study the Sanskrit Blas Indians or to India to observe the isolated hill tribes of Assam.Typical destination activities would include visits to native homes, attending traditional ceremonies and dances, and possibly participating in religious rituals.
Senior Citizen Tourism
A newly emerging trend in tourism, basically for senior citizens or old people who live in isolation, especially in the west, because of daily busy schedules of their children and more importantly the attitudes.Senior citizen tourism is intended to provide them company and making them busy in other activities so as to enable them to pass their time in a lively manner.The characteristic feature of this type of tourism is that the senior people are less demanding in the form of facilities and services besides leaving minimum impacts on the destination community. However, their main consideration in terms of tourism plant is personalized service.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 17 School of Distance Education
CHAPTER-II
HERITAGE CONSERVATION
Conservation of heritage sites shall include buildings, artifacts, structures, areas and precincts of historic, aesthetic, architectural, cultural or environmentally significant nature (heritage buildings and heritage precincts), natural feature areas of environmental significance or sites of scenic beauty. “Conservation” means all the processes of looking after a place so as to retain its historical and/or architectural and/or aesthetic and/or cultural significance and includes maintenance, preservation, restoration, reconstruction and adoption or a combination of more than one of these.“Preservation” means and includes maintaining the fabric of a place in its existing state and retarding deterioration. Archaeological evidence, often very ancient and recovered in a vulnerable condition, offers very particular challenges for conservation ranging from the preservation of entire 16th-century warships, such as the Mary Rose, to the stable storage of rusting Roman nails. The great quantity of objects recovered and their myriad materials offer particular challenges for the care of archaeological collections. Introduction Conservation and the care of collections is a massive and complex subject that has its own literature, training, career structure, and standards.Cronyn’s standard work summarizes archaeological conservation and its methodologies.Some books are available that summarize archaeological conservation on site, conservation practice in museums and archaeological conservation within the wider sphere of heritage management.This Part very briefly discusses the types of work undertaken by archaeological conservators on behalf of museums within the museum context, and how conservation fits into some of the wider issues discussed in this book. Conservation is a discipline in its own right.Conservators tends to subdivide themselves by subject type, so archaeological conservators see themselves as related to, but distinct from, fine art conservators and social history conservators, and so forth. Distinct training is available for archaeological conservation and most conservators tend to work in museums or as independent consultants; only a few are linked directly to archaeological field units.Conservation plays a key part in field archaeology, research, and curation, however, there are occasional tensions, particularly when conservationists are working on excavations. Cassman and Odegaard note a lack of confidence amongst conservators as to what their role should be; as the champions of preservation, as providers of “technical expertise”, or as integrated members of a team. Tensions in the museum are less obvious where the role of conservation perhaps fits better with the ethos of the museum.Most things that are buried in the ground for any length of time will deteriorate physically.Metals oxidise, and organics are eaten by living organisms (biodeterioration).A few materials do not decay as readily because of their stable nature, such as stone and ceramics.The archaeological record and, therefore, museum showcases are dominated by stone tools and pots because these are the most resistant to deterioration in the ground.However, even objects of stone and pottery seldom survive in the ground in an identical form to that when they were in use.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 18 School of Distance Education
It is the conservator’s prime job to limit or reduce the further decay of objects once the objects have been retrieved.The philosophy and practice of the conservator has changed over time.There was a time when a conservator’s prime role was to “restore”.This involved trying to return the object to its original form.There are some instances when this is possible and to be desired.For example, when all parts of a broken pot are found it can be put back together, and by so doing both researchers and the public will get a better understanding of its original use. However, philosophically and practically, true restoration is impossible and, in any case, may not be desired.Objects that have been overrestored, to the extent where it is impossible to tell what is original artefact and what is modern addition, blight many modern museum collections.This is both deceptive to the visitor, in the simple sense that they are given an incorrect picture of how an object survived and looked, but it can also be even worse in that many early restorations sought aesthetic beauty rather than any attempt at accuracy.Overrestoration also prevents meaningful study and can easily damage the original artefact, or what remains of it. The role of the conservator as someone who restores an object for display has changed over time to one of minimising further deterioration. Cronyn describes the roe of the modern archaeological conservator as “the preservation and elucidation of artefacts from excavations. Conservation basically aims to prevent objects disintegrating once they have been exposed to the atmosphere and to discover the true nature of the original artefact”.From this definition, it follows that conservation is a fundamental part of both archaeological and museum practice.To this definition, we can add some key concepts to the role of conservation: 1. Reversibility: The ability to reverse any conservation treatment, or not prevent any new treatment. 2. Minimum intervention: The look and composition of the item must be altered as little as possible to achieve the conservator’s aims. 3. Compatibility of materials: Any new material introduced should be as close as possible to the original material. So, modern conservation is about doing the minimum possible to an object to stop it deteriorating further, hopefully, by stabilizing it.In addition, the conservator’s intimate study of an object often allows the conservator to contribute valuable information about the nature of an object, including exactly what it is made from, and how it was made. This information, in turn, can often lead to evidence about provenance and technology.Variations on this theme can be found in other interpretations of the modern conservator’s role.The American Institute of Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works states that the “primary goal of conservation is preservation of cultural property”.Chris Caple (personal communication) has suggested that conservation is all about revelation, investigation, and preservation and that there is a clear conceptual difference between something looking new and “good” and stabilization and conservation.Cassman and Odegaard also debate the importance of aesthetics and physical integrity to conservators. But this is not always as straightforward as it should be.The story of the Bush Barrow Gold perhaps exemplifies some of the contradictions at the heart of conservation.The sheet gold “lozenge” from Bush Barrow in Wiltshire is possibly the most iconic object from British prehistory.The lozenge was excavated by the antiquarians Cunnington and Colt Hoare at the turn of the 19th century, along with an assemblage of other objects that showed the barrow to be the finest example of the rich single-inhumation barrow burials from the late third millennium in
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 19 School of Distance Education
southern England.This was dubbed the Wessex Culture and is associated with the later stages of construction at Stonehenge.The lozenge, along with other finds from this barrow, found its way, eventually, at the turn of the twentieth century, into the collection of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society at Devizes Museum. Because of the importance of the Bush Barrow assemblage, it was placed on permanent loan at the British Museum, where, with the exception of the War years (1939-1945), it was seen by the millions visiting the museum.In 1985, the group of artifacts from Bush Barrow was loaned to the Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh for the highly influential Symbols of Power exhibition. The lozenge’s delicate nature had always been recognized.An early attempt to write an accession number on its reverse had marked through onto its front.When it was removed from the British Museum display, the lozenge was taken to the conservation department to have a new mount made for it. Once there, and under close inspection, conservators surmised that its slightly “crinkled” appearance could be because it was originally slightly domed or convex.The British Museum conservators then undertook restoration to reshape the object before sending it on to Edinburgh. While it was on display in Symbols of Power, the lozenge was first seen in its new condition by the curator of Devizes Museum.A highly publicized and very acrimonious debate ensued between the British Museum and Devizes Museum.The British Museum argued for the correctness of their interpretation, and the Devizes Museum complained that they had not been asked, or even consulted, on the restoration of their object.As a result, the lozenge was returned to Devizes Museum, where, because of security arrangements, it is now kept locked away, and a replica is on display.For those not directly involved, the whole episode may have injected a degree of interest to an otherwise dull subject.But the story of the Bush Barrow lozenge and its restoration highlight a series of pertinent questions about the nature of conservation, authenticity, consent, and ownership.If there is a scholarly dispute over what this, of all objects, looked like when first made and used, is it possible to ever think of any archaeological object, site, or interpretation as authentic or real in any sense of the world? Buried Environments and Types of Material The types of conservation that are needed vary depending on the specific environment in which something was buried and the type of material with which an artefact has been made.Generalizations can be made about types of environment and the conservation interventions at both a macro-level and micro-level.For example, extremes of acidity or alkalinity in the soil can have profound effects on particular types of material, such as bone, that do not survive in acidic soils. Water, often known as “the great catalyst”, can have the greatest effect on the deterioration of artefacts by encouraging chemical reactions.Those environments where water is almost absent – deserts and frozen regions – often provide the most startling archaeological preservation (e.g., materials from ancient Egypt and from Greenland). In most other cases, the presence of water leads to, or encourages, the decay of objects. Another exception is where water saturates soil leading to low-oxygen conditions, here again organic preservation can be exceptional, although it makes conservation problematic. Examples include timbers and other organic objects from the Thames waterfront in London.Other very particular circumstances can lead to unusual levels of preservation. For example, the bog bodies and associated organic material from peat bogs such as those in the National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, and in the British Museum, survive through a combination of anaerobic conditions and the natural tanning of the remains.The Viking ships at Roskilde, the English 16th century warship the Mary Rose, and the Swedish 17th century warship the Vasa were all preserved in seabed silts.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 20 School of Distance Education
Preservation of organic material through anaerobic, waterlogged conditions offers a particular challenge to conservators.Such items, by nature, are rare and offer wonderful insights into the past not possible on other types of sites.As such, there is often a demand for not only preservation but also display.To keep remains stable, such material needs to remain waterlogged.Because water would have replaced much of the structure of the object, drying will destroy or, at the very least, change the size and shape of the object.Conservation techniques for such objects are now well-established, but are lengthy and relatively expensive.Conservation of waterlogged objects requires that the conservator slowly replaces the water with an alternative material, usually polyethylene glycol (commonly known as PEG) – a wax resin – and when this process is complete, freeze-drying.These techniques become hugely more complex as the size of objects increases.This is because, ideally, objects need to be fully immersed in PEG, and then put inside a freeze dryer.Sometimes, as with the Dover Bronze Age Boat, objects can be broken in to smaller pieces and then reconstructed, but this is sometimes impossible.The Mary Rose is still undergoing conservation more than 20 years after its removal from the sea. It is slowly being impregnated with PEG, while remaining wet in a sealed chamber – and while it is on display to the public.The conservation process, in this case, will not include freeze drying.Other organic material, such as textiles, rarely survive in buried environments, again making a textile find all the more precious when it does survive. Nonorganic materials are normally less problematic.Stone and ceramics have already been mentioned.Their physical robustness and stable chemical composition means that pottery and stone artefacts often survive well.Pottery is delicate and can abrade and, of course, break. Stone can also abrade and can be patinated by chemicals in its buried environment.As such, even with these materials, the archaeological artefact may be a long way from the original object as made and used. Another common category is metals, and in particular copper alloys and iron.Iron is extremely unstable and oxidises, or rusts, in most environments.The oxidising process often destroys the original surface of the artefact so that, even if desired, it could not be returned to its original form.Normal archaeological procedure is to take x-rays of iron items.These often show an object’s original form and sometimes reveal complex details about an object’s composition.X- rays, or images taken from them, have occasionally been used in museum displays.Iron corrosion can normally be minimalised by storing or displaying the object in carefully controlled environments.Copper alloy (in many cases more familiarly called bronze) also deteriorates in different environments. It is more likely to keep its original shape and form than iron, but in most environments copper alloy corrodes to green from its original bronze or gold-like colour.This is why museum visitors are normally confronted with green artefacts in museum displays. Because the objects on display may look extremely sound, and otherwise uncorroded, it is difficult not to imagine prehistoric and later warriors bedecked in green weapons. Again, copper alloy can normally be stabilized for storage and display. Precious metals, gold, and silver have a very particular allure for archaeologists and a special place in the mythology of lost treasure. In their pure state, they do not corrode and, therefore, are often found exactly as they were lost, giving a wonderful immediacy and adding to their aesthetic and monetary value. However, both silver and gold were often alloyed with copper to harden them, and the copper will decay in the ground.This means that silver objects, in particular, are often excavated looking less than pristine.As already noted, the very particular
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 21 School of Distance Education
circumstances of preservation and the methods available to conservators explicitly and implicitly affect the way museum audiences regard archaeological objects. Organics foreign from being mundane to precious because of the rarity of preservation and complexity of conservation: iron is always rusty, bronze is always green, and pots and stone tools predominate. On-Site “First-Aid” Conservation Archaeological objects are at most risk when they are first excavated. However, as unsuitable as their buried environments might be, they have almost certainly reached some level of stability within it.An object is upset in a traumatic manner when it is moved, sometimes for the first time in thousands of years, and when it comes into contact with the atmosphere.The more extreme the change in environment, the more risk to the object, so, for example, conservation of marine finds often requires the most immediate intervention.The standard UK work on how to deal with archaeological material immediately after excavation remains First Aid for Finds that, through several incarnations, has been used by field conservators for more than 30 years.It deals with the techniques for immediate lifting, protection, and stabilization of objects and then their subsequent packaging and transport. Laboratory Conservation, Analysis, and Stabilization Most detailed conservation takes place in the controlled conditions of the laboratory.It is here that a detailed stabilization occurs and an analysis of how an object has been made and used takes place. This can sometimes be a long and painstaking process.Often, particularly delicate finds, are “block-lifted” in soil from the excavation to allow precise uncovering in laboratory conditions. Here the conservator will not only be making decisions as to how to reveal the object but also how to ensure its long-term preservation.Close proximity and study will also allow input into research questions. It is also here that detailed records are made of the object – its condition and the conservation work that has been undertaken.These records form an essential part of the documentation for the object in its later life and should be carefully integrated with archives or object documentation. Different storage materials and storage environments are available for different types of finds.From the laboratory, objects normally go into storage or on to display and, depending on what has been achieved in the lab, advice will be given about the conditions that must be maintained in order to prevent their deterioration. Conservation for Display and as Part of a Display Traditionally, conservation of an object to make it “presentable” was the most important part of the conservator’s role, and this is probably why, historically, most archaeological conservators tend to be based in museums rather than in field units.Such work is still fundamental, but now it will be more geared towards ensuring that the object is stable in its display environment than trying to make it look as it once was.Reconstruction happens at many scales and with many materials. Arthur Evans’s use of reinforced concrete at Knossos, at the time, cutting-edge technology, was suited to the climate and conditions of the site (including threats from earthquakes), and allowed Evans to show the palace as “it once was”. His efforts are now largely seen as unacceptable. Similarly, museums are full of pots that have been reconstructed; some were originally restored hundreds of years ago. Sometimes this has been a matter of gluing back all the pieces, more often it is a case of using modern materials to fill gaps in order to create a pot that looks complete. Certainly, a complete pot will help a visitor understand its original shape and purpose more than a pile of broken sherds, but there is a delicate balance to be struck.Close inspection will show that many pots on display in museums are almost entirely modern in origin.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 22 School of Distance Education
At the very least, conservators advise curators about the conditions under which objects can be displayed.Conservators will normally call for stable environments with relative humidity, temperature, and light levels that will greatly slow down and, overall, reduce the deterioration of the object.Occasionally, other materials within a case, such as the paint or material that has been used to line or mount a case will contain chemicals that might adversely react with the artefact.Some objects demand particular conservation treatments that, through their very nature, become part of the objects display and interpretation, especially when there is an impatience to put an object on display, or when it is recognized that it will be many years before conservation is complete. A classic example of this is the Tudor warship the Mary Rose.The Mary Rose has been on display since soon after its excavation in 1982, and it is still being actively conserved.The mummies that were frozen in the high Andes 500 years ago, and are now held in the Museum of High Altitude Archaeology, will require very particular environmental conditions for display.To maintain their stable frozen condition, they will be, in effect, displayed in portable refrigerated cases.The inside of the cases will be kept at 20º below zero Celsius or minus 4º Fahrenheit).The bodies will be surrounded by xenon or argon gas to prevent deterioration and a pressurized atmosphere will help avoid freezer burn.The bodies will rest on scales designed to detect changes in moisture and weight. Technology, in principle, will allow for their preservation forever, however, only at a cost.A $600,000 loan from the Inter-American Development Bank is helping to fund the project. There is, at times, a perceived or actual conflict between the needs of long-term preservation and those of display and interpretation.In fact, more and more museums are waking up to the concept that the process of conservation is often fascinating to the visiting public, and conservators are themselves becoming part of, or materially contributing to, displays and public programmes.The Conservation Centre, National Museums of Liverpool, provides the conservation support for the museum service but is also a museum in its own right that has exhibitions, displays, and programmes of events.Others, such as the Museum of London, have occasionally had conservators working front-of-house on particular projects.This can slow work rates enormously because questions need to be answered, and conditions are rarely perfect, but it provides for wonderful educational opportunities.A more straightforward alternative is to build elements about the conservation of artefacts into temporary or permanent displays.The display of the Bronze Age Dover Boat includes a mass of information about how it was conserved.All-in- all, not using conservators as parts of public programmes and displays is a huge missed opportunity.It may pose interpretation challenges due to the complexity of conservation work, but there is a real appeal to visitors, and it is an important method for communicating archaeological processes. Long-Term Collections Care and Management It is now recognized that one of the most important roles of conservation is to ensure the long-term stability of the collections.It is this area of conservation that has seen most investment in recent years, and it is where most advances have been made.Conservators recognize that there is no point in rescuing an object from a site and conserving it in the laboratory if, after a number of years it is going to crumble to nothing while it is in unsuitable museum storage and packaging.This problem is not unique to archaeology.What is particular, for archaeology, is the huge number of objects that need to be stored, and the large percentage of them that will be potentially fragile.Ideally, all materials will be stored in an environment that suits their stability, and which, therefore, will need very little, if any, active conservation work, and will require
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 23 School of Distance Education
minimal later monitoring.The challenges here are largely logistic and economic.There is a need to find the right kind of storage conditions for different kinds of material.Traditionally, archaeological stores are divided into general stores where stable material such as ceramics, stone, and animal bone can be stored within generous ranges of temperature and relative humidity, and separate specialist stores for organics and metals.Alternatively, storage microclimates can be constructed using specific packing materials and materials, such as silica gel to protect particular objects within general stores. Although humidity and temperature, and fluctuations in them, are normally considered the most important factors in ensuring the long-term life of objects, other factors are important as well.Light levels will be most important for some materials, such as textiles and pigments. Pests, such as beetles and rodents, can also attack objects and, perhaps more commonly, the packaging in which they are stored.Objects can also do damage to each other.How artefacts are packed and stored in relation to each other is important.How often an object will be viewed or handled is a major factor in deciding storage and packaging needs.A careful compromise is needed between accessibility and protection. Although, as a general rule, wrapping an object up so that it is invisible and needs complex unpacking every time it is required is not the best solution. Methods of “open storage” have been developed, for example, at the Oxfordshire Museum Centre at Standlake, whereby an object can be clearly seen while it is protected. Occasionally, traumatic events, such as fires or floods, can do dreadful damage. Recent natural disasters, such as Hurricane Katrina in Louisiana, United States, have illustrated just how unprepared many museum facilities are to protect their collections from such disasters.These considerations, matched with finite budgets, have meant that risk assessment and risk management have become an important part of conservation work. The most important factor in controlling the long-term environment of artefacts is the building in which they are stored.It is, therefore, a depressing observation that many museums, for economic reasons, are forced to use unsuitable buildings with inherently poor environments, and then spend money trying to correct the environment and improve its conditions.In the last 20 years, a number of museums and museum services have recognized this failing and have invested in good museum stores which often also have the added benefit of being suitable for public visits.Examples include the Museum of London’s London Archaeological Archive and Research Centre (LAARC), Oxfordshire Museum Services Standlake facility (this is a wonderful building but has not been without environmental and visitor access problems), and the Norfolk Museum Service Cressinghall Centre.Other such facilities are planned in the United Kingdom, and it is likely that purposely built, or at least, purposely converted, storage facilities will become the norm for larger museum services with large archaeological collections.The original model for these facilities can probably be found in the United States, where storage facilities were developed in the 1970s and 1980s.However, for now, it remains the case that the vast majority of archaeological collections held by smaller museums are stored in unsuitable conditions where they will be deteriorating, or are taking up a disproportionably large cost as the museums seek to correct their inherently bad storage environments. As noted, the particular problem of archaeological collections is their quantity and the range of potentially vulnerable materials.The need to assess the state of conditions in an economically feasible way has led to the development of a range of techniques mainly pioneered at the Museum of London in the 1980s.Collection Condition Audits are methods of rapidly surveying and amassing data about large diverse collections in order to obtain the right
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 24 School of Distance Education
information to make decisions about collections management.On the whole, standards and guidelines are now in place for archaeological objects to enter collections in a stable condition and to be maintained in environmentally monitored storage.A challenge that remains is for collections that were amassed in the past and for which no funds or resources are available to bring them up to these standards.The Getty Minimum Standards Project at the LAARC did allow a large backlog of material to be assessed and repackaged.The programme also used volunteer – and work-experience teams to do much of the work thereby turning it into a community-focused project. Stabilizing Factors for Deterioration Preservation The term preservation means to keep up safe the specimen, especially in case of museum specimens.It is an action to prevent, to stop or to retard deterioration.In this context, the restoration is another term, which indicates the treatment of object with necessary corrections and alterations.The preservation is primarily supplemented by restoration work to prevent or to slower the speed of deterioration.Naturally, the restoration work is an attempt to check the deterioration and the preservation, which is an unending process to maintain the health of object with a sound physical and chemical condition. As a matter of fact, a continuous process of preservation and restoration is the basic concept of conservation.The conservation is nothing but a reconstruction or representation of an original one in its own form with proper preservation to retard deterioration. In present situation, the preservation work can be differentiated in two ways, such as preventive and curative.The curative preservation is too much sophisticated approach with various modern techniques that demanding modern laboratory with professional workers.But the preventive preservation work is a simple approach to find out the causes and factors responsible for deterioration. It is mostly taken up as the preventive aspect of degeneration with some kind of restoration work.The museum specimens show a wide range of variation in accordance with the nature and its form.These specimens are classified in two groups, such as the organic objects and inorganic objects.Organic objects are especially made of wood, ivory, textiles, papers, etc. and inorganic objects are coming out from the metals, stones, and fined-clay. Apart from these, a large number of objects are available as composite artifacts.These are the combination of organic and inorganic materials.It is an unavoidable phenomenon that all items are subject to natural aging and decay. In this condition it is inevitable to control the causes of degeneration for retarding the speed of deterioration.Therefore in this operation to examine the properties of materials is a necessary work.In fact, after thorough examination of the objects the factors are coming out as the responsible for deterioration, this will helpful for preservation work. Types of Deterioration The damage incurred by man is known as man-created deterioration. It may happen in the following ways: mishandling, negligence, injuries, accidents, and fire-massacre.The agencies of natural causes of damage can be divided in two sections, such as the external agencies and the internal agencies.The external agencies are mainly responsible for creating structural problem of the objects and known as auto-deterioration.The control of auto- deterioration demands a complicated modern scientific approach.But, internal agencies are easily manageable by the help of preventive preservation and restoration work. The internal agencies are activated under influence of external agencies.The main causes of deterioration due to external agencies are depending on these following factors:
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 25 School of Distance Education
(a) Climatic conditions and environment which will be included as the clusters of the climatic condition, temperature and humidity, climate control, and environment; (b) Light; and (c) Bio-deterioration. Climatic Condition. Literally, it means the weather characteristics in a specific region. Extreme summer, monsoon and winter are critical weather condition in any specific region.These three seasons are showing high degree of fluctuation in the climatic condition in India.Ecological set up of a region is also responsible in showing climatic fluctuation to a considerable level. In short, the climate is used to illustrate the condition of a region in presence of the factors like as the sunshine, precipitation, humidity and the temperature.The altitude, latitude, surroundings, and proximity to the sea and the mountains govern all of these factors.It is easily and acutely observable with variations in a particular area is known as microclimate. The climatic condition of the museum indicates microclimate of a limited area of the city or even of a building itself.The microclimate of the museum building is forming under influence of its orientation, surroundings of vegetation, fountains or ponds, thickness of walls and the materials used in its construction.In addition, the space, opening and the provision for ventilation are showing a clear effect in response to sunshine, precipitation, humidity and temperature in the area of museum building.As a matter of fact, the microclimate of a museum is the climate in a confined space as the building, or a room, or a showcase. This space is treated as an immediate environment of the museum specimens rather it may be said as the microclimate of the museum.Most important factors in the climate are the temperature and the relative humidity.These two factors are very much active in maintaining an equilibrium in the atmosphere and also responsible for the climatic fluctuation of a place. Temperature and Humidity The temperature is a reflection of the strength of heat energy.It is measured by the scale of Centigrade or Fahrenheit and known as degree Centigrade or degree Fahrenheit.The humidity means the presence of moisture in the air. It is expressed in terms of relative humidity. Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of moisture present in a unit volume of air.More scientifically, the relative humidity (RH) indicates the amount of moisture required to saturate same volume of air at the same temperature. In the mathematical form: Relative Humidity (RH) Amount of moisture (…) = ------x 100 Amount of …saturate (-)
Mvt Therefore, RH = ------x 100 (v and t constant) Msvt [M = Moisture amount, Muslims = Moisture amount in saturation, v = Unit volume of air, t = Temperature]
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 26 School of Distance Education
The moisture-saturated air is unable to absorb any more water particle in the form of vapour or moisture. In fact, no more water vapour means the atmosphere is fully saturated with moisture. This saturated atmosphere is showing 100% relative humidity (RH). In this situation, if we introduce more water vapour above the 100% RH then the condensation will take place.Again, zero per cent (0 per cent) relative humidity RH means the absence of moisture in the atmosphere.Relative humidity (RH) 15% is indicating dry condition and the moist condition of a place is showing 75% relative humidity (RH).In fact, a unit volume of air can absorb more water vapour at high temperature and less amount of moisture under low temperature.Naturally, the RH will decrease at the time of temperature is coming down or dropped but the moist condition will decrease.On the contrary, RH will increase by responding the high temperature but the presence of moisture amount will increase and to be the moist condition.Therefore RH is to be controlled in a place by the manipulation of temperature. Climate Control The Museologists have recommended an ideal climate after completion of a considerable number of studies in that respect.The relative humidity (RH) of a standard situation ranges from 45% to 60% RH.Again, the temperature is prescribed as within the range of 68oF to 76oF or 20oC to 24oC.This information may be achieved by the study of climate throughout the year.A plotted record of temperature and relative humidity (RH) acquires the data in a record sheet.The study is to be continued throughout the year in a regular way. A machine is required for this study as a tool know as Thermo-hygrograph for counting the temperature and RH.The ambient condition of climate will come out after analysis of these recorded data.If it has been recommended by the Scientists and Museologists for the museum specimens then, it must be preserved in the range of 40% RH to 60% RH with maximum permissible variation of 5% RH. A crude way of climate control is the arrangement of humidifier for getting moisture and dehumidifier to arrest the humidity. Another crude but simplest way is to keep up proper ventilation for natural control of RH. In this way, it would be better in addition to placement of exhaust fans in opposite windows.The chemical application may be altered with a few chemicals that will be able to absorb moisture in a great extent, such as silica gel, calcium chloride, and dry wood.The silica gel absorbs moisture from wet air and giving it off in presence of dry air.Self- indicating silica gel or silica gel blue can collect the moisture 30% of its own weight and changes the colour.The change of colour indicates the absorption of moisture.The colour is regenerated in original blue in presence of 120oF to 130oF temperature.For working condition, the silica-gel crystal of 500 gms. Is sufficient for one cubic metre of enclosed space. The best way of climate control is to use of continuous air-conditioning system.It is an expensive device but effective too.The machine of this device is known as Climatizer or Air-condition machine. Environment The environment is surroundings of the objects within the atmosphere. Many gases are available in the atmosphere.But, a considerable quantity of gases like; sulphur dioxide, chloride, ammonia, and nitrogen oxide exist in the air causing damages to the objects externally.This kind of damages can be prevented with an introduction of enclosed condition.This enclosed condition of the objects is the microenvironment, which is found in the showcases, and boxes.The space inside the cases may be controlled easily to prevent the causes of damage of the specimens.Besides, the particulate matter is another factor in the atmosphere for developing environmental pollution.This particulate matter is a combination of four factors likely the soot,
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 27 School of Distance Education
dirt, dust and lint.The soot is basically a little quantity of black carbon with some other materials.The lint is simply a fine and small piece of straw. The carbon-filter is only effective tool to arrest the soot and the lint excluding other pollutants.Only preventive step for dirt and dust is to keep up the place clean regularly.The organic material is much susceptible to ‘particulate matter’ in comparison with the inorganic material. But, the aluminium oxide can absorb quite efficiently the gases likely sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, etc. The showcases are not suitable for big size and unusual shape of archaeological stone structures.Generally this type of specimens is also displayed on open space. Naturally, some kind of salts may be deposited over the specimens.Gradually the salts are penetrating the stone objects by its capillary action.Many capillaries are existing in the stone and developing more in due course of time.In the capillary action, water rises up from the bottom due to turgor pressure and to make a contact with the deposited surface salts and the gases of the atmosphere. A chemical reaction is made and practically some white depositions are found over the stone objects.This white deposition is known as efflorescence. Repeatation of this reaction is a cause of cracking with a clear destination of destruction.The polymer coating is a good enough measure to check this chemical reaction.But the use of silicon rubber as the coating is the most effective one for protection against efflorescence. This measure is taken by paint technique over the stone objects. The calcium carbonate is a good preservative especially for mural work, though the sulphur dioxide gas of air reacts on it and the calcium carbonate is converted into different compounds.After a completion of chemical reaction between calcium carbonate and sulphur dioxide a new compound is developed, which is known as the calcium sulphide that reacts further with other chemical ingredients of the air.The calcium sulphide itself is heavily destructive chemical agent for mural work.Therefore it is proved that the most active reagent for chemical reaction is the oxygen and the moisture.Both of these factors are sufficiently available in the air.Naturally the sealing is the best technique to avoid air contact.The wax film is also good enough as the sealing agent.This process is known as waxing and it is also an effective measure for many cases but not suggestible in all cases. The bronze is an alloy product of copper with tin.The copper can produce another alloy as the brass to be mixed with the zinc.Hence the copper is common metal in the alloys as the bronze and the brass. In atmosphere the copper reacts easily with the chloride. As a matter of fact, the copper in presence of air, moisture and chloride can be converted to cupric chloride and hydrochloric acid after chemical reaction. Further, this cupric chloride comes in contact with oxygen and moisture of the air for further disintegrating in the form of chlorine and oxides of copper.This nascent chlorine is converted to chloride again with a repeatation of the reaction.This chain process of chemical reaction is going on with a result known as green corrosion.This corrosion is dangerous for the objects.This may be prevented with the wax film as a coating to check this chemical reaction. Light The light is an important agency for destruction, yet the properties of objects are also determinant factors under light rays.The influence of light also depends on its nature, source and intensity of rays.Nature of rays is found as the visible light rays and invisible light rays.The light comes out from the natural source and the artificial source.Finally, the intensity of light is measured in two ways – the duration of exposure and the quantity of rays under exposure.The light rays are electromagnetic energy with a property of radiation. Some kind of radiation is sensitive to human eyes and contains visible rays. But, a few rays are not sensitive to human eyes
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 28 School of Distance Education
and not visible.Laws; of electromagnetism explain that the energy is inversely proportional to the wavelength of light rays.Hence the higher energy produces shorter wavelength of light rays. The visible spectrum of light rays is in between the wavelength range of 400nm [1 nanometre (nm) = 10-9 metre (m)] to 700nm.The wavelength below 400nm is known as ultraviolet rays and longer than 700nm is infrared rays. Both of these infrared and ultraviolet radiation or rays are invisible to human eyes. Organic materials in comparison with inorganic materials are more susceptible under light radiation.The wavelength of light rays below 500nm is sufficient for deterioration.The light rays in between the wavelength range of 300nm to 500nm are responsible for photochemical degradation of the objects like as the leather, textiles, and papers. Ultraviolet rays cover the range of 300nm to 400nm while violet and blue rays are in between wavelength range of 400nm to 500nm radiation. It is relevant to know that a high temperature with dense humidity enhances photochemical reaction to the objects by radiation. The photochemical reaction through light rays is influenced directly under assistance of some external factors like as the humidity, temperature and oxygen of the atmosphere.The specimens susceptible to light demands protection by adoption of three steps in the following ways: (i) less intensity of light over the specimens; (ii) minimum period of exposure on the objects; and (iii) elimination of photochemically active rays from the radiation. A minimum light as 15 lux (lux is the unit of illumination) is necessary for illumination of any object.This illumination level is sufficient for viewing satisfactorily.A few objects, such as oil paintings, basketry, etc. can tolerate more intensity of light. The light continues up to 150 lux as the safe limit for photochemical deterioration. But, the maximum limit for illumination level is recommended as 50 lux for sensitive objects, such as the coloured textiles, miniatures, watercolour paintings and similar works of art. Bio-deterioration It happens for the presence of insects and microorganisms.High humidity level promotes fast growth of those biological factors.Hence, to control humidity level is the simple way of prevention.Besides, more steps may be taken up for controlling bio-deterioration.Application of chemicals is the most popular measure against biological factors for damages.Insecticides are common chemicals for killing insects. But, a few chemicals are functioning as repellants instead of killing.The following points should be kept in mind before the use of the insecticides or the repellents: (i) The chemicals should not transmit any colour of its own or of its solvent to the specimens. (ii) The chemicals would not affect adversely as well as the durability of the objects must not be neglected. (iii) It must be non-toxic and non-irritant to the human being. The chemical treatment is to be done by spraying technique or by touching method.A spraying gun is required to spray the liquid chemical on the object.A painting brush may also be used to paint over the specimen, which is known as touching method. Non-touching method of treatment is fumigation.Here the chemicals are applied in the form of vapour or fume around the object.Popular fumigation equipment is known as Thymol chambers.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 29 School of Distance Education
The termite is a dangerous type of insect. Out of many, only two types of termite species are common to the museum workers, such as dry rot type and other one is common termite.This dry rot type variety is much dangerous in comparison with common termite. Common termite is not that much harmful.It makes a link within the ground only, without intention of damage or further attack.But, dry rot type makes contact with the object directly for destruction. Effective insecticides for termites are available in the market with brand name as Termax and Aldrine. These chemicals under dilution of 1% to 2% are sufficient to control termite invasion.A prior consultation with experts is required regarding the operation. The microorganisms like fungus, algae, bacteria, lichens and the moss are commonly found in museum.The fungus is a serious threat to the museum.It is a parasitic plant with microstructures, which grows rapidly under humid condition.The growth rate is very high at the time of 70% relative humidity RH.The fungus spore floats in the atmosphere under dormant condition.The growth of these dormant spores germinates as soon as the RH and the temperature arrive at favourable points.The stagnant volume of air forms a pocket in the room.This air pocket is favourable for fungal germination.This growth can be retarded only by air circulation in a proper way.Naturally, an arrangement of proper ventilation is a simple preventive measure against unwanted fungal growth.The fungicides can also be used in affected areas to remove fungus. Effective fungicides are thymol, ehtylene oxide, and formalin. Sodium pentachlorophenate (brand name is Santo brite) and Sodium orthophenylphenate (brand name is Topane W.S.) are good chemicals to kill fungus.Paradicholorobenzene (PDCB) and Thymol are used as fungicides.The carbon disulphide is also an effective chemical for fumigation as like as Thymol.But, it is inflammable.Therefore it is required to be mixed with carbon tetrachloride (1:3) to form a mixture solution, which would be non-inflammable. Such a mixture solution is too effective for textile items.The preservation is the process, which never stop.A few more things have been discussed along with the conservation part. Stabilization of the Existing Status Conservation The conservation means a protection on environment and it is a continuous process of preservation and restoration.In fact the conservation is a synthetic approach of physical sciences with excessive delicacy.It requires a planned management of natural resources with some principles, which have been mentioned here in the following ways: (i) All treatment should adequately be documented. (ii) The structural and decorative falsification should be avoided. (iii) The process of conservation should be reversible and the artifacts can be returned to its pre-treatment condition even after a long lapse of time. But, in some cases, this process of reversible action is not applicable, e.g., lamination, use of synthetic adhesives, impregnation, etc. (iv) The consequences of aging should not be removed from the original materials. A complete knowledge of chemistry and physical properties of the specimens is useful for conservation work.The knowledge regarding historical value of the object and available material resources for this work are also important.In addition of all phenomena, the practical exercises on conservation work may be categorized as follows: Cleaning; Mending; strengthening; renewing; and preserving.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 30 School of Distance Education
Cleaning It is first step for practical exercises on conservation.All superficial dirt and dust would be removed with the help of a small soft-hair brush or a small pair of bellows.In case of sticky and over-hanging dust on the object can be handled with running water to remove it.This kind of water treatment is basically depending on the nature of the object. It may also be summarised in the following points: (a) Use of water is limited unless the object is hard and good in condition. (b) Water can be used safely on metals but thorough drying up is required before any treatment. (c) Stone objects and painted pottery should not be cleaned directly under water unless the items are varnished or waxed in proper way. (d) Not painted pottery, stone and glass items may be washed with water by soaking technique.In this technique a piece of cotton, sponge or soft brush is required for brushing repeatedly with continuous change of water under careful handling of the object. (e) To use of water should be restricted on the object of plaster of Paris. (f) Water is not suitable for ivory items. (g) Woven fabrics may be washed with water except the fabrics under bad condition or old. A mixture solution is more appropriate cleaning agent instead of plain water.A common solution is the mixture of benzene with petrol or alcohol (1:10).But, the oil painting should not be treated with this solution. Only the mixture of alcohol with water or hydrogen peroxide (1:1) is effective cleaning agent for old oil painting. Another two kinds of cleaning agents are helpful when the benzene-alcohol or petrol mixture fails to remove dirt and dust.First one is the solution of diluted acids or alkalis. Second one is the mixture of equal part (1:1) of acetone with pyridine in 50% of water (1:1) solution. It should be noted that the cleaning is required to keep up patience of observation to have better result. Mending The mending is the addition of new materials for re-fixation of broken or loose parts of the items.The cement or adhesive plays a vital role along with its selection for mending work. It is in need to remove old cement or adhesive carefully and completely for re-fixing the parts of the objects. But, an unknown cement preparation may cause further damage.To avoid this problem a few common matching of adhesives are mentioned here in the following points: (a) Glue for wooden objects. (b) Celluloid cement for the items of glass, porcelain, quartz and flint. (c) Plaster of Paris for pottery and stone objects. (d) Fine stone dust and the solution of sodium silicate for stone objects. (e) A mixture of country-made cement, i.e., a combination of fine-grained sand with fine clay, is the good matching for fire-baked clay or terracotta items. (f) The wax and some of its combination (mixture of bees-wax with carnauba wax or paraffin) is very good fixing materials for ivory objects.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 31 School of Distance Education
Strengthening This is a process to increase durability of the object. It is obvious that the handling of old objects under fragile and delicate condition is practically impossible without causing damage.Therefore the strengthening is an important work for museum specimens. The process as the impregnation is a one of the most important step to strengthen the object.A few reagents show good result in impregnation work, such as the melted Paraffin; melted Bees-wax, Celluloid solution; Linseed oil; and Plaster of Paris. Renewing This activity is responsible to make the item valid again or restoration of the object.Besides, the missing parts may be resumed with newly constructed one as it was before.The matching of material is inevitable for renewing the missing parts.In fact, the affected objects should be renewed with matching materials to revive original look of the specimens. Preserving Aim of this work s to decrease the speed of degeneration of the specimens.The factors responsible for deterioration must be detected at first hand.Nextly, it is in need to explore a way out with available resources.Lastly, the effective measures must be adopted to retard the speed of degeneration.It may be concluded that the preservation requires a well understanding of the specimen’s condition and the remedies should be with easy availability.It is a non-stop activity, which seeks constant research on it. Practical Exercise Simple practical exercises on the specimens of different materials are mentioned here in the following headings: Wood and Bamboo Both the materials absorb water particles and make damp.This dampness may be responsible for damage, which should be removed. It requires a few days and a cool place should be arranged for drying up the materials.This process is known as seasoning.The object after seasoning may be washed or soaked with celluloid solution or vinyl-acetate solution or liquid paraffin.This treatment is in need after seasoning as because of the natural foodstuff (starch, etc.) are found inside of the material that can attract insects.For the port against insects the material may be treated with crude creosote solution by paint technique and carbon disulphide vapour by fumigation technique.The specimens under insect infection must be treated with carbon- disulphide vapour by fumigation. If it fails to destroy insects completely then creosote solution is required for direct application on the specimens by paint technique.Crude creosote oil is dense and black in colour.This oil is not suitable for direct application.For better result it can be diluted in kerosene oil.This creosote solution is able to keep up original colour of the specimens. The proportion of the solution is in the ratio as (2:1), i.e., two volumes of kerosene oil and one volume of crude creosote oil.The specimen consumes 72 hours after creosote treatment to make it complete dry. The shellac solution is another popular preservative.It is a simple protection against insects. Any kind of specimen can be painted with this solution.The coating of this solution also produces a luster effect on the surface of the specimens.A substitute of shellac solution is also available in the market as ready-made synthetic resin solution.The shellac solution may be prepared in the following ingredients, shellac crystals; methylated spirit and mercuric chloride.The strength of mercuric chloride varies from 1.5% to 2% as per requirement.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 32 School of Distance Education
Shellac crystals………………20gms. Mythylated spirit……………..100cc. Mercuric chloride……………..2gms. This composition is 20% shellac solution and the concentration of composition varies on the basis of requirements. For example, 10 gms of shellac crystals in same composition is known as 10% shellac solution, which is most appropriate for the items, made by bamboo-splits.The woodcarvings may be coated with varnish or linseed oil for better result. But, most effective measure for woodcarvings is ASCU treatment.This treatment can protect against destruction by insects, algae and fungi. Grass, Reed and Cordage The specimens like as the basket, mat, bag, etc. are commonly made with grass, reed and cordage.In course of time, all of this material would be brittle in condition. These items may be cleaned by brushing and blowing.But the specimens under fragile condition must be treated with petrol by the help of soft small brush or a piece of cotton.The objects of these materials should be strengthened for increasing durability and it must be prescribed after cleaning and brushing.Therefore these items must be strengthened by wax paint, especially the bees-wax.In some cases the items may be processed under diluted ereosote solution (creosote oil 1 Vol.: kerosene oil 4 Vol.) for preservation.Finally, all of these specimens must be painted with the shellac solution of 2% to 5% concentration considering the nature of the items. Fabrics A common phenomenon of the fabrics is the problem of disintegration. This problem may be divided in two ways, i.e., chemical and biological disintegration.Chemical disintegration is caused by oxidation and the sunlight takes active part to make it faster.Biological disintegration is the resultant of bacterial and fungal infection.The fabrics of fresh or good in condition can be cleaned by brush or washed with soap in warm water. At the time of washing, the rubbing action should be avoided. The fabrics may be soaked in the mixture solution of benzene with petrol (1:4) before washing.The specimen must be for free from hard stains through washing.If some hard stains are still prevailing on the specimens then the use of acetone as a good reagent that is able to wipe-off it completely.The solution of turpentine with methylated spirit (1:10) can remove the hard stains.The methylated spirit alone can dissolve the stains.In some cases the oxalic acid produces very good result.The oxalic acid (10%) may be allowed to remain on the spots or stains for three to five minutes to erase out the extra hard stains. Lastly, the fabrics must be washed with warm water carefully.After washing the specimens should be placed in a warm room for dry-up slowly. Old fabrics are found in fragile state. It must be dipped in the solution benzene with petrol or alcohol (1:4) for cleaning. This process is one type of dry-cleaning and it is unavoidable for old fabrics. Reinforcement is necessary job for old fabrics.Naturally, a solution of alum with gum arabic may be used to reinforce and freshen-up the colours of these old specimens. In case of the fabrics in extreme fragile condition should not allow undertaking any kind of movement for cleaning and preservation. This situation must be handled with a special type of solution and the tissue paper.This special type of solution is a mixture of 10 gms, glue in 500cc. distilled water, which will develop a special kind of adhesive. The glue materials may be dipped in the distilled water for 24 hours in a same state.After that, the mixture solution may be heated for
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 33 School of Distance Education
dissolving the residue particles of glue. This glue solution must be mixed with 2 cc. of formalin, which is formed as a special type of preservative adhesive. It must be applied on the specimen immediately after preparation and a tissue paper should be pasted on it to make a firm grip.This reinforcement work is required to dry up thoroughly for completion of strengthening work.Nextly, a solution may be sprayed on it for preservation work.This solution is the mixture of naphthalene or camphor that is dissolved in lysol.This naphthalene or camphor solution should be sprayed over the old fabrics after reinforcement.After this treatment, the specimen should gain more resistant against bacterial and fungal infection. Book, Manuscript and Paper Common enemies for any sort of paper items are as follows, white ants or termites, cockroaches, and silverfish.Out of these enemies more dangerous one is the bookworm.The bookworms(Silverfish, Lepismas, Anobium Panasicum and Corrodentia or Book lice) are generally found in the area of darkness.All these can grow rapidly inside a room if they are left since for a long time.In this regard a few steps may be taken as helpful measures for the books: (a) Dusting is required as a regular task. Because, less dirt and dust invites less bookworms. (b) Exposure of sunlight either direct or indirect is required at least for a short period of time. A long exposure of sunrays will do the paper brittle in condition. (c) To use of phenyl as repellent should be restricted by spraying on the sides of the books. (d) The books should be treated with some insecticides.Only three types of insecticides are effective for the books under preservation work. The first type of insecticides it the combination of, Corrosive sublimate……………….½ oz. Carbolic acid…………………….. ½oz. Methylated spirit………………….1 pint. This insecticide mixture solution may be painted with a brush to the covers of the books, both inside and outside.This treatment may be made twice a year for getting a good result.Second and third types of combinations are in the following proportions. Rectified spirit………………1 gallon. Mercuric chloride…………..1 oz. Phenyl…………………………1 oz. And, Corrosive sublimate……… 50 drachmas. Creosote oil………………….60 drops. Rectified spirit………………2 lbs. These two types of combination solution of insecticides are much helpful to use in the joints and in between every ten or fifteen page of the damaged books.A little quantity of these insecticides can be added to the paste of book binding as a preliminary work for preservation.A solution of benzene with alcohol or petrol (1:4) is very much effective for affected books.The
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 34 School of Distance Education
oxalic acid is helpful to remove reddish patches on the paper and it may also be considered as the protection against fungal infection. The citronella oil is helpful for dry-leaf material to resume softness as it was before.The carbon black or graphite may be rubbed over the inscription on dry leaf to restore it before use of citronella oil.If it is failed then the carbon black or graphite may be mixed with cellulose acetate solution to put it on the dry-leaf material for revival of the inscription. A gelatinous material is needed as a fixing agent to the parchment paper.This parchment paper with fixing agent may be pasted below the soft leaf or any paper items for the reinforcement work.For old and damaged specimens, this paper with gelatinous material or solution is performing as the work of strengthening the items.This gelatinous solution is nothing but a mixture of the gelatin with acetic acid and vinegar (1:1:1).De-acidification is an important task for any kind of paper items.Normally, the solution of calcium bicarbonate with water or calcium hydroxide with water (1:4) can produce a good result for de-acidification work. But, in some cases the solution of barium hydroxide-tetrahydrate (2%) in menthol base is required to use directly on the paper documents to neutralize acidity or to prevent acidity. Paper documents must be assembled together for storage in a safe custody.But the sizes of the documents may not be found as same or equal.In this situation, a few extra papers (bigger or equal in size) are required for storing.The documents are added to extra paper for making equal size to store it properly. At present, readymade boards in acid free condition are easily available in the market.Hence de-acidification problem is not at all a problem to day. The acid free boards of equal sizes are able to solve the problem of packing and storage of paper documents. Encapsulation is the recent method for preservation of paper documents.It is a process of sealing in between two separate poly-plastic films.In general, thin polythene films of 0.04 mm thickness can be used for encapsulation.The border sides of the films must be sealed with the help of ultrasonic rays.To use of polyvinyl films or PVC films is very recent development in encapsulation work.This film or PVC film of 0.08 mm to 0.125 mm thickness is used for preservation work considering the nature of paper documents. A high frequency electric current is required for sealing of the PVC films.This process is completely reversible and the documents may be released in its original form by a simple cut-off the seal or joint of PVC films.It is a cost- effective process in comparison with the process of lamination.The lamination does not provide the reversible facility. Leather Automatically, the leather item will go towards disintegration in course of time.The reasons for disintegration may be recorded in the following ways: (a) Oxidation is an important cause influenced by light and heat. (b) Acid reaction is another reason of disintegration.The leather item absorbs sulphur dioxide from the air and sometimes it remains from the time of erroneous process of tanning.Gradually this sulphur dioxide in the presence of atmospheric ingredients is converted to sulphuric acid after chemical reaction. (c) Uncared process of tanning is another reason. (d) To use of inferior quality dye is also a reason for damage.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 35 School of Distance Education
Cleaning is a primary work and regular use of a solution for dressing is also a preliminary preventive measure for leather item.This process is helpful to prevent air contact as well as the sulphur gases. Besides, this treatment will lubricate the leather tissue to be in soft and smooth condition.This solution is commonly known as dressing solution and it may be made in the following proportions of the ingredients. Bees wax …………………………7 gms. Lanolin anhydrous…………….100 gms. Cedar wood oil………………….14 cc. Hexane……………………………170 cc. Old leather items are tremendous fragile and brittle.Therefore a common dressing solution is not at all suitable for old items.Special types of solution will effective for old and brittle items.This special solution is the mixture of 60 parts of alcohol with 40 parts of castor oil. A soft brush is used to paint this solution for increasing durability of the item. Ivory, Bone and Horn Ivory is more steady than bone and horn.Incrustation is main problem of the ivory items.It may be cleaned by an application of diluted hydrochloride acid (5%) [5 parts of hydrochloride acid and 95 parts of water].The specimen may be washed repeatedly with water after the use of diluted acid.This washing is needed a continuous change of fresh water till the acid remains on it. But this process is not suitable for old ivory item.Hence; in that case a brush is only usable for cleaning up it thoroughly.Ivory specimen requires a room for dry up it properly. This room must be a zone of free air circulation with a protection against the exposure of sunrays. It is know as dry zone. The specimen is treated with a solution by the help of a piece of cotton or sponge through the sponging technique. After dry-up it properly, the specimen will be treated with a solution. This solution is a mixture of equal parts of acetone and rectified spirit. Final processing of the ivory specimen is impregnation, which will be more successful with application of the wax or venyl-acetate. In case of bone item a brush is useful for cleaning.After cleaning the dirt and dust the specimen may be painted with shellac solution of 2% to 3% strength.But the mercuric chloride 0.05% may be added to shellac solution to increase preservative power of the solution.The number of coating is depending on the basis of requirement.But, the previous coating of shellac solution should be dried up properly before use of next coat of the paint.The horn material does not require any treatment except cleaning and dusting.A proper wash with warm water is sufficient treatment for horn made items. Pictures and Paintings This section maybe classified in the following categories: Mural Paintings (Tempera and Fresco). Painting on Plaster. Painting on Wax. Oil Paintings. Drawings.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 36 School of Distance Education
Tempera In any kind of tempera painting the colour pigments requires an adhesive medium, such as the glue, gum, and white part of egg.These mediums are basically organic substance and susceptible to infection. For this reason different factors can deface the paintings.Tempera painting may be treated with diluted ammonia solution to remove lichens from it.A proper cleaning with extreme care is necessary for conservation of the tempera work and it requires brushing gently with the mixture solution of water and alcohol. Besides, the paintings may come up in its original form by simple brushing with the help of a soft brush.After cleaning the affected paintings are painted with a mixture of benzene petrol (1:6) solution.The salt in at takes an active role to deface the paintings.Adding a transparent coating of celluloid solution (1%) over the tempera paintings may prevent it. But, direct use of celluloid solution is not suitable rather it requires an appropriate medium to paint over the paintings.This medium is a mixture solution of acetone and amyl acetate in equal parts. Fresco This kind of wall painting demands very careful attention at the time of cleaning and dusting.The following three steps necessary for maintenance and preservation of fresco.Firstly, to use foreign very soft brush is suggested with serious attention to wipe-off dirt and dust. Secondly, a piece of soft cotton is employed for the purpose of sponge-technique treatment in addition to the alcohol. Finally, the surface of the painting requires a coating of paraffin-wax mixture.A soft brush is enough for application of the liquid paraffin wax. Painting on Plaster In this case the specimen is handled with a soft brush for removing loose dust.Nextly, a piece of soft cotton is soaked in the mixture solution of benzene alcohol (1:4) to remove dirt and dust by sponge-technique. This process is equally suitable for both the specimen with varnished surface and the painting with unvarnished surface. It may be noted that the specimen with unvarnished surface demands two or three coat paints of celluloid solution (10%) for strengthening the item.The varnished surface of plaster painting is normally coated with a paraffin-wax mixture for strengthening it. Moreover, it may be said that the coatings over the paintings are also an agreement of preservation work. Painting on Wax Cleaning is the only treatment for this type of specimen to make it clean.The surface of this item requires a gentle rubbing with a very soft piece of cotton soaked in water or alcohol to wipe-off dirt and dust. Oil Painting It is a combination of many materials, such as canvas, pigments, mediums, varnishes and chemicals.Chemically the canvas is cellulose material changing its dimension under influence of moisture.The glue and other materials of oil paintings are responsible to attract fungus as well as insects under moist condition.The pigments are chiefly the minerals in different forms, which perhaps absorb the moisture.The volume of the pigments changes after absorption of the moisture.The varnish is a good protection, but, in course of time, the varnish from vegetable resins is obtained optical saturation. In consideration with all these factors the oil paintings should not be treated without a prior examination.Again, a complete record of all activities should be kept with in written form along with photographs for having a feed back in future.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 37 School of Distance Education
The mark of cracking is the first sign of decay.It happens quite often in many old paintings.In course of time the canvas is expanded but oil colours or dry paints on it do not allow this expansion.Automatically the cracks appear due to unwanted stress on the canvas. Serious damage by cracking is known as the flaking of colours.These flakes are gradually takes a cup like structure and that is called cupping.Main reason is simply negligence of the painter. At the time of painting it should be kept in mind that the colour requires a specific period of time for dry-up properly. If the painter does not allow necessary time-span for drying-up the layers of paints, flaking will appear in course of time. The adhesive can play an important role to get rid of this problem. However, the most important phenomenon is to know the responsive capacity of adherent to adhesive.In fact, the adherent and adhesive should be in the same group.It may be stated here that insufficient knowledge of painter may causes more damage. A new support of the canvas is an extra lining, which is a necessary measure to check the damage in oil painting. If the canvas is required to change with new ones then flake transfer is inevitable. The flake transfer is the work of a high esteem of accuracy and precession.In this operation, most vital ingredient is adhesive, especially chemical adhesive as the thermoplastic resin.This chemical adhesive is not responsive to the moisture.The flake transfer is known as thermoplastic resin process that is required a condition of high temperature and a vacuum pressure table.It is most sophisticated technology and the technique is much expensive as well as complicated too.However, the organic adhesive or organic resin adhesive is not at all suitable in comparison with this modern flake transfer technology rather it attracts insects too.The varnish loses its transparency in due course of time.Old varnish is turned yellow in colour. A dissolving solvent is necessary to remove this opaque-yellow varnish.Oil paint will regain its transparency after removal of old varnishes.This solvent can dissolve the varnish without disturbing the paint.Old varnish can be wiped-off and new varnish need to be added on it for preservation. Drawings In this item discolouration is a big problem. It happens because of the action of sulphur compounds available in the atmospheric surrounds and these compounds deposited on the white lead pigment of drawings. As a result, gradually it is converted to a dark coloured sulphide after having a chemical reaction in due course of time.In this situation the use of hydrogen peroxide is good enough to change the dark sulphide in a state of white sulphate.The plain water is not at all suitable for drawings especially for watercolour paintings, and charcoal drawings.The effective reagent for drawing is ethereal solution or alcohol.This reagent is applied to the drawings with a small soft brush for clearing it without further damage. Siliceous Materials Clay The clay is a basic component of siliceous materials in any form. Chiefly, it is a combination of aluminium and silica with varying proportion of other ingredients.Other ingredients are the compounds of iron, calcium, manganese and many vegetable matters.The clay composition is a mixture showing wide variation.However, it has a common property of plasticity in wet condition, which would be hard after baking.This property of hardness will be soft again in presence of water when the baking temperature was below 600oC. But the hardness is sustained when the baking temperature is above 605oC and no more character of softness will come again in addition of water.The clay items are available in different types with varying characters.Therefore the varying characters are depending on the types of clay. Only two reasons
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 38 School of Distance Education
are found behind these differences – the proportional composition of ingredients in one hand and the difference of baking temperature on the other.The colour of the items relates to the baking period. However, the change of colour at baking temperature can be prevented in addition of the kaolin in a considerable proportion. As an example, the white clay remains white as it is in the porcelain.In fact, any item of clay is the ceramics.Therefore, the siliceous materials can be divided in two groups, ceramics and glass.In general, the ceramics are available in the following names, earthenware, terracotta, stoneware and porcelain. Earthenware The earthenware is the product of ordinary clay under the range of 1125oC baking temperature. The items are looking at natural buff-colour though a few objects are found in dark shades. The production is porous in nature and not able to hold water for a long time unless it is glazed or coated with non-porous materials. Terracotta These items are also made with natural clay under the range above 1915oC baking temperature. All are porous material with reddish colour. These materials are popularly used in a wide variety of utilitarian vessels and different form of sculptures. Stoneware The material of stoneware is hard and vitreous.For this reason the stoneware is quite efficient to hold water for a long period of time without being glazed. It is a special type of blended clay demanding the baking temperature at the range above 1285oC to achieve its characters. Porcelain This material is the result of a special preparation of clay composition with kaolin.It requires the range above 1350oC baking temperature. However, the colour is unchanged as white after baking due to presence of kaolin.In porcelain material; the clay composition along with its glaze is fired together for baking. As a result, it becomes too hard and vitreous.The glaze is an important part of porcelain items.It is nothing but a coating of minerals to develop a glassy surface-layer around the ceramic piece.This layer is free from chemical reaction and looking very good shiny surface.Besides, this layer makes the item waterproof and vitreous.The glaze material should not be the range of higher melting point in comparison with the firing temperature of the body.The flux is required to melt the glaze properly in glazing.Two types of flux material are available in the market as the lead and the soda.The colour of the glaze is fully dependent on the metals in the form of oxides, or carbonates or water-soluble salts.The shades of colour are also varying in the proportional composition of these metal oxides or carbonates or salts with glaze material and its flux. Broadly speaking the clay items are divided in three categories in the following groups: fire-baked, sun-baked and unbaked. The distilled water is necessary for washing the fire-baked item to be free from loose deposited salt.Nevertheless, the sun-baked item is not suitable for direct use of distilled water.Therefore, in this situation a piece of pulpy blotting paper is required to wrap the specimen.This blotting paper must be soaked in distilled water before use as a wrapper.The item under wrapped position is keeping undisturbed for a few hours to a full day for cleaning.Unbaked items need a warm condition for treatment as cleaning.It would be better to work near a furnace with bellows properly. A piece of wet blotting paper is confined to the item by sponging technique under warm condition.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 39 School of Distance Education
Glass This item requires no treatment for preservation.A simple wash with soap-water is sufficient for glass items.Sometimes the items produce good response in addition to diluted sulphuric acid (1%) for cleaning. After cleaning and washing with clean water the items are in need to dry-up with a piece of clean warm cloth. Metals Copper, Bronze and Brass The copper is an ancient metal with its alloy as the bronze and the brass.The bronze is alloy of copper with tin and the brass is the product of copper with zinc.The copper and its alloys are required to wash with hot running water.Nextly, the items are washed with distilled water and to dry-up properly.Finally, a coating of celluloid solution (2%) is necessary to paint over the object for preservation. The incrustation problem is a common factor for the items made with these metals.The caustic soda (NaOH) solution (2%) is a popular reagent to remove incrustation. Further, the citric acid solution (2%) may be used in case of heavy deposition as incrustation. Sometimes, the corrosion is found in the form of green-patina.It is thin, hard, and green enamel like appearance on the specimens. This green-patina is coming out as a layer due to chemical reaction in presence of gasses in atmosphere.This layer is basically the carbonate, chloride and sulphide of the metals, such as copper, bronze and brass. Considerable level of corrosion can be cleared by use of cold and diluted sulphuric acid solution (5% to 10% concentrations as per requirement). The cleaning, washing and dry-up of the specimen should be done accordingly. Lastly, the specimen is in need to cover up with a coating of preservative solution.A thin layer of wax is a good remedy for this work. Apart from this, a mixture solution of paraffin wax in the benzene solution (5%) is also an effective solution for preservation.But this solution is required to use with alternative coatings. Another two types of solutions are also helpful for preservative coating.First one is venyl-acetate solution (2%) in the toluene (1:2) and second one is the mixture of celluloid solution (2%) with equal parts of acetone solution (2%) and annyl- acetate(2%) solution 2:2:2). Lead This metal is most popularly used in the antique objects. A common corrosion of the lead is incrustation or it can be said as white deposition. Atmospheric ingredients in contact with this metal can produce basic carbonate of lead, after a chemical reaction.Further reaction occurs in contact with oxide in the form of a white deposition on the object.A little corrosion due to incrustation may be controlled by use of diluted acetic acid (10 parts of acetic acid and 90 parts of water, i.e., 10%). Repeated use of diluted acid is suggested to wipe-off the incrustation with the help of medium hard brush.The object should be soaked with diluted acetic acid (10%) for a few hours in case of heavy incrustation. The brushing is to be done at intervals until the heavy white deposition is erased out completely.Nextly, the object should be dipped in the diluted caustic soda (NaOH) solution (1%) for neturalizing the acidity.The acid free object demand acute washes with fresh and boiled distilled water till it is free from alkali as because the alkali reacts on lead.This process can be monitored by the phenolphthalein, which can change at pink colour in presence of alkali, but remains colourless under alkali free condition.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 40 School of Distance Education
At lease seven days are necessary for dry-up the object under a clean-undisturbed- atmospheric environment.Finally, a coating is to be made on the object for preservation.This coating is the solution of either venyl-acetate solution (2%) or hot paraffin wax as in the liquid form. A medium hard brush is sufficient for this operation. Silver This silver is a well-known metal.This metal is soft and not ups as to the level of wear and tear of daily use. Alloying it with other metals solves this problem.The copper is most important ingredient to a large extent for coinage and other purposes.The corrosion on silver- alloy object come up as the deposition or coating of silver chlorides due to atmospheric reaction.The silver item shows slight surface tarnish or discolouration due to oxidation and showing grey, brown or black in colour.Many silver-alloys are covered with thick green crust misguiding it as the bronze item instead of silver.This green crust problem can be easily solved by a soft pad of cotton wool or a semi-hard brush or simply by fingers with a gentle friction.But, the embossed or engraved surface demands another technique. However, a semi-hard brush cans wipe-off the incrustation in addition to diluted ammonia (NH2) solution (10%).Thorough washing and a proper dry-up of the specimen are suggested after removal of the incrustation.Lastly, a coating is required for preservation.The preservative solution as the coating is either celluloid solution (2%) or venyl-acetate solution (2%). The corrosion due to oxidation shows discolouration of the object. This situation s controlled with the help of formic acid. Affected specimen is to be kept in a porcelain pottery and the formic acid (5%) is poured into it.This porcelain pottery is necessarily being heated for an hour under low temperature.After that the object is to be taken out from the acid-filled pottery for washing it thoroughly with distilled water.The specimen is to be dipped in diluted ammonia (NH3) solution (20 parts ammonia and 80 parts of water, i.e., 25%) after a thorough wash.The specimen requires a further wash and dry-up before preservative coating. This preservative solution of coating is either celluloid solution (2%) or venyl-acetate solution (2%).This treatment is sufficient for slight corrosion.In case of heavy incrustation, the strength of ammonia solution should be increased to the strength of 50 parts of ammonia in the 50 parts of water. Gold Pure gold is soft metal.A small proportion of silver, copper, bronze, etc. are mixed with this metal for making hard and usable in condition. Basically, these impurities are responsible factors to make the gold tarnish or discolouration of the surface.This problem is solved simply by wash with soap in warm water.A soft brush or a piece of cotton may be used in the period of washing.If, this simple wash is not enough to remove gold tarnish, then the solution of ammonia (10%) is required with the help of a piece of sponge.The cleaning by sponge technique is enough to wipe-off the silver-chloride deposition as gold tarnish. The incrustation of calcium carbonate or calcium sulphate is to be released in addition to hydrochloric acid of 50% dilution in water in the ratio of 10 parts diluted hydrochloric acid (50%) in 90 parts of water. Moreover, the black stains are to be removed with the help of nitric acid of 50% dilution. Finally, the gold item is required a compulsory treatment with ammonia (10%) solution after acid treatment.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 41 School of Distance Education
Iron This metal is too much susceptible to outside agencies and rapid deterioration is shown in comparison with other metals. The agencies for deterioration are as follows:
(a) Moisture of the environment causes rusting over the iron. (b) Oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air are most harmful for the iron object. (c) Common salt (NaCI), i.e., sodium chloride is derived from the earth and it is an important agent for deterioration.
The rust is common erosion to this metal. It is the mass of iron oxides. A high degree of corrosion due to rust may cause the degenerate of the surface and look like a few small brownish moist beads of chloride compounds along with the oxides of iron.This condition is treated with a wire brush.But, in some cases the caustic soda (NaOH) solution (10%) of boiling temperature is necessary to apply on the object and rubbing with the brush.This application of caustic soda solution (10%) continues till the complete elimination of chloride particles and rust.The object may be cleaned with diluted nitric acid solution (10%) for lime incrustation before use of caustic soda solution.In the last phase of treatment the object needs plenty of clean water for thorough washing. After complete removal of caustic soda solution the specimen should be kept in a dry warm place for dry-up it properly and it should be coated with a preservative solution as quick as possible.
The iron object is coated at least twice with anti-rust solution or preservative solution.The effective solution is the mixture of paraffin wax and the benzene solution (5%) in a combination of (1:2).The object may also be dipped in hot melted paraffin wax. The coating of shellac solution (20%) is also used in iron object.Lastly; the linseed oil alone is a good preservative for the iron objects.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 42 School of Distance Education
CHAPTER-III
HERITAGE MANAGEMENT
HISTORY OF ANTIQUARIAN LAWS IN INDIA. Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-84), the famous English author and lexicographer, in his correspondence with Warren Hastings, the first Governor General of Fort William in Bengal, urged the need to study the traditions and histories of the East, to survey the ancient edifices, trace the vestiges of ruined cities and “to know the arts and opinions of a race of men from whom very little has been hitherto derived”. Society founded by Sir William Jones on 15th January 1784.Contributions of this Society in creating interest amongst the enlightened Europeans about India’s past have already been discussed.Suffice it here to say that (William Jones’s identification of Chandragupta Maurya with Sandrokottos of the Greek historians and his correct geographical location of Palibothra or Pataliputra (modern Patna) at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son offered the first firm datum line in the chronology of the ancient Indian history. Charles Wilkinson, his colleague, deciphered the Gupta and the Kutila script, thereby laying the foundation of ancient Indian epigraphy. H.T. Colebrook and H.H. Wilson, successive Presidents of the Asiatic Society after Jones, also made substantial contributions towards unveiling India’s past achievement. It should not be lost sight of the fact that an Indian scholar Radhacanta Sarman helped greatly in the growth of these studies. Nor need it be assumed that there was none before William Jones to take up the study of India’s culture and monuments. The credit of William Jones lies in organizing systematic research, in founding a forum for those who wanted to study Indian and Asian cultures in all their manifestations and the natural resources of different areas, and in bringing out the journal with the purpose of publishing the results of the scientific investigations and field-surveys. In the southern and the western parts of India, the individual efforts went on bearing commendable results. For instance, William Chambers made a study of the monuments at Mahabalipuram, near Madras, visiting the place in 1772 and 1776; the first issue of the Asiatic Researches contains his article on the subject. Colin Mackenzie, who may be called the Cunningham of the south, visited every site of antiquarian importance during his long career of 38 years. In the course of his visits he prepared 2,630 drawings to scale, 78 plans and collected 8,076 inscriptions, 6,218 coins and 106 sculptures. This he did over and above his own official preoccupations; he retired from the service as Surveyor General.What is most praiseworthy is that he met the entire expenses on his research out of his own purse despite the official approbation. Slight shift in the official attitude was noticed in 1800 when the Marquis of Wellesley, Governor General of Fort William of Bengal, detailed Francis Buchanan (later Buchanan-Hamilton) for the survey of what was then known as Mysore.“The completed report embodied interesting notices of the antiquities of the country, the first to be published under official auspices”. In 1807, Buchanan was instructed to survey the entire territory under the immediate authority of the Presidency of Fort William. He carried out the survey for eight years and showed rare insight, dedication, thoroughness and the faculty of sound judgment in the conduct of his investigation. Buchanan’s work ended abruptly and with it also ended the little official patronage that the antiquarian research had been receiving for some time.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 43 School of Distance Education
In the field of legislation the 18th century drew a complete blank. But this cannot be said of the next century since there were few spasmodic attempts to introduce regulations for the protection of structural vestiges of the past.These efforts may reflect on the one side a sorry state of affairs arising out of the continued pillage and spoliation and on the other side the official awareness of such acts of vandalism. Anyway, the earliest attempt of the kind was the passing of the Bengal Regulations XIX of 1810, sections (iii) and (iv) of which were repeated verbatim in the Madras Regulations VII of 1817.These empowered the Government to intervene wherever a public building was faced with the risks of misuse by private individuals. On the face of it these regulations appear just an exercise to camouflage the indiscreet activities by persons vested with the power to rule and enforce law. Understandably, these regulations were bound to prove in fructuous as the laws had no jurisdiction when a Government servant himself was involved. If the rulers had then any respect for the laws promulgated by them, Lord Bentinck could not have thought of auctioning the marble slabs of the Taj. After a lapse of more than half a century the next legislative measure was passed. But this period of half a century was momentous in many ways as it saw the beginning of the scientific archaeology, emergence of some of the most brilliant personalities in the realm of Indian historical research and archaeological activities and the birth of the Archaeological Survey of India under the stewardship of Alexander Cunningham, who was appointed Director General (pl. IXB) by Lord Canning on a monthly salary of Rs. 450 and a field allowance of Rs. 250.An astonishing element in the terms of Cunningham’s appointment was the permission for a share in the antiquities recovered by him. Be that what it may, it is not known if Cunningham had any contribution in the passing of the Act XX of 1863 which invested the Government with the authority “to prevent injury to and preserve buildings remarkable for their antiquity or for their historical or architectural value”. The possibility of his association with this Act appears remote as he was too preoccupied with his task of preparing “an accurate description – illustrated by plan, measurements, drawings or photographs and by copies of inscriptions…” of historical remains and trekking the route followed by Hiuen Tsang. The next law that was enacted and is still in force is the Indian Treasure-trove Act, 1878 when Lord Lytton was the Governor General and Lord Salisbury the Secretary of State for India. That was the period of Cunningham’s second assignment after the revival of the Archaeological Survey of India by Lord Mayo. Cunningham picked up the same thread that he had left behind five years age.Though much changes had taken place in the field of archaeology, now considered as a science developing on inductive lines, Cunningham continued with his old methods and objectives. An indication of change in outlook was noticed in the Duke of Argyll’s dispatch to the Government of India.As the Secretary of State for India he advised the Government to set up a central department to be saddled with the responsibility of tackling archaeological problems.He spared no words in condemning the tendency of the Government servants in rifling sites and monuments. A man of foresight, he realized much before Lord Curzon the need to preserve antiquities in their own milieu. The revival of the Archaeological Survey of India owed much to his advice and efforts. The other indication of the shift in emphasis from monuments to antiquities is the Indian Treasure-trove Act. Its author Lord Lytton was known more for his unpopular measures like the Civil Service Examination Rules, the Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act, all aimed at curbing the process of the national awakening against the oppressive rule of an alien government. What prompted him to pass the Treasure-trove Act is not clear.It was directed, no doubt, to combat treasure-hunting, besides regulating the lawful disposal of treasures found in accidental digging. Whatever may be his ulterior motive, it has gone to enrich several collections of various museums and has also stood the test of time.However, Cunningham possibly played no role in promulgating this legislation.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 44 School of Distance Education
James Burgess who succeed Sir Alexander Cunningham showed greater awareness about legislative measures as tools to protect cultural legacy from decay and despoilation.At his instance the Government issued two directives: one forbidding any person or agency to undertake excavation without prior consent of the Archaeological Survey and the other debarring officers from disposing of antiquities found or acquired without the permission of the Government. Burgess wanted to amend the Indian Treasure-trove Act to make it unlawful to export antiquity without an official permit but his endeavour did not yield any tangible result. He withdrew from the service on 1st June 1889 to devote his time exclusively to the clearing of the accumulated arrears in publication-works. No legislation was enacted or any directive came out during the dismal period that followed Burgess’s withdrawal. While discussing the main trends concerning the archaeological policy of the Government during the 19th century, Ghosh made a few significant observations: wavering nature of the archaeological policy even after the acceptance of ancient monuments as a responsibility of the State; the persistent belief that the archaeological work in this country could be completed within a specified time precluded even a remote proposal of placing the Survey’s organization on a permanent footing; recommendation both by Cunningham and Burgess to abolish the post of Director Gel; and indecision about the respective responsibility of the Imperial and Local Governments. But with the close of the 19th century there dawned a new era in archaeological researches in India. Curzon’s great service to the cause of archaeology need not be recapitulated here.The closing years of the 19th century witnessed the preparation of another legislative measure for effective care and control of monuments, particularly those, the ownership of which rested with private parties. In 1898 Lord Elgin, Governor General and Viceroy who immediately preceded Curzon, had obtained from the Secretary of State the laws about monuments and antiquity prevailing in Greece and Italy. A bill based on the existing English Acts and embodying certain provisions from the legislations of Greece and Italy was drafted.In 1900 the Government of Bengal had independently drafted a bill, and the proposed central legislation mad use of certain provisions from it as well. The draft bill after wide circulation amongst all the local Governments, Collectors, Commissioners etc., was sent to the Secretary of State for approval. In his Dispatch of 14th August 1903 the Secretary of State for India gave his consent to the bill. Shortly thereafter the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 came into force “to provide for the preservation of ancient monuments, for the exercise of control over traffic in antiquities and over excavation in certain cases of ancient monuments and of objects of archaeological, historical or artistic interest”. This Act has been made broad-based by the passing of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act 1958, but not repealed. As a consequence of the constitutional changes – the Devolution Rules of 1921 in the wake of the Montague Chelmsford Reform of 1919 and then the Government of India Act, 1935 – amendments of administrative nature had to be brought about. For the first time the archaeology was classified as a central subject in the Devolution Rules of 1921.An outcome of this reform was to bring all the monuments declared protected in accordance with the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 under the control of the Centre, leaving the unprotected ones under the care of the Provincial Governments. Now, as the Government of India Act, 1935 made “archaeology” a Federal subject, the Central Government took over all powers relating to ancient and historical monuments, including archaeological sites and remains, from the Provinces.But amendments to the specific provisions of the Act had come in 1932 when Daya Ram Sahni was
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 45 School of Distance Education
the Director General – in fact, he was the first Indian to hold the post – and Earl of Willington was the Viceroy. These amendments allowed the issue of licenses to outside, including foreign agencies for the excavation of protected areas and to regulate operations like mining, quarrying, blasting, excavating at or near protected monuments. The first to carry out excavations on the Indian soil taking advantage of this amendment was the joint expedition organized by the American School of Indic and Iranian studies and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The mission under Ernst Mackay excavated in 1935 Chanhu-daro, a site discovered by N.G. Majumdar in the course of his exploration in Sind. No legislative measure was carried out thereafter till India won Independence; as a matter of fact, this was a period when the entire world was shaken by the devastating Second World War and India, besides being the victim of the same situation, was considerably disturbed by the political turmoil. On 18th April 1947, when Mortimer Wheeler was the Director General, the Indian Legislature passed the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 (Act no, XXXI of 1947). Under this Act no antiquity, a term given a comprehensive definition here, can be exported without a license issued by the Director General.In terms of this Act, antiquity does not include any object which is less than 100 years old and the Antiquities (Export Control) Rules, 1947 includes provision for giving certificate as to whether an object is an antiquity or not an antiquity.Every application for a license for export was to be accompanied by a fee of Rs. 1000 except in case of certain categories of persons, viz., “(i) by a person on his own behalf for the export of an antiquity which has been allotted to him in accordance with rules made under section 20 B of the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 or (ii) for the export of an antiquity by or on behalf of the Central Government or any State Governments…” That the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 did not aim at the total ban or imposing strict restrictions is evident from the following remarks of A. Ghosh who was the Director General from 1953 to 1968 and one of the architects of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958: “In this country there is no total ban on export, as exists in some countries of both Europe and Asia. However, under the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947, no antiquity, which term has been given a comprehensive definition but does not include any object less than 100 years old, can be taken out without a license issued by the Central Government, applications for licenses having to be made to the Director General of Archaeology of India, who is authorized to decide whether an object is or is not an antiquity for purposes of the Act. “The Act also applied to antiquities falling to the share of a person who excavates a site of national importance with a license and who intends to take his share out of India.The principles for the disposal of the excavated antiquities have still to be declared by the Government under the recent Act but it is unlikely that they will widely differ from those already declared under the 1904 Act, namely that human relics of historical and religious importance and any antiquity which the Government regards as of national importance will be retained in India and that of the rest the excavator will be allowed to have such portion of the antiquities as is sufficient, in the opinion of the Government, to recompense him for the expenditure incurred by him on the excavation”. The expression “the recent Act” refers to the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act.However, the flexible approach that is reflected in Ghosh’s remarks quoted above is not to be seen in the latest legislation, the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 46 School of Distance Education
An attempt was made in 1965 to introduce an amendment to the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 but it did not meet with success. According to the 1947-Act the Director General of Archaeology in India was the final authority to decide whether or not an article is an antiquity. The Antiquities (Export Control) Amendment Bill, 1965 (Bill no, 24 of 1965) sought mainly to transfer or abridge this power of the Director General and vest it to a Board called the Antiquities Appellate Board and that its order “shall be final”.The distribution of responsibility between the Centre and States so far as archaeology was concerned was always an issue before the British Government.Fortunately, with the promulgation of the Constitution of India from 26 January 1950 the allocation of functions was given a permanent shape. The allocation as per the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution is as follows:- List I (Union List), item 67: ancient and historical monuments and records, and archaeological sites and remains declared by or under law by Parliament to be of national importance. List II (State List), item 12: libraries, museums and other similar institutions controlled or financed by the State; ancient and historical monuments and records other than those declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance.(The Indian Treasure-trove Act, 1878 also included in the State List.) List III (Concurrent List), item 40: archaeological sites and remains other than those declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance. The principles followed seem to have been anticipated in a way in the Devolution Rules of 1921.Now, the Centre, through the Archaeological Survey of India, has to look after monuments of outstanding or national importance leaving the less important ones under the care of the States which should have their own Departments of Archaeology. As regards archaeological sites and remains, the Centre’s responsibility does not confine only to those declared as of national importance but also over those not declared as of national importance as the Constitution has not given the full responsibility to the States. This division of responsibility necessitated the immediate alteration in the archaeological legislations of the country.Thus in fulfillment of the provisions of the Constitution, the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951 (no. LXXI of 1951) was enacted on 28 November 1951. The legislation was in respect of monuments situated not only in the British-occupied territory but also those within the former Indian States.Ghosh writes:“On the recommendation of the Federal Finances Integration Committee, the Government decided that the monuments of national importance in what are now called the Part B States, constituted by the former Indian States, either individual or integrated, should be for the time being maintained by the concerned States, the expenditure being re-imbursed to them by the Centre.The responsibility of the monuments in the Centrally-administered Part C States was forthwith assumed by the Department of Archaeology”. Under the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951 all ancient and historical monuments and all archaeological sites and remains declared under Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 were re-declared as monuments and archaeological sites of national importance. About 450 monuments and sites in the Part B States were included in this national list.Subsequently by section 126 of the States Reorganization Act, 1956 some more monuments and archaeological sites were declared as of national importance. With a view to bringing the Ancient Monuments
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 47 School of Distance Education
Preservation Act, 1904 into lines with the Constitutional provisions and also to conform it with the new developments in the changed situation Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 (no. 24 of 1958) was enacted on 28th August 1958 and the Act along with the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Rules, 1959 came into force from 15th October 1959.Similarly, as the provisions of the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 were found inadequate to cope with the alarmingly high incidence of theft and illicit traffic in antiquities, a new Act – the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 (no, 52 of 1972) – was passed on 9th September 1972; unlike the Act of 1958, it repeals the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947. Both the Act and the Antiquities and Art Treasures Rules, 1973 deal with a new category i.e. “art treasures” which are not antiquities within the meaning of the same legislation. Though the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act along with its Rules was enforced from 5th April 1976 an Ordinance amending certain provisions of the Act was promulgated on 4 June 1976. The Antiquities and Art Treasures (Amendment) Ordinance, 1976 (4 of 1976) was made into an Act later in the same year without effecting any change in the provisions of the Ordinance or incorporating any new clause. So far as the legislative measures pertaining to monuments and antiquities are concerned this is the last in the long list which commenced from 1810 onwards. At the moment there are then two Central legislations – Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 and Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 – for the preservation of monuments, archaeological remains and antiquities. However, the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 is deemed to be in force as it has not been repealed like the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951 and section 126 of the State Reorganization Act, 1956. It is evident by now that in Indian legislations “monuments” and “antiquities” have their own definitions, the one concerning immovable and the other movable cultural property. In the Constitution, no specific mention is made about “antiquities”; therefore, the need to bring out a comprehensive legislation was felt. The law concerning antiquities has inter alia provisions for registration of antiquities in the possession of individual and private body, and a similar provision existed in the law passed by the Government of Madhya Pradesh. As a logical corollary to the provisions in the Constitution of India, each State should have its own Department of Archaeology as also the legislation for the preservation of monuments which are not of national importance.At present, practically all the States have their own Departments of Archaeology while their legislations follow basically the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958.Moreover, the enforcement of the Indian Treasure-trove Act, 1878 vests with the States, though originally it was a Central Act.It is proposed first to discuss in brief the provisions of this Act of 1878, which has been in force for more than 100 years, and at one time was the only legislation to deal effectively with the treasures found accidentally. THE INDIAN TREASURE-TROVE ACT, 1878 It passed in the last quarter of the 19th century which contributed to the preservation of India’s cultural wealth. Here is a legislation which “judged even by the present-day standards, is striking for its provisions, for they include the compulsory declaration of archaeological discoveries by the finder and the acquisition by the State of important objects on payment of compensation”. The decision to introduce this legislation may have been taken by Lord Lytton, who became the Governor General and Viceroy in April 1876, soon after his assumption of the office; the Gazette of India 1876 contains its Statement of Objects and Reasons. But for a few
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 48 School of Distance Education
minor changes, the Act has not undergone substantial modifications despite its long unchequered history. It may, however, be stated here that section 2 of the original Act and its Schedule were repealed by the Amending Act, 1891 (XII of 1891).Further, some minor changes of administrative nature were carried out after the Government of India Act, 1935; for example, the words “Local Government” were replaced by “Provincial Government” by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937. Originally its jurisdiction was over the whole of British India which included, amongst others the modern States of Bangladesh, Burma and Pakistan. Under the Act of 1935, Burma and Aden ceased to be parts of British India, and the Indian Independence (Adaptation of Central Acts and Ordinances) Order, 1948 substituted “all the Provinces of India” for the words “the whole of British India”. The Indian Treasure-trove Act, 1878 defines “treasure” as “anything of any value hidden in the soil, or in anything affixed thereto”. But this treasure is of consequence provided it fulfils two criteria: (i) the amount or value of treasure exceeds ten rupees, and (ii) that it is proved to have been hidden one hundred years before the date of the finding. This very time-limit has been adapted later on for defining a monument, archaeological sites and antiquities (for manuscripts, records or documents the time now stipulated being 75 years). Thus the pattern so far as it concerns the time-element is more or less the same for all subsequent legislations.Let it be made clear that the “treasure” according to the meaning of this Act has no relationship whatsoever with “art-treasure” as defined in the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 because “art-treasure” according to the last-mentioned Act “means any human work of art, not being an antiquity, declared by the Central Government for the purposes of this Act having regard to its artistic or aesthetic value provided that no declaration under this clause shall be made in respect of any such work of art so long as the author there of is alive”. To revert to the main provisions, this legislation lays down that when a person finds any treasure exceeding in amount or value rupees 10, the finder shall, as soon as practicable, give to the Collector notice, in writing, of the nature and amount or approximate value of such treasure, of the place in which it was found and the date of finding. He should either deposit the treasure in the nearest Government Treasury or give Collector such security as the Collector thinks it fit, to produce the treasure at such time and place as he may from time to time require. Thereafter the Collector shall publish a notification requiring all claimants to appear before him on a specified day and place. The date to be fixed must not be earlier than 4 months, or later than 6 months after the date of the publication of the notification.After conducting all enquiries as laid down in the Act, the Collector may declare the treasure to be ownerless in view of its being hidden one hundred years before the date of discovery. However, the aggrieved party has the right to appeal against the decision of or the declaration by the Collector to the Chief Controlling Revenue-authority. When the Collector declares the treasure ownerless he shall divide the treasure or its value between the owner of the place and the finder of the treasure in the ratio of 25 and 75% unless an agreement to the contrary exists between the two parties. The Collector may, if he thinks fit, allot to either party the whole or more than his share provided the other party pays such sum of money as the Collector may fix as the equivalent of the other share.The Collector may even sell the treasure or any portion thereof by public auction and divide the sale-proceeds between the parties in the prescribed ratio (section 2).Yet the most important provision is that the Collector under section 16 of the Act, instead of dividing, may decide to acquire on behalf of the Government the treasure or any specified portion thereof by payment to the persons a sum equal
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 49 School of Distance Education
to the value of the materials together with one-fifth of such value. In other words, the finder and the owner get one-fifth more – over and above the actual value of the material. As this provision is not widely known, ignorant people try to conceal their finds and in case of objects like coins melt them to extract the metallic contents. The decision of the Collector passed under this legislation is final and no suit or other proceedings shall be instituted against him for anything done in good faith. Sections 20 and 21 deal respectively with penalties in the event of default on the part of finder or owner.If any person fails to report the find to the Collector or to deposit in the Treasury or alters the treasure in order to conceal or suppress its identity he shall not be entitled under section 20 to his share; moreover, he is liable to be punished with imprisonment for one year or fine or both. If the owner abets within the meaning of the Indian Penal Code, 1860 any offence under section 20, he forfeits his share and on conviction shall be punished with imprisonment which may extend to 6 months or with fine or with both.Because of the operation of the Indian Treasure-trove Act, 1878 all leading museums of India were able to acquire exquisite metal- images, hoards of coins and many other kinds of antiquities. Even today, a good number of museums in different States have been receiving treasure-troves which go to increase their collections.This is a positive contribution of this legislation to the building up of India’s antiquarian wealth.The fact that it has stood the Government in good stead for the last one hundred years is itself a tribute to the author of this legislation. But the time has come to see the reverse of the medal. As stated above the responsibility of its enforcement has now devolved on the States; consequently, the implementation may not be on a uniform line. That this disadvantage was felt quite early is evident from the remark that “the Government of India has of late taken renewed interest in the matter and has framed a set of model rules for all State Governments to adopt”.As yet there is no Central agency to see how these rules are being followed.Perhaps to suit the demands of the changing times different State Governments might be bringing out amendments to Rules.Undeniably many of the provisions of the Act appear anachronistic.The legislation is concerned only with the material value and does not explicitly take into account factors like rarity of the finds, evaluation on the basis of high antiquity, historical importance and so on – in fine, the antiquarian value of the find discovered. Instead of specifying the material or metal value of the treasure as exceeding rupees ten, the “treasure” may be defined as of any value of historical, archaeological and artistic interest which has been in existence for not less than 100 years. In that case the definition of “treasure” will not differ fundamentally from that of antiquity.Though the Act enjoins that the treasure should be divided between the finder and the owner, the possibility of the presence of a third party cannot be ruled out, for apart from the owner and the finder there may be the third entity i.e., occupier who may stake his claim for a share in the treasure.There should be provision in the Act that any person who comes to know of a treasure may inform the Collector and it should be the Collector’s duty to find out if the treasure buried is more than 100 years old. In the absence of any specific provision concerning treasure-trove or treasure found in accidental digging in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 and its corresponding State legislations, and the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 the usefulness of this legislation, however outmoded it may be, cannot be denied until the Indian Treasure-trove Act, 1878 is suitably amended. Alternatively, appropriate provisions similar to those now enshrined in the Indian Treasure-trove Act may be made in other existing antiquarian
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 50 School of Distance Education
laws. The latter proposition appears to be a far better one than the multiplicity of laws concerning the protection of cultural property. Another point that may be emphasized here is that there are only a few countries in the world having legislation similar to the Indian Treasure- trove Act. How do they then regulate accidental discoveries under their respective laws?In many countries cultural property discovered underground belongs to the State, and according to such a law whenever a discovery of this kind is made it must immediately be reported to the appropriate authority. Likewise, an object found under the sea or water is considered public property according to the law of several countries. As a matter of fact, once a property is proved to be ownerless, as is the case with the Indian Treasure-trove Act, 1878, the question of its division between the finder and owner appears meaningless except as a measure of providing incentive. Strictly speaking, an ownerless property should belong to the State, and not to any individual.
THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND REMAINS ACT, 1958
As the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 has largely been superseded by the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 it is proposed to devote this chapter mainly to the new legislation bringing out, as and when occasions demand, the provisions of the Act of 1904.Section 39(2) of the 1958-Act lays down, “The Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904, shall cease to have effect in relation to ancient and historical monuments and archaeological sites and remains declared by or under this Act to be of national importance, except as respects things done or omitted to be done before the commencement of this Act”. No radical departure from the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904 could be noticed in the new Act; as a matter of fact, the Act under discussion is based broadly on its predecessor. To quote the words of Ghosh, “the very fact that its main framework remained unaltered for more than fifty years is sufficient testimony to its workability and approach to the administrative problems of monuments and sites”. Even then why was a new legislation framed? The answer given by Ghosh is as follows:
With the passage of time, however, it was becoming increasingly clear that certain changes were needed in the Act. For example, the vesting of most of the functions under the Act in the administrative district officers, to the exclusion of the officers responsible for the preservation of monuments and excavation of sites was fast becoming anachronism.Further, the Act did not provide against the recalcitrant owner of a monument who refused to enter into agreement with the Government and could thus make many provisions of the Act infructuous.Again, with the ever growing building activities all over the country and the consequent pressure on land, modern constructions were cropping up in very close proximity to important monuments, thus seriously affecting their aesthetic value and the landscape.Finally, the Act had to be brought into line with the provisions of the Constitution, which makes the Central Government responsible only for “ancient and historical monuments….and archaeological sites and remains declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance” and further makes “archaeological sites and remains other than those declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance” a concurrent subject, the residue going to the States.The new Act, referred to above, is the response to these needs.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 51 School of Distance Education
To mention specifically, the following are the new features, many of them being the improvements over the earlier ones, of the new legislation:- 1.All ancient and historical monuments and all archaeological sites and remains which have been declared by the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951 and by section 126 of the States Reorganization Act, 1956 to be national importance come within the purview of this new Act. Further, it has provisions for the inclusion of new monuments and archaeological sites by notification and also for deprotection, if necessity demands. 2. The Act empowers the Government to exercise powers in the event of the owners of monuments or sites refuse or fail to enter into agreement; a legal sanction of this kind was not provided in the Act of 1904. 3. Functions so long vested with district administrative officers now devolve upon officers of the Archaeological Survey of India who are actually responsible for the preservation of monuments and carrying out archaeological excavations. 4. The Act prohibits construction within the protected area and also arms the Archaeological Survey with the power to prohibit or regulate construction of building, mining, quarrying, excavating etc., on or near the sites of protected monuments. 5. It authorizes the Archaeological Survey to undertake excavations in unprotected areas – a new provision not contemplated in the old Act. It may be recalled that the Constitution of India includes the archaeological sites and remains not of national importance in the Concurrent list, and as a natural consequence thereof the new Act enjoins that no State Government shall undertake or authorize any person to undertake any excavation or the like operation for archaeological purposes in any area which is not a protected area except with the previous approval of the Central Government and in accordance with such rules or directions, if any, as the Central Government may make or give in this behalf (section 24).] 6. The Act also provides (section 27) for the payment of compensation for the damage done to the land and also for antiquities. For assessing the amount of compensation, so far as it relates to antiquities, value in terms of historical or archaeological importance shall not be taken into account. The preamble to the new Act has defined clearly its three principal aims: (i) preservation of ancient and historical monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance; (ii) regulation of archaeological excavation; and (iii) protection of sculptures, carvings and other like objects.In order to include items indicated under the third category the term antiquity could have been used in the preamble but it is not clear why it has been avoided. It appears all the more surprising when section 2 (b) defines “antiquity” and that, too, slightly more elaborately than that of the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947.The reason for the specific omission of the word “antiquity” may be threefold; first, the Indian Constitution makes no mention of it; second, the existence of specific legislation on the export of antiquities; and third, sculptures, carvings and the like are taken mainly to cover the movable fragments, parts or components of monuments and sites of national importance and not any antiquity without any of these contexts. However, the Act has specific provisions dealing with the protection of antiquity, its compulsory acquisition and principles of compensation (section 25 to 28).Section 20 empowers the Central Government to acquire antiquities of national value and interest from a “protected area” which has been defined as any archaeological site and remains declared to be of national importance.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 52 School of Distance Education
Going beyond the scope of the present discussion, it may be pointed out that some minor amendments in different sub-sections of sections 23 and 26 of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 have been made under section 33 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 and practically all of them have bearing on the acquisition of antiquities.In most cases the expression “compulsory purchase” has been substituted by “compulsory acquisition”. However, in place of sub-section (2) of section 28 the following sub- section has been substituted:- For every antiquity in respect of which an order for compulsory acquisition has been made under sub-section (3) of section 23 or under sub-section (1) of section 26, there shall be paid compensation and the provisions of sections 20 and 22 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 shall, so far as may be, apply in relation to the determination and payment of such compensation as they apply in relation to the determination and payment for any antiquity or art treasure compulsorily acquired under section 19 of that Act. It appears that compulsory acquisition of Antiquities may be effected both under the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 and the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958.But the section 19 (1) of the former is quite pervasive and it may be convenient to make compulsory acquisitions, at least for certain categories of items, under the provision instead of invoking the amended sections of the 1958 – Act, Section 19 (1) of the 1972 – Act reads as follows:- If the Central Government is of opinion that it is desirable to preserve any antiquity or art treasure in a public place, that Government may make an order for the compulsory acquisition of such antiquity or art treasure. The application of the section quoted above for the compulsory acquisition of excavated antiquities may encounter problems if it were to be effected as per the provisions of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972.It is not known if the section 23 (3) of the 1958 Act was ever applied for the purpose of any compulsory acquisition. Here again like the “treasure” in terms of the Indian Treasure-trove Act, 1878 these excavated antiquities, evidently being ownerless, should not invite any provision of compensation or compulsory acquisition. Even in countries like the United States of America all products of excavation accrue to public museums and are considered national collections.Against this background the provisions concerning compulsory acquisition, by paying compensation for excavated antiquities, may be dispensed with in future and State ownership of antiquities found underground and in the territorial waters introduced. Coming to the provisions of the Act, the discussion may begin with the definition of the terms “ancient monument” and “archaeological sites and remains”, both the expressions constituting the title of the Act.The “ancient monuments” means any structure, erection or monuments, or any tumulus or place of interment, or any cave, rock-sculpture, inscription or monolith, which is of historical, archaeological or artistic interest and which has been in existence for not less than one hundred years, and includes (i) the remains of an ancient monument, (ii) the site of ancient monument, (iii) such portion of land adjoining the site of an ancient monument as may be required for fencing or covering in or otherwise preserving such monument, and (iv) the means of access to, and convenient inspection of an ancient monument.The definition would have been complete had the objects buried underground within
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 53 School of Distance Education
the limits of the ancient monument been included, but that is not possible until the state ownership of objects found underground is introduced.The definition of the term “archaeological site and remains” includes items (iii) and (iv) above, and means any area which contains or is reasonably believed to contain ruins or relics of historical or archaeological importance which have been in existence for not less than 100 years. Both the definitions are, in the main, concerned with man-made things. Doubtless a Paleolithic site, a river-section and cemented gravels yielding artifacts fall within their scope. But is it possible to protect a fossil tree or animal or a site of paleontological interest under this provision? Reference has already been made about the problem of protection of archaeological objects under the sea. When the Act was framed these aspects of archaeological research were not known and it was difficult for authors to anticipate these developments. To keep pace with the advancement of research, the legislation may also require modification to reflect the emergence of new ideas and the wind of change. Another new concept that needs suitable adaptation in Indian legislations is the protection of the entire urban or rural setting or a historical site where important events took place like the battle-field of Panipat, Plassy, Talikota or Haldighat. Provision should also be made for inclusion of reconstituted monuments or temples like those of which were executed at Nagarjunakonda and in the submersible area under the Srisailam project, both in Andhra Pradesh. Similarly, there should be some provision for the preservation of monuments or temples which went under water in recent times or are likely to be submerged in future. A site of this kind is Telkupi where the entire group of temples had been covered under the deep shroud of water. These sites or monuments may not be lost for ever or there any reason to believe that all river-dams are permanent erections.The possibility of many monuments outliving the dams can by no means be precluded. Take for instance the Junagarh edicts of Asoka and the dam for the Sudarsana Lake; the edict stands there even today while the Sudarsana Lake and its dam are lost forever except the sites themselves.Furthermore, underwater archaeology, which is still in infancy, may make rapid strides and evolve ways and means to safeguard protection of monuments engulfed by water. Now about the definition of the term “maintain”. The principal aim of this legislation is to preserve or maintain ancient monuments and archaeological sites. According to this law “maintain with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, includes the fencing, covering, repairing, restoring and cleaning of a protected monument, and the doing of any act which may be necessary for the purpose of preserving a protected monument or of securing convenient access thereto”. Within its scope falls the maintenance of structures and other relics exposed as a result of excavation. There is a view, now current mostly in the European countries, that “the conservation of monuments is always facilitated by making use of them for some socially useful purpose”. An increasing demand for the use of monuments is often being heard in India as well, but it is doubtful how far these are for socially useful purposes. Nevertheless, one has to remain alive to this new situation and may have to allow, in the near future, modifications by a change in functions; needless to say, such modifications must integrate harmoniously with the past architecture of the building. Reverting to the main provisions of the Act, one may begin with those which are often invoked for protecting a monument or archaeological site, for conducting archaeological excavations and related matters. For exercising the power to declare ancient monuments etc., to be of national importance the Act has laid down procedures which do not, in substance, differ
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 54 School of Distance Education
from the provisions of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (1 of 1894).Moreover, according to sections 13 and 20 of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, the Central Government may acquire a protected monument under the provisions of the Land Acquisition Act if the maintenance of the protected monument was a public purpose within the meaning of the latter Act in case it apprehends that the monument is in danger of being destroyed injured, misused or allowed to fall into decay or is of the opinion that the area contains an ancient monument or antiquities of national interest. For the assessment of market value and payment of compensation sections 3, 5, 8 to 34, 45 to 47, 51 and 52 of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, may be made applicable.In recent times, in order to provide sufficient space around monuments for landscaping and other purposes, or to remove obstructions which mar or distract the view of a monument and even to deal with encroachment, the Archaeological Survey or a State Department of Archaeology is often required to acquire land or take recourse to eviction, as the case may be. Thus it becomes imperative for officers entrusted with the task of protecting monuments and sites to acquaint themselves with the provisions of the Land Acquisition Act though actions in this respect have to be executed by the Collector. The procedure for declaring a new monument or archaeological site as of national importance is laid down in section 4 of the 1958 Act. According to its provision the Central Government may by notification in the Official Gazette give two months’ notice of its intention to declare an ancient monument or archaeological site and remains to be of national importance. It also stipulates that a copy of every such notification shall be affixed in a conspicuous place near the site of monument or archaeological ruins. Publishing the notice in the Official Gazette and to exhibit it prominently at the site are for the purpose of allowing any person interested in any such monument or site to file objection against the Government’s intention within two months after the issue of notification. Before the publication of the notice it is necessary to mark out the land giving proper measurements and plans along with the boundaries and other revenue particulars; for that matter, the notice is published with the plan of the site and revenue data.This may be called preliminary notification. On the expiry of the said period of two months, the Central Government after considering the objections, if there are any, declare by notification in the Official Gazette the monument or the site as of national importance.Section 4 of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 deals with the publication of the preliminary notification.After its issue any person interested in any land which has been notified as being needed or likely to be needed for a public purpose may object to the acquisition of the land within thirty days after the release of the notification.After proper disposal of objections it is to be declared that the land is required for a public purpose.Section 8 of the Land Acquisition Act provides that “the Collector shall thereupon cause the land (unless it has been already marked out under section 4) to be marked out. He shall also cause it to be measured and (if no plan has been made thereof) a plan to be made of the same”. It is thus clear that the procedure laid down in the 1958 Act follows, by and large, the one contained in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894. The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Rules, 1959, have provision for declaring an area near or adjoining a protected monument to be prohibited area or a regulated area for purposes of mining operation or construction or both.The “prohibited area” or “regulated area” has been defined as an area which the Central Government has, by notification in the Official Gazette, declared to be a prohibited area or as the case may be, a regulated area for purposes of mining operation or construction or both. In such case also the Central
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 55 School of Distance Education
Government shall by notification in the Official Gazette, in accordance with rule 31, give one month’s notice of its intention to do so. A copy of the notification shall be affixed in a conspicuous place near the site. The procedure to be followed is similar to that laid down for declaring a monument etc., as of national importance. Thus every such notification shall specify the limits of the area to be so declared and shall call for objections, if any, from interested persons.After considering all objections, if any, received within the said period the Central Government may declare by notification in the Official Gazette the area to be a prohibited area or, as the case may be, regulated area. As a result thereof no person other than an archaeological officer shall undertake any mining operation or any construction in these areas except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a license granted by the Director General. The aforesaid Rules of 1959 provide details of the procedure to be followed, the forms to be used and other related matter. Another important feature of the Act of 1958 is the provision for preservation of protected monuments by agreement. All monuments are not “dead” monuments i.e., those without any use or customary practices at the time of declaring them protected; to put such monuments to any use is against the spirit or meaning of this legislation. In terms of rule 7 no protected monument shall be used for the purpose of holding any meeting, reception, party, conference or entertainment under and in accordance with a permission granted by the Central Government. But revival of religious rites or worship in dead monuments is not permitted.A monument which is in use or worship is a “living” monument and rules do not forbid any activity in such protected monuments in pursuance of recognized religious practices or customs, specially those rites and rituals which had been in vogue at the time of protecting it. Non- interference with religious usage has its emphasis both in the 1904-Act and in the present legislation; in the latter, provisions for preservation by agreement have been made stricter.The Act also empowers the Government to assume powers in respect of monuments the owners of which are reluctant or refuse to enter into agreement with the Archaeological Survey.Under section 5 of the Act the Director General may, with the sanction of the Central Government, purchase, or take a lease of, or accept a gift or bequest of, any protected monument. It also authorizes the Director General to assume guardianship of a monument without an owner, or an owner of any protected monument may, by written instrument, entrust the guardianship to the Director General. Section 5 (6) enjoins that “Nothing in this section shall affect the use of any protected monument for customary religious observances”. The written instrument referred to above apart from other agreements has to be executed under section 6 (1) which states, “The Collector, when so directed by the Central Government, shall propose to the owner of a protected monument to enter into an agreement with the Central Government within a specified period for the maintenance of the monument”.The agreement, besides specifying the provisions for the maintenance or custodianship of a monument, may restrict the owner’s right in respect of the use of monument, its alteration or defacement, levying of entry fee and construction on or near the site of monument. The Government or the owner may at any time, after the expiry of three years from the date of execution of an agreement, terminate it giving six months’ notice to the other party but where the agreement is terminated by the owner, the latter has to pay to the Central Government the expenses, if any, incurred on the maintenance during the past five years preceding the termination of agreement or if the agreement has been in force for a shorter period the entire period shall be counted for calculating the expenses incurred on the monument.In the event of failure or refusal to enter into an agreement the Central Government may make an order under section 9 assuming power for the maintenance of monuments and restricting the rights of the owner, and the agreement is enforceable.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 56 School of Distance Education
References have been made to the provisions in respect of archaeological excavation in different contexts. It is now proposed to discuss them elaborately though at times it may amount to some repetitions.Sections 21 to 24 of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 and rules 11 to 27 of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Rules, 1959 deal with archaeological excavations.Every archaeological excavation including the one to be carried out by the State Department of Archaeology needs authorization from the Archaeological Survey of India. A Standing Committee constituted by the Central Advisory Board of Archaeology screens all proposals received from various institutions and State Governments and recommends the issue of license by the Director General to intending excavators. Of course, the law does not envisage any such arrangement; so, this does not forfeit the Director General’s right to issue license to a party irrespective of the recommendations of the Central Advisory Board of Archaeology. As per the provision of rule 11 no person other than an archaeological officer or an officer authorized by him in this behalf shall undertake any excavation for archaeological purposes in any protected area except under an in accordance with the terms and conditions of a license granted under rule 13.There are prescribed forms for application for license (Form II), grant or refusal of license (Form III), submission of report on antiquities excavated in a protected area by a licensee (Form IV) and by an archaeological officer (Form V). Incidentally, in terms of the definition of the Act, “archaeological officer” means an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India not lower in rank than what is now designated as Deputy Superintending Archaeologist. Every license shall be in force for a specified period but the period should not exceed three years. It is within the competence of the Director General to extend the period by one year at a time but the aggregate period is not to exceed 5 years.It is rule 13 which empowers the Director General to grant or refuse a license which can also be cancelled by him (under rule 15) if it is found that the excavation is not being conducted satisfactorily.No occasion may arise to cancel a license if the provisions of rule 13 are strictly adhered to in practice. It is worthwhile to quote rule 13 which runs as follows:- 1.On receipt of an application under rule 12, the Director General may grant a license in Form III if he is satisfied that having regard to the status of the applicant, the competence of the director of excavation operations, the adequacy of the staff to be employed and other relevant factors, the license may be granted to the applicant: Provided that no license shall be granted unless the applicant has furnished security of such amount not exceeding rupees ten thousand as the Director-General may, regard to the circumstances of each case, require. 2. The Director-General, by order, may for reasons to be recorded in writing, refuse to grant a license in any particular case. According to section 21 of this Act an archaeological officer or an officer authorized by him in this behalf or any person holding a license granted in this behalf may after giving notice in writing to the Collector and the owner, enter upon and carry out excavations in any protected area i.e., archaeological sites and remains declared to be of national importance. An archaeological officer i.e., an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India may excavate, when duly authorized, in areas other than the protected sites if he has reason to believe that ruins of historical and archaeological importance are buried in a particular place. The authorized officer, under section 22, may enter upon and make excavations in that area after giving notice in writing to the Collector and the owner. The Act (section 24) does not allow any State Government to undertake or authorize any person to undertake any excavation or other like operation for archaeological purposes in any unprotected area except with the previous approval of the Central Government and in accordance with such rules or directions, if any, as the Central Government may make in this behalf.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 57 School of Distance Education
Mention has been made above about the rules concerning the grant of license. Such license, which is not transferable, has a number conditions clearly spelt out. Irrespective of variable practices now being followed, these rules reflect the scientific guidelines meant to ensure the high standard of the archaeological excavation in the country. The rules say that the licensee shall give notice in writing to the Director General, the Collector and the owner of the land to be excavated at least fifteen days before the commencement of the excavation.If required he has to produce the license before the District Magistrate, District Superintendent of Police or an archaeological officer. One of the conditions of the license is that the excavation should be conducted under the supervision of the director named in the license who should be present there for at least three-fourths of the period of operations. It further lays down that the licensee shall not, without the permission of the Director General, dismantle or disturb any structures and excavated antiquities. The licensee shall not discontinue the excavation unless he has given fifteen days’ notice in writing to the Director General, and an archaeological officer or his representative may inspect the excavation operations or any antiquities recovered as a result thereof. An archaeological officer is empowered to make notes on or copy or film the excavated structures and antiquities. It is incumbent on the part of the licensee to submit to the Director General a summary report of the results of the excavations within three months of the completion of the operation. There is also the condition that the licensee shall not subject the unearthed antiquities to any chemical or electrolytic process of cleaning without the Director General’s written permission.A whole chapter of the Rules is devoted to excavation in unprotected areas by the State Governments or by any person authorized by a State Government. The Central Government may either approve of such a proposal, advice the State Government to modify it or even to abandon it altogether. An archaeological officer may also be deputed by the Central Government to inspect the excavation or the operation while it is in progress to render technical advice. Monuments and archaeological sites are subject to various types of activities and with a view to regulate them the framing of uniform rules is of prime importance; and these are available in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Rules, 1959.Rules regarding access to monuments, entrance fee, holding of meetings etc., in monuments of national importance, the preparation of drawings, photographs and cinematographic films may be discussed here in brief. Generally speaking, protected monuments are open to the public from sunrise to sunset, barring a few having gardens which are kept open from sunrise to 22 hours. The hours of opening may also be governed by agreement in respect of monuments protected under an agreement between the Central Government and the owner.The Director General may, by order, close a specified part of a monument temporarily or permanently to any person other than an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India.The first schedule of the Rules furnishes the list of monuments specifying hours during which certain monuments or parts thereof remain open whereas the second schedule gives the names of monuments or parts thereof entry into which can be had only on payment of fee. The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Amendment) Rules, 1966 has inter alia the proviso that no fee shall be charged on Friday.Some changes were made in the entries to the schedule by the Amendment of 1967 but both the schedules were substituted by fresh ones in the Amendment of 1969, the latter raising the entrance fee from 20 paise to 50 paise. Rule 6 states that no person above the age of 15 years shall enter any protected monument or part thereof specified in the second schedule except on payment of a fee. A proviso to rule 6 has been added in the Amendment of 1969 which arms the Director General with the power of not charging entrance fee on special occasions for a specified period.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 58 School of Distance Education
The Rules impose restrictions on different types of activities inside the protected monuments.Thus without the permission of the Director General no centrally-protected monuments can be used for purposes of holding any meeting, reception, party, conference or entertainment. No restriction is applicable to an activity if it is held in pursuance of a recognized religious usage or custom. Discharging of firearms, cooking or consuming of food (except in areas meant for such purpose), hawking or selling of goods or wares or canvassing for such goods, display of advertisement, begging for alms, bringing animals or any vehicle (except in areas reserved for parking) are prohibited within monuments of national importance.Even to show a visitor round for monetary consideration is not permitted except under the authority of or under and in accordance with the conditions of a license granted by an appropriate authority. A full chapter in the Rules is devoted to copying and filming of protected monuments; and these have been defined as follows:- (a) “Copying”, together with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, means the preparation of copies by drawing or by photography or by mould or by squeezing and includes the preparation of cinematographic film with the aid of a hand-camera which is capable of taking films of not more than eight millimeters and which does not require the use of a stand or involve any special previous arrangements; (b) “filming”, together with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, means the preparation of a cinematographic film with the aid of a camera which is capable of taking films of more than eight millimeters and which requires the use of a stand or involves other special previous arrangements; For copying and filming operations in monuments and sites of national importance, it is necessary to obtain the permission of the Director General beforehand.After due scrutiny the permission is granted subject to certain conditions. No person other than an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India is authorized at the time of copying to bring or use within the precincts of a centrally-protected monument a camera-stand, stool, chair, table, large drawing- board, easel or any such appliances or erect any scaffolding, use any artificial light other than a flash-light synchronized with the exposure of a camera, apply any extraneous matter such as water, oil grease etc., except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a permission in writing. Taking a direct tracing or mould or squeeze of monuments is forbidden. Every person intending to undertake any filming operation at a centrally-protected monument has to apply in a prescribed form (Form IX) to the Director General, at least three months before the proposed date of the commencement of such operation. The applicant is expected to supply along with the application the relevant extract from the script, besides details concerning the cast. The Director General is competent t grant or refuse a license, or even to cancel it after giving a notice. At no occasion the Director General shall grant license to film the interior of any centrally-protected monument except when the film is meant for the purpose of education. The license which is not transferable remains valid for a specified period and is issued subject to certain conditions including the deposit of a security amount of Rs. 10,000. Violation of any provision of the license may lead to forfeiture of the security deposit. At the time of filming no part of the monument or its garden should be exposed to the risk of damage, and the operation should confine to only that part of the monument for which the license is granted. Moreover, no extraneous matter like paint, oil, water etc., shall be applied on any part of the monuments.The generating plant for electric power is required must be placed away from the monument or the attached lawn or garden.Such an operation must not obstruct the movement of persons who may be lawfully within the precincts of the monument. No license is generally granted for filming a scene, the facts and spirit of which are not in harmony with the history of that monument.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 59 School of Distance Education
Both the Act and the Rules have provisions for imposing penalty for any act in contravention of any provision laid down therein. So far as the copying and filming are concerned whoever acts in violation of the rules concerning these operations shall be punishable with fine which may extend to 500 rupees. Similar penalty is inflicted for unlawful entry, holding of meetings, conferences etc., in a protected monument or for any act in contravention of rules regarding the access to monuments which are declared to be of national importance. An unlawful excavation in a protected area or contravention of any condition of a license is punishable with fine which may extend to 5,000 rupees. Slightly stricter punishment is specified for unlawful mining operation or construction in a prohibited area or in a regulated area in that such an act is punishable with imprisonment which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to 5,000 rupees or with both. As per section 30 of the Act whoever destroys, removes, injures, alters, defaces, imperils or misuses a protected monument or removes from a protected monument any sculpture, carving, image, bas-relief, inscription or the like object shall be punishable with imprisonment which may extend to three months or with fine which extend to five thousand rupees, or with both. In terms of section 32 of the Act such an offence is cognizable, notwithstanding anything in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898.Any act in contravention of the agreement between the Central Government and an owner or any provision concerning mining, quarrying, excavating, blasting or any operation of a like nature or construction of building within a protected area shall be punishable with imprisonment which may extend to three months, or with fine which may extend to 5,000 rupees, or with both; but offences of these nature are not cognizable.
Admittedly, the penalties prescribed in the legislation are comparatively milder is these are judged according to the modern standard. A fine of say rupees five hundred may not have a deterrant effect at all in case someone is bent upon doing some mischief or committing an offence.Sometimes hardened criminals are employed to commit offences in monuments or to lift sculptures surreptitiously, and punishments prescribed may not deter them to hazard such a risk in view of the lucrative profit or return in the clandestine business of cultural property.When the law was framed the fine of rupees 500 might have been considered sufficient as the value of the rupee was not so much depreciated as it is today. Moreover, the theft of or causing damage or injury to cultural property was not taken as a serious offence demanding harsh punishment. Nowadays the entire outlook towards the preservation of cultural property, both movable and immovable, has undergone change; and viewed in the light of this changed circumstances and mental approach these offences appear heinous and of serious consequences.The existing laws should, therefore, have to adjust themselves with the changing mood of the society and new social and cultural needs. Indeed legislations embody the ideas and necessities of a particular time or generation and must not be taken as something immutable. In recent times many new ideas have crystallized, some indications of which are given in the foregoing pages.Similarly, new threats are endangering the life and safety of monuments or other cultural property.Thus the environmental pollution is taken to be a veritable danger to monuments, an idea which has emerged only in recent years. Measures to protect monuments from the adverse effects of environmental pollution are drawing the attention of modern scientists. Time is not far off when new laws have to be formulated to regulate the location of thermal stations, refineries, industrial units etc., in and around monuments of national importance or monuments considered to be the part of world’s cultural heritage. There are many developments in the modern researches, in response to a new consciousness, in respect of protection of cultural heritage which need to be integrated in man’s efforts to combat the onslaught on his cultural patrimony. These efforts and
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 60 School of Distance Education
new awareness should also find their reflections in legislative measures which are required to strengthen other attempts to conserve or protect the cultural heritage. It is proposed to revert to this topic after a discussion on the other major legislative measure that has been introduced in India some years back.
THE ANTIQUITIES AND ART TREASURES ACT, 1972 The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 is concerned mainly with what may be called immovable cultural property of the country although it does not preclude inclusion of movable objects.That is why an elaborate definition of antiquity has been incorporated in this legislation.Even the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 contains a definition, however brief that may be, of antiquity; it defines the term as movable objects which Central Government by reason of their historical and archaeological association may think it necessary to protect against injury, removal or dispersion. Yet, indisputably, the emphasis in both these legislations is on the immovable cultural property.On the contrary, the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 deals exclusively with movable objects of two different categories – antiquity and art treasure. While the definition of antiquity has a history – has an evolution, the idea of art treasure is a new introduction, and does not even warrant its inclusion in the antiquarian laws though it does form a part of India’s cultural property. A certain time-element is inherent in the conception of “antiquity” and this aspect is absent in the definition of “art treasure” as envisaged in this Act. An antiquity at no point of time can be art treasure; and at a given time, no art treasure is entitled to be considered as antiquity. In the Indian context, the definition of antiquity does not have a fixed chronological datum line; as a result, hypothetically speaking, every year more and more objects come within the domain of antiquity.Thus, unlike most of the legislations in the Middle Eastern countries; the Indian legislation does not contemplate a permanent deadline to differentiate antiquity from non- antiquity.The term antiquity has been defined differently in the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 than what has been done in the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947, now repealed by the former, as also in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958. The Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 defined antiquity as follows:- In this Act, unless there is anything repugnant in the subject or context – (a) “antiquity” includes – (i) any coin, sculpture, manuscript, epigraph or other work of art or craftsmanship, (ii) any article, object or thing detached from a building or cave, (iii) any article, object or thing illustrative of science, art, literature, religion, customs, morals or politics in bygone ages, (iv) any article, object or thing declared by the Central Government by notification in the official Gazette to be an antiquity for the purposes of this Act, -which has been in existence for not less than one hundred years;…. With slight variation the same definition has been incorporated in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958. These variations include the addition of the term “crafts” in item (iii) above and introduction of an altogether new category i.e., “any article, object or thing of historical interest”. But the definition of “antiquity” in the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 betrays a sharp departure in respect of manuscripts,
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 61 School of Distance Education
records and documents, inasmuch as a new time-limit of 75 years has been fixed for such categories of objects for being considered as antiquity.This trend is noticed first in the Antiquities (Export Control) Amendment Bill, 1965.The Statement of Objects and Reasons appended to the Bill states: “A Committee on archival legislation set up by the Ministry of Education recommended that it would be desirable to bring expressly within the purview of the Act records and documents, etc.It is now proposed to bring records and documents of historical, literary or aesthetic value which have been in existence for not less than seventy-five years within the purview of the Act”. For that matter, the definition of “antiquity” as per the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 follows almost the one included in the aforesaid Bill which was never enacted. Needless to say, the word manuscript has been removed from the item (i) of the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 which previously read as “any coin, sculpture, manuscript, epigraph or other work of art or craftsmanship”.The only difference between this entry in the Bill and that of the 1972-Act is the addition of the word “painting”, not occurring earlier.Thus according to the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 “antiquity” includes – (1) (i) any coin, sculpture, painting, epigraph or other work of art of craftsmanship; (ii) any article, object or thing detached from a building or cave; (iii) any article, object or thing illustrative of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals or politics in bygone ages; (iv) any article, object or thing of historical interest; (v) any article, object or thing declared by the Central Government, by notification in the Official Gazette, to be antiquity for the purposes of this Act; Which has been in existence for not less than 100 years; and (II) any manuscript, record or other document which is of scientific, historical, literary or aesthetic value and which has been in existence for not less than 75 years; It is evident from the foregoing that there is some development in the definition of the antiquity since 1904 although the time-limit of one hundred years as the yardstick dates back to 1878 when the Indian Treasure-trove Act was enforced. However, in this Act the term used is “treasure” and not antiquity. All this is in the Indian situation, for as already discussed, in many countries the term antiquity has a wider connotation and includes both movable and immovable cultural property. As indicated above, “art treasure” in terms of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 means any human work of art, not being an antiquity, declared by the Central Government by notification in the Official Gazette, to be an art treasure for the purposes of this Act having regard to its artistic or aesthetic value provided that no declaration under this clause shall be made in respect of any such work of art so long as the author thereof is alive. The emphasis is on the work of art and not on craft or science.Unfortunately, the Act has not expressly defined the work of art but quite naturally it should include paintings, drawings and sculptures in all plastic media. In European, the work of art signifies, in popular usage, paintings by the great masters. The illicit traffic in the works of art is a booming trade there and sometimes fabulous amount is paid for paintings by renowned artists. To cite an instance, a reputed Englishman had once agreed to part with an early Rubens of Daniel in the Lion’s Den at an offer of just £ 500; surprisingly, the same picture was sold in America for a sum reported to be in excess of £ 17,000. Whatever that may be, it is customary to take paintings as belonging to the category of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 62 School of Distance Education
work of art - an idea dating back to the Renaissance period in Europe. As painting is only one of the visual or plastic arts the definition of the work of art cannot be restricted to this form of expression alone. None the less, for purposes of legislative necessity, the definition of the work of art must not be an abstract one; it must be definable in terms of a certain standard. England follows such a definition and it has been elaborated in the 18th Report of the Reviewing Committee appointed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer in December, 1952 (London, 1971), which contains the three criteria recommended by the Waverley Committee for declaring certain example as a work of art. These are: (i) Is the object so closely connected with our history and national life that its departure would be a misfortune? (ii) Is it of outstanding aesthetic importance? (iii) Is it of outstanding significance for the study of some particular branch of art, learning or history? These criteria may doubtless be followed in the context of the present Act but the proviso that no declaration shall be made in respect of any work of art so long as the author thereof is alive makes one feel that the authors of the legislation had in mind the Renaissance conception of work of art i.e., what may be called as visual or plastic form. This is also evident from the application of this legislative measure so far.Thus in exercise of the powers conferred by clause (b) of sub-section (i) of section 2 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 the Central Government has declared paintings including drawings, sketches, diagrams and the like and the objects of plastic art by Rabindranath Tagore, Amrit Sher-Gil, Jamini Roy, Nandalal Bose, Ravi Varma, Gaganendranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, Sailoz Mookerjee and N. Roerich as art-treasure for the purposes of this Act. These are all human works of art, not being antiquities, and have artistic and aesthetic value; moreover, the authors of these works of art are also not alive. Recently the Central Government through the Antiquities and Art Treasures (Amendment) Rules, 1979, the first amendment to Rules being in 1978, has introduced certain new clauses amending the Antiquities and Art Treasures Rules, 1973.These amendments, as is evident from the Rules of 1979, seem to have modified to a great extent the original provision of the Act particularly the proviso that “no declaration under this clause shall be made in respect of any such work of art so long as the author thereof is alive”.The amending rules seek to ascertain whether the author of a work of art is alive. In case the author of a particular work of art is alive he shall within two months from the date of publication of the notification in the Official Gazette communicate the fact and his address to the Central Government. Even any person knowing such author to have been alive within 30 years shall make known to the Central Government the name of the author, the date on which the author was last seen alive etc.The author of a work of art which is considered as art treasure must be a well-known figure and his dates of birth and death must not be shrouded in mystery. Great Britain follows a liberal policy in exporting antiquities and works of art which enter the country within 50 years from the date of export; yet before considering the export of any portrait of a British person whose name finds a place in the Dictionary of National Biography exporters should first consult the Director of the National Portrait Gallery before applying for the export license.This example is cited here only to show that an author of a work of art deserving to be declared as art treasure must be a well-known national figure.In the circumstances, it seems that the purpose of this amendment is to include a
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 63 School of Distance Education
wide variety of objects, which are not antiquity but deserve to be preserved and protected. If the scope is extended too much and in case it is permissible under law, “art treasure” of the Antiquities and Art Treasures, Act 1972 will soon be conterminous with the term “cultural property” of the various UNESCO Conventions and Recommendations. An art treasure or a work of art in course of time shall become an antiquity. Even now some of the paintings of Ravi Varma (died 1906) who attempted to master western technique are more than one hundred years old. Works of many European artists who came to India in the eighteenth century come under the purview of the definition of antiquity. It is well known that following the arrival of Tilly Kettle in Madras in 1769 no less than sixty painters, some of them already well-established, came to India.Of these artists, who worked variously in oil painting or water colour, Zoffany, a contemporary of Warren Hastings and Asf-ud-daula, the Nawab of Oudh, Thomas Daniell and his nephew William Daniell are worthy of special mention. Some of their works, which are available in India, must be considered as antiquity.For determining whether a particular work of art falls in the category of antiquity the date of the execution is more relevant than the dates of birth and death. A close look into the provisions of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, which came into force throughout India from 5th April 1976, may show that this legislation deals not only with antiquity and art treasure but also, to a great extent, archival material. It is because of the last category of objects that a different time-scale has been prescribed. For the purpose of completeness it is proposed to continue the discussion on the art treasure before taking up the provisions concerning antiquities.Quite naturally, certain provisions are common to both antiquities and art treasures.The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 is enforced “to regulate the export trade in antiquities and art treasures, to provide for the prevention of smuggling of, and fraudulent dealings in, antiquities, to provide for the compulsory acquisition of antiquities and art treasures for preservation in public places and to provide for certain other matters connected therewith or incidental or ancillary thereto”.The preamble makes it clear that the emphasis, in respect of art treasure, is on the regulation of its export trade and compulsory acquisition, the provisions of which are applicable to antiquities as well. At the same time, art treasure is not included in the scheme of registration or licensing.The Director General is the final authority to determine whether any article, object or thing is or is not an art treasure in terms of this Act. Further, the penalty for contravening the provisions regarding export etc., is the same for both antiquity and art treasure. Same is the case in respect of powers of entry, search and seizure with a view to securing compliance with the provisions of this Act. Coming to antiquity, one can easily discern that the Act’s principal concern is the protection of antiquity and to stem the tide of its illicit flow out of the country – a trend of global dimensions. The Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 sought to regulate only their export, leaving the internal trade free from interference by the State and allowing antiquities in private hands to remain unaccounted for.On the other hand, the present Act, leaving aside the compulsory acquisition, has three main objectives; (i) to regulate export trade, (ii) licensing of dealers in antiquities and (iii) registration – these provisions occurring in the legislative measures of several other countries. As stated above, the aim of the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947, now repealed, was to regulate the export of antiquities. It sought to prevent antiquities being taken out of India through international exit-points; consequently, the responsibility of enforcing the legislation devolved largely on the Customs. Soon the need to assist the Customs in identifying genuine
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 64 School of Distance Education
antiquity was felt and the Archaeological Survey of India had to set up several machineries to collaborate with the Customs in their onerous task. An archaeologist was posted at each of the international exit-point like Bombay, Calcutta, Cochin, Delhi and Madras. The arrangement has resulted in the detection of a large number of cases of attempted smuggling and still has its utility. Objects seized by the Customs include sculptures in all media, miniature paintings, Tibetan tankas, carpets, clocks and watches, telescopes, porcelain and glass wares, coins, manuscripts, old documents and so on.
Apart from posting an archaeologist at the international airports and seaports, the Archaeological Survey set up at that time a number of Experts Advisory Committees for the issue of non-antiquity certificates to help the Customs in the easy discharge of their duties.These Committees, which are still functioning, issue regularly non-antiquity certificates for the purpose of export for objects of less than 100 years old and other items which have the appearance of antiquities. Of the items now being exported in large numbers are wood sculptures, replicas of stone and metal sculptures, copies of miniature paintings – often drawn on old manuscript-pages – and Tibetan tankas, muzzle-loading guns and other obsolete firearms, edged weapons, and examples of folk and tribal art.Incidentally, it is not known if the replicas are sold to foreign markets as genuine pieces.There are at present eight such committees functioning variously at Bangalore, Bombay, Calcutta, Cochin or Trivandrum, Madras, New Delhi, Srinagar and Varanasi; the committee at Madras, whenever occasion arises, meets also at Nagapattinam, a port on the east coast. Generally a local officer of the Archaeological Survey of India acts as the Convener of such a Committee.Despite all these measures, their inadequacy was apparent from the mounting number of cases of smuggling. It was, therefore, considered necessary that regulating the trade within the country is the primary desideratum to counter the rising tide of illicit traffic in antiquities; and as its sequel, the schemes for registration of antiquities and licensing the dealers have been introduced.
In matters of regulating the export, the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 and the Antiquities and Art Treasures Rules, 1973 enshrine, by and large, the basic provisions of the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947.Section 3 of the former lays down that “it shall not be lawful for any person, other than the Central Government or any authority or agency authorized by the Central Government in this behalf, to export any antiquity or art treasure” except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a permit issued for the purpose by such authority as may be prescribed. Rule 3 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Rules, 1973 provides that the Director General shall be the authority competent to issue permit under section 3 for the export of any antiquity and art treasure. It is thus clear that no antiquity or art treasure can be taken out of the country without a valid permit issued by the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India.“The Customs Act, 1962, shall have effect in relation to all antiquities and art treasures, the export of which by any person (other than the Central Government or any authority or agency authorized by the Central Government) is prohibited under section 3 save in so far as that Act is inconsistent with the provision of this Act…..”. Any contravention of section 3 shall be punishable, without prejudice to any confiscation or penalty to which he may be liable under the Customs Act, 1962, with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than six months but which may extend to three years and with fine. The Director General is the competent authority (rule 15 of 1978 Amendment) to sanction institution of prosecution or institute prosecution.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 65 School of Distance Education
Section 3 makes it quite explicit that any authority or agency authorized by the Central Government in this behalf may export antiquity or art treasure. Though such an agency has yet to come into existence, the present Act has the required provision to set up a machinery of this kind. This provision is consistent with the provisions of section 13 empowering the Central Government to carry on the business of selling antiquities to the exclusion of others; and this is possible only when the Central Government establishes any agency or the like to carry on the business of selling or offering for sale of antiquities. The situation envisaged in section 13 is similar to what is popularly called nationalization. After the issue of notification under section 13 (1) it shall not be lawful for any person, authority or agency, other than the Central Government or any authority or agency authorized by the Central Government, to carry on the business of selling or offering for sale of antiquities. This brings one to the other objective of this legislation viz., the provision in respect of licensing. Although all the Indian industries and export trade are either controlled or are under supervision of some kind or the other, the dealers in antiquities lived, as it were, in a world free from all restrictions or regulations. One of the aims of the Act of 1972 is to do away with this policy of laissez-faire and replace it by a regulated trade in antiquities inside the country. Section 5 of the Act, as amended by the Antiquities and Art Treasures (Amendment) Act 1976 reads as follows: “As from the date of expiry of a period of six months from the commencement of this Act, no person shall, himself or by any other person on his behalf, carry on the business of selling or offering to sell any antiquity except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a license granted under section 8”.In terms of this provision one has to obtain a license for selling or offering to sell any antiquity – art treasures not falling within the purview of the scheme of licensing. Sections 5 to 12 of the Act deal with the various issues concerning it – the appointment of licensing officers, application for and grant of license, renewal of license, the maintenance of records, photographs and registers by the licensees, revocation of license and related matter. Hereafter a prospective dealer in antiquity has to maintain stock-registers, photo- albums, besides filing monthly returns and observing other formalities as laid down in the Act and the Rules. There are eleven Licensing Officers who are Superintending Archaeologists of the Archaeological Survey of India posted at Agra, Bangalore, Bhopal, Bombay, Calcutta, Hyderabad, Madras, New Delhi, Patna, Srinagar and Vadodara (Baroda), each one having a clearly-defined jurisdiction all duly notified in the Official Gazette. The Antiquities and Art Treasures Rules, 1973 as amended by the Amendment of 1978 prescribe forms for application for license to carry on business of selling or offering to sell antiquities (Form I), application for grant of fresh license (Form I A), license for carrying on the business of selling or offering to sell antiquities (Form II), license for carrying on the business of selling or offering to sell antiquities, in lieu of one the holder of which had died or the holder(s) of which has/have transferred his/their business to other(s) or the holder(s) of which propose(s) to enter into partnership/further partnership (Form II A), monthly return of sales or acquisition of antiquity (Form III), register of antiquities (Form IV), declaration of stock of antiquities by licensee (Forms V and VI), and application for surrender of a license for carrying on the business of selling or offering to sell antiquities (Form X).In the registers, photographs of antiquities have to be pasted for establishing identity of each one of them in the stock of a dealer. Indirectly it helps in documenting the antiquarian wealth of the country; and in case of loss, theft or smuggling the photographic documentation will prove to be an indispensable testimony.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 66 School of Distance Education
Every application for a license is to be made in Form I and accompanied with a challan of Rs. 100 in token of having paid the fee. If satisfied with the bona fide intention of the applicant and after carrying out proper inspection etc., a license is granted and it shall be valid for two years from the date of issue. The period of two years may be extended by one year provided the application for such extension is received by the Licensing Officer two months before the date of expiry and that his performance in respect of selling and offering for sale of antiquities is satisfactory. No licensee shall shift his business covered by the license to new premises during the period for which the license is granted.But if he wants to do so he has first to apply in Form I A and the Licensing Officer, if satisfied with all the facts conforming to the provisions of the Act and the Rules, may modify the license accordingly. Several other details about the modality of licensing procedure are embodied in the Antiquities and Art Treasures (Amendment) Rules, 1978, over and above the rules set forth in the Rules of 1973. In fact, all these have flowed from section 8, of the Act, which runs as follows:-
On receipt of an application for the grant of a license under section 7, the licensing officer may, after holding such inquiry as he deems fit, grant a license to the applicant having regard to the following factors, namely:-
(a) the experience of the applicant with respect to trade in antiquities; (b) the village, town or city where the applicant intends to carry on business; (c) the number of persons already engaged in the business of selling, or offering for sale of, antiquities in the said village, town or city; and (d) such other factors as may be prescribed:
Provided that no license shall be granted to the applicant if he is convicted of an offence punishable under the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 unless a period of ten years has elapsed since the date of conviction.
The provisions as regards registration are applicable also to dealers in antiquities, as they are expected to register those items which have been notified for the purposes of registration. Every dealer in antiquities is to maintain records, inclusive of photographs, for the entire stock regardless of the fact whether the items are to be registered or not. He has to take special care while selling or offering to sell antiquities to a foreign national. In the registers and monthly returns, a dealer has to specify the nationality of foreigners to whom an antiquity is sold together with their addresses in India and at home; invariably, the passport number should be recorded at the appropriate place. According to the provisions of this legislation there is no embargo on the sale of antiquities by licensed dealers inside the country but a foreigner who will purchase may not be able to obtain an export permit from the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India. It should be the duty of every dealer to inform of this procedure before offering to sell an antiquity to a foreign national.As the place of origin has no relevance in Indian legislation in determining whether an object s an antiquity or not in terms of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 a foreign national entering India with antiquities belonging to any part of the world must declare them at the time of entry to avoid any possible complication at the time of leaving India.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 67 School of Distance Education
Every person including a foreign national has to register the notified category of antiquities if he is in possession of any. The registration is a progressive measure and not all types of antiquities are brought within its purview at one and the same time. As per section 14 of the Act the Central Government may, from time to time, by notification in the Official Gazette, specify those antiquities which shall be registered under the Act keeping in view (i) the necessity for their conservation, (ii) the need to preserve such objects within India for the better appreciation of the cultural heritage of India, and (iii) such other factors as will or are likely to contribute to the safeguarding of the cultural heritage of India. Implicit in these factors are two strains of thoughts; first, the antiquities registered need to be conserved in India; and second, not all antiquities need be brought within the scope of registration. Sub-section 3 (a) of section 14 lays down that every person who owns, controls or possesses any antiquity specified in the notification shall register such antiquity before the registering officer within three months from the date of issue of notification.The first notification for the registration of antiquities was issued on 5 April 1976, the date of enforcement of the Act. It was superseded by a notification issued on 2 July 1976; and according to this notification the following three categories of antiquities which have been in existence for not less than one hundred years should be registered with the Registering Officers of the respective areas:- (i) Sculptures in stone, terracotta, metal, ivory, and bone; (ii) paintings (including miniatures and tankas) in all media, that is to say paper, wood, cloth, skin, silk and the like; (iii) manuscripts, where such manuscripts contain paintings, illustrations or illuminations (that is adornment with coloured lettering or illustrations). Another notification bringing sculptured figures in wood (both in relief and round) within the purview of registration has been brought out on 15 May 1980.Other items like coins, arms and armour, scientific instruments, textiles, jewellery or furniture may gradually be brought within the range of registration. Every individual, institution (if not formally exempted) and dealer in antiquities are to complete the formalities of registration within three months from the date of issue of the notification.There are more than 100 posts of Registering Officers all over India with headquarters in different cities and towns.Except in Delhi where the Registering Officers function directly under the State Governments with the Directors of the State Departments of Archaeology acting as coordinators – all expenditure on this account being fully reimbursed by the Central Government through the Archaeological Survey of India.The limits of the area within which a Registering Officer shall exercise the powers are to be clearly defined in accordance with section 15 which deals with the appointment of Registering Officers. Inventorization and documentation are the two most important aspects of the process of registration. As a corollary, every application for registration should be accompanied by photographic documentation. The Antiquities and Art Treasures Rules, 1973, to be read with its Amendment of 1978, prescribe different kinds of forms for purposes of registration: Form VII for application for registration of antiquities; Form VIII for certificate of registration, and Form IX (of 1978) for transfer of ownership of antiquities. For each antiquity, so far as the notified items are concerned, one has to apply in one application (Form VII) to be accompanied by three photographs in quarter size (10 x 7.5cm) or postcard size. Smaller objects (15cm in length and 7cm in breadth) like miniature metal-sculptures, terracotta figurines, miniature painted objects etc., may be grouped together – three in quarter size and six in a full-size photograph.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 68 School of Distance Education
Justifications for the supply of photographs and their utility for the purpose of registration require no special emphasis. No amount of description of an object gives the real picture; indeed, description is no substitute for a photograph. In the detection of theft and smuggling, a photograph is an internationally acceptable document; with the help of photographs several stolen images have been traced out and restored to the owners. Keeping these entire in mind it is felt that the statutory provision for the supply of photographs must not be dispensed with. There is another reason for it: with the help of these photographs a beginning may be made to prepare the national register of India’s antiquarian wealth. Alongside the programme of registration the Archaeological Survey of India has launched upon a scheme of documentation of the centrally-protected monuments, sites as also of the collections of museums.Various museums and institutions under the control of State Governments, statutory bodies or trusts are being urged to complete photo-documentation. It is not merely an aid to safety but will also provide impetus to further research. Unless the collections are studied properly their historical and cultural values remain unknown and their importance as source-material is forgotten or considerably minimized.
A word may be said about the demand in certain quarters to exempt temples under worship from registering their movable antiquities. It is said that religious customs forbid photographing of images as if when the Agamas and Silpa-sastras were compiled the art of photography was known in India. The religious usage apart, why should not the priests or temple authorities try to take stock of their collections for safety and correct accounting? Theft or disappearance of ornaments, or even articles of use, of deities is not uncommon; and as pointed out earlier, most of the thefts of cultural property in India take place in temples not protected by the Central or the State Governments. Everyone is aware that the temples in south India, particularly Tamil Nadu, are rich in bronze images; some of these specimens may easily rival, in aesthetic quality, the best in the world.In the Jaina temples of western India hundreds of inscribed images are laying without proper study and decipherment of their inscriptions. These epigraphs and other objects when brought to light are sure to throw a flood of information on the economic, social, cultural and religious history of the region and the times. The temple- authorities will do a great service to the nation if they document the entire collection under their respective control at the earliest.
India is still not aware of the extent and vastness of cultural property that it owns or, for that matter, of its antiquarian wealth. Much is hidden in temples, palaces and old houses; and a still greater number is buried underground. Everyday a good number of antiquities must be coming to light in different parts of India due to accidental digging, rain and flood cutting down the mounds of cultural deposits, encroachment of rivers or shifting of their courses and so on. The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 has the provision for registration of such antiquities as are to be discovered in the passage of time. Sub-section 3(b) of section 14 states that such antiquity has to be registered “in case of any other person, within fifteen days of the date on which he comes into ownership, control or possession….and obtain a certificate in token of such registration”. The time-limit of three months is meant for those who own, control or possess such antiquity on the date of issue of a notification under sub-section 3(a) of section 14 of the Act.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 69 School of Distance Education
Section 17 deals with the transfer of ownership, control or possession of any antiquity specified in any notification. Rule 13 makes it clear that “when any person transfers the ownership, control or possession of a registered antiquity to any other person, the transfer shall be intimated in Form IX by the transferor within 15 days of the date of transfer to the registering officer having jurisdiction over the area where the transferor resides and also to the registering officer having jurisdiction over the areas where the transferee resides”.Evidently, such an arrangement postulates that an antiquity remains with the owner himself. But there is every possibility that an owner may have a temporary and a permanent residence. It is, therefore, advisable to follow the procedure of registering an antiquity with the Registering Officer within whose jurisdiction an antiquity is located. In other words, the present location of an antiquity is more important for the purposes of registration than the residence of the owner or the possessor. It may be recalled that certain provisions of the Act were first amended by an Ordinance in response to the public demand and to reduce the hardship on the part of the owners of large collections and to lower the expenditure on photography.On 4 June 1976 the President of India promulgated the Antiquities and Art Treasures (Amendment) Ordinance, 1976 amending sections 5, 16 and 18.In section 5, which relates to licensing, the expression “On and from the expiry of a period of 2 months of the commencement of this Act” was substituted by the words “As from the date of expiry of a period of 6 months from the commencement of this Act”. The other two amendments are in respect of registration. Originally, sub-section (2) of section 16 reads as follows: “Every application under sub-section (1) shall be accompanied by such photographs of the antiquity which is to be registered and by such number of copies, no exceeding six, as may be prescribed and shall be made in such form and shall contain such particulars as may be prescribed”. In conformity with this provision the rule 11 was also amended subsequently. Anyway, the amended section authorizes the Government to specify in the notification the number of photographs to accompany an application or provide some relaxation. The expression “shall be accompanied” is now substituted by the words “shall, in case of such antiquities or class of antiquities as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, specify, be accompanied”.By virtue of this amendment the original provision of rule 11 that “every such application shall be accompanied by four copies of photographs in postcard or large size in sharp focus of each antiquity” could be made flexible.It makes it possible to combine more antiquities in one photograph, and reduce the number and size of prints to accompany an application. So far as the manuscript is concerned one may supply photographs of the title-page, colophon and pages bearing paintings but information on the number of folios and as much other details as possible have to be furnished.These relaxations are subject to the administrative instructions issued by the Archaeological Survey of India from time to time.The amendment, at the same time, empowers the Central Government to notify in the Official Gazette the number and nature of photographs to be supplied along with other details for the purposes of registration. The amendment of vital and wider importance is the one in respect of section 18 which, as per the principal Act, exempts a museum, an office, an archive or an educational, cultural institution owned, controlled or managed by the Government from the registration of antiquities. Section 5 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures (Amendment) Act, 1976 amends section 18 as follows: “after the words owned, controlled or managed by the Government” the words “or any local authority or by any such body as the Central Government may, for reasons to be recorded in writing, approve for the purpose of this section by general or special order” shall be inserted. Because of this amendment it is now possible to give exemption to a larger number of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 70 School of Distance Education
institutions from the registration of antiquities. In exercise of the powers conferred by the amended section of the Act, the Central Government exempted, by issuing notification in the Gazette of India (Extraordinary, dated 1st April 1977), a number of institutions from the provision of registration of antiquities. Of these, the following three categories may be specifically mentioned: (i) every university within the meaning of clause (f) of section 2 of the University Grants Commission Act, 1956; (ii) every college affiliated to any university referred to above; and (iii) every private school or institution (other than a school or institution which primarily imparts music or dance) affiliated to a Board established by or under law. To these, have been listed a number of individual institutions run by private bodies or trusts. They are expected to complete the photo-documentation of their holdings within a specified period. It should be the duty of the University Grants Commission and other centralized educational agencies to see that institutions under their control or aegis devote greater attention to the task of photo-documentation, for such an effort may facilitate research and improve the methodology in historical and archaeological studies.The bodies which provide grants to various museums and institutions should ensure that top priority is given to the completion of the photo-documentation of their exhibits, either on display or in the reserve collection. Apart from regulating export and introducing the schemes for licensing and registration, the Act has provisions, as already discussed in the previous chapter, to compulsorily acquire antiquities and art Treasures. Let it be emphasized here that registration does not lead to compulsory acquisition for which elaborate procedure has been laid down (sections 19, 20 and 22). Every compulsory acquisition is effected by payment of compensation. If the Central Government is of the opinion that it is desirable to preserve any antiquity or art treasure in a public place, the Government may make an order for the compulsory acquisition of such antiquity or art treasure.But this power of compulsory acquisition shall not extend to any antiquity or art treasure used for bona fide religious observances. After a decision is taken by the Central Government for compulsory acquisition, the Collector of the district in which such antiquity or art treasure is located shall give notice to the owner intimating him of the decision.It shall be lawful for the Collector to take possession of such antiquity or art treasure even at the risk of using force if it is felt necessary.The owner may make a representation to the Central Government normally within a period of thirty days from the date on which such possession was taken over. On receipt of the representation the Central Government after making such inquiry as it deems fit and after giving to the objector in opportunity of being heard in the matter shall, within a period of ninety days from the date of receipt of the representation, rescind or confirm the order of compulsory acquisition.Section 20 lays down the principles in accordance of which the amount of compensation is to be determined. The amount may be fixed by agreement or by an arbitrator of the rank of a Judge of a High Court to be assisted by an expert. But nothing in the Arbitration Act, 1940 shall apply to arbitration under this section. The arbitrator while holding arbitration proceedings shall have all the powers of a Civil Court while trying a suit under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 in respect of summoning any person, examining him on oath, production of document, etc. Any person aggrieved by an award of the arbitrator may, within thirty days from the date on which the award is communicated to him prefer an appeal to the High Court. It is thus clear that the procedure for compulsory acquisition is not an easy one; moreover, the Act, under sub-section 2 of section 20, prescribes certain criteria for determining the compensation. These are: (i) the date or the period to which the antiquity or the art treasure belongs; (ii) the artistic, aesthetic, historical, architectural, archaeological or anthropological
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 71 School of Distance Education
importance of the antiquity or art treasure; (iii) the rarity of the antiquity or the art treasure; and (iv) such other matters as are relevant to the dispute.The Act confers powers of entry, search and seizure with a view to securing compliance with the provisions of this Act, and the provisions of sections 102 and 103 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 relating to search and seizure shall, so far as may be, apply to searches and seizures under this section. A search may be executed, on production of the warrant, in the presence of witnesses. Sub-section (1) of section 102 of the Code lays down that Whenever any place liable to search or inspection under this Chapter is closed, any person residing in, or being in charge of, such place shall, on demand of the officer or other person executing the warrant, and on production of the warrant, allow him free ingress thereto, and afford all reasonable facilities for a search therein. It is worthwhile to quote the first three sub-sections of section 103 of the same Code to give an idea of the procedure to be followed regarding the search in the presence of witnesses and their responsibilities. (1) Before making a search, the officer or other person about to make it shall call upon two or more respectable inhabitants of the locality in which the place to be searched is situate to attend and witness the search [and may issue an order in writing to them or any of them so to do]. (2) The search shall be made in their presence, and a list of all things seized in the course of such search and of the places in which they are respectively found shall be prepared by such officer or other person and signed by such witnesses; but no person witnessing a search under this section shall be required to attend the Court as a witness of the search unless specially summoned by it. (3) The occupant of the place searched, or some person in his behalf, shall, in every instance, be permitted to attend during the search, and a copy of the list prepared under this section, signed by the said witnesses, shall be delivered to such occupant or person.
According to section 23 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 search and seizure may be carried out by an officer of Government, authorized in this behalf by the Central Government. He may seize and antiquity or art treasure in respect of which he suspects that any provision of the Act has been or likely to be contravened. He has also to take necessary measures for securing the production of the antiquity or art treasure so seized in a court and for its safe custody, pending such production. It is felt that this extreme measure should be taken sparingly and with utmost caution. The Archaeological Survey of India or a State Department of Archaeology is largely an academic body and its way of functioning differs fundamentally from that of the Income-tax, Excise or Customs departments. Further, the office of the Registering Officer is a very small one and he being the only officer has to remain preoccupied all the time with the safe custody of the seized antiquity or art treasure, its production in the Court and many other allied matters. It is equally important to bear in mind that neither he nor the coordinator in the State has the authority to decide whether an object is an antiquity or art treasure in terms of the present legislation. Section 24 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 explicitly states that: If any question arises whether any article, object or thing or manuscript, record or other document is or is not an antiquity or is not an art treasure for the purposes of this Act, it shall be referred to the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, or to an officer
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 72 School of Distance Education
not below the rank of a Director in the Archaeological Survey of India authorized by the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India and the decision of the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India or such officer, as the case may be, on such question shall be final.
Before closing this, it is proposed to discuss briefly the penalties (Section 25) prescribed in the Act for any action in contravention of its provisions.No court inferior to that of a Presidency Magistrate or a Magistrate of the First Class shall try any offence punishable under this Act.Exports or attempts to export any antiquity or art treasure in contravention of section 3 shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than six months but which may extend to 3 years and with fine.This is without prejudice to any confiscation or penalty liable to be imposed under the Customs Act, 1962.For offences in contravention of the provisions concerning licensing and registration (section 5, 12, 13, 14 and 17), a person is liable to be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 6 months or with fine or with both; the antiquity in respect of which the offence has been committed shall also be liable for confiscation.Furthermore, if any person prevents any Licensing Officer from inspecting any record, photograph or register maintained under section 10 or prevents any officer from entering into or searching any place, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months or with fine or with both.Significantly, it shall be lawful for any Presidency Magistrate or any Magistrate of the First Class to pass any sentence under this Act in excess of his power under section 32 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 and under this section Courts of Presidency Magistrates and of Magistrates of the First Class may pass sentences in the form of imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years, including such solitary confinement as is authorized by law, and fine not exceeding rupees 2,000.Section 28 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 deals with offences committed by companies i.e., any body corporate, a firm or other association of individuals.
Compared to other two laws in vogue this legislation has provision for stricter penalties.If, however, remains to be seen if stringent penal provisions will have deterrent effect or create an atmosphere for a better compliance of the legal obligations. Again, this can be judged only when the implementing machinery is effectively geared to deal with the offences concerning this law. Alternatively, the people inspired by a sense of pride in his own cultural heritage acts on its own volition to preserve, to protect the relics of the past and willingly subscribe to all laws and regulations of the land. The latter proposition is certainly a utopia. At the same time, the strict implementation of this legislative measure according to the letter of law is fraught with a great many problems. One has to keep in mind that the principal aim should be to preserve antiquities and not to impose penalties even at the danger of losing the object for the very protection of which the law has been enacted. If a situation of threat and terror is created people may not hesitate to destroy a cultural property to avoid being jailed or penalized. Secondly, a department like the Archaeological Survey of India or a State Department of Archaeology should not be loaded with work befitting a policing force. Now itself, persons in high position think that the Archaeological Survey of India is an organization where all information concerning thefts of images and cultural property are available forgetting that the Archaeological Survey looks after only about four thousand monuments of national importance and that all idols are not antiquities, that all types of cultural property do not fall within the scope of the Survey, and that a vast majority of thefts have to be dealt with by that machinery of the State which looks after law and order. Thirdly, the general outlook and the temperament of the
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 73 School of Distance Education
people who man the Departments of Archaeology or the like are not much conducive to tackle problems like search and seizure or of litigation.Lastly; the inadequate strength deployed for the implementation of this legislation cannot cope with the task of such a great magnitude.What is of utmost importance is the better implementation of other laws, and if necessary to incorporate new provisions therein with a view to counter the threats from more than one front.
UNESCO RESOLUTION ON WORLD HERITAGE MONUMENTS, 1972 The General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization meeting in Paris from 17 October to 21 November 1972, at its 17th session, Noting that the cultural heritage and the natural heritage are increasingly threatened with destruction not only by the traditional causes of decay, but also by changing social and economic conditions which aggravate the situation with even more formidable phenomena of damage or destruction, Considering that deterioration or disappearance of any item of the cultural or natural heritage constitutes a harmful impoverishment of the heritage of all the nations of the world,
Considering that protection of this heritage at the national level often remains incomplete because of the scale of the resources which it requires and of the insufficient economic, scientific, and technological resources of the country where the property to be protected is situated,
Recalling that the Constitution of the Organization provides that it will maintain, increase, and diffuse knowledge by assuring the conservation and protection of the world's heritage, and recommending to the nations concerned the necessary international conventions,
Considering that the existing international conventions, recommendations and resolutions concerning cultural and natural property demonstrate the importance, for all the peoples of the world, of safeguarding this unique and irreplaceable property, to whatever people it may belong,
Considering that parts of the cultural or natural heritage are of outstanding interest and therefore need to be preserved as part of the world heritage of mankind as a whole,
Considering that, in view of the magnitude and gravity of the new dangers threatening them, it is incumbent on the international community as a whole to participate in the protection of the cultural and natural heritage of outstanding universal value, by the granting of collective assistance which, although not taking the place of action by the State concerned, will serve as an efficient complement thereto,
Considering that it is essential for this purpose to adopt new provisions in the form of a convention establishing an effective system of collective protection of the cultural and natural heritage of outstanding universal value, organized on a permanent basis and in accordance with modern scientific methods,
Having decided, at its sixteenth session, that this question should be made the subject of an international convention, Adopts this sixteenth day of November 1972 this Convention.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 74 School of Distance Education
I. DEFINITION OF THE CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE Article 1 For the purpose of this Convention, the following shall be considered as "cultural heritage": monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view. Article 2 For the purposes of this Convention, the following shall be considered as "natural heritage": Natural features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which are of outstanding universal value from the aesthetic or scientific point of view; Geological and physiographical formations and precisely delineated areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation; Natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty. Article 3 It is for each State Party to this Convention to identify and delineate the different properties situated on its territory mentioned in Articles 1 and 2 above. II. NATIONAL PROTECTION AND INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF THE CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE Article 4 Each State Party to this Convention recognizes that the duty of ensuring the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission to future generations of the cultural and natural heritage referred to in Articles 1 and 2 and situated on its territory, belongs primarily to that State. It will do all it can to this end, to the utmost of its own resources and, where appropriate, with any international assistance and co-operation, in particular, financial, artistic, scientific and technical, which it may be able to obtain. Article 5 To ensure that effective and active measures are taken for the protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage situated on its territory, each State Party to this Convention shall endeavor, in so far as possible, and as appropriate for each country:
(a) to adopt a general policy which aims to give the cultural and natural heritage a function in the life of the community and to integrate the protection of that heritage into comprehensive planning programmes;
(b) to set up within its territories, where such services do not exist, one or more services for the protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage with an appropriate staff and possessing the means to discharge their functions;
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 75 School of Distance Education
(c) to develop scientific and technical studies and research and to work out such operating methods as will make the State capable of counteracting the dangers that threaten its cultural or natural heritage;
(d) to take the appropriate legal, scientific, technical, administrative and financial measures necessary for the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and rehabilitation of this heritage; and (e) to foster the establishment or development of national or regional centres for training in the protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage and to encourage scientific research in this field. Article 6 1. Whilst fully respecting the sovereignty of the States on whose territory the cultural and natural heritage mentioned in Articles 1 and 2 is situated, and without prejudice to property right provided by national legislation, the States Parties to this Convention recognize that such heritage constitutes a world heritage for whose protection it is the duty of the international community as a whole to co-operate. 2. The States Parties undertake, in accordance with the provisions of this Convention, to give their help in the identification, protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage referred to in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article 11 if the States on whose territory it is situated so request. 3. Each State Party to this Convention undertakes not to take any deliberate measures which might damage directly or indirectly the cultural and natural heritage referred to in Articles 1 and 2 situated on the territory of other States Parties to this Convention. Article 7 For the purpose of this Convention, international protection of the world cultural and natural heritage shall be understood to mean the establishment of a system of international co-operation and assistance designed to support States Parties to the Convention in their efforts to conserve and identify that heritage. III INTERGOVERNMENTAL COMMITTEE FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE WORLD CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE
Article 8 1. An Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of the Cultural and Natural Heritage of Outstanding Universal Value, called "the World Heritage Committee", is hereby established within the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It shall be composed of 15 States Parties to the Convention, elected by States Parties to the Convention meeting in general assembly during the ordinary session of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The number of States members of the Committee shall be increased to 21 as from the date of the ordinary session of the General Conference following the entry into force of this Convention for at least 40 States. 2. Election of members of the Committee shall ensure an equitable representation of the different regions and cultures of the world. 3. A representative of the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (Rome Centre), a representative of the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and a representative of the International Union for Conservation of Nature
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 76 School of Distance Education and Natural Resources (IUCN), to whom may be added, at the request of States Parties to the Convention meeting in general assembly during the ordinary sessions of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, representatives of other intergovernmental or non-governmental organizations, with similar objectives, may attend the meetings of the Committee in an advisory capacity. Article 9 1. The term of office of States members of the World Heritage Committee shall extend from the end of the ordinary session of the General Conference during which they are elected until the end of its third subsequent ordinary session. 2. The term of office of one-third of the members designated at the time of the first election shall, however, cease at the end of the first ordinary session of the General Conference following that at which they were elected; and the term of office of a further third of the members designated at the same time shall cease at the end of the second ordinary session of the General Conference following that at which they were elected. The names of these members shall be chosen by lot by the President of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization after the first election. 3. States members of the Committee shall choose as their representatives persons qualified in the field of the cultural or natural heritage. Article 10 1. The World Heritage Committee shall adopt its Rules of Procedure. 2. The Committee may at any time invite public or private organizations or individuals to participate in its meetings for consultation on particular problems. 3. The Committee may create such consultative bodies as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions. Article 11 1. Every State Party to this Convention shall, in so far as possible, submit to the World Heritage Committee an inventory of property forming part of the cultural and natural heritage, situated in its territory and suitable for inclusion in the list provided for in paragraph 2 of this Article. This inventory, which shall not be considered exhaustive, shall include documentation about the location of the property in question and its significance. 2. On the basis of the inventories submitted by States in accordance with paragraph 1, the Committee shall establish, keep up to date and publish, under the title of "World Heritage List," a list of properties forming part of the cultural heritage and natural heritage, as defined in Articles 1 and 2 of this Convention, which it considers as having outstanding universal value in terms of such criteria as it shall have established. An updated list shall be distributed at least every 2 years. 3. The inclusion of a property in the World Heritage List requires the consent of the State concerned. The inclusion of a property situated in a territory, sovereignty or jurisdiction over which is claimed by more than one State shall in no way prejudice the rights of the parties to the dispute. 4. The Committee shall establish, keep up to date and publish, whenever circumstances shall so require, under the title of "list of World Heritage in Danger", a list of the property appearing in the World Heritage List for the conservation of which major operations are necessary and for which assistance has been requested under this Convention. This list shall contain an estimate of the cost of such operations. The list may include only such property forming part of the cultural
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 77 School of Distance Education
and natural heritage as is threatened by serious and specific dangers, such as the threat of disappearance caused by accelerated deterioration, large-scale public or private projects or rapid urban or tourist development projects; destruction caused by changes in the use or ownership of the land; major alterations due to unknown causes; abandonment for any reason whatsoever; the outbreak or the threat of an armed conflict; calamities and cataclysms; serious fires, earthquakes, landslides; volcanic eruptions; changes in water level, floods and tidal waves. The Committee may at any time, in case of urgent need, make a new entry in the List of World Heritage in Danger and publicize such entry immediately. 5. The Committee shall define the criteria on the basis of which a property belonging to the cultural or natural heritage may be included in either of the lists mentioned in paragraphs 2 and 4 of this article. 6. Before refusing a request for inclusion in one of the two lists mentioned in paragraphs 2 and 4 of this article, the Committee shall consult the State Party in whose territory the cultural or natural property in question is situated. 7. The Committee shall, with the agreement of the States concerned, co-ordinate and encourages the studies and research needed for the drawing up of the lists referred to in paragraphs 2 and 4 of this article. Article 12 The fact that a property belonging to the cultural or natural heritage has not been included in either of the two lists mentioned in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article 11 shall in no way be construed to mean that it does not have an outstanding universal value for purposes other than those resulting from inclusion in these lists. Article 13 1. The World Heritage Committee shall receive and study requests for international assistance formulated by States Parties to this Convention with respect to property forming part of the cultural or natural heritage, situated in their territories, and included or potentially suitable for inclusion in the lists mentioned referred to in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article 11.The purpose of such requests may be to secure the protection, conservation, presentation or rehabilitation of such property. 2. Requests for international assistance under paragraph 1 of this article may also be concerned with identification of cultural or natural property defined in Articles 1 and 2, when preliminary investigations have shown that further inquiries would be justified. 3. The Committee shall decide on the action to be taken with regard to these requests, determine where appropriate, the nature and extent of its assistance, and authorize the conclusion, on its behalf, of the necessary arrangements with the government concerned. 4. The Committee shall determine an order of priorities for its operations. It shall in so doing bear in mind the respective importance for the world cultural and natural heritage of the property requiring protection, the need to give international assistance to the property most representative of a natural environment or of the genius and the history of the peoples of the world, the urgency of the work to be done, the resources available to the States on whose territory the threatened property is situated and in particular the extent to which they are able to safeguard such property by their own means. 5. The Committee shall draw up, keep up to date and publicize a list of property for which international assistance has been granted.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 78 School of Distance Education
6. The Committee shall decide on the use of the resources of the Fund established under Article 15 of this Convention. It shall seek ways of increasing these resources and shall take all useful steps to this end. 7. The Committee shall co-operate with international and national governmental and non- governmental organizations having objectives similar to those of this Convention. For the implementation of its programmes and projects, the Committee may call on such organizations, particularly the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (the Rome Centre), the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), as well as on public and private bodies and individuals. 8. Decisions of the Committee shall be taken by a majority of two-thirds of its members present and voting. A majority of the members of the Committee shall constitute a quorum. Article 14 1. The World Heritage Committee shall be assisted by a Secretariat appointed by the Director- General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2. The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, utilizing to the fullest extent possible the services of the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property (the Rome Centre), the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in their respective areas of competence and capability, shall prepare the Committee's documentation and the agenda of its meetings and shall have the responsibility for the implementation of its decisions.
IV FUND FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE WORLD CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE Article 15 1. A Fund for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of Outstanding Universal Value, called "the World Heritage Fund", is hereby established. 2. The Fund shall constitute a trust fund, in conformity with the provisions of the Financial Regulations of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 3. The resources of the Fund shall consist of: (a) compulsory and voluntary contributions made by States Parties to this Convention, (b) Contributions, gifts or bequests which may be made by: (i) other States; (ii) the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, other organizations of the United Nations system, particularly the United Nations Development Programme or other intergovernmental organizations; (iii) public or private bodies or individuals; (c) any interest due on the resources of the Fund; (d) funds raised by collections and receipts from events organized for the benefit of the fund; and (e) all other resources authorized by the Fund's regulations, as drawn up by the World Heritage Committee. 4. Contributions to the Fund and other forms of assistance made available to the Committee may be used only for such purposes as the Committee shall define.The Committee may accept contributions to be used only for a certain programme or project, provided that the Committee
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 79 School of Distance Education shall have decided on the implementation of such programme or project. No political conditions may be attached to contributions made to the Fund. Article 16 1. Without prejudice to any supplementary voluntary contribution, the States Parties to this Convention undertake to pay regularly, every two years, to the World Heritage Fund, contributions, the amount of which, in the form of a uniform percentage applicable to all States, shall be determined by the General Assembly of States Parties to the Convention, meeting during the sessions of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. This decision of the General Assembly requires the majority of the States Parties present and voting, which have not made the declaration referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article. In no case shall the compulsory contribution of States Parties to the Convention exceed 1% of the contribution to the regular budget of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2. However, each State referred to in Article 31 or in Article 32 of this Convention may declare, at the time of the deposit of its instrument of ratification, acceptance or accession, that it shall not be bound by the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article. 3. A State Party to the Convention which has made the declaration referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article may at any time withdraw the said declaration by notifying the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. However, the withdrawal of the declaration shall not take effect in regard to the compulsory contribution due by the State until the date of the subsequent General Assembly of States parties to the Convention. 4. In order that the Committee may be able to plan its operations effectively, the contributions of States Parties to this Convention which have made the declaration referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article, shall be paid on a regular basis, at least every two years, and should not be less than the contributions which they should have paid if they had been bound by the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article. 5. Any State Party to the Convention which is in arrears with the payment of its compulsory or voluntary contribution for the current year and the calendar year immediately preceding it shall not be eligible as a Member of the World Heritage Committee, although this provision shall not apply to the first election. The terms of office of any such State which is already a member of the Committee shall terminate at the time of the elections provided for in Article 8, paragraph 1 of this Convention. Article 17 The States Parties to this Convention shall consider or encourage the establishment of national public and private foundations or associations whose purpose is to invite donations for the protection of the cultural and natural heritage as defined in Articles 1 and 2 of this Convention. Article 18 The States Parties to this Convention shall give their assistance to international fund- raising campaigns organized for the World Heritage Fund under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. They shall facilitate collections made by the bodies mentioned in paragraph 3 of Article 15 for this purpose.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 80 School of Distance Education
V. CONDITIONS AND ARRANGEMENTS FOR INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE Article 19 Any State Party to this Convention may request international assistance for property forming part of the cultural or natural heritage of outstanding universal value situated within its territory. It shall submit with its request such information and documentation provided for in Article 21 as it has in its possession and as will enable the Committee to come to a decision. Article 20 Subject to the provisions of paragraph 2 of Article 13, sub-paragraph (c) of Article 22 and Article 23, international assistance provided for by this Convention may be granted only to property forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee has decided, or may decide, to enter in one of the lists mentioned in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article 11. Article 21 1. The World Heritage Committee shall define the procedure by which requests to it for international assistance shall be considered and shall specify the content of the request, which should define the operation contemplated, the work that is necessary, the expected cost thereof, the degree of urgency and the reasons why the resources of the State requesting assistance do not allow it to meet all the expenses. Such requests must be supported by experts' reports whenever possible. 2. Requests based upon disasters or natural calamities should, by reasons of the urgent work which they may involve, be given immediate, priority consideration by the Committee, which should have a reserve fund at its disposal against such contingencies. 3. Before coming to a decision, the Committee shall carry out such studies and consultations as it deems necessary. Article 22 Assistance granted by the World Heritage Fund may take the following forms: (a) studies concerning the artistic, scientific and technical problems raised by the protection, conservation, presentation and rehabilitation of the cultural and natural heritage, as defined in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article 11 of this Convention; (b) provisions of experts, technicians and skilled labour to ensure that the approved work is correctly carried out; (c) training of staff and specialists at all levels in the field of identification, protection, conservation, presentation and rehabilitation of the cultural and natural heritage; (d) supply of equipment which the State concerned does not possess or is not in a position to acquire; (e) low-interest or interest-free loans which might be repayable on a long-term basis; (f) the granting, in exceptional cases and for special reasons, of non-repayable subsidies. Article 23 The World Heritage Committee may also provide international assistance to national or regional centres for the training of staff and specialists at all levels in the field of identification, protection, conservation, presentation and rehabilitation of the cultural and natural heritage.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 81 School of Distance Education
Article 24 International assistance on a large scale shall be preceded by detailed scientific, economic and technical studies. These studies shall draw upon the most advanced techniques for the protection, conservation, presentation and rehabilitation of the natural and cultural heritage and shall be consistent with the objectives of this Convention. The studies shall also seek means of making rational use of the resources available in the State concerned. Article 25 As a general rule, only part of the cost of work necessary shall be borne by the international community. The contribution of the State benefiting from international assistance shall constitute a substantial share of the resources devoted to each programme or project, unless its resources do not permit this. Article 26 The World Heritage Committee and the recipient State shall define in the agreement they conclude the conditions in which a programme or project for which international assistance under the terms of this Convention is provided, shall be carried out. It shall be the responsibility of the State receiving such international assistance to continue to protect, conserve and present the property so safeguarded, in observance of the conditions laid down by the agreement. VI. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES Article 27 1. The States Parties to this Convention shall endeavor by all appropriate means, and in particular by educational and information programmes, to strengthen appreciation and respect by their peoples of the cultural and natural heritage defined in Articles 1 and 2 of the Convention. 2. They shall undertake to keep the public broadly informed of the dangers threatening this heritage and of the activities carried on in pursuance of this Convention. Article 28 States Parties to this Convention which receive international assistance under the Convention shall take appropriate measures to make known the importance of the property for which assistance has been received and the role played by such assistance.
VII. REPORTS Article 29 1. The States Parties to this Convention shall, in the reports which they submit to the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization on dates and in a manner to be determined by it, give information on the legislative and administrative provisions which they have adopted and other action which they have taken for the application of this Convention, together with details of the experience acquired in this field. 2. These reports shall be brought to the attention of the World Heritage Committee. 3. The Committee shall submit a report on its activities at each of the ordinary sessions of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 82 School of Distance Education
VIII FINAL CLAUSES Article 30 This Convention is drawn up in Arabic, English, French, Russian and Spanish, the five texts being equally authoritative. Article 31 1. This Convention shall be subject to ratification or acceptance by States members of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in accordance with their respective constitutional procedures. 2. The instruments of ratification or acceptance shall be deposited with the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Article 32 1. This Convention shall be open to accession by all States not members of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization which are invited by the General Conference of the Organization to accede to it. 2. Accession shall be effected by the deposit of an instrument of accession with the Director- General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Article 33 This Convention shall enter into force three months after the date of the deposit of the twentieth instrument of ratification, acceptance or accession, but only with respect to those States which have deposited their respective instruments of ratification, acceptance or accession on or before that date. It shall enter into force with respect to any other State three months after the deposit of its instrument of ratification, acceptance or accession. Article 34 The following provisions shall apply to those States Parties to this Convention which have a federal or non-unitary constitutional system: (a) with regard to the provisions of this Convention, the implementation of which comes under the legal jurisdiction of the federal or central legislative power, the obligations of the federal or central government shall be the same as for those States parties which are not federal States; (b) with regard to the provisions of this Convention, the implementation of which comes under the legal jurisdiction of individual constituent States, countries, provinces or cantons that are not obliged by the constitutional system of the federation to take legislative measures, the federal government shall inform the competent authorities of such States, countries, provinces or cantons of the said provisions, with its recommendation for their adoption. Article 35 1. Each State Party to this Convention may denounce the Convention. 2. The denunciation shall be notified by an instrument in writing, deposited with the Director- General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 3. The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the receipt of the instrument of denunciation. It shall not affect the financial obligations of the denouncing State until the date on which the withdrawal takes effect.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 83 School of Distance Education
Article 36 The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization shall inform the States members of the Organization, the States not members of the Organization which are referred to in Article 32, as well as the United Nations, of the deposit of all the instruments of ratification, acceptance, or accession provided for in Articles 31 and 32, and of the denunciations provided for in Article 35. Article 37 1. This Convention may be revised by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Any such revision shall, however, bind only the States which shall become Parties to the revising convention. 2. If the General Conference should adopt a new convention revising this Convention in whole or in part, then, unless the new convention otherwise provides, this Convention shall cease to be open to ratification, acceptance or accession, as from the date on which the new revising convention enters into force.
Article 38 In conformity with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations, this Convention shall be registered with the Secretariat of the United Nations at the request of the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Done in Paris, this twenty-third day of November 1972, in two authentic copies bearing the signature of the President of the seventeenth session of the General Conference and of the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, which shall be deposited in the archives of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and certified true copies of which shall be delivered to all the States referred to in Articles 31 and 32 as well as to the United Nations. INTERNATIONAL HERITAGE AGENCIES The Specialized International Agencies are formed with a view to promote control-operation amongst the states of the world in the economic, social, technical and other spheres. This control- operation not only promotes material, cultural and humanitarian interests of the people of the various nations but also contributes towards the elimination of poverty, hunger and want and progress in the backward areas, and thereby paves the way for greater political understanding. Though International Agencies have existed since the first quarter of the nineteenth century, they were given special recognition under the U.N. Charter.Chapters 9 and 10 of the U.N. are specially devoted to the objectives, organization and methods for the improvement of the national well being of mankind. Article 55 of the U.N. Charter provides: “With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the United Nations shall promote (a) Higher standards of living, full employment and conditions of economic and social progress and development; (b) Solutions of international economic, social, health and related problems and international cultural and educational control-operation; and (c) universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion”. It may be noted that in actual practice a number of international agencies are looking after these activities, even though they are not a part of the world organization.These agencies have not been created by the U.N. Charter, even though it makes a passing reference to them.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 84 School of Distance Education
THE UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO) The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization was set up on the considerations that “since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed”.Although it was formally set up on 4th November, 1946, it was in a way a continuation of the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation set by the League of Nations in the early twenties of the present century. The constitution of the UNESCO was drafted by Great Britain and France, which was subsequently adopted by forty-three members of the United Nations.In December 1946 UNESCO, was recognized as a specialized agency of the U.N. Purpose of U.N.E.S.C.O: The preamble of the constitution of UNESCO clearly defines the purpose of the organization.It states “The governments of the states parties to this constitution on behalf of their people declare that since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defence of peace must be constructed; that ignorance of each other’s ways and lives has been a common cause, throughout the history of mankind of that suspicion and mistrust between the peoples of the world through which their differences have all too often broken into war….” In other words it aims at promoting understanding amongst the people of different countries through the tools of knowledge and interchange of ideas between scientists, writers, social scientists and artists of various countries. Membership: All the members of the United Nations are automatically entitled to the membership of UNESCO.Even states which are not members of the United Nations can be admitted as members of this organization by two-thirds vote of the General Conference with the approval of the Economic and Social Council.There is no clear cut provision for withdrawal of membership of the organization.But probably in such case the provisions relating to the United Nations will automatically apply to this organization too.Likewise the provisions regarding suspension and expulsions of members are also applicable to this organization. Organization of U.N.E.S.C.O.: The organization of UNESCO has been outlined in Article III of its constitution, and provides for three organs – the General Conference, the Executive Board, and the Secretariat. It shall be desirable to know about the composition and role of these organs in some details. 1. General Conference: The General Conference of UNESCO is a sort of Governing body of the organization. It consists of delegates chosen by the governments of the member states.Each state can send a delegation consisting of five persons, but has only one vote.These members are selected by the governments in consultation with the educational, scientific and cultural bodies existing in their country.The General Conference holds annual sessions, but extra-ordinary sessions can also be called by the Executive Board. All the decisions of the Conference are taken by simple majority, except where a two-thirds majority is required under rules such as submission of international conventions, inviting observers and proposals for amendment.The functions of the General Conference include determination of policies, summoning of conferences, submission of proposal of members, election of the Executive Board, appointment of Director-General, consideration of reports submitted by the member states, and to render the United Nations with regard to the problems falling within its jurisdiction.It may be noted that the recommendations and conventions of the General Conference have to be submitted by the member states before the appropriate national authorities for acceptance within one year. They are also duty bound to keep the Organization informed about the action taken by them on these conventions and recommendations.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 85 School of Distance Education
2. The Executive Board: The Executive Board consists of 24 members elected by the General conference from amongst its delegates. Initially the strength of the members was eighteen.While selecting these members the Conference pays special attention to the experience of these members in the field of science, education, arts and humanities.Another consideration which weighs with the Conference in the selection of the members of the Board is that they must have the necessary experience and capacity to handle the administrative and executive duties as members of Board.With a view to ensure that diverse cultures get represented on the Board, geographical factors are also kept in mind. Generally no state is permitted to contribute more than one member to the Board.The members of the Board are elected for a terms of three years and are eligible for re-election, for one term.It means that no member can serve on the Board for more than six years. The duties of the Board include the execution of programmes adopted by the General Conference, preparation of Conference’s agenda, recommendation of states for membership of the organization. It examines the reports of the Director General before these are submitted to the General Conference. The Board also holds consultations with other organizations. 3. The Secretariat: The Secretariat consists of Director General and such other staff as may be appointed by him.The Director General is appointed by the General Conference on the recommendation of the Executive Board, while the other members of the staff of Secretariat are appointed by the Director General in accordance with the rules prescribed by the General Conference in this regard.The Director General is appointed for a term of 6 years. He is authorised to appoint a Deputy to assist him in the discharge of his duties.The Director General also takes parts in the meetings of the general Board as well as the General Conference.However, he does not enjoy any right to vote in these bodies. The responsibility for implementing the programmes approves by the General Conference rests with the Secretariat. Functions of U.N.E.S.C.O: As noted above the UNESCO is concerned with the promotion of world peace through collaboration among the nations in the field of education, science and culture. It works on the premises that “since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed”. The Constitution of the UNESCO holds that “ignorance of each other’s ways and lives has been a common cause, throughout the history of mankind, of that suspicion and mistrusts between the peoples of the world through which their differences have all too often broken in to war”.By encouraging control-operation amongst the people of different countries in the educational, social, scientific and cultural spheres the UNESCO is expected to create a world in which peace will be more probable and warless likely. In keeping with these objectives of UNESCO its functions can be studied under the following three heads. 1. Educational Functions: Since education plays an important role in the development of proper understanding amongst the people of the world, one of the first functions of UNESCO is to help in promotion of education.UNESCO attaches great importance to the education of children as well as the adults.One of the first tasks undertaken by the Organization after its establishment was the restoration of libraries, museums and schools which had been destroyed during the Second World War.Accordingly it planned a world-wide campaign to obtain voluntary assistance for the restoration of schools, museums and libraries in the war-devasted countries by procuring educational materials, books, fellowships and study grants.The Organization made available grants, though on a limited scale, for the purchase of books, periodicals, radios, microfilm equipments laboratory supplies etc. Though these grants were of a very limited nature, yet they
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 86 School of Distance Education
encouraged other states to make voluntary contribution and help in the restoration of educational systems in countries which had suffered during the war. The General Conference adopted a resolution for reconstruction and rehabilitation of Europe and set up an Emergency Fund to finance the same.With a view to control-ordinate the activities of the various agencies it set up a Temporary International Council for Educational Reconstruction in 1949. UNESCO also paid attention to the development of fundamental education with a view “to enable man to live a fuller and happier life in adjustment with a changing environment, to achieve control of his physical and social environment”.With a view to ensure that the goal of Fundamental Education was realized it encouraged member states to establish minimum fundamental education for their people.It also campaigned energetically for “the progressive realization of the right of everyone to free access to education”.The idea of fundamental education worked on the assumption that it would promote international understanding.The efforts of UNESCO to introduce fundamental education were opposed by certain scholars.They particularly condemned it efforts to impose a uniform system of education.Accordingly, UNESCO announced in 1953-54 that it stood for “education for living in a world community”. UNESCO has devoted a great deal of attention towards the elimination of world illiteracy. It has built up educational facilities and opportunities for adults as well as for children, especially in developing countries. It undertook pilot projects in adult education in a number of countries and rendered advice regarding conduct of illiteracy campaigns.The Organization has played a special role in the planning and administration of education in developing countries.It set up an International Institute of educational Planning in Paris, where the educational administrators are imparted necessary training. In addition it also helps in the production of text-book, development of new educational techniques, imparting training to teachers by developing training colleges in various countries.The Organization compiles necessary data and statistics regarding educational facilities available in various countries of the world. 2. Scientific Activities: The UNESCO has also attached great importance to the scientific development and control-operation. It has tried to link science with education and tried to improve science teaching at the primary and secondary school levels. The Source Book for Science Teaching, prepared by UNESCO is a major contribution in this direction. It has tried to promote cooperation in scientific persuits by bringing scientists of the various countries together and by circulating and by information through journals, press, arrangement of exhibitions.It encourages scientific education and research fellowships.UNESCO has specially encouraged basic research in the field of mathematics, physics, geology, hydrology, oceanography seismology etc. It arranges periodical seminars and conferences of the world scientists and encourages them to control-operate in various spheres.For example it arranged the International Indian Ocean Expedition in which research vessels of more than twenty nations participated.In 1965 it invited the scientists from all over the world to control-operate conduct research on the problem of water resources. UNESCO has tried to encourage the use of science and technology for quick development of the under-developed countries. It provided training to the scientists and technicians of these countries with a view to quicken the process of their development. It has also set up a number of international non-government institutions like Zoological Station at Naples and Oceanographic Institute at Monaco with a view to impart knowledge in these fields. However, it has to be admitted that despite its best efforts to promote scientific knowledge, it has not met with complete success due to paucity of funds and resources, as well as lack of enthusiasm on the part
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 87 School of Distance Education
of the governments.UNESCO has also tried to encourage the study of social sciences on scientific lines and has helped to focus studies on selected problems, to diagnose the causes of tension amongst the member states.For example the UNESCO has tried to examine the problem concerning the race prejudices and how they can be ended by the educational and civic authorities. It has laid continuous emphasis on the need of human rights and ending of racial discrimination. 3. Cultural Activities: In the cultural spheres the activities of the UNESCO are not confined only to the preservation of the heritage of the past, but also to promote and protect new works and authors. According to Article I of UNESCO’s Constitution the Organization is expected to “maintain, increase and diffuse knowledge …by assuring the conservation and protection of the world’s inheritance of books, works of art and monuments of history and science and recommending to the nations concerned the necessary international conventions….” As regards the preservation of the cultural heritage the UNESCO has paid sufficient attention. It was largely due to the assistance of UNESCO that the Nubian temples in Egypt which were threatened by the Aswan High Dam Scheme could be saved.It also adopted conventions regarding Protection of World’s National and Architectural Heritage, Protection of Cultural Property in the event of Armed Conflict, and Illicit Export and Import of Cultural Property. In addition to the preservation of the past cultural heritage the Organization has paid attention to the encouragement of original artistic creations.With a view to protect the authors all over the world the Organization adopted the Universal Copyright Convention in 1952. It arranges international conferences and Congresses for promoting mutual understanding amongst the people professing different cultures. It has encouraged translations of books in different languages for the diffusion of various cultures. With a view to ensure that the people of the world get these books it has introduced the system of book coupens. This enables the countries with weak foreign exchange position to procure these books for its citizens. In this way, the UNESCO has helped in overcoming the exchange problem so far as the purchase of books is concerned.The necessary exchange in currencies is effected by the UNESCO. UNESCO promotes cultural exchanges between people of different countries by sponsoring travelling, art exhibitions and similar other activities.Through its Internal Exchange Programme it enables the scholars of various countries to visit foreign lands and come in direct contact with the culture of those countries.It helps in promoting cultural exchanges by collecting and publishing information about the various fellowships and scholarships provided by various countries.In 1953 UNESCO drafted International Instrument for the Removal of Obstacles to the Movement of Persons Travelling for Educational, Scientific or Cultural Purposes, and suggested a number of measures with a view to encourage cultural exchanges.These included reduction of visa charges, reduction of travel costs and easing of formalities regarding currency, low cost accommodation in university centres, free entry to museums and public libraries, reduction of tuition fees and provision of more scholarships and fellowships.However, these suggestions did not find favour with the members and could not be implemented. The UNESCO set up an International Commission for preparing a scientific and cultural history of mankind to be written in five or six volumes. The Commission brought out the first volume in 1963, followed by other volumes.According to Prof. Luard “UNESCO is one of the most criticized of all international organizations, and though some of this is probably exaggerated, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the Agency is not as effective as it should be”. Prof. Luard has mentioned two main defects. “Its objectives are far too diffused; and they
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 88 School of Distance Education are too ill-defined. Each of the main organization units of its Secretariat – covering education, natural sciences, social and human sciences and culture, and communications – deal with subjects so broad and so loosely connected that there is no self-evident reason why they should be dealt with by the same organization at all.This lack of sense of clear purpose, coupled with an excessively bureaucratic machine even for U.N. bodies, as well as somewhat autocratic direction in recent years has sparked off a crisis more serious than any experienced in any other U.N. Agency”. The usefulness of UNESCO has been greatly limited by the East-West split and the cleavage between the ‘have’ and the ‘have-not’ nations. These groups have failed to control-operate with each other in implementing the programme of UNESCO due to psychological divisions. Yet it cannot be denied that the nations which are keen to promote peace find in UNESCO a suitable instrument through which they can influence the international events and developments. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON MONUMENTS AND SITES (ICOMOS) It is a professional association that works for the conservation and protection of cultural heritage places around the world. ICOMOS was founded in 1965 as a result of the Venice Charter of 1964 and offers advice to UNESCO on World Heritage Sites.The idea behind ICOMOS dates to the Athens Conference on the restoration of historic buildings in 1931, organized by the International Museums Office.The Athens Charter of 1931 introduced the concept of international heritage. In 1964, the Second Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings, meeting in Venice, adopted 13 resolutions.The first created the International Charter on the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites, better known as Venice Charter; the second, put forward by UNESCO, created ICOMOS to carryout this charter. ICOMOS currently has over 7500 members. With rare exceptions, each member must be qualified in the field of conservation, and a practicing landscape architect, architect, archaeologist, town planner, engineer, Administrator of heritage, art historian or archivist. Its international headquarters are in Paris. ICOMOS and the World Heritage Convention. In 1972, ICOMOS was named by the UNESCO World Heritage Convention as one of the three formal advisory bodies to the World heritage Committee, along with the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the international Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM).As the professional and scientific adviser to the Committee on all aspects of the cultural heritage, ICOMOS is responsible for the evaluation of all nominations of cultural properties made to the World Heritage List against the criteria laid down by the World Heritage Committee. In addition to the basic criterion of “outstanding universal value”, ICOMOS evaluates nominations for aspects related to authenticity, management, and conservation and specified in the World Heritage Convention. The evaluation of nominations involves consultation between the wide-ranging expertise represented by the organization’s membership and its National and Scientific Committees. Members are also sent on expert missions to carry out on-site evaluations of nominated properties.This extensive consultation results in the preparation of detailed recommendations that are submitted to the World Heritage Committee at its annual meetings. ICOMOS is also involved, through its international Secretariat and its National and Scientific Committees, in the preparation of reports on the state of conservation of properties inscribed on the World Heritage List. It advises the UNESCO World Heritage Centre on requests for technical assistance received from States that are party to (i.e. have ratified) the World Heritage
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 89 School of Distance Education
Convention.ICOMOS maintains a full archive of nominations and reports at the Documentation Centre of its Paris headquarters. National Committees. National Committees are subsidiary organizations created in the countries which are members of UNESCO.They bring together individual and institutional members and offer them a framework for discussion and an exchange of information.ICOMOS currently has over 110 National Committees. Each National Committee adopts its own rules of procedure and elaborates its own program according to the goal and aims of ICOMOS. ICOM ICOM is the international org of museums and museum professionals which is committed to the conservation, continuation and communication to society of the world’s natural and cultural heritage, present and future, tangible and intangible. Created in 1946, ICOM is a non- governmental org (NGO) maintaining formal relations with UNESCO and having a consultative status with the United Nations’ Economic and Social Council. As a not for profit organization, ICOM is financed primarily by membership fees and supported by various governmental and other bodies. It carries out part of UNESCO’s programme for museums. Based in Paris (France), the ICOM Headquarters houses both the ICOM Secretariat and the UNESCO-ICOM Museum Information Centre.The 28,000 members of ICOM in 137 countries participate in the national, regional and international activities of the organization: workshops, publications, training, twinning programmes, and the promotion of museums through International Museum Day (May 18, annually). The membership participates in the activities of 115 National Committees and 31 International Committees.Some National Committees have also organized on a regional level to reinforce their action. ICOM is affiliated with 17 international associations. The ICOM Strategic Plan adopted by the General Assembly is implemented by the ICOM Secretariat as well as National and International Committees who contribute to the realization of ICOM’s programmes.ICOM’s activities respond to the challenges and needs of the museum profession and are focused on the following themes: Professional cooperation and exchange Dissemination of knowledge and raising public awareness of museums Training of personnel Advancement of professional standards Elaboration and promotion of professional ethics Preservation of heritage and combating the illicit traffic in cultural property ICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) is an international organization devoted to the conservation of cultural heritage, with a special focus on libraries, archives and archeological sites. Founded in 1956 after a decision made by UNESCO, it is headquartered in Rome, Italy, and is currently composed of 110 members worldwide. Besides promoting advocacy and awareness raising over preservation issues, ICCROM undertakes training, research, knowledge sharing and international cooperation efforts.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 90 School of Distance Education
HERITAGE AGENCIES OF INDIA ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is a department of the Government of India, attached to the Ministry of Culture. The ASI is responsible for archaeological studies and the preservation of archaeological heritage of the country in accordance with the various acts of the Indian Parliament. According to its website, the ASI’s function is to ‘explore, excavate, conserve, preserve and protect and monuments and sites of National & International Importance”. ASI has the mandate to regulate the export trade in antiquities and art treasures, to provide for the prevention of smuggling of, and fraudulent dealings in, antiquities, to provide for the compulsory acquisition of antiquities and art treasures for preservation in public places and to provide for certain other matters connected therewith or incidental or ancillary thereto. The survey performs numerous other activities, including: imparting training to the young professionals in the field of archaeology. The Archaeological Survey of India runs a premier institute in New Delhi for this purpose. Background The creation of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is the logical culmination of early archaeological initiatives in British India that included the establishment of The Asiatic Society by Sir William Jones on 15 January 1784. History The Archaeological Survey of India was founded in 1861 under British colonial administration by Sir Alexander Cunningham with the help of the then Viceroy Charles John Canning. At that time, its domain included the entire British India including Afghanistan and Burma. In its early days, the Survey was engaged in major exploratory activities which resulted in the discovery of important archaeological sites like Sankisa, Sravasti, Bharhut; Kosambi.Cunningham was instrumental in such findings and paved the way for newer studies in Historical Archaeology of India.During the tenure of Cunningham (1867-68). A.C.I., Carlleyle of ASI discovered important rock paintings in the rock shelters of Suhagighat in the Rewa District, Madhya Pradesh.He recognized that some paintings were prehistoric and had no analog in Europe.When Mortimer Wheeler became Director-General in 1944; the head-office of the Survey was located at the Railway Board building in Simla. Overview The ASI administers 3650 monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance under the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act 1958 (No. 24 of 1958) and Rule 1959.The important sites excavated recently include Hasha-ka-Tila at Thanesar in Haryana exposing a cultural sequence from the Kushan period to medieval periods. Director-General Directors-General Dates of Tenure Sir Alexander Cunningham 1871-1885 James Burgess 1886 -1889 Sir John Marshall 1902 – 1928 Harold Hargreaves 1928 – 1931
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 91 School of Distance Education
Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni 1931 – 1935 J.F. Blakiston 1935 – 1937 Rao Bahadur K.N. Dikshit 1937 – 1944 Mortimer Wheeler 1944 – 1948 N.P. Chakravarti 1948 – 1950 Madhav Swaroop Vats 1950 – 1953 A. Ghosh 1953 – 1968 B.B. Lal 1968 – 1972 M.N. Deshpande 1972 - ? B.K. Thapar ? - ? R.S. Bisht ? - 2004 N.K. Srivastav ? - Present THE INDIAN NATIONAL TRUST FOR ART AND CULTURAL HERITAGE (INTACH) It established in 1984 is an autonomous non-governmental Indian NGO that seeks to preserve Indian Art and Cultural heritage. In 2007, United Nations awarded INTACH with a special consultative status with United Nations Economic and Social Council. History It was founded in 1984 with Rajiv Gandhi, as its first chairman and its headquarters are in New Delhi, and today it has chapters in 117 Indian cities, plus in Belgium, UK and USA. INTACH is the only non-governmental Indian non-profit society working for the awareness, and conservation of Indian culture, shodnatmak prakriya and heritage. In 2007, INTACH signed a memorandum of understanding with ‘AusHeritage’, Australia’s noted heritage network, to collaborate on South Asian and South East Asia regional initiatives. Overview Among the task undertaken by INTACH including restoration of the monuments and their management, advocacy for heritage property conservation, public awareness through heritage walks and buses, and setting up heritage clubs in schools, and holding awareness workshop for teachers of schools and colleges, and even for the guides at various heritage sites. Over the years, INTACH has taken up restoration and protection of hundreds of monuments, which falls outside the coverage of Archaeological Survey of India and other government agencies, and at times local authorities’ handover the upkeep and restoration of heritage structures to INTACH directly. Over the years, it has established chapters not only within the nation but also outside it, now it uses funds mobilized by its international chapters in Belgium, United Kingdom and US, to take up restoration, conservation and protection project of historical structures and heritage buildings across India. After developing Raghurajpur, Orissa, a place famous for its master ‘Pattachitra’ artists and ‘Gotipua’ dance troupes as a heritage village, which has now become a major rural tourist destination, it later used the same pattern to develop Padmanabhpur village, Ganjam district, Orissa, famous for its weavers and folk dancers, into another heritage destination.In 2007, Goa Government signed a memorandum of understanding (mountain) with INTACH, restoration, conservation and maintenance of 51 officially listed heritage and cultural monuments in the state, this include the restoration and conservation of the 16th century Reis Magos Fort in Goa, then in 2008, INTACH signed anouth a memorandum of understanding with the Government of Delhi for the conservation of 92 monuments in Delhi, in the preparation of the Commonwealth Games 2010.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 92 School of Distance Education
INTACH Heritage Award. To promote and encourage conservation projects and people, each year it gives away the Annual INTACH Heritage Award, established in 1996, for outstanding feats in conservation of heritage structures in various cities. RESCUE/SALVAGE ARCHAEOLOGY (CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT) Rescue archaeology, sometimes called “preventive” or “salvage” archaeology, is archaeological survey and excavation carried out in areas threatened by, or revealed by, construction or other development. These conditions could include, but are not limited to, the building of dams where sites of interest might exist in the flood plain, highway projects, major construction, or even before the onset of war operations. Unlike traditional survey and excavation, rescue archaeology must be undertaken at speed. Rescue archaeology is included in the broader category of “Cultural resource management (CRM)”. Rescue archaeology occurs on sites about to be destroyed but on occasion may include in situ preservation of any finds, or protective measures taken to preserve an unexcavated site beneath a building, for example. Urban areas with many overlaid years of habitation are often candidates for rescue archaeology. The focus of early work was in setting up organizations that could undertake ‘rescue’ excavations in the teeth of the bulldozer. Archaeologists relied on the goodwill of the developer to provide the opportunity to record remains. In more recent use, an archaeological survey may be required by planning process or building law, as with PPG 16 in the United Kingdom. Contract or commercial archaeology services have sprung up to meet the needs of developers to comply with local laws and planning regulations.For many years, the emphasis was on archaeological evidence in the ground. However, with increased interest in industrial archaeology, rescue archaeology needs to commence by recording extant remains of buildings i.e. prior to demolition. The term, and indeed the practice of, rescue archaeology is largely restricted to North America, South America, Western Europe, and East Asia, especially the United States, the United Kingdom, Korea, and Japan. Many European countries, such as, e.g., Germany, practice virtually no rescue excavation (though there is extensive research archaeology).The many rescue archaeology projects in the Middle East are generally termed “salvage archaeology”. Shovel Bums (rescue archaeologists) Whereas the organizations that take on rescue archaeology contracts are stable entities, the archaeologists who perform the actual field work are, in the main, an army of mobile workers. They work in all types of weather and terrain covering tasks such as Conservation, excavation, artifact curation, field survey often in difficult conditions (such as dense woodland), and typically working to tight deadlines. Given that the outputs of much of the work that is undertaken in advance of development work is not published in peer reviewed journals, the people that perform the actual research are often anonymous and unrecognized. “Shovel Bums” is a play on one of the more polite names which professional archaeologists call each other when they enter the field of rescue archaeology and move from excavation to excavation. As much archaeology is now developer-led, the fieldworkers must move to where the work is when one contract is complete, much like ski-bums following the good snow fall. For professional field archaeologists the Shovel Bum phase of a career is now considered a rite of passage. It is during this time that any field archaeologist worth their salt learns the ropes from the ground (literally) up.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 93 School of Distance Education
Shovel bums is also the name of the world’s largest.professional archaeology/cultural resource management organization. Founded as a free employment service in 1999 by R. Joe Brandon, Shovel Bums has grown to an active membership of 12,000.Today Shovel bums. Org functions not just as a conduit to the majority of jobs in archaeology, but also provides a directory of archaeology field schools and archaeology and cultural resources themed gear. THEFT, ILLICIT TRAFFIC AND VANDALISM That India’s museum movement is not developing on rational lines needs no further emphasis.This is not to underplay the conscious attempts that are to be seen in recent years to put it on the correct path. Even then India has to travel a long way to catch up with the stage of evolution that other developed countries have reached at the moment. Unfortunately, museums here, like several other parts of Asia and Europe, are face to face with new threats and perils. To put it succinctly, there are three such dangers: theft, illicit traffic and vandalism – each one being interrelated with one another. Like every other country afflicted by these evils, India is forced to turn its attention to these immediate problems which are sure to impede the developmental activities in connection with museums. Diversion of resources, limited as they always are, to combat these risks and threats is naturally a set-back to the growth of museums, specially when the main burden of financial responsibility falls on the Government. These phenomena have also given new dimensions to the problems of museum security, mode of display, museum architecture and many other related issues. In order to have a full comprehension of the problems confronting Indian museums one is required to know something of these evils now haunting them. Theft, illicit traffic and vandalism, to be discussed here primarily in the context of museums, are the manifestations of the same socio-economic condition or, as some say, common psychic malady. Without delving into the roots of these evils one may safely conclude that ultimately they lead to the loss of cultural property of some country or the other. In the case of illicit traffic, the loss suffered by an institution or a nation may prove to be a gain to the receiver organization or country; in normal circumstances it is seldom a total destruction. Any illicit traffic is preceded by blatant robbery or theft which may be of conventional or sophisticated type.With the increased use of scientific apparatus in museums to counter the theft of cultural property, the thieves also are taking recourse more and more to sophisticated means. After thefts are committed, sooner or later the stolen objects are drawn automatically to the international markets, because nowadays the trade in cultural property is highly lucrative, especially in the New World.Significantly, there is a pattern in this international traffic: the movement is from the economically backward to economically affluent or culturally rich to culturally poor countries.Coming to the problem of vandalism it may easily be said that it can bring about a wholesale destruction or partial yet permanent disfigurement of or mutilation to a cultural property. Everyone knows how innumerable pieces of priceless sculptures from Amravati had been burnt down to extract lime.Throughout the world ancient sites are endangered by brick- robbing and treasure-hunting; and these may be perpetrated willfully or by poor illiterate persons. Wanton destruction of sites and monuments is often caused by high officials or persons in authority out of ignorance, arrogance, greed or wrong sense of priority. It is known quite widely that the bricks from the proto-historic ruins at Harappa, in Pakistan, served as ballast for the Lahore-Multan railway line. Similarly, the Harappan site at Kalibangan, in Rajasthan, was rifled for identical purposes at the time of the construction of the nearby railway track.These acts of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 94 School of Distance Education
vandalism took place during the British rule and it is worthwhile to cite a few more classic instances of indiscriminate destruction ad thoughtless actions by persons holding exalted positions. “It was quite a common practice”, says Roy, “to demolish ancient edifices to make room for military barracks or to cart away the fragments of decaying monuments for ordinary building purposes. Even responsible officials and high dignitaries of state were not always above committing such acts. Under Moira steps were taken to dismantle the marble bath in Shah Jahan’s palace for a gft toking George IV.This was later sold by public auction under Lord Bentinck’s orders. During the latter’s administration a move was made to demolish the Taj for the value of its marbles and also to lease the gardens at Sikandra to the Executive Engineer at Agra for speculative cultivation.Even a genuine antiquarian like Mackenzie did not find anything wrong in rifling the stupa at Amaravati of some of its finest sculptural components or in shipping them away to England”. It may be added that Earl of Moira or Marquess of Hastings became Governor General of Fort William in Bengal in 1813.Paradoxically, the same Earl of Moira ordered conservation of monuments like Sikandra, Fatehpur Sikri and Rambagh. And it was the same Lord William Cavendish Bentinck who became the first Governor General of India in 1833 and carried out the social reforms like the abolition of sati in 1829 and suppressed the organized band known as thugs. In all probability, such acts of vandalism might have been due to lack of appreciation of others’ art and cultural patrimony. Such senseless and unimaginative actions in the past may be excused, as the consciousness to preserve the relics of the bygone days had not much awaken then. But how can one reconcile with the attitude of the present-day town-planners, corporate bodies and various governmental agencies for their scant respect towards their own cultural heritage? Excuses for committing vandalism are countless: establishment of new colonies; growth of new industries; widening of roads; promoting tourism; irrigation; beautification of urban environs and so on.Albeit, the crying need of the day has always a preference or priority over the dead however cherished the latter may be. Yet it is always possible to strike a balance between the two imperatives. It is regrettable that town-planners have yet to learn how to manage the existing landscape or cityscape without sacrificing the important cultural landmarks, historical buildings and old townships or evolve an Indian way suited to varied Indian conditions.Fascinated by skyscrapers the town-planners of India are perpetuating another kind of vandalism by altering the earlier character of the cities.Take for instance New Delhi which had originally an urban unity powerfully massed as it was around the centre of the centers. Its architecture, strongly integrated into whole city-layout, had its own personality but it is now being dwarfed in the very heartland of the capital by the increasing tribe of skyscrapers standing incongruously and in dismal contrast with the earlier buildings that have escaped obliteration. Examples of vandalism may be multiplied but that would be going far beyond the scope of the present discussion. Suffice it here to say that sometimes vandalism and illicit traffic in cultural property, particularly antiquities and works of art, go hand in hand. Sawing off the heads (pl. X) of the stucco images from Temple 3 at Nalanda and their clandestine export is an example of both vandalism and illicit traffic. All the stucco-heads left the shores of India shortly after the theft took place; however, two of them have since been repatriated. None will dispute that the theft of cultural property is inextricably connected with the mechanism of illicit trade and consequent dispersion of cultural property from one country to another.Viewed in global context, different stages involved in this complicated process are: the source; the thief; the receiver; middlemen; and the final purchaser. In this chain, a museum’s role may be at either end – as a victim or as an accomplice. An Indian study based on the reports by
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 95 School of Distance Education
some States and case history indicate the following stages: scouting for identification and photography; theft carried out by local thieves; first purchaser; export under false declaration generally as “oriental toys”, “handicrafts”, “books” etc,; and ultimate purchaser who may be a foreign dealer, reputable collector or a foreign museum.The report summarizes as follows: “The state reports and case histories indicate that at least in North India art thefts are increasingly undertaken on commission by gangs or associations of persons, often connected with well- structured resale networks involving art and antique dealers in the major cities or tourist centers (Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Jaipur etc.) and at times also foreign contacts.The objects stolen range from large antique sculptures and even structural pieces to easily transportable coins or miniature paintings”. Quite often the professional thieves leading a luxurious life move about in the leading hotels and establish contacts with foreign buyers who give their preferences beforehand.Thereafter, marked criminals are commissioned for the actual theft.These professionals sometimes take the responsibility to deliver the stolen object to the actual destination, even through persons enjoying diplomatic immunity. Besides theft and illegal export, there are several other risks to which a country’s cultural property is exposed. In November 1973, the Director General of UNESCO, in cooperation with the Belgian National Commission for UNESCO convened a meeting of Committee of Experts on the Risks incurred by Works of Art and other Cultural Property in particular the Risks of Theft and other forms of Illicit Transfer of Ownership. In its final report the Committee identified specifically these dangers which are as follows: vandalism founded on political or religious motives; systematic thefts organized in certain regions with the use of the most modern equipment; simple plundering by occasional thieves; fondness of average tourists for procuring “souvenirs”; the considerable and constant increase in the price of collector’s items; temperature weakening of the respect by which certain cultural property used to benefit traditionally in most countries; the increase in communication facilities of all kinds; and the development of mass tourism (Museums, XXVI, no. 1, 1974: 61-62).These are the factors which may often offer opportunities for theft, vandalism and willful damage in countries of Asia and Europe. These dangers reign supreme in India and the items of theft and illicit export include: sculptures in all media and other objects of plastic art; miniature paintings; illustrated or painted manuscripts or leaves taken out of them; coins and medals; muzzle-loading guns; watches and clocks; and jewellery – many of them belonging to the category of antiquity under the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972.Thefts in India like any other country occur mostly in ill-guarded or unprotected monuments and sites. Presuming that all thefts, which took place in various museums in India, have been reported to the police or known to the museum authorities, it may appear that the incidence of thefts in Indian museums is much lower than that in the unprotected temples not protected by Government. The statistics of the subsequent years points to the same trend. Indeed this very pattern is noticed in what is classified as developed countries. More than a dozen countries like the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands, Austria, Finland, Luxemburg etc., in Europe are faced with the menace of the theft of cultural property and illegal export of stolen things. The Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Thefts of Works of Art and Cultural Property held at Saint-Cloud, France, in 1977, gives a fairly clear picture of the situation prevailing in many advanced countries. In France, the number of stolen paintings (oils, gouaches, water-colours, drawings, pastels) recorded gradual increase: 1,261 in 1970; 2,712 in 1972; 3,750 in 1975; and 3,040 in 1976. One hundred and eighteen Picasso paintings were stolen from the Papal Palace in Avignon on 30
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 96 School of Distance Education
December 1975. A study of the places of occurrence of thefts in France makes an interesting reading: in 1976, a total number of 389 thefts took place in churches (as opposed to 227 in 1970), 116 from castles, country houses etc., (112 in 1970), 124 from museum (37 in 1970) and 256 (69 in 1973) in art galleries. So far as the United Kingdom is concerned, the statistics maintained by the Metropolitan Police’s special Art and Antique Squad (covering the London area) shows: 890 cases in 1975; 1,039 in 1976; and 822 for the first months of 1977. Thefts of works of art have the highest frequency in Italy followed by thefts of sculptures, antiquities from archaeological digs, and coins. Of all the places here, churches are the most vulnerable in this respect; private homes, national museums and archaeological sites are equally exposed to this danger. In Italy, like any other country, the incidence of thefts till 1975 registered progressive increase; there were 758 thefts involving 17,313 objects in the year 1975. The comparable figures for 1976 indicated downward trend, for in that year there occurred 557 thefts involving 6,794 objects. Such a decline may be ephemeral or due to some factor not fully recognizable. Back home, one is constrained to say that the statistics maintained by the Central Bureau of Investigation does not reflect the true picture of the situation in that in India innumerable thefts remain unreported or even unnoticed. Anyway, the figures of reported thefts in 1974, 1975 and 1976 are 589, 462 and 381 respectively. This downward tendency maybe attributed to the initial impact of the enforcement of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 and other preventive measures initiated by the Government. After this temporary phase, the graph shows again an upward rise. Between 1977 and 1979 the total number of thefts is 3,030, the break-up figures, as per the records of the Central Bureau of Investigation, being 1,170 in 1977, 935 in 1978 and 925 in 1979. Countries with vast archaeological treasures like those of India, Italy, Mexico, and Thailand are victims of illegal excavations and thefts of archaeological objects, whereas the target of thefts in most of the European countries are works of art, Italy facing the problem from both the fronts. Broadly speaking, museums are not so much susceptible to thievery as temples, churches, castles and mansions.But it is no consolation, for places like temples and churches are not so well- guarded and under constant surveillance as museums; and in the western countries highly sophisticated instruments are used to prevent any possible attempt at thefts or vandalism. What the statistics brings out is that places with insufficient security arrangements are more prone to these dangers than those where the security arrangement is inadequate. The lesson, therefore, is that security measures in museums should be given due importance in order to prevent thefts from them; prevention of thefts is, in away prevention of illicit export of and fraudulent dealings in antiquities, works of art and other cultural property. It is proposed now to take up specific cases with a view to establishing how thefts lead to illegal exportation and eventual entry into a museum or private collection abroad. There is the classic case of the Nataraja from Sivapuram temple, in District Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. Originally found as a treasure trove along with five other images in 1956 in the vicinity of the said temple, the ownership of these images rests with the Government and should have been handed over to a museum. In this case the images were allowed to be kept in the temple, the trustee of which handed it over in October 1956 to a bronze-caster for repairs. It is established beyond doubt that a replica was prepared and sent to the temple, and the genuine one sold at Rs. 5,000 only. When it changed hand, the image cost Rs. 17,000 and this time the buyer was an executive of a foreign company in Madras. Douglas Barrett of the British Museum, London, in his book Early Chola Bronzes (1965) referred that the genuine image is in the private collection, the one in the temple being a fake. The company executive had it in his possession till 1964
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 97 School of Distance Education
when it was exchanged for fifty-nine miniature bronze images plus Rs. 25,000. In 1968, the last- mentioned buyer sold it for Rs. 500,000; thereafter in 1969 it was bought by a buyer at a price of Rs. 575,000 through a middleman. It was learnt in 1970 that the Sivapuram Nataraja had reached the U.S.A. The image was sent in 1969 from the Palam airport, Delhi, on a foreign airliner. Mr. Norton Simon of Los Angeles, a well-known private collector, was the last buyer and at present it is priced at one million dollars. For some repairs the bronze image was brought to England when it came to the notice of the Indian authorities and was seized with the help of the Scotland Yard.After prolonged litigation in England and the U.S.A. between the Government of India and Mr. Simon a compromise was effected in which the title to the image has been passed on to the Government of India, but its actual restitution is to take place after the expiry of a specified period. As the image was taken out without a valid permit, the action was in contravention of the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947 then in vogue; therefore, it was a clear case of smuggling. Thus, here is an example of theft leading to clandestine export after it changed hands several times in India itself. The latest example of a daring theft in which a museum suffered an irreplaceable loss occurred in the Archaeological Museum, Red Fort. It is a well-planned operation marked by the use of fairly sophisticated contrivances. Items of theft included embroidered costumes and a gunpowder horn, made of jade. Investigations have failed to recover the objects or book the culprits. Two successive thefts occurred (in 1961 and 1962) in the Archaeological Museum, Nalanda, and a total number of fourteen bronze images were stolen.Of them, one bronze image is on display in the Los Angeles County Museum, U.S.A.To cite another instance, the theft of one hundred and two miniature paintings from the Chandigarh Museum, Chandigarh, may here be described briefly. Belonging to the Basoli, Kangra, Mughal and Rajput Schools, these were removed in the night of July 1970 by thieves who had concealed themselves in the museum premises at the time of the closing of the museum previous evening.One art dealer from Delhi, who was previously convicted, did admit that two of the paintings were sold by him in August 1971 to a lady in Amsterdam. These apart, the bronze image of Tara, stolen from the Mahant Ghasidas Memorial Museum, Raipur, Madhya Pradesh, had also possibly reached the Los Angeles County Museum. Many thefts had been reported from smaller museums but most of them still remain unsolved. All the bigger museums in India like the National Museum, New Delhi, Indian Museum, Calcutta, Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay, Salarjung Museum, Hyderabad etc., were victims of theft. In a serious burglary in the National Museum on August 1966, gold coins of the Muslim rulers and some old jewellery were removed; these are items which can easily be transported. Fortunately, the thieves could be arrested with the help of the chance discovery of finger-print. Again, in 1973, another theft involving forty-one silver coins of Indo- Sassanian origin occurred and this time police failed to trace the culprits and recover the lost property. A brochure published by the Indian Museum, Calcutta, on the occasion of the Exhibition on Indian Museum through Century, 1979 contains references to thefts that took place during the last one hundred years. It may be seen there from that two attempts of burglary in its Art Section in 1922 were frustrated by the Museum guards who had been patrolling the galleries. In 1936, one hundred and thirty-seven objects were stolen from the Museum, and with the arrest of the thief, thirty-three items could be recovered. The last theft took place in 1974 resulting in the removal of sixteen stone sculptures of the Gupta period from the Archaeological Gallery and all these pieces were restored with the arrest of the culprit.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 98 School of Distance Education
Culprits or thieves in most cases are local persons who are engaged by a middleman – the mastermind behind all activities like scouting for identification, photography, engaging intermediary and details regarding transportation etc., remains unknown in most of the cases. To trace the actual beneficiary is often a hard task and this is best illustrated by the theft of a Buddha-head from the Government Museum, Mathura, in Uttar Pradesh. Some time after September 1961 the exhibit disappeared from the gallery only to reappear in Switzerland. The reconstructed story gives the details of the operation, carried out with great deal of planning and preparation. It appears that an art dealer of Switzerland engaged an agent to acquire Indian sculptures from various historical sites. That agent stayed in a hotel in New Delhi and soon established contact with an Indian, who helped him in acquiring the head of Buddha. An antique dealer, with his shop located near the hotel, finalized the transaction. It is fairly certain that the Buddha-head from Mathura was dispatched from Bombay on an Indian ship. The theft came to notice only when the Swiss art dealer tried to sell it to the Indian Department of the Museum of Ethnology, West Berlin. Enough evidence has been marshaled here to show how museums are exposed to theft and how such thefts are committed with the ulterior motive of smuggling the antiquity out of India for sale in a foreign country. By no means it is a recent development although during the last few decades there has been the burst-up in international trade in art and antiquities. Apart from the unchecked flow of cultural property out of the country due to direct patronage by the imperialist powers, there had been the menace of illicit export as well in those colonial days. At that time the European market was more potential than that of the American. The Indian study shows that the theft of images and art objects and their clandestine export had come to the notice of the Government of Tamil Nadu as early as the 1920’s and 30’s the French colony of Pondicherry serving as the transit point. In spite of several preventive measures, including the passing of a comprehensive legislation, the illegal export of art objects continues unabated.Possibly the museums on science and technology, natural history etc., are still free from these dangers. It seems that the objects of art and archaeology enjoy highest priority, followed by old jewellery, and rare specimens of craft. Indirectly many countries encourage such importation; in fact, the Customs’ laws of the majority of the countries place no embargo on imports of cultural property even though the export may be prohibited or regulated. Some countries even provide incentives. Pegden writes “Some countries, in an attempt to assist the limited purchasing power of their museums in this highly competitive world offer tax incentives to those who donate works to public collections. Whilst this has certainly enriched some museums – and the donors, since the value for tax purposes is assessed at the time of the gift, not at the time of its original purchase – it has actively encouraged inflation of values and the demand by potential donors for high quality works, thus making the competition faced by the less-favoured museums even more exacting. Of greater consequence is that it has helped in the creation of a new market where in order to overcome limited supply, fewer questions were asked concerning the origin of the work than would have been asked by the worthy collector or ethical museum.The preciousness of the object had begun to outstrip its scientific value and even museums found themselves increasingly tempted to lower their high standards rather than let go, it undocumented or dubious works go elsewhere. Now, coming to the question of vandalism in Indian museums, it must be admitted that cases like shattering of the Pieta in Rome or damage caused to Rembrandt’s Night Watch by a maniac are rare in this country. A few years back an instance of gross vandalism, in which heads of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 99 School of Distance Education
attendant figures from a number of sculptured slabs were hacked off, took place in the Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho.There is a widespread – but often going unnoticed – practice of devotees chippping off a bit from stone sculptures of Buddha and chewing it for the purpose of attaining salvation, as they say!! Sometimes sculptures are smeared with oily substances as a mark of respect to the gods that they represent. Touching the feet of images out of reverence or fondling certain parts is quite common and these kinds of activities make an image unnecessarily glossy in patches. The habit of scratching images or exhibits out of curiosity or other reason dies hard amongst many visitors. The accepted meaning of vandalism is ignorant or willful destruction. If that be the case do visitors alone perpetrate vandalism? Is it not true that careless method of storage in reserve collections, inept handling, packaging and transportation, defective lighting arrangements and so on by museum personnel contribute towards deterioration of museum pieces? Instances are not lacking when chemical treatment of museum exhibits may end in disfigurement or permanent damage to antiquities. The adverse effect of the fluorescent tubes without filter is well known. Everyone is also aware about the destructive properties of artificial light in fading out the colours of paintings, textiles, manuscripts and similar other sensitive objects. It is not known if such ignorant or willful acts are noticed, and records thereof maintained in various museums. Deterioration caused by general environmental or atmospheric pollution is also a factor now being taken into account quite seriously.Unless museums introduce a system of periodical photo- documentation, slow and imperceptible worsening of the condition of museum exhibits may not be easy to detect. Quite germane to all these are the problems of reserve-collection in Indian museums and the museum architecture.In most museums reserve collections do not receive equal attention of the authorities as the displayed exhibits so far as their care, preservation, classification and safety are concerned. The manner in which antiquities are stored or stacked in many museums makes it extremely hard to detect theft if it happens to take place.Arranging the reserve collections in capacious accommodation may prevent surreptitious removal of museum objects, sometimes even without the knowledge of the authorities. An imaginative approach towards the architecture of museums keeping in view the local conditions and types of objects to be displayed may go a long way in safeguarding the life of cultural property.Sometimes basement is provided in a museum without taking into account the water-table, the lie of the surrounding ground-level, rate of annual rainfall etc. So, cases are not wanting where the stored antiquities got spoilt due to sudden flooding of the basement.Similarly, the location of air-conditioning machine should be given a careful thought from the initial stage of planning as its indiscriminate placement may endanger, due to constant vibration, the life of museum exhibits. Many other problems of this kind may be listed but that will be a long digression. What is important is to realize that safeguarding country’s cultural property is not an easy task and that arranging exhibits in a nice manner in a fine building is not the sole purpose of establishing a museum. For care and protection of museum exhibits the authorities have to keep constant vigil over several aspects of museum management. Again, the theft and consequent smuggling of the stolen object out of the country may well be minimized or prevented by instituting all possible protective measures in museums – conventional or sophisticated ones – even at the risk of diverting the resources from the main developmental activities to these needs. Introducing security and other protective measures to check theft and vandalism in museums is no doubt a costly proposition but in the existing circumstances the expenditure on this account can hardly be avoided.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 100 School of Distance Education
CHAPTER-IV
HERITAGE TOURISM
The term heritage tourism refers to tourism in the natural, cultural and built-environment of an area providing the tangible links between past, present and future.It has developed as an international phenomenon, based on the historical and cultural resources of tourism destinations.It seems to fall into two categories – tourism to places of genuinely high esteem for their historical and environmental importance, and tourism to nostalgia where heritage tourism is more important as a marketing approach and a promotional theme than genuinely significant. In a greater acceptance of change and awareness of the importance of history and environmental future, heritage tourism has to play an important role in supporting communities in their quest for sustainable development.Heritage tourism entails the following parameters of management: Conservation and mass tourism Uniqueness of the site Attraction – community identity, formal and informal education and economic regeneration Strategic planning through heritage interpretation and preservation. This type of tourism includes the live and artistic forms of human expression (painting, sculptures, museums, theatre, folk lore) referred to as arts along with historical tourism, ethnic tourism and eco/nature based.Heritage tourism is, infact, synonymized with ‘Quality’ tourism intended to bring the tourists into closer contact with the human, natural and built environment without attracting serious negative impacts. The Social and Cultural Impacts of Tourism. Tourism is a fast growing industry and a valuable sector, contributing significantly to the Australian economy.Tourism affects the economy and lives of communities and has proven to be a lifesaver for many destinations.There are real and perceived fears that are sometimes attributed to tourism and largely related to poorly managed or mass tourism ventures.As with any economic activity, tourism can have negative impacts on communities.These must be minimized and measured against the benefits that tourism brings.There is some concern that tourism development may lead to destinations losing their cultural identity by catering for the perceived needs of tourists – particularly from international markets. This is based on the observations of other “destinations” having compromised their sense of identity. However, research shows that most tourists travel, not to visit home away from home, but because they want to experience the personality and true character of Australian towns, communities and attractions.The tourism experience is different to what they can see or do at home and this includes experiencing the real life and lifestyle of the destinations they visit. Sustainable tourism is thoughtful tourism. It is “derived,” not “contrived.”A community involved in the planning and implementation of tourism has a more positive attitude, is more supportive and has better chance of making a profit than a population passively ruled – or overrun – by tourism. One of the core elements of sustainable tourism development is community development. This is giving the community the process and capacity to make decisions that consider the long-term economy, ecology and equity of all communities.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 101 School of Distance Education
Tourism benefits. The economic benefits of tourism are well documented. In 1997/98, tourism consumption in Australia totaled $58.2 billion contributing 4.5% of Australia’s total GDP and 6% of its employment. Services such as tourism act as an economic “shock absorber” helping to support communities, particularly in rural areas, through economic drought, as services are more recession-proof than goods. The tourism industry is “decentralized” meaning that there is little dependence on urban centers and imports to sustain tourism activity. Sustainable/community based tourism relies on small, locally operated business, local features and products and thrives on entrepreneurial activity from individuals.Especially in community owned/operated businesses the tourist dollar recirculates adding to the multiplier effect to the local economy.Visitors inject money into the community by paying for products, services and experiences; largely food, accommodation, travel and entertainment. While the greatest economic benefit is gained from overnight visitors, substantial benefit can also be extracted from through traffic. Tourism provides opportunities for regional development particularly for regional areas undergoing structural change. Being a labour intensive industry, with the right encouragement tourism can deliver great employment and training opportunities particularly for young people. Development of tourism product does not necessarily require building “tourist things.”Tourism is often structured around existing points of interest, be it natural, heritage, cultural experiences or economic activities.Communities need to overcome the perception that they must “build things” to become a tourist destination. Instead, they must focus on what they do best rather than trying to replicate other “tourist” attractions. Tourism development that “leverages” existing attributes often brings a range of benefits to host communities.Improved infrastructure (power, water, and telecommunications), access, services (banks, transport) and new investments, all serve to enhance the lifestyles of communities. Community support will follow developments that service the community and provide ongoing benefits. Tourism can help foster a sense of community pride as visitors choose to visit a location for a reason. However, community pride is generally related to economic prosperity with affluent communities more likely to take pride in their district. Well-presented towns and well-maintained facilities help visitors to feel welcome and can contribute to community pride.Tourism is an interface for cultural exchange, facilitating the interaction between communities and visitors (domestic and international). Economic benefits aside, outside contact draws attention to the host community. People want to interact with other cultures, learn about traditions and even confront themselves with new perspectives on life and society. It has been said that travel is a means to “discover those things unknown or forgotten within ourselves.” Tourism is largely an experience driven industry, and local culture is a unique experience – more so local personality, hospitality and food than “built attractions.” The more one knows and learns about a destination, the more fulfilling the experience will be. Tourism can be used as a tool for raising awareness.Branding of local product and achievements creates regional identity both nationally and internationally. Tourism can also raise awareness of local issues and needs.There is a global trend towards investment in interpretation of natural and cultural resources. Attraction to natural and heritage icons often helps fund conservation efforts and provides opportunities for effective management of sensitive and significant areas. However, cultural attractions are not the sole draw card for visitation but provide one of many experiences.A growing number of cultural celebrations are emerging highlighting important events and paying homage to ancestry. Cultural events assert cultural identity and help preserve local traditions in younger generations while influencing visitors
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 102 School of Distance Education
firsthand. Australia’s primary urban areas are multicultural and have developed their own unique cultures, however many regional areas are still heavily influenced by the food and culture of their founders.Tourism allows for local crafts, foods and personalities to be kept alive while raising funds for the community.Tourism can boost the preservation and transmission of cultural and historical traditions.This often contributes to the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources, the protection of local heritage, and a revival of indigenous cultures, cultural arts and crafts. Negative Impacts of Tourism. Many of the fears surrounding tourism are closely associated with uncontrolled, unsustainable and massed tourism growth.Tourism is an industry and is dominated by private enterprise with a purpose of making money by selling experiences.Market led planning can fail to achieve the objectives of sustainable tourism and has a tendency to forget environmental, social and cultural impacts.Like all industries, impacts do occur, but the extent to which impacts are negative can be minimized. In the extremes, tourism has contributes to a wide range of issues – many of which seem insignificant but detract from the quality of life of local residents. Intrusion on daily life, loss of privacy, and a sense of crowding contribute to ill feelings towards tourism development. IN reality, on average, international visitors represent only 0.2% of South Australia’s population.Tourism infrastructure is often accused of taking the “best sites” and local secrets seen as being spectacles and losing their destination appeal. Planning authorities should ensure that only sites that are tourism ready should be selected for tourism development, if necessary. Fact Sheet 5: Social & Cultural Impacts of Tourism Page 3 of 3 Tourism is often seen as “the solution” to economic hardship rather than a diversification of the local economy.It is easy for small communities to become reliant on tourism drawing labour away from staple industries such as agriculture and manufacture. Tourism is a service and experience based industry.Tourists often have their own set images about destinations before they arrive.Communities should concentrate on what they do best and must be careful not to manufacture the tourism experience to meet the preconceived touristy ideals. It is up to tourism agencies and retailers to ensure that travelers receive accurate information about destinations.Many impacts are socio-cultural and an outcome of lack of information, false impressions, misinformation, poor communication and poor knowledge. Negative perceptions and attitudes towards visitors and tourism can also affect tourism/communities.Ill feelings towards tourism, delays/obstructions to tourism product development and lack of council/authority support can prevent tourism from flourishing; perhaps these communities are not ready for tourism. It is easy to blame tourism for any economic, social and environmental problems. Open communication channels, proper consultation, transparency and involvement at the community level at all stages of the planning process can aid in communities taking ownership of their tourism product.To many people the label tourist has become a negative term; in fact many travelers do not consider themselves tourists.There is a noticeable shift in attitude in both communities and travelers to the concept of “visitor.” The visitor concept reinforces the fact that travelers are guests within a community, and that their stay is a privilege and not a right. South Australian Community Attitudes Survey. McGregor Tan Research conducted a community attitudes survey in 2001. The results were very positive with the majority of South Australians seeing the value of tourism and related developments.The big challenge is to encourage tourism growth but to ensure that this growth is sustainable.Most South Australians consider that tourism is a positive impact on their region and
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 103 School of Distance Education
can be Sustainable in the future concerns were only expressed in environmentally sensitive areas.South Australian residents recognize that tourism can create employment opportunities and can create demand for business.There are high levels of community pride, although there is a perception that tourism places unreasonable demand on communities. The Town of Gawler Commitment to Sustainable Tourism. The ‘Town of Gawler’ is committed to the sustainable development of tourism services. As a Council, the needs of the community are a priority. Many of these needs are directly relevant to tourism for example roads, footpaths, bridges, walking trails, parks and gardens and public amenities. The “Gawler Tourism Strategic Plan: 2005-2009” identified heritage and events as the key tourism Strengths.The Plan sets out clear steps to grow tourism as an industry in the town by utilizing existing infrastructure and selling the personality of the town. Key objectives of this plan were incorporated into the Town Strategic Plan.
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM The rather rapid and substantial changes in the nature of tourism and broad recognition of its inter-relationship with natural environment necessitate new paradigms to manage tourism development.The unprecedented development of tourism especially during the last quarter of the twentieth century has obviously evoked concerns about social, cultural and environmental impacts of tourism at the global level, in general, and at the national level, in particular.Could there be a way of alliance between the conflicting ‘target groups’ and policy enforcement organizations where community and consensus of interests may lead to some kind of righteous tourism package that fits in the philosophy of Sustainable Tourism Development?Gunn (1988) suggests four perspectives in this context, viz., those of the tourists, the developers, the providers of services, and the local resident community. Also, alternative forms of tourism have been experimented with fair measure of success in some of the countries, under different titles, such as Green Tourism, Soft Tourism, Rural Tourism, Heritage Tourism, Cultural Tourism, Appropriate Tourism, etc., but the spirit behind them all is most humanizing, and development of tourism sums up its basis. . Conserving the natural resources; Deepening the visitor experience; Evaluating the social and economic well-being of the community. To solve the problems such as the degradation of the environment and social milieu resulting from the increasing pressure of tourist traffic, appropriate development strategy for achieving environmentally sustainable tourism is the right choice. Besides, there may be problem of socio- cultural pollution, in case tourism is not set on sustainable tourism tract.Otherwise, long term environmental (natural and human) consequences shall be easily passed off for a marriage of convenience. The drive for the increase in tourism is based primarily on economic benefits, not on whether such levels of tourism are sustainable.The environmental and social impacts of the unusual tourism boom call for an eventual shift to a comprehensive regional strategy that sets limits to growth in order to sustain socially and environmentally compatible tourism.Again, it is the complexity of tourism in its interactions with other sectors of the economy and with natural and cultural environment that highlights the complexities and intricacies of sustainable tourism. The need at present is for quality control as tourism must be recognized as a valuable long-term renewal resource.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 104 School of Distance Education
Sustainable tourism is a positive approach intended to reduce the tensions and friction created by the complex interactions between the tourism industry, the visitors, the environment and the communities which are host to holiday makers.It involves working for the long-term viability and quality of both national and human resources, it is certainly not anti-growth, but acknowledges that there are limits to growth. Thereupon, to ensure that tourism does not lead to a loss of environmental and cultural identity, but is rather a source of mutual enrichment, it must be well thought out by states and the people on a universal scale.Sustainable Tourism Development contributes to human well-being while maintaining harmony with environment as it implies preservation and conservation of tourist resources; preservation of national heritage and conservation of natural environment.Inskeep (1991) opines that tourism researchers and planners are increasingly recognizing that successful tourism development must sustain the community’s socio-cultural, natural and built environments as well as contribute to economic well-being. The basic economics of tourism must be planned according to the sustainability and present carrying capacity of touristic areas for future need.Hawkes and Williams (1993) state that ‘the concept of sustainable tourism embodies a challenge to develop the world’s tourism capacity and the quality of its products without adversely affecting the environment that maintains and nurtures them’.In the Brundtland Report on Our common Future, WCED (1987), sustainability isdefined as ‘the idea that the needs of today’s visitor should not be met at the expense of future generations’.Urban planners feel that sustainable tourism makes a strong plea for blending tourism in urban planning system so as to minimize the adverse effects of over urbanization. In view of the socio-cultural impacts and the level of resentment created thereby, community’s participation in formulating, executing and monitoring the development plans is surely the best between.An overall view of successful and sustainable tourism development calls for a synergistic relationship of community’s involvement, planning and technical assistance. In short, sustainable tourism development (STD) means that Exploitation of Resources, Direction to Investment and Orientation of Technology should be in consonance with the needs not only of the present but also of the future.Moreover, heterogeneity in destination systems is inherent as each destination is unique in itself.Therefore, no specific form of tourism is sustainable in and for itself, in general. On the contrary, the existing trend of mass tourism is obviously unsustainable.Thus, for different destination systems, different forms of tourism could be the futuristic strategy for ascertaining the ultimate, i.e., Sustainable Tourism Development. Components of Sustainable Tourism Development The Brundtland Report on Our Common Future, WCED defines some of the guidelines as components of sustainable tourism development, which further became the basis of discussion at various government levels and within the business agenda.However, over the years, other writers and agencies have contributed to the list.This addition has, in turn, helped in the sustained refinement of the notion of sustainable tourism and the increasing emphasis on its application.The list of components is reproduced below: Sustainable Development Components Establishing ecological limits and more equitable standards ‘Requires the promotion of values that encourage consumption standards that are within the bounds of the ecological possible and to which all can reasonably aspire’.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 105 School of Distance Education
Redistribution of economic activity and reallocation of resources ‘Meeting essential needs depends in part on achieving full growth potential and sustainable development clearly requires economic growth in places where such needs are not being met’. Population control ‘Though the issue is not merely one of population size but of the distribution of resources, sustainable development can only be pursued if demographic developments are in harmony with the changing productive potential of the ecosystem’. Conservation of basic resources ‘Sustainable development must not endanger the natural systems that support life on Earth: the atmosphere, the waters, the soils, and the living beings’. More equitable access to resources and increased technological effort to use them more effectively ‘Growth has no set limits in terms of population or resource use beyond which lies ecological disaster….But ultimate limits there are, and sustainability requires that long before these are reached the world must ensure equitable access to the constrained resource and reorient technological efforts to relieve the pressure’. Carrying capacity and sustainable yield ‘Most renewable resources are part of a complex and interlinked ecosystem, and maximum sustainable yield must be defined after taking into account system-wide effects of exploitation’. Retention of resources ‘Sustainable development requires that the rate of depletion of non-renewable resources foreclose as few future options are possible’. Diversification of the species ‘Sustainable development requires the conservation of plant and animal species’. Minimize adverse impacts Sustainable development requires that the adverse impacts on the quality of air, water, and other natural elements are minimized so as to sustain the ecosystem’s overall integrity’. Community control ‘Community control over development decisions affecting local ecosystems’. Broad national/International policy framework ‘The biosphere is the common home of all human-kind and joint management of the biosphere is prerequisite for global political security’. Economic viability
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 106 School of Distance Education
‘Communities must pursue economic well-being while recognizing that government policies may set limits to material growth’. Environmental quality ‘Corporate environmental policy is an extension of total quality management’. Environmental audit ‘An effective environmental audit system is at the heart of good environmental management’. Finally, in view of the increasing pressure in terms of the multi-dimensional detrimental impacts, especially on ecology and environment as also on social milieu resulting from the conventional mass tourism, i.e., the so-called ‘natural’ reserves being turned into ‘commercially managed’ tourist resorts, resulting in an ever-decreasing element of ‘pure’ nature there, adoption of sustainable tourism development strategy is the only choice. Man cannot afford to kill the thing he loves, any longer.But again, is it possible to achieve sustainable development that easily.The answer may not be that simple and straight-forward. Nevertheless, to dismiss sustainable tourism development as a mere wishful thinking lacking all substance or environmentalist’s el-dorado-nay would not simply be unwise but equally unfair. It, indeed, has the significance of reality which the inhabitants of the global planet are committed to realize.For this, conventional mass tourism needs to be replaced by some more palpable, more result- oriented programme.Of course, such a programme has to be carried out with vigour and expertise through decentralized decision-making in tourism planning which would not only be desirable but would also be almost unavoidable.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 107 School of Distance Education
CHAPTER-V
MUSEOLOGY Introduction The chronology of man’s progress stands alone on accumulation of knowledge.Mostly; the knowledge as such depends on the education, which can easily be extended by the people. Naturally, to achieve a better knowledge, the museum should have a good scientific exposure for disposition of more reality while the system of understanding and communication is repeated in nature. In historical perspective, the origin of museums is founded as the intellectual approach of the Renaissance (14th Century to 16th Century AD).In this period, the interest for revival of classical culture is channeled by collection of its antiquities with the process of learning, which is provoked by means of inducing invention, modernization and industrialization.Thus, the museum becomes an institution, which must fulfill three minimum conditions. Firstly, it must be enough flexible for expression of its exhibits, charts, and models. Secondly, it must have sufficient educational value that can be easily depicted through exhibitions.Thirdly, the museum should have sufficient content of its own to create popular interest. As a matter of fact, the concept of museum has undergone a continuous process of change. It refers the museum, which is not an institution of forceful and compulsory teaching; rather it has been taken as a great role of flexibility in question of knowledge for common people as well as the interest, which may even be created by means of it. In this regard, the exposure of the objects is taken as the most important part of any museum for the visitors.On the contrary, the museum is always searching for the betterment of its exposure having the varying degree of realization of the visitors that may be depending on the individual feelings of the viewers.Besides; the awareness of the visitors is also perpetually self-evolving phenomena that are developed by means of museum exposure to its visitors. Origin and History. The term museum is not a new one.If it is traced back more than 2000 years then we can find the word museum which is used in its original sense in the Alexandria Museum in Alexandria in 283 B.C. This is temple house dedicated to the Muses, the goddesses of learning.In the beginning of 16th Century A.D. the word mouseion came to be used in Italy, more precisely, museo in its Italianized form. But, in truest sense, the term museum is derived from the Greek word mouseion.The Mouseion signifies a sanctuary dedicated to the Muses, the presiding goddesses of learning.Thus, the ‘Sanctuary of Muses’ means the abode where the goddesses of learning and arts are residing.The meaning of Greek word Mouseion is simply the seat of the Muses, i.e. a temple of the Muses.In this context, it may be said that the museo in those days contained small pieces of artistic objects and it was not the place where large or bigger size objects were kept.The object of larger size, especially paintings were place in a long galleria, which may be described as the immediate predecessor of the Art-Gallery of 19th Century A.D. The museo and the galleria were two vital pillars of present day museum and the basic difference between museo and galleria was structural.The contents of museo and galleria were first exhibited to the public in an Art Museum of Europe around 18th Century A.D.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 108 School of Distance Education
From the Greek mythology we have found the Muses who were the daughters of Zeus, the Greek Jupiter. The Muses were born in Pieria at the foot of Mount Olympus that is the mountain of the Gods. They were nine sisters considered as the divinities, which were presiding over the source of all-learning, creative arts, poetry, music, and sciences.Thus, the museums all over the world have retained the inherent quality and characteristics of learning in one form or other.Therefore it may be assumed that the term Museum is derived from the word Musee that indicates any one of the nine Sister Goddesses who presided over the arts or sciences.The spirit of curiosity inculcates the growth of collection by means of acquiring different objects. In this way, during the 16th and 17th Century A.D, a few Princes and noblemen in Europe were in the habit of increasing personal collections as curio-objects out of a sheer spirit of curiosity and ego- motive.Gradually and gradually these collections took a shape of temple museum where the principal aim was to provide some intellectual entertainment confined to a small community of Lords and nobles. Later on, by the patronage of kings and nobles these centres were open to the common mass of the society who desired to seek knowledge and entertainment from them. The first public exhibition of the treasures may be traced back around 18th Century A.D.However, in the middle of 18th Century A.D. a remarkable intellectual change took place.Primary objective was undertaken to serve the people, both professional and non- professionals and intellectuals in the light of mass education. As a result, the concept of museum underwent a sea change.Confiscation of the private collection became the public treasury and their maintenance had to be paid out of the public fund.In this way, it was essential to raise fund from the public while the work done by museum was useful to the common people. In the early part of 19th Century A.D, again the situation was changed remarkably when revolutionary developments took place in connection with the nature and scope of the museum. Again, in the middle of the 19th Century A.D, more stress was laid on the collection of specimens and museum administration, when the main emphasis was imposed over the public involvement. At the end of 19th Century A.D a specific trend was emerged as the progress of knowledge by means of new field – the museum.Slow but steadily, the museum came to be recognized as the valuable sources for getting information in connection with the serious study in different fields. As a matter of fact, the arrangement of world exhibitions during the Victorian Age had also influenced the museum. The concept of National or Imperial museums was blooming up to manifest National wealth and culture. It became an ultimate vehicle to express prosperity and glory. Though, later on, this concept was faded out. At last, the effect of two World Wars has germinated a revolutionary development, which took place throughout the world in almost all spheres. The museums find out their new approaches, while the museums started interactions with the public instead of laying main emphasis over the collection of exhibits, more importantly to ensure their involvement.In this respect for better understanding of the visitors’ involvement, a number of surveys were undertaken by the Musicologists in cooperation with the Anthropologists, Sociologists and Psychologists.Ultimately,new approaches were developed which can be categorized under three broad categories – the aesthetic, the intellectual and the romantic.These approaches are demanded their own way of classification on the basis of presentation. The aesthetic approach is most suited for Arts and Crafts museum especially decorative arts.The intellectual approach with a bit of romantic phenomena suits the museums of Natural History and the museums of Science and Technology.The romantic approach is the best for Art museum, and History museum.But all these three factors, like, as the aesthetic approach, intellectual approach and romantic approach are desirable for the museums of Anthropology, Archaeology, and History. Besides, the basic reason behind that the museum workers became
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 109 School of Distance Education
specialized in their working field, such as for collection, preservation, documentation, and scientific display.As a result, this meaningful happening took a definite shape to develop a strong base among the four distinct types of museums, which are concerned with Art, History, Science and Industry.Gradually and gradually these four groups of institutions were changed in more specialized types of museums. At the beginning of 20th Century A.D, the museum showed a remarkable growth of its own and main functions of the museums were as follows: collection, preservation and exhibition.In this period the museum was rightly considered as a community centre.It should always reflect some aspiration of the community as such and a unique concern of any museum is the presentation of the specimens in a meaningful way. This concept made an enormous pressure on the m staffs that have compelled to adopt a new approach in its changing scenario. Later period, more stress laid on educational value of the specimens. Thus, the museums are coming up as the house of knowledge, stimulating the spirit of research and helping at education level in all its phases. Modern Concept of the Museum. The concept of museum has undergone a big change during the last two Centuries.The modern concept of the museum indicates a suitable place for exhibits, which display the objects for the visitors where they can get mental satisfaction in accordance with their requirements. Modern museum is not only an educational institution; rather it provides recreation by means of its activities, such as display, exhibition, education, research, entertainment, publication and public relations. Besides, many experiments and research, adoption of modern aids for better presentation and representation has given a new dimension to modern museum. Apart from these, the museums have also enlightened with a big impetus to perform their role as a centre of an effective media of non-conventional education.In a better way, we can say that the visual education centre as a synonymous phenomenon of the Modern Museum.In time perspective, the museums had changed their roles. In this regard an UNESCO pamphlet says that the Museums in many countries…..can no longer be considered sanctuaries for the connoisseur or specialist.They are actively engaged in revising exhibition policies and relation with the public at large and play a more important role in general education.Gradually, it had been established with definite purposes with well-planned utility and its importance had been realized. As a result, the concept of museum had in the way f a steady change. Finally, we have found various categories of museums, viz. the museums of national importance, State museums, departmental museums, etc. In addition, the Division of Monuments and Museums was a section of UNESCO at Paris.The objectives of this division were to improve the standards of museum-work through international conferences and discussions, technical aids, the preservation from war risks of cultural objects and monuments all over the world. This division published a high standard journal entitled “MUSEUM” which acted as a common platform for the exchange of ideas in concerned museums on an international scale.Again, a technical association known as the International Council of Museums (ICOM) was also established in Paris closely collaborated with the Division of Monuments and Museums of UNESCO in 1946.UNESCO felt that, apart from their traditional functions the museums would also be able to improve international understanding. In this regard, ICOM (International Council of Museums) has arranged several conferences on education through museums with the help of UNESCO. Recently, the constitution of ICOM defines the term ‘Museum’ in the following ways: ‘any permanent establishment set up for the purpose of preserving, studying, enhancing by various means and, in particular of exhibiting to the public for its declaration and instruction…..artistic, historical, scientific and technological collections’.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 110 School of Distance Education
Today, the basic contents of the museums evolved a lot, while the functions may be categorized under the following heads, i.e., collection, preservation, interpretation through exhibition and research, education and public relation.Modern museum is nothing but an advanced museum, which presents a story of its contents, impart direct information and stimulate visitors to acquire knowledge through looking at the specimens.Therefore the modern trend is that the museum must collect, preserve and disseminate knowledge to the people of all cross- section of the society.Naturally, the scope of museum has changed, while educational values of the exhibits are getting more importance.The scope is now well-devised policy to serve the intellectual and scholarly growth of the community as such. This is the backbone of the concept of modern museum. Nature and Scope of the Museum. The people have realized the importance of the museum where the exhibits are permanently kept for dissemination of knowledge.During the last two Centuries different types of museums have came up with various objectives.Now-a-days, it is being a permanent institution engaged in the service of community at large which is defined as a non-profit making centre.At present, the museum is defined as a non-profit making, permanent institution in the service of the society and its development. The museum is open to the people of all levels. It acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits for the purposes of study, education and employment, material evidence of man and his environment.In addition to this definition the following points are essential phenomena, which may be treated as the basic nature of the museum: (i) to acquire objects as the museum specimens; (ii) to conserves the specimens; (iii) to display for communication; (iv) to make an arrangement of research; and (v) a clean and good administration. Above all, different types of museums are found that may be categorized in this fashion.The existences are recognized as the museums of national importance, State museums, Regional museums, Municipal museums, Departmental museums, Site museums, Natural History museums, University museums, Anthropological museums, Folk-Art museums, Forestry museums, Medical museums, Engineering museums, Agricultural museums, Industrial museums, Children museums, Art and Crafts museums, Institutional museums, Personalia museums, etc. and a chain of Science museums.Among this long categorization we can classify the nature of the museums in two ways. Firstly, on the basis of their administrative set up, and secondly, in accordance with the types of their collections.On the basis of administrative set up, we find six types of museum, which are as follows: National Museum:These are the museums of national importance where the Central Government is directly or indirectly responsible for its finances and administration, e.g., National Museum at Delhi, Indian Museum at Calcutta.Government of India declared four zones under coverage of special status as national importance with various plans and programmes.In this regard, Indian Museum, Calcutta is carrying the responsibility of Eastern Zone.Southern Zone is represented by Government Museum, Madras.Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay is taken the responsibility of Western Zone, and Northern Zone along with Central Region of India is covered by National Museum, New Delhi.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 111 School of Distance Education
State Museum:This type of museums are supported, financed and administered by State Government directly or indirectly, e.g., State Archaeological Museum, Calcutta; Jawahar Toy Museum, Pondicherry. Local Authority Museum: These are financed and administered by some local authority, e.g., Academy of Fine Arts, Calcutta; Allahabad Museum, Allahabad. University Museum: These types of museums are financed and administered by the University in its’ Departments, e.g., Anthropological Museum, Calcutta University; Zoology Museum, Kalyani University. Private Museum: Such museums are established under Trusts or Trustee who is responsible for effective use of funds. The administration is directly under control of the Trustee, e.g., Raja Dinkar Kelkar Museum, Pune; Gurusaday Dutta Museum, Calcutta. Museum of Business Organization: These types of organizations are established and maintained by business establishments as an extension of their interests, e.g., Calico Museum, Allahabad, maintained by Calico Mills; Samseong Museum of Publishing, Seoul, maintained by Samseong Publishing Company. Secondly, the classification is to be made on the basis of their types of collection, which are mentioned here in the following ways: Composite Museum: This is composite form with different wings for specific purposes like research, education, etc. which may also present in various sections like Anthropology, Art, Archaeology, etc. It can also be called as Multipurpose Museum, e.g., Indian Museum, Calcutta. Personalia Museum: It is primarily based on personal collections. Such type of museum keeps various objects related with the memory of someone and his collections, e.g., Rabindro Bharati Museum, Calcutta. Period Museum: This type is nothing but a storehouse of a certain span of time.It can not go beyond that period, e.g., Victoria Memorial, Calcutta, which is a typical period museum concerned with Indo-British period. Technological Museum: It is only concerned with Science and Technology.This museum is interested in preserving and popularizing different technology, e.g., Birla Industrial and Technological Museum, Calcutta. Philatelic Museum: It is the museum of stamps where different types of postage stamps are preserved in consequences of time perspective, e.g., Philatelic Bureau of G.P.O. at Calcutta. Art Museum: This type is primarily for the display of works of fine arts and applied arts, e.g., Academy of Fine Arts, Calcutta. Archaeology Museum: In this type, the collections of antiquities and archaeological remains are preserved, e.g., State Archaeological Museum, Calcutta. History Museum: This type is the centre of historical objects and relics which is secured as the collection of historical evidences, e.g., Hazarduary Palace Museum, Murshidabad, and West Bengal.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 112 School of Distance Education
Natural Science Museum: This type of museum is the subject to related science either one or several of the disciplines such as, Biology, Geology, Botany, Zoology, Anthropology, Paleontology, and Ecology, e.g., Science City, Calcutta. Regional Museum: This type of museum illustrates more or less extensive information about the region constituting a historical and cultural entity and sometimes it is also an ethical, e.g., District Science Centre, Purulia, and West Bengal. General Museum: This type is nothing but mixed collections, which can not be identified with any one principal field, e.g., Nehru Children’s Museum, Calcutta. Other Museum: This type means, when the museum is not included in any of the above mentioned categories, e.g., Magan Sangrahalaya Samiti, Wardaha. As per modern conception, the museums are such a type of institutions where original artifacts and the tangible objects are displayed and preserved. It has been accepted as a centre of education and culture.This institution makes one curious in the human development as well as it increases the knowledge of present period in perspective of the past.Therefore a complete museum is a means of communication between present and past while it acts like depositories of human knowledge in which objects are preserved, displayed and studies for the people. Naturally, the scope of museum has changed a lot. At present, the educational values of the exhibits are getting more importance. As a result, the scope of the museum is now a well-devised policy to serve the intellectual and scholarly growth of the community as such. The scope of the museum starts from the very beginning of acquisition of the objects. About the accumulation of the collected items, emphasis is laid on their proper sorting to make inventory, classification and cataloging. To avoid adverse situation, the maintenance of storage of the objects in a scientific fashion and at the same time a well-equipped conservation laboratory become an essential component of a complete museum. Besides, the arrangement of indoor and outdoor exhibitions is much important to develop public relation by means of people’s participation.The museum should have a scope for their own presentation unit covering a workshop, photo-lab, and publication division. The scope of research and education are unending process for a complete museum to ensure their acceptance among the people of all accessible corners of the society. In the post-Independence period, Government of India adopted a new policy where the museum has been treated as a centre of education with special reference to visual education. Different activities in connection with the development have also been taken up to use the museum as a research centre.As a matter of fact, the activities are coming up to enhance to potentiality of the museums, which are mentioned here in the following ways: (i) to arrange in-service training; (ii) to introduce museology in University curriculum; (iii) to set up the service unit for widening the scope of museums; (iv) to arrange annual museum camp; (v) to arrange seminars and workshops; and many more other ways as per credentials of the concerned museums when fund raising programme will be more important objective for self-reliance. Thus, the scope of museum is now a wide range phenomenon for the people of all levels in our society.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 113 School of Distance Education
Museum Movement in India In museum world, for better prospect, the coordination and cooperation for the services of the museums became an important part to make a harmony among the institutions. As a result, an international body was established in the year 1946 at Paris to bring well-maintained coordination and cooperation for achieving better harmony among the museums of the world, which is known as International Council of Museum (COM).The members of this Council were included the Directors and Curators of different outstanding museums in the world. In fact, the ICOM is an important professional body, which imparts valuable guidelines through its International Symposia, Workshops and useful Handouts on different aspects.Some of its early publications and the journal museum are extremely beneficial for organizational activities. In this context, role of UNESCO is well known in fostering the museums, particularly in cast of the developing countries. The museum as a means of general education is a conscious approach for continuous improvement, which had been started since, between the late 17th and early 19th Century A.D. At first, the elementary education with the aid of museum has been gained a strong ground in the Western Europe, which has also slowly and gradually been expanded through worldwide.As a result, the establishment of some great museums in different parts of the world has been flourished due to increasing popularity since then. The first Museum Act of 1845 was established by the Act of British Parliament while the museums began to appear from early 17th Century A.D. Some of the great museums were founded in the 18th and early 19th Century A.D, which of a few the worlds’ best museums were found in Europe. A few of them are as follows: (i) Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 1638; (ii) British Museum, London, 1756; (iii) Belvedere, Vienna, 1781; (iv) Louver, Paris, 1783; (v) Prado, Madrid, 1819; and (vi) Altes Museum, Berlin, 1830. In America, the Museum in Charleston, South Carolina, 1773 and Peabody Museum at Salem, Massachusetts, these two museums were probably the earliest American Museum. The first American Art Museum was the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, 1805. Besides, Alma S. Wittlin in her book The Museum-its history and its tasks in Educations mentioned that several important museums also came into existence in France too.During this period, some anthropologists approached scientifically and led to the establishment of museums. Precisely, the museum movement in that way went on all over the world, while India was not lagging behind. It is true that the concept of the museum was not new in India. Origin and development of museum movement in India is near about two hundred years old.It may be testified by the early Alekhyagrihas, Chitrashalas, Devakulas, Viswakarma Mandiras and monasteries, which did serve the purposes of education as well as healthy entertainment along with various cultural heritages of our own. Probably these were the early documentary facts of museums in our country. In reference to early inscription we also found some evidences of mobile art gallery, which were transported on the road with the help of mechanical devices. Archaeologists recognized the same thing in the same period, at the time of Kushana dynasty. But, actual credit
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 114 School of Distance Education
of museum development in India goes to the English educated Indian officials of the Asian Royal families and British Indian Companies, who were well-educated British officers and British intellectuals of the 18th Century AD.They studied acutely regarding the Indian literature, Art, Architecture, Anthropology, Geology, Zoology, Botany, etc. and published their research work too. Ultimately they established different Institutions in India for Oriental Studies, viz. Archaeological Survey, Geological Survey, Anthropological Survey, Zoological Survey, Botanical Survey. Besides, some non-governmental efforts were also made to establish the institution likely the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Gokhale Institute of Pune, etc. as the centre of study and research.The first museum in India was established in 1814 at Calcutta, West Bengal.Afterwards, such concepts of museum were spreaded to other important cities like Gujarat, Madras and Bombay. Though the museums in our country are near about 400 in numbers at present, but that number was only around 50 just before the hundred years from the present day. The British Museum was established in 1756 when other 9 early museums emerged in that contemporary period. Out of these 9th one was the Indian Museum, Calcutta.7 years before the establishment of Indian Museum another one was started in 1807 at Copenhagen known as ‘National Museete’, which brought a new dimension for looking at the things.In the same period a Danish botanist Dr. Nathaniel Wallich had his courses from Copenhagen.He was specialized in varied subjects, but unfortunately he had no suitable job.Out of despair he left Copenhagen and finally arrived at Sreerampur, West Bengal under control of Denmark.Dr.Wallich had many ideas and he was inspired by the museum of Copenhagen.The thane’s India was under control of East India Company and as being a Danish citizen he was not resisted by the British in consideration of his contributions, and collections of botanical specimens.After sometime he made himself associated with Sir William Carry and other intellectuals of that period. It may be mentioned here that in 1796, Sir William Carry candled first light to establishment of a museum in the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Dr.Wallich wrote a letter to Asiatic Society by stating his number of collections and asked for setting up a museum with his voluntary curatorial work. Incidentally he was offered the post of Curator for first museum in our country, Indian Museum, Calcutta.That very day was 2nd February, 1814.But the museum was popularized through newspapers (1781-82) as Asiatic Museum; sometime it was called as Oriental Museum also. From the days of Asiatic Museum via Imperial Museum to present appellation of Indian Museum the institution had the modest beginning of the earliest museum in Asia. In short, we may say that Sir William Jones and Dr. Nathaniel Wallich were indeed the pioneers of the museum movement in India since 1784 with humanities and natural history.Their collections took a shape of nucleus of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, and perhaps the greatest multipurpose museum in Asia that was opened in 1814. This movement influenced many Indian intellectuals who wanted to have a greater understanding of glorious heritage covering a period of thousand years or so.This was happened by means of illustrations regarding the India’s magnificent archaeological remains as well as the continuation of traditional arts and crafts.Finally, the Government of India took the responsibility for establishment of different organizations. For example, the excellent work undertaken by the botanists like Roxburg and others in the Botanical Garden at Sibpur, Howrah, and West Bengal. Besides, many museums and museum like institutions established with active interest concerning all aspects of India’s natural wealth and cultural heritage, which were intermingled to underline both antiquity and richness of culture.This phenomena produced and to strengthen the museum movement in India.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 115 School of Distance Education
At the end of the British rule, India had shown the development of archaeological museums.Concentration of museological centres at the cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras had been observed since from inception of big multipurpose museums. Gradually it had been focused for the need of a better distribution of museum potential of the country. The first attempt was a kind of an overall appraisal of the museum foundation in India was undertaken by the Museum Association, London.In this connection, S.F. Markham and H. Hargreaves were entrusted to make a comprehensive survey of museums in Indian sub-continent.This survey report was published in the year 1936, which create an effective impact on the need of overhauling and modernizing museum service in India.In pre-Independence period, we have found the enactment of the Treasure Trove Act in the year 1878 at the time of Lord Lytton who helped a lot at large number of museums to develop their coin collections.Apart from this, some clauses of Ancient Monument Preservation Act, in the year 1904 has been passed since the period of Lord Curzon who also favoured the growth of museum collections. The Archaeological Survey of India, since its inception in the year 1861, has been maintaining and nourishing various museums with numerous numbers of antiquarian remains, which have yielded from excavations. Museum Branch of Archaeological Survey of India has been formed since the year 1947.Thus; some other Survey Offices also thought its necessity and established museums to illustrate their works and the result of their field work and research work. In post-Independence period, museums got a big impetus and it cannot be denied that the museum movement received a tremendous inspiration and encouragement from various levels, especially from the government.The importance of the museums is in need for acquiring knowledge, which is also act as an effective media to have the education. This type of educational set up was first highlighted by the formation of the Museum Association of India, as a wing, rather we can say adjunct of the Indian History Congress at Benaras in 1944. Besides, other eventful step may be called as the report of the Museum Expert Survey Committee in 1956.This report materializes the subsequent formation of the Cultural Advisory Board of Museums by the Government of India. As a result, a remarkable upsurge in the Indian Museum Movement is witnessed in the year 1965, which was accompanied by the understanding of importance of the museums as instruments of social and cultural advancement. Finally, the museum workers in India involved themselves in exchanging their ideas with the leading museologists of international repute who joined the UNESCO Seminar in connection with the Development of Museum in South East Asia as well as the meeting of the International Council of Museums.Both the gatherings of the delegates held for the first time in India at New Delhi during 1965. In this regard we can recapitulate that the UNESCO expert on museology, Mr. P.S. Rawson undertook a study tour of India in 1964. He has written a report entitled “India- Museology”, published by the UNESCO in May 1965. He recommended, “that there be instituted a Government Museums Commission, with a function analogous to that of the University Grants Commission, and with a Secretariat of appropriate size.It should maintain the closest liaison with the University Grants Commission over the museology course”.In this perspective, several novel experiments gave new dimensions and importance of museums enhanced considerably. A number of museum camps are organized under direct patronage of the Ministry of Education.Government of India under leadership of Dr. Grace Morley.There are all can be desired for improvement of museums in general and upgradation of the skill of museum personnel in particular. The most important trend is marked as the development of the museum coming out as an educational and research institution. This new form of museums are offering ever-increasing community audience by means of professionally organized programmes including concerts, lectures, theatres, dance, films, and short courses for the people of all ups and downs corners of the society.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 116 School of Distance Education
Simple Process of Elimination 1. Sense of light and sight, how it looks on. 2. Touch and feel it.The gem is kept in a room for sometime. The gem will get the room temperature quickly which may be felt by touch only; otherwise it is a glass piece. 3. The minerals should be smooth which may also be felt by hand. 4. Hafting is only device for feeling heaviness of the stone.For example; American Diamond is two times heavier than Diamond. 5. Refractive index of Diamond is very high.If its face is placed toward the light then the light never passes from the backside. But the Ruby and the Saffair can pass light from the back. It may be concluded that all of these activities are also required to identify museum specimens.The adoption of these devices is useful to have first hand information regarding the specimens for acquisition. ARCHAEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS Collections. At the heart of museums are their collections.When a list of all the elements that make up a museum (collections, buildings, staff, public, buildings, researchers, etc) is made, any one of them can be removed, except the collections, and the concept of a museum would still exist. In essence, a museum is the dynamic relationship between a collection, those who curate it, and the public. But this relationship starts with, and must be characterized, by the collection.Susan Pearce has led recent studies into the nature of collecting in the European tradition and how it is founded in the individual and individual motivations. Whether this can be shown to have a correspondence in museum collecting, is unclear, however, Pearce has shown that collecting appears to perform the basic need to fulfill our human wish to make sense of and control the world around us. Pearce has divided the archaeological collections likely to be found in a museum into six types: 1. Single pieces or small groups found as chance finds, often with very limited records attached.The majority of these in any given museum collection is likely to be local finds. 2. Large groups formed as private collections, sometimes with substantial records attached.These may be from anywhere in Britain or abroad, but may well include local material.They were mostly acquired before 1950. 3. Material from museum-based excavations. These will be local with, of course, excellent records. The material is likely to be relatively recent accession. 4. Material from excavations conducted by other bodies, including that from all old excavations, and from new excavations where consultation is a possibility. 5. Material from fieldwork projects.This is likely to be of recent and ongoing accession, and the museum should have links with the organization. 6. To this list must be added material that has been discovered through the use of metal detectors.Here a judgment has to be formed about the value of associated information.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 117 School of Distance Education
In this paper, archaeological collections are very deliberately divided into two main groups: individual objects and assemblages of objects as parts of archaeological excavation archives.This is of course a false division. Many individual items now accessioned into museum collections once came from archaeological excavations, and many items from archaeological excavation archives are treated as individual items in many museum processes.Nevertheless, in the ways museums store, catalogue, use, and think about their collections, the division is a valid one.As archaeology developed as a discipline during the later nineteenth and early 20th centuries, the concept of the excavation archive grew, and with it the idea that objects received their meaning from their context and association. However, by the time that this occurred many museums were holding large collections of objects that had been largely decontextualised, or had never been given a proper context in the first place. These collections, of pots, flints, coins, metals, and so forth, dominate archaeology museums, their galleries and stores. They are dominated by complete objects such as pots or flint tools, or objects with a perceived value such as coins and brooches. Thomas has argued for the “Total Collection” where, conceptually, every item in a collection is given equal value whatever it is, its origin, and its use. In actual fact, although most museum professionals would agree with this concept, there is an unspoken hierarchy that sees the display, high-value objects at the top, and the low-value handling collections, or stored collections, at the bottom.Most of these collections have been inherited by the current generation of curators who must live nt only with past choices as to what was collected but also as tohow it was classified, conserved, and stored. As Pearce has noted, “the key act of power in which the curatorial self is realized is that of classifying”. Beaker pots are only beaker pots. The size and nature of these collections is also sometimes a burden on the modern museum. As was made clear in the seminal report on the cost of collecting: acquisition is easy, it is caring for something once a museum has it that is difficult, and made more so by the tyranny of antidisposal that persists despite recent reports, such as the Museums Association (2005) and the NMDC (2003), that have accepted the need for selective disposal. Historic and Private Collections Much material now in museums originally derived from private collections accumulated in the 18th and 19th centuries, and, as such, mirrors the predilections of the individual collectors.These were then donated over time, often as bequests, into public museum collections in the later 19th and early 20th centuries.It has been suggested that 42% of local authority museums were founded on the collection of a single individual or society.Many key museum’s archaeological assemblages originated in such personal collections.Important examples, to name just two, are the Greenwell Collection of British antiquities at the British Museum, and the Stourhead Collection at Devizes Museum.In addition, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, major excavation programmes were funded on the “distribution system” whereby those who funded a dig were given a selection of the finds at the end of the season, thus leading to a diaspora of finds from important excavations to many different destinations. The reasons behind the accumulation of these original collections and the motivations of the collectors have been much debated. Certainly, this period lacked any overarching attempt at objective rigor and was as much about the collectors and their worldview as it was about the material they amassed. Modern curators and archaeologists have tended to distance themselves with this period partly as a means of validating their own methods. However, modern collections and collecting methods continue to be profoundly influenced by these early collections.Many
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 118 School of Distance Education
museums are still dominated by material from the Mediterranean, and particularly from Rome, Greece, and Egypt, a direct result of 18th, 19th, and early 20th century value sets, and, thus, collecting habits. Romano-British material, which was sought by early collectors as a cheap alternative to material from Italy, has a more prominent place in modern collections than does material from other periods of Britain’s past. This is reinforced by the primacy that Rome is given in English education, itself a hangover from this period.Collections also continue to value the individual fine object over the mundane, and museums continue to seek to “complete” collections, where such a concept is, in fact, a creation. The early collections, although sometimes collected from archaeological contexts, were not archaeological in the sense that they quickly lost their context and associations.They became individual items, often with a very vague provenance, if one at all, and were valued on their individual merits. Most museum archaeological collections continue to be dominated by such material and museum staff struggles not to value such individual items over assemblages of more mundane material with good archaeological provenances.This huge body of material has presented its own problems for modern curators trying to distinguish between illicit and legally obtained objects.A vast amount of material originally lost its provenance as grand tour souvenirs, and identifying modern illicit antiquities is often made near impossible by the large number of 18th and 19th century “illicit antiquities” already in circulation and camouflaging new ones.“From an old collection” is not an uncommon provenance of a sale item. Cultural Property, Its Ownership, Value, and Restitution As with so many other aspects of museum archaeology, the place of objects and collections becomes far more complex and political once it leaves a local scale.This is seen most clearly in the current mass of claims for repatriation and its accompanying debate.The most famous case of archaeological remains being claimed for repatriation are the Elgin (or Parthenon) Marbles held primarily (but not exclusively) at the British Museum.They represent the classic example of a battle in a modern political arena for archaeological remains taken during the colonial and imperialist period.This has been called “archaeology’s greatest controversy”. It is something that everyone is supposed to hold a view on, and the arguments for which are carried on at the highest level. For this reason, the arguments are also hedged about with diplomatic politeness and subtle use of semantics.The British Committee for the Return of the Marbles has recently renamed itself, “The British Committee for the Reunification of the Parthenon Marbles (BCRPM)”, accepting that the previous term repatriation was inappropriate in this case. The debate, and its prominence, is suspiciously Westocentric in nature. As Lowenthal has hinted because Ancient Greece, and indeed the Parthenon, has a very special place in the Western civilization origin myth, the debate over the fate of the marbles receives attention and credibility far out of proportion to other claims for restitution, such as, for example, that for the Benin Bronzes for Nigeria. Recently, a rash of other claims has joined the battle for the Marbles. In 2004, legal attempts were made (unsuccessfully) to prevent examples of Aboriginal etched birth bark artefacts from the British Museum and Knew Gardens in London, to return to Britain after being loaned to an exhibition in Melbourne Australia. In 2006, the Peruvian Government, with the support of its first Indigenous president, renewed its claims for the artefacts from Machu Picchu to be returned from Yale University. In addition, the Italian Government has recently made claims for the return of objects from the Getty and the Metropolitan Museum of Art.This debate is not going to go away.It is gaining pace and more and more objects are being claimed back by more and more
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 119 School of Distance Education
diverse groups. A point might come when it is a recognized point in the growing maturity of a state when it claims back its missing patrimony from previous colonial and imperial powers.These arguments also work at local, regional, and national levels.Should a nation’s top treasures automatically go to a national museum, where they might become lost amongst other treasures, or should they stay in the area where they were found, may be being seen by fewer people but contributing to local tourism and local pride?The recent trend has been away from the finest objects automatically going to larger museums.There has also been an encouraging trend towards partnership and loan agreements. This inevitably begs the question as to whether a world, in which someone could only see an item of cultural heritage in its country or region of origin, would be a better place. The almost unthinkableness of such a notion perhaps only reinforces how culturally programmed “we” are in expecting to encounter world cultures in “our” museums, however incongruous and revalued they may be there.The counter position recently prosecuted so strongly by the British Museum, which argued that threatened and diverse cultures benefit by the showcasing of their material culture in London or other Western cities, is also one completely constructed from a Western perspective.There are a few examples of where Indigenous peoples, such as the New Zealand Maori, have identified the benefits to be had from their culture being celebrated thousands of miles away.All these debates centre on fundamental arguments about value and ownership to which as yet no universally agreed principles have emerged. Trade in Antiquities If one fault line exists between western museums and countries or communities of origin, another exists between the museum community and private dealers and collectors. It is felt by many museum curators that archaeological objects only have a place in public museums, and private collections, and the trade in antiquities is frowned upon as encouraging looting and keeping important material out of the public domain.This situation, already predicated on a dubious value set, is made the more ironic by the fact that, as already discussed, most museums originally acquired their prime collections during a period where the purchase of antiquities and their acquisition for personal gain was the norm. Just as Western Europe and the United States remain the heart of the museum world, they are also the home to the widespread collecting of world antiquities by private individuals, and, as such, the trade in such items.Some private collections are finer than those in public museums and occasionally become major independent museum exhibits in their own right or contribute to museum displays (e.g. the Getty collection in the United States and the Sainsbury collection in the United Kingdom). But the dividing line between legitimate trading in antiquities and the trade in stolen items is a thin and movable one. Even organizations, as established as the Getty, have recently been embroiled in controversies over the origins of items in their collection.The modern world is articulated in terms of property and ownership and is where value is most easily expressed in monetary terms.Antiquities are part of this system, and there is a huge international market in them. Much of this market is legal, well-intentioned, and positive.However, the vast amounts of money involved, and the relatively easy way to acquire material at its source, have contributed to a global illicit market in antiquities, focused on theft or exploitation in the developing world, and purchase and huge profits in the West.This trade has been ranked just behind drugs and arms trafficking in terms of international sales figures. Recently, art and antiquities theft has been estimated as a global business valued at anywhere between US$2 and 6 billion per year.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 120 School of Distance Education
Museum archaeologists, just like fine arts and decorative arts curators, need to recognize and be familiar with this world.Objects will often need to be given a monetary value, for example, when arranging for museum exhibit exhibition-loans.It is also the case that private collectors and traders are sometimes themselves world experts in their collections and have an expertise that is valuable to curators. Key objects that are wanted for collections may come up for sale and, in some countries, including Britain; opportunities exist for the state to help museums acquire objects from private owners. Again, much of this relationship is positive and unproblematic. The relationship between museums and the seamier side of the antiquities trade has not been unproblematic. Although there is nothing inherently wrong with private collecting, and the trade in objects, it has, along with museum collecting, led to looting, theft, the destruction of archaeological contexts and sites, and the creation of a large number of fakes – many of which are or have been in museum collections and have influenced scholarly research. In many developing countries, the selling of antiquities is a major source of income for impoverished locals. For some nations with extreme poverty and a rich archaeological heritage, the combination has been disastrous for contextualised remains. In countries such as Mali and Jordan, it has been suggested that parts of their ancient past are now almost lost to archaeology through looting.The motivations, methods, and solutions to the looting and subsequent illicit trade in antiquities are particular to particular circumstances. Morag Kersel has looked at three case studies, Israel, Palestine, and Mali. In Mali, a Peace Corps initiative to protect the country’s vanishing culture has developed into a community-based museum known as the Culture Bank.The Culture Bank initiative allows local inhabitants to use their cultural objects as collateral to obtain small business loans.In theory, this provides microcredit, protects archaeological and ethnographically significant objects, produces income, and encourages villagers to participate in cultural activities.Israel has a legally sanctioned antiquities market overseen and monitored by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA).Under national legislation, it is illegal to excavate archaeological sites without the correct authorization, but it is legal to buy and sell archaeological material from collections predating 1978 (the year the national patrimony law was enacted).In 2000, estimates put the trade of some eighty licensed antiquities dealers at close to US$5 million per year.In Palestine, looting of antiquities has risen drastically since the onset of the al-Aqsa Intifada in 2000 that left many Palestinians unemployed. The unrest has also ended Israeli and Palestinian cooperation in antiquities policing efforts.Recognizing the magnitude of the looting problem, a non-governmental Palestinian cultural heritage organization (the Palestinian Association for Cultural Exchange IPACEI) is working with local villagers to act as the protectors and monitors of archaeological sites at risk from looting, development, and neglect. There are many complex facets to the uneasy relationship among museums and archaeologists, legal trade and collecting, and illicit trade. For example, the relationship between modern art and archaeology has turned Cycladic Greek figures into artistic masterpieces to be sold as art irrespective of provenance and led to the continued looting of archaeological sites.The digital revolution has also played a part. Monitoring of ebay for antiquities is now a regular part of any curator’s job.And illicit items have been identified being traded on it, although may be its open nature will prevent its wide use. War has also played its part. Looters and traders exploited the anarchy that followed the recent invasion of Iraq.U.S. Colonel Matthew Bogdanos, who investigated thefts from the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad during the recent war, has been quoted as saying, “the patina of gentility that we associate with the world antiquities has always rested atop a sordid core of criminal activity”. Harsh words indeed.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 121 School of Distance Education
The control of the trade in illicit antiquities is reliant on international cooperation.The two key international accords that have attempted to prevent international illicit trade are the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import.Export, and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property that was adopted by UNESCO in 1970 (and is normally referred to as the UNESCO 1970 Convention), and the Convention on Stolen and Illegally Exported Cultural Objects adopted in 1995 by UNIDROIT 1995 which augments UNESCO 1970.Tubb provides a summary of UK initiatives dealing with illicit trade in cultural property. It has not been a particularly glorious story. London is one of the key world centres for the trade in antiquities and the pressures on government not to put this lucrative market at risk have been immense. A key moment in the UK story was the publication of Stealing History. However, as Kathy Walker Tubb makes clear the legislation that does exist tries to prevent the trade and illicit movement in antiquities. That is it deals with the material once it has left the ground, when most damage is already done by the removal of any archaeological context. Some have suggested that the trade in illicit antiquities is diminishing. One encouraging sign is the greater recognition of the importance of provenance in dealing with antiquities by collectors. It has been argued that the curators and dealers are taking more note of the difference between provenanced and unprovenanced objects, leading to a greater demand, and increasing price, for the later.Although for the United States, Davies has suggested that the market is seeing less attribution to provenance. On the downside Davies has suggested that the introduction of NAGPRA in the United States may have prevented some private collections being donated to public museums and led to them being put onto the market, in the knowledge that under NAGPRA they would have been returned to Indigenous tribes. One of the most often put arguments by those who trade in antiquities is that many artefacts are not “priceless treasures that should be in museums” and that museums, anyway, have cellars and stores bursting with objects that are underused, undervalued, and often deteriorating. These are accusations that deserve more than a knee-jerk reaction. The first argument has some credibility; there is nothing wrong with individuals or communities owning or possessing archaeological artefacts outside of a museum environment.Indeed, it would be patently ridiculous to suggest otherwise.What is required, though, is the recognition of how important archaeological context is, and how, to the archaeologist, it is those very objects that are not treasures, in their context and with their associations, that are most useful in building up pictures of the past. And what is a tragedy is when objects are taken from these contexts without consideration of the story that is being lost forever. The argument about bulging museum basements is more problematic. The simple truth is, and as is discussed elsewhere in this book, it is the case that many museums do hold objects that are not properly curated, and, taking into account the argument about context above, there is no need for certain categories of object to have even more representatives in museum collections.In some parts of the world, the Western model of values is less relevant. In China, the relationship between culture and commerce appears more relaxed. Antiquity shops are present in several of the country’s major museums, including Xi’an and Urumqi.On a similarly commercial note, the gift shop of the Terracotta Warrior Museum plays host to the farmer who originally discovered the buried army and who now dutifully signs copies of the guidebook, creating limited-edition souvenirs and promoting the notion of cultural celebrity. Certainly, the issue of cultural value and authenticity is one which arises time and again in relation to China’s museums, with many reports stating that undeclared replicas are often displayed in place of the original.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 122 School of Distance Education
Fakes and Forgeries An obvious by-product in the market for antiquities is the creation of fakes and forgeries.Only recently, police in Turkey have arrested the director and other staff at the Usak Museum when it was discovered that two pieces of the 6th century B.C.“Lydian Hoard” had been stolen and replaced by forgeries.There is a long history of fake antiquities, usually associated with an attempt to make profit but also, at times, linked to academic rivalry.Forgeries are, of course, not limited to archaeological collections, and in such areas as fine art where prices are far higher, the problem is more acute.However, archaeology is plagued by this problem. Cause celebes such as the so-called Piltdown Man are exceptional, but a stroll through the British Museum would find such objects as a crystal skull once thought to be a masterpiece of precontact Mexico and now thought to be produced in 19th century Europe from Brazilian crystal. Once a prized treasure, although always suspected, it is now a mere curiosity. Doubt still hangs over other iconic objects in major museums such as some of the European Palaeolithic and later “Venus figurines”. The sheer quantity of fakes and the long and protracted arguments over authenticity highlight just how difficult it is to prove authenticity (if such a thing can actually exist), how tenuous some archaeological identifications are and, once again, how important provenance and context are to archaeology.In many cases, it is only a clear archaeological context that will give an object true archaeological value.For the museum archaeologist, the embarrassment of acquiring, may be purchasing, an object that proves to be a fake is one hazard, surely the danger that research can be undermined through fake objects is even more serious.Forgeries also have their place in the social history of archaeology and collecting.For example, in London, objects manufactured in the nineteenth century to service the demand for antiquities now have their own place in museum collections. Portable Antiquities and Metal Detectors Since the early 1970s, a major source of new objects in museum collections, and a major subject of debate for the profession, has been the growing hobby of metal detecting.Metal detecting became a mass-participation hobby in Britain, the United States, and Western Europe in the 1970s when cheap metal detectors became available.The hobby became more sophisticated with the arrival of high-resolution machines in the 1980s.From the beginning, archaeologists were uneasy with this type of detecting. First, there was temple recognition that objects would be removed from their context thus taking away important evidence and damaging the strata.Second, there was also the concern that detecting was being undertaken on vulnerable archaeological sites that deserved to be excavated or properly protected.There is no doubt that “night-hawking” of Scheduled Ancient Monuments did and does, take place and that valuable archaeological sites have been damaged and important finds collected and traded in a way that meant their original context was lost. However, the exact scale of such detecting, and its exact effect on sites, has never been properly ascertained. It is likely that a professional elitism also affected archaeological opinion.Metal detecting in Britain has traditionally been undertaken by men from nonprofessional backgrounds, and archaeologists have often found it difficult to understand or sympathize with their motivations, even though many detectorists (as they are termed) have often become specialists in object identification and clearly have a passion for understanding the past. The antagonism between professional archaeologists and detectorists came to a head in the 1979 “STOP” (Stop Taking Our Past) campaign spearheaded by the Council for British Archaeology.This failed to stop detecting and led to a long period of mutual distrust that
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 123 School of Distance Education
archaeologists have had to work hard to overcome.It was countered by the DIG campaign (Detector information Group).Slowly relations between archaeologists and mainstream detectorists did improve through the realisation that a vast number of important archaeological finds were being recovered, and were sometimes making a material contribution to the identification and understanding of the past.The first area where archaeologists started working positively with detectorists was in a Norfolk, very much under the personal leadership of museum archaeologist Tony Gregory. Detectors also begun to be used on excavations, primarily to go through spoil where it was realised they could find objects, particularly small coins, missed by the diggers.One of theplaces where relations developed in the most positive way was London, where, led by Brian Davison and Geoff Egan at the Museum of London, a formal partnership developed with the Society of Thames Mudlarks.The Mudlarks who detect along the City Thames foreshore under permits issued by the Port of London Authority not only bring all their finds in to the Museum for identification but also provided volunteers to detect on excavations. This relationship has continued and has left the Museum of London with a highly important database of finds and has recently led to the identification of Hindu objects deposited in the Thames. Investigation of these finds by Nicola Burdon at the Museum uncovered a previously unknown practice by a key London community, the use of the Thames as a sacred river by Hindus, and illustrated the value of archaeology and the study of material culture to understanding cultural activity and for making links with modern communities. It was members of the Thames Mudlarks, so familiar with the Thames foreshore, who brought in many of the objects and donated them to the Museum. number of treasure items being declared under the 1996 Treasure Act.Hobbs provides an introduction to the PAS scheme. The undoubted success of the PAS is not without concerns. There has been some evidence of objects being sold at inflated prices on the basis of PAS identification and authentication. It s also the case that the scheme is spending a large amount of public money servicing a very small and particular part of the general public (detectorists) and a very particular part of the archaeological heritage (unstratified and often unprovenanced metal finds), while openly condoning a hobby that is still on occasion used to damage archaeological sites. TABLE 1. Museum policies relating to archaeological collections
Acquisition policy, including the collecting area
Archive deposition guidance, including legal, copyright, and digital standards
Collections management standards
Loan policy
Disposal policy
Research framework
Human remains policy
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 124 School of Distance Education
Ethical policy
Public identification service
Documentation and Collections Management A key part of museum archaeological work is the documentation andmanagement of collections. As the holders in trust of public property, there is a responsibility on museum staff to know exactly what it is they are caring for and where it is at any one time. A whole series of museum documents and policies will govern collections and ensure they are accountable, and there is clear transparent evidence for why they are in the collection, where they are in the collection, and what they are being used for.Table 1 lists the museum policies that would be expected to be in place, and that would relate, at least in part to archaeological collections. Normally, every object in a collection is given a unique alphanumeric code that is either marked on the object or kept with it; and a separate index of objects is kept for reference.This is normally referred to as the accession number, and this is the term that will be used here.In most museums this index is developed into a detailed database that keeps detailed records of the object.The exception to this rule is for large archaeological excavation or fieldwork assemblages where the sheer number of objects makes individual accessioning impractical.Much bulk archaeological excavation material also only makes sense as an assemblage and as such group documentation is both logical and practical.Accessioning of museum collections has two prime purposes: (1) to allow for the unique identification of an object and to track its location; and (2) to provide an easily accessible home for associated information that might include such things as conservation records or research material. Museum documentation has evolved from early handwritten registers to card indexes to computer systems.It would now be considered unacceptable for a museum collection not to have a computerized index; however, many curators still use familiar card indexes and the completeness and usefulness of computer records vary enormously, particularly in relation to archaeological archives.Pearce notes how many old museum labels are becoming artefacts in their own rights, not only for their social historical value but also for forming a tangible link between past and present curators. Some museums have even begun to display original labels and packaging as artefacts in their own right. The Canterbury Roman Museum includes such items in a display to make a direct link with the early pioneering excavations in Canterbury after World War II.A number of specially designed computer packages have been designed for museum collections including, for example, MODES developed by the MDA and Multi Mimsy used by several national and larger museums.Table 2 lists the range of information tat a computer record might hold for an individual object. TABLE 2. The range of information that might be held on a computer record for an individual accessioned item. Accession number
Description by type
Description by date
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 125 School of Distance Education
Description by material
Donor
Date accessioned
Storage location
Storage history
Digital image
Dimensions
Cross reference to conservation records
Reference to any publication
Accumulated research information
The majority of museum documentation systems are designed around identifying, codifying, and holding associated information about individual “high-value” objects. However, the vast majority of excavated material (as parts of archives) does not. Most archives are made up of a very large number of mundane nonspecial objects and records that only take on value in relation to each other.As such, they need a different kind of documentation system, but one that will allow them to be curated and studied in relation to the individual items and their systems. What excavation archives require are computer systems that do not cater to individual objects of high value but the relationship between many mundane items. Archaeological excavation site recording is based around identifying individual pieces of fieldwork through a unique site code (normally alphanumeric based on the site location and the year of excavation, for example, MIN86 = Royal Mint Site starting in 1986; SBH88 = Southwark Bridge House, excavated in 1988).Within the site, identification is by “contexts” or soil layers or “events”.It is also important to be able to cross-link between many different types of related data. For a site assemblage this might include plans and drawings, photographs, context descriptions, and finds catalogues.For this range of data, relational databases that allow different types of data to be held separately but combined as needed in any possible relationship become useful. The problem of course withall labels, indexes, catalogues, and so forth is that they fix a new and created meaning to an object that it is then often difficult to remove and which forms associations and ideas.A documentation system, if designed properly, should act in proxy for the object itself and allow the curator or researcher to have easy access to all the possible information he or she might need about an individual object, and that object in relation to all others in a collection.The use of key words is essential here. There needs to be a common thesaurus of terms that always mean the same thing and that are commonly understood. This disciplined approach is relatively new to museums and archaeology, and it has left a difficult backlog. It is no good trying to find all examples of Roman 1st century brooches on a museum database if, in the past, some brooches were documented as fibula or clothes fasteners, and some
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 126 School of Distance Education
first-century brooches were originally dated as being 2nd century. There is therefore a need for consistency, a clear and unambiguous nomenclature, and the ability to update and refresh records. If such inconsistencies might exist in an individual museum’s collections, the problem becomes even more acute when studying across different museum collections.It is unlikely that a single museum will hold all examples of a particular type or category of archaeological find.As such, researchers are likely to want to search across several collections. For example, artefacts from Roman London can be found at the Museum of London, the British Museum, and most London local borough museums.Objects from dynastic Egypt will be found in thousands of museums across the world.This makes the need for consistent recording and naming and identifying of objects even more important.Many attempts have been made to digest and simplify the myriad challenges of providing the necessary documentation for archaeological collections of all kinds.One of the more useful, and more recent, although unfortunately it does not seem to be being used as much as it should is the Standards in Action produced by the MDA. Digital Data Management As with so many other aspects of museum work, digital technology already dominates museum collections management and has the potential to continue to change it at a startling pace.Museums have been the proliferation of data and the means to access it. Indeed, probably the biggest challenge facing the museums, and no doubt others, is not so much how to store digital data but now to manage the vast amount of data available and find ways of making it usable in a practical way.The most primary archaeological data is now being produced in digital form or relies on digital data to give it meaning. Many smaller museums are not equipped to collect, curate, and access this information and new organizations are needed with the expertise to curate digital information. In the United Kingdom, the Archaeological Data Service (ADS) part of the Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS), a higher-education service, has been performing a key role in setting standards for digital data collection and management and also for providing a home for data sets. This has provided a somewhat over optimistic picture, because it would be unrealistic to expect the ADS to continue to perform this role unquestioningly, and without limit, forever. However, for the meantime it has taken away some of the concerns held about museums and other institutions not having the expertise to manage and make digital data accessible. Technology has already seen the development of techniques to electronically “tag” or “mark” objects as part of the war against the illicit trade in antiquities and bar coding has been introduced by some museums.Such techniques are the logical future for the need of museums to track and hold increasingly complex amounts of information about their collections. Disposal and Dispersal The traditional view about the disposal of museum collections, including archaeological objects, was that it didn’t happen.This “presumption against disposal” developed at a time when museum collections were still growing and the value of material was into being seriously questioned either at a practical or philosophical level. It is based on the idea that all museum objects must by their very nature be valuable, and that no opportunity must be given to museum authorities to sell-off their precious collections for short-term gain. When it has been discussed, disposal of archaeological material normally centres on the vast amount of low-value excavated material that is of no monetary value but that takes up valuable storage space.In the United
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 127 School of Distance Education
Kingdom, the Society of Museum Archaeologists (1993) made the first attempt to seriously address the question of disposal. The approach it took was to deal with finds by category (pottery, building material, etc.). It did this by going to specialists in each field and asking them to comment on retention and disposal policies.Not surprisingly, each specialist emphasized the value of their artefact type, and the resulting document ended up as an argument for retaining almost everything. More recently, this is a subject that has been addressed in the United Kingdom for museum collections in general and a debate has begun about archaeological material specifically.Again, this debate is centred on the fact that museums are spending a lot of money curating many museum collections that are hardly ever used.This is a debate that mainly centres on archaeological excavation material.Most museums continue to shy away from disposal and have policies that enshrine this approach.A less urgent issue, but one that seems to interest archaeologists most, is where material should be disposed of so that it does not “contaminate” the archaeological record for future generations. Many complex methods have been employed for this over the years. Collecting Areas There are a whole series of reasons why a particular archaeological object or collection might end up in one museum rather than another. And an equally long list of reasons to explain a particular museum’s collecting area.Collecting areas are a key part of museum governance that help it decide what to, or what not to collect, and perhaps more importantly define relationships between museums.The United Kingdom’s protracted and muddled history of museum development mean there is a patchwork of collecting areas that has caused some problems for archaeological contractors. Green gives the example of Norfold and Suffolk, and notes that to find the historical lack of rigidity in collecting policy means that objects can end up where you would not expect them.She also notes other factors that might affect collecting: the buying power of a particular museum; the “shopping” habits of the public (you are likely to bring a find to the museum in the town where you go to do shopping); the absence of a museum in a particular region. Other factors will include the security level in a museum that might make it unsuitable to accept valuable objects; and the expertise and indeed interests of staff.All of this means that anyone undertaking research into a particular area might need to check the collections of many museums before they are content that they have tracked down all possible finds of interest. Most collecting area is now defined by local authority boundaries, in effect meaning that museums collect within the region where they obtained funding. For museums that collect abroad, things become more complicated.The fact that collecting areas have evolved through time, thus leaving some museums with objects that no longer correspond to their current areas, also has the potential for problems. Pearce suggests these need to be considered in terms of cultural arguments (where has the museum collected historically, and what area makes sense for it in terms of its audience and collections), management what area is it practical for it to collect from in terms of its resources), and political (how does its collecting area correspond to the political boundaries of the authority that funds it).This of course brings the role of collections full circle had to values they are given by different groups, and the very particular values they acquire when entering a museum collection. EXCAVATION ARCHIVES
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 128 School of Distance Education
Archaeological excavation “arthives” (the finds and records from it piece of fieldwork), unlike the collections, are often not of high value and the characterized by the mundane, fragmentary and broken.Yet, they often offer huge research potential and unique insights into the past.They also present very real challenges for curation, display, and interpretation.Their sheer quantity has also provided many museums with serious resource challenges.. Archaeological Excavations Fieldwork in many disciplines produce field notes, records, and data that support and give meaning to the samples and specimens collected. What makes archaeological fieldwork unique is both the complexity and importance of the records that make sense of the fieldwork practice the level of personal interpretation involved, and that in the vast majority of cases, the records are the result of a destructive process and therefore come to be the only evidence for what has been recorded. Archaeological excavation is destructive. It is only by undertaking excavation on that the vast majority of evidence about the past is obtainable, however, at the end of the process the site of monument no longer exists. This has led to the concept of “preservation by record” whereby the records made as part of the excavation, with the artefacts and samples recovered, take on a unique importance.Indeed, this dogma, the imperative to make a complete and objective record of an excavation that must be then kept forever as a record of what was once there, underlies much of current archaeological and museum archaeological theory.It is perhaps now in need of revision. Excavation leading to the recognition of stratigraphy and the relationship between different soil layers and their morphology, and the artefacts and samples recovered from layers, give a sequence to a site that, under analysis, can be turned into a narrative of past human activity and behaviour.Again, because the original site has been destroyed these records have a special importance.The only way of corroborating the interpretation made, or indeed reinterpreting it, is through an analysis of the records and finds. From this, it becomes clear that the proper recording of archaeological remains, the proper ordering and managing of the records made and their long-term secure keeping is of immense importance to the archaeological discipline.Traditionally in England the combined records and finds have been known collectively as archaeological archives and their long-term care and management has been seen as the responsibility of museums. Archaeological archives should represent a prime research and heritage asset; and yet historically they have been under resourced and underused.For many years, UK museums have struggled to find the resources to properly store archives, never mind maximize their research and educational value.This situation has been made worse by the organization of archaeology in the United Kingdom where the practitioners are now primarily peripatetic commercial organizations quite separate from the museums that are expected to curate archives. Nomenclature The term “archive” is not commonly used outside the Unite Kingdom, and even here some are uncomfortable with it.Traditionally, and for many currently, the term “archive” has very particular associations with documentary records and how they are managed.There is no place for objects in this model.Therefore, for some archaeologists even if the term “archive” is used, it will only refer to the written records associated with an excavation or piece of fieldwork, not the finds.This distinction is sometimes made real by the way fieldwork records and finds are stored and managed separately.In both Scotland and Wales, it is normal practice for the records from
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 129 School of Distance Education
excavations to be “archived” and kept by the respective Royal Commissions (RCAHMS the Royal Commission for Ancient and Historic Monuments Scotland and RCAHMW, Royal Commission for ancient and Historic Monuments Wales), but the finds from excavations go to regional or national museums.This practice of separating finds from records is not unusual elsewhere, and has often been the practice in the past. However, in England, the concept of the unified archive has taken hold and is strongly argued for (e.g., Swain and Merriman 1999). Other terms are used.The terms “archaeological assemblage”, “site assemblage”, “site record”, and “site collection” are all used.In North America, the term “archaeological collection” is often used as meaning the same as “archive” in the United Kingdom.The great advantage of the term “archaeological archive” is that it can be used to describe an entity that makes sense in archaeological terms.It is the combination of contextualised objects and records that makes archaeological excavation evidence different from individual noncontextualised finds.The archive is a description of such data for a particular intervention. So, as discussed here, an archaeological archive is all the finds, records, and associated evidence from a particular piece of archaeological fieldwork, normally an excavation. The Archive Table 3 summaries the possible contents of an archaeological archive. Some sites, for example, evaluations where no archaeology is found, will contain only a very small amount of material, possibly no finds or no environmental samples, and very few of the items listed. However, large, complex urban sites will not only include all of the items listed but large numbers of each element.It is a frightening list, both in terms of its length and the different types of material present, many of which will require different types of conservation, storage, and curation conditions. Outher items could be included.These might include drafts of publication text and original artwork used for publication, although there is limited value in archiving these once publication has taken place.Some have also emphasized the importance of the social element of archaeology and how this should be an important part of archives.This might include details of who worked on the site, weather conditions, and so forth. TABLE 3. The possible elements of an archaeological archive deposited in a museum.Those marked with an *could be all or partly in digital form. Bulk finds
Ceramic building material (including tiles and bricks)
Pottery sherds
Vessel and window glass
Flint waste
Mass-produced iron
Respective and unworked architectural stone
Mass-produced stone items (e.g. querns)
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 130 School of Distance Education
Mass-produced and waste bone, horn, ivory, shell, antler artefacts
Mass-produced wood items
Leather waste and off-cuts
Unidentified plaster, wattle and daub
Registered finds
Coins
Tokens
Bronze and other nonferrous metals
Special iron objects
Architectural stone
Glass objects
Stone tools and weapons
Gemstones
Individual or special bone, horn, ivory, shell, antler artefacts
Wood artefacts
Leather, textile, basketry and rope objects
Painted or decorated plaster
Wattle and daub with architectural features
Decorated tiles
Complete pots
Human remains
Complete skeletons
Bones and groups of bone
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 131 School of Distance Education
Soft tissue
Samples
Kiln or other industrial debris
Wood samples (including for dendrochronology)
Stone, ceramic
Environmental evidence
Animal bones
Fish bones
Beetles
Snails
Environmental samples
Pollen
Soil
Primary context records
Context sheets*
Note books*
Site photographs*
Site plans and sections*
Finds and sample indices and lists*
Project Files
Contract files*
Project designs*
Preexcavation fieldwork archives (filed walking, geophysical, aerial photography*
Research Archives
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 132 School of Distance Education
Archive reports*
Finds reports*
Specialist finds reports*
Draft reports*
Finds and stratigraphic databases*
Managing Archaeological Archives The challenge of managing this complex and varied collection of material encompasses not only the need for particular methodologies for particular elements (paper records will be managed differently than photographs, potsherds, etc.) but that the relationship between all the different elements is maintained.For museums primarily geared up to manage the acquisition of a few individual objects per year, this can be a daunting task. Gaimster has suggested that curators are “too often bogged down by the tyranny of archive management” to allow them to undertake research. And Merriman has also argued that too much time is spent by museum archaeologists serving the archaeological process as created by the archaeological community through such activities as archive transfer at the expense of public archaeology.If archive curation is not to overwhelm the museum and prevent research and public archaeology, systems will need to be in place that both allow for the efficient transfer of archives into the museum, and then allow for effective curation once it is there. Efficient transfer relies on close and clear working relationship between the museum or repository and the archaeologists working in their collecting areas.A vast amount of potential future problems and work will be eliminated if, when an excavation takes place, records and finds are prepared and ordered in such a way as to make the creation of the initial site archive straightforward.This will include such mundane items as correct box sizes and the use of archival materials, to more complex areas such as the completeness of the record being deposited; questions of ownership; storage methods for records, and finally problems associated with computer records.For all of these reasons, clear published guidance and ideally agreed upon standards are needed that can be accessed by the archaeologist.There are becoming more common (e.g., Museum of London 1998) and common guidance is currently being prepared by the Archaeological Archives Forum for use in the United Kingdom. Archaeological Fieldwork and the Creation of Archives in the United Kingdom The current theory and practices of archaeological excavation can be traced from antiquarian investigations in the 18th and 19th centuries through to an attempt at scientific excavation in the early 20th century that is still used today albeit within a commercially driven framework.The origin of the term “archive” in the sense that it is now understood in England is lost.It certainly goes back to 1975 when it was used in the so-called Frere report (DoE 1975).The Frere report (named after its author Sheppard Frere) was an attempt to find a model for publishing and archiving the material from excavations. It identified four “levels” of data.The Level 1 Archive
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 133 School of Distance Education
was the site itself, the physical archaeological remains that were being examined and that would be destroyed by the act of excavation. As the site is destroyed by the process of excavation the next level, the Level 2 Site Archive becomes by default the primary evidence for the archaeology.The Level 2 Site Archive is made up of all of the primary material that is removed from the excavation. This includes the finds and samples but also all the drawings, photographs, and recording sheets that describe the site and how it has been interpreted in the field.Under the Frere model, the Level 2 Site Archive becomes the primary evidence and therefore takes on a special significance for the future.It should be sorted and arranged but not altered.It must be preserved as the closest evidence remaining of the original site.It must also be accessible, as anyone who might wish to reinterpret the excavation in the future will come to the Level 2 Site Archive for their evidence. Under the Frere model, the Level 3 Research Archive was the research that is undertaken on the Level 2 Site Archive material. It is a means to an end (the Level 4 Archive) but is still very important as it makes sense of the Level 2 Site Archive and shows how the excavator has come to the conclusions that they will describe in the Level 4 Archive (it is a bit like the workings that are encouraged in a mathematics exam).The Level 3 Research Archive should therefore also become an element of the archive and be kept for posterity.The Level 4 Archive is the published report, the interpretation of the excavation for wider, but primarily peer-group, audiences.Although the Frere report acknowledged the importance of the Level 2 Site Archive and Level 3 Archive reports, it emphasized a process leading to the ultimate goal: the published report or Level 4 Archive. This, therefore, enshrined a previous model, espoused, for example, by Mortimer Wheeler, that the ultimate goal of any archaeological excavation was the publication of the results.Also influential at this stage was the so-called Longworth report (British Museum 1982) and Dimbleby report (DoE 1978) both of which also emphasized the importance of the “archive” and its long-term care and accessibility for research. There is no doubt that dissemination through an accessible and affordable means remains a healthy goal for archaeological endeavour, and it is still the mechanism by which most archaeological data is communicated and used.However, as formulated by the Frere report, and indeed most models since, it underplays the value of the archive and overplays the role of the publication, that will normally only ever seek to communicate one particular view of a particular aspect of the excavation to a limited audience, and at a very high relative cost.The vastly increasing number of excavations that now take place, the vastly increased level of data that comes from these sites, the increasing cost of traditional publication, and the smaller emphasis that is put on initial interpretations being definitive, only emphasises this point.This increasing level of data, the increasing amount of time taken to archive this, and increasing costs and delays in publication led to a new attempt to deal with post excavation in 1985.This time it was the so- called Cunliffe report (from the Chair Professor Barry Cunliffe, DoE 1985). In its introduction, the report restated the archaeological gospel: “based on the precepts of Pitt Rivers and Wheeler that all excavation is destruction, that total excavation is total destruction, and that a discovery dates only from the time that a record is made of it, not from the time of its being found in the soil.It has been an unchallenged rule that the archaeologists should publish his results”. The Cunliffe report kept the four levels of output but relabelled them and gave a different emphasis.The Site Archive remained, containing primary and processed data.Then it introduced the concept of the Research Archive (old Level 3) that now dealt specifically with research into the material that was to be published.The publication (old Level 4) was to be divided into two
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 134 School of Distance Education
including a “report digest” that would be volume printed and a microfiche element that would hold additional information.The whole process would be advised by a Research Design that would be prepared after the end of excavation and would identify those parts of the excavation results that were worthy of publication and how this would be done.The Cunliffe report also put emphasis on greater selectivity and efficiency in excavation and postexcavation practices.In many ways, the Cunliffe report was simply an update of the Frere report. The three areas where it introduced really new concepts were in taking away the assumption that everything dug up would be fully archived, fully researched, and fully published (a concept some archaeologists still struggle with); the idea of a research design that in effect introduced the idea of project planning to postexcavation, an essential step; and finally by suggesting the use of microfiche it begun a debate about using new technology to make the dissemination of archaeological data cheaper and easier.Microfiche never really worked, and specialists hated having their work consigned to it, and it is only now with the internet and digital data that this concept is being realized. The next attempt in England to further influence the way archaeological projects were managed and, therefore, how archives and publications were created came in 1991 with the publication of Management of Archaeological Projects by English Heritage and normally referred to as MAP2 (English Heritage 1991a; there was a previous management of Archaeological Projects [MAP1] that was far less influential). MAP2, largely the brainchild of Gill Andrews, was primarily a guide for organizations receiving funds from English Heritage as to how they would need to run their projects in order to receive funding, but it has become the standard model for carrying out archaeological projects in Britain, regardless of funding.MAP2 takes the Cunliffe report further by emphasising the need for the development of clear research outputs and the constant review of these by means of assessing the data.It divides the archaeological project into the five stages: 1. project planning 2. fieldwork 3. assessment of potential for analysis 4. analysis and report preparation, and 5. dissemination. From these five phases, a site archive will be produced from the fieldwork, an assessment report from phase 3, a research archive and report text from phase 4 and all of these will combine to form a Project Archive at phase 5, but only if at review stages at each phase it is considered that there is material and data capable of answering research questions.MAP2 was born out of a desire to cut the large postexcavation backlog that had developed in England.It offered an efficient way to prioritise the expensive process of publication.As such, it was linked to the archive.Hinton argued that the then obsession with archives was simply renaming the “unpublished backlog” and taking away the primacy of final publication.This misses the point of how archives and publications should supplement each other.MAP2 also, by accepting that only some elements of an excavation will warrant publication, puts extra importance on the archive that will not only support the conclusions made in the publication but be the prime repository for those elements that are not published at all.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 135 School of Distance Education
MAP2 is an intelligent document that it followed should lead to more-focused and speedy postexcavation work.However, possibly due to the innate conservatism of archaeologists it has in many cases led to even more work with the creation of assessment reports that justify research and publication that often end up longer than the reports they seek to justify.It is fair to say that it has made little overall influence on archives other than to make them even bigger and more complex.The arrival of MAP2 coincided with the full onset of commercial archaeology in the United Kingdom. From the late 1980s the vast majority of archaeological fieldwork, and therefore the vast majority of archives, have been created by projects undertaken by independent peripatetic contracting archaeological organizations funded by property developers.These organizations now operate in competition with each other and compete for work.The system is regulated by a network of local authority planning or “curating” archaeologists who seek to ensure archaeological work takes place on relevant developments by inserting clauses in planning conditions and then monitor the work that takes place.This model has no legal foundation but is underpinned by planning guidance. In the case of England this is Planning and Policy Guidance Note 16: Archaeology and Planning, or PPG16. PPG16 puts the onus on developers to make sure they plan for any potential archaeology on a site they wish to develop, and to build this into the planning application they make.It is stated that ideally archaeology should be preserved in situ, but recognizes that this will not always be possible or desirable and that as an alternative preservation by record is acceptable. Thus, PPG16 perpetuates the model of preservation by record developed in the 1970s. Museums are only mentioned twice in PPG16, in both cases as places to go for information about an areas’ known archaeology.Although it identifies the need for an archive and for the dissemination of results, it offers no clear guidance as to how archives are to be created or where these are to be deposited. PPG 16 and the “developer pays” commercial model for archaeology has been a huge success in professionalising archaeology and archaeologists so that they provide minimum disruption to the property and development industries.It has also led to a major expansion in the archaeology “industry” and a major influx of funds to archaeology. Many tens of millions of pounds sterling are now being spent annually on archaeology in England.The industry is also attempting to build up a regulatory framework and professional infrastructure mainly through the efforts of the Institute of Field Archaeologists (IFA).The IFA was founded in 1982 on the basis of individual membership and has issued by-laws, standards, and policy statements to regulate archaeological activity (IFA 1999).In 1995, it introduced a scheme to create Registered Archaeological Organizations (RAOs).This process however, has taken place largely in isolation from museums and without having the archiving process as a priority, although the IFA Finds Specialist Interest Group has tended to act as a champion of archival work (e.g., Brown 2005).On the whole, although archiving requirements are now built into most archaeological documents and many archaeological contracting organizations have archive officers and recognize the requirement, the whole archiving debate is being primarily driven from the museum side. The Frere report, Cunliffe report, and MAP2 were the archaeological solutions to the growing cost and time of carrying out postexcavation and publication.None of them were aimed at dealing with the curation of the archive although all accepted that this was a fundamental part of the process.It was mainly left to the museum and museum archaeology community to think about how the archive produced by fieldwork would be cared for.MAP2 continues in use, however, English Heritage is currently introducing new project-management guidance that will cover all historic environment projects, not just archaeology.This new guidance will take the form of a
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 136 School of Distance Education
series of guidance papers under the overall heading Management of Research Project in the Historic Environment or MoRPHE (English Heritage 2006). The Storage Debate What did all this mean for museums? Almost all of the discussions over how archaeological data should be analysed and managed was undertaken by field archaeologists concerned with communicating information to other archaeologists.Although there was an implicit understanding that the finds and records from excavations would reside in museums, there was no debate with museum archaeologists and no thought given to the practical implications of this.Museum archaeologists in the meantime failed, on the whole, to engage with the debate about archaeological data and instead continued to think in terms of storing, displaying, and using objects.And it was storage needs that became the driver of museum engagement with the issue.Although it is often described as a relatively modern phenomena, archaeologists have for many years recognised the problems involved with digging up ever more material. As long ago as 1904, archaeologists in Britain were expressing a concern about the ability of museums to store and curate the material resulting from archaeological excavations.In that year, Flinders Petrie suggested the provision of a National Repository requiring. A square mile of land, within an hour’s journey from London, should be secured; and built over with uniform plain brickwork and cement galleries at a rate of 20,000 square feet a year, so providing 8 miles of galleries 50 feet wide in a century, with room yet for several centuries of expansion space. Three elements of this description are worth noting; “within an hour’s journey from London” implies the need for rapid access. “20,000 square feet a year” implies a large mass of material.“Several centuries of expansion space” implies that the rate of deposition will be continuous. And these three observations remain true for British and, indeed, European and North American archaeology.There is a lot of it, it keeps coming, and there is a belief that ready access should be provided to it.Although museums had for many years recognised the problems inherent in being asked to acquire ever more material, a vocal debate on the subject did not emerge until the later 1980s.This derived partly from the massive increase in archaeological material from “rescue”- and “developer”- funded work, for the first time producing material of more marginal academic interest.This period also saw a more complete break in communication and relationship between museums and field archaeologists.In most cases, archaeology was being undertaken by independent practitioners, monitored by archaeologists not linked to museums, and funded by private property developers.Mepham reports that between 1980 and 1998.Wessex Archaeology undertook about 1,600 archaeological projects at an average of 200 per year (some of the total did represent different elements of the same overall project). In 1998, 40 percent of the archives from these sites were still undeposited with 14% because the stated museum for deposition had no space to take material. This situation leaves contractors as the default repository even though they normally cannot, or would not, is expected to fulfill the requirements of a museum. Similarly, Rawlings reports leaving a post at a contractor with only 132 of the 200 projects he had managed safely deposited in a museum.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 137 School of Distance Education
Museums were completely disenfranchised from this system but were expected passively to accept the products of work.At the time, the image of unidentified lorries arriving at the entrance of a museum unannounced and full of boxes of unsorted finds expecting to find a home became common.The archaeologist Peter Hinton described (although not in print) archives as resembling low-level nuclear waste. In some places, individual museums were able to impose order. Duncan Brown in Southampton has been one of the most tireless champions of a well-ordered, consistent, and rapidly deposited archive.Southampton has been one of the places were a well- integrated model for archaeology has been successful.In 1991, the Society of Antiquaries of London sponsored a working group to study archives; however, this failed to deliver any action. A number of articles were written high-lighting the growing crisis in storage of archaeological archives and occasionally the subject made it into the media, however, as no priceless remains had actually been thrown away or museum explode from being overfull, no direct action ensured.This was made more complex in England by the government agencies overseeing museums and archaeology being quite separate and happy to look to the other for solutions.Archaeology was overseen and funded by English Heritage (EH) that saw the care of archives as a museum responsibility.Museums came under the museum and Galleries Commission (MGC) who thought the archaeologists should be dealing with the situation. In 1996, these two organizations finally came together to address the problem, possibly prompted by the situation in London.A joint English Heritage MGC survey was commissioned into the state of archaeological archives in England. The project involved a questionnaire survey of those English museums considered to hold archives and be actively involved in collecting them as well as visits to some areas and interviews with key individuals.Its results showed that indeed most English museums had no storage space to accept new archaeology, and, yet, large amounts of material was held by archaeological contractors for transfer and new material was being generated all the time.Further to this, the survey showed that in some areas there was confusion over archaeology collecting areas, a lack of qualified curators and conservators and very little active use being made of archives.However, the survey also showed that most museums were spending relatively little money on curating archives and did not predict that this amount would rise sharply.This was probably because those who answered the questionnaire recognized that very little money was available or was likely to be forthcoming for such uses.Perhaps more telling was the responses as to how museums were planning to deal with archive curation in the future. This information (reproduced as Table 4) made depressing reading.These responses suggested that museums were considering disposal or the suspension of collecting, not for museological or academic reasons but simply because they could not hold any more material.Others were clearly thinking about, or planning for, increased storage, but without seeing an obvious solution or putting the problem within a wider context of archive value and use. TABLE 4. How museums were planning to deal with future archive storage needs (Reproduced from Swain 1998a, p. 38).
Project underway to review problem 18 (19%)
New store planned 16 (16%)
Stop or suspend collecting 10 (10.5%)
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 138 School of Distance Education
Selective disposal of material 9 (9.5%)
Reorganise to maximise existing space 8 (8.5%)
Look for storage elsewhere 6 (6.3%)
“Panic” 6 (6.3%)
Lottery bid planned 5 (5.3%)
Everything OK 4 (4.25%)
No comment 12 (12.75%)
Total comments 94
The 1998 survey had 19 conclusions and linked these to 9 recommendation.The recommendations are summarized here: 1. More curators and conservators should be found to curate archives. 2. Museum collecting areas should be defind. 3. Core standards for contractors should be provided. 4. A study of resource centres should take place. 5. A study of archives held by contractors should take place. 6. MGC and EH should review the box grant scheme. 7. The use of archives should be studied. 8. Disposal guidance should be reviewed. 9. The challenges of digital archiving should be addressed. The publication of the 1998 survey coincided with theclosing down of the MGC (to be replaced by “Resource”, now known as the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council or MLA) and major changes at English Heritage including the retirement of the Chief Archaeologist Geoffrey Wainwright who had overseen the survey. Although some little progress was made on its recommendations, including a more detailed survey of the programmes and considered of resource centres, there was a hiatus in progress until 2002 when the new chief archaeologist at English Heritage David Miles commissioned a new survey of archives as an update of the 1998 survey.This report reaffirmed the findings of Swain and perhaps most importantly led to the foundation of the British Archaeological Archives Forum.This group with representation from the entire UK archaeological and museum archaeological community has identified a number of projects to try and address the challenges outlined in the 1998 and 2002 reports. To date, the AAF has overseen the completion of a set of guidance on disaster planning for archaeological contractors holding archives and is currently undertaking the preparation of guidance on archive preparation, transfer and curation that will hopefully be accepted
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 139 School of Distance Education
nationally.Finally, through the Society of Museum Archaeologists, a study and review of museum collecting areas for archaeology is being undertaken.The problem of disposal has for the moment not been directly addressed although it remains a topic of concern within the wider museum profession.The challenge of digital curation has to some extent been mitigated by the presence of the Archaeological Data Service that accepts, curates, and makes accessible digital records from archaeological research. London Archaeology and the LAARC The first museum to try and put archive theory into practice was the Museum of London.In 1996, the Museum publicly stated that it would no longer accept new fieldwork archives.The Museum has calculated that at that time it was spending about £250,000 per year on storing archaeological material, money that it considered could be better spent elsewhere. It also noted that it had no control over the amount or type of archaeological material that was being generated in London and that was being funded by developers as part of a market-led process. Ironically, most of the archaeology in London was at that time being undertaken by the Museum’s own archaeological unit, the Museum of London Archaeology Service (MoLAS).In London, in the past 30 years, this situation had become acute.The unprecedented level of excavation in the historic urban core has resulted in the largest body of archaeological records and finds of its kind.This is an immense research resource, making London one of the best-understood historical cities in Europe.However, it has brought with it huge logistical problems for the Museum of London which takes and cares for the archives from excavations. In 1998, under new leadership, the value of this resource was recognized, and the Museum set out to create the London Archaeological Archive and Research Centre (LAARC), not only to house the archive but also to ensure it was properly curated and made accessible (Plate 2). The LAARC is housed in the Museum’s Mortimer Wheeler House resource centre, about 2 miles from the main Museum building and its galleries. It shares the building with the offices of the Museum’s archaeology service and much of the Museum’s social and working history collections.A grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund and funding from central government.The Getty Grant Program and many other organizations, archaeological societies, and individuals, financed its creation.Two new large storage areas have been created as well as a visitor centre and two study rooms.State-of-the art roller storage has been installed and a computerized index and access system (the latter available over the web) have been developed.The LAARC project, which included not only building and equipping the new spaces but also designing the computer systems and undertaking a minimum standards programme on the archive, cost about £2.5 million. Funding for the six-person team who manage the LAARC is found primarily from the Museum’s recurrent costs. The London archive is by far the largest in Britain.It currently includes about 150,000 individual boxes of finds stored on 10,000m to shelving. And includes finds and records from about 5,200 individual excavations from throughout Greater London.And, of course, this figure is growing every year.Therefore, about 20 years expansion space has been built into the plans.This will be achieved partly through current spare space but also by the rationalization of existing material.The Museum has prepared rigorous standards for the preparation of new archives resulting from excavations (Museum of London 1998) and expects the archives from all excavations in Greater London to be deposited in the LAARC.It has taken a while for the twenty or so archaeological contractors that regularly operate in London to become accustomed to this new disciplined approach, but the will does seem to be there and material is now being deposited
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 140 School of Distance Education
at an increased rate.Meanwhile, the Museum has also turned its attention to that material already in its care. This has been generated over about 100 years by many different archaeologists working for many different organizations.Material is not compatible and often not easily accessible. A huge effort is being made to bring all this material up to an acceptable level of care and accessibility. A key part of this work was the Getty Projects-funded Minimum Standards Project.This involved a team of curators and conservators checking through the archive and ensuring that the basic records and storage conditions will allow for the long-term health of the objects and that they are accessible for research. Research has been spearheaded by the publication of a London archaeological research framework and a series of partnerships with London’s archaeologists.A key partnership is with the Institute of Archaeology, which now offers an MA degree in London Archaeology, its students doing placements at the LAARC and writing their dissertations on material held there.The HEFCE Archive Archaeology project (see the next section) is part of this partnership.Another key part of the London archaeological community is its local societies and again the Museum is working with these groups to encourage research and use of the LAARC. Several societies were actively involved in the planning of the LAARC and even donated funds for its creation.It is hoped that society projects either researching London’s past or helping with collections management in the LAARC will allow local society members to feel actively involved in London’s archaeology – something that has been difficult in the last 10 years as more and more archaeology has been funded commercially by developers.Another initiative is for the LAARC to host a central London Young Archaeologists Club. Curation Costs and Charging For sometime in the United Kingdom, some institutions have charged for accepting and curating archives.This originated in the 1981 “box grant” scheme operated by English Heritage, whereby a grant of 12.69 per 0.017 cubic metres (in effect 13 per box) was made available to certain museums to store the archives from excavations they had funded.When the scheme was set up, museums had to meet specific criteria that acted as a benchmark for archaeological curating before they would qualify for the scheme.The box grant scheme has now all but died, mainly because English Heritage funds so few excavations. However, the principle has been taken over by many museums for developer-funded excavations, and the 1998 survey found a large number of museums charging to accept archives. It is unclear whether these amounts would really support the costs of storing archives in the long-term.As a theoretical accounting exercise that saw the money invested and used purely for this purpose it probably would.However, in reality this would never happen.Small amounts of sporadic income are eaten up within museum finances and storage space that cannot be purchased by the square meter as needed.Nowhere has money levied for archive deposition been able to fully fund archive curation.Generally planning archaeologists are against the idea of charging.This is based on the fact that they are already asking for developers to pay for excavation and postexcavation costs, and for landowners to donate finds, to ask them to pay for storage as well may be asking too much.Because it is not compulsory, or within any legal framework, it also allows the possibility of landowners choosing a cheaper option: an alternative non-charging museum maybe, or to store the finds themselves.This somewhat random method for charging for archive deposition is mirrored by the situation in the United States. Elsewhere it is normally expected that public funds will fund long-term curation.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 141 School of Distance Education
Sampling and Disposal One of the issues touched upon again and again in the debate over archive storage and curation is whether museums should be disposing of material, and whether archaeologists should be keeping all that they recover.It has a particular relevance to archives because of the sheer bulk and the mundane nature of so many of the objects. This is complex issue that works at both a theoretical level: what is a sample, what is the true value of material and can that value be predicted for the further? And at a practical level based round the capacity of museum stores, and their ability to buy, equip, and curate new ones. It is therefore essential that any debate about disposal is taken for the greater good of the archaeology, not on short-term financial grounds. All archaeologists can probably point to stored archive material that has never been accessed for research or any other purpose. Most would also be able to give examples of breakthroughs in research that were only possible because material had been kept even though its value had not been recognized at the time.Sometimes objects only get recognized as what they actually are years after excavation when more complete pieces are found.As intimated, archaeology and the preservation of archaeological collections are based on two premises.The first is that archaeological excavation is an unrepeatable experiment and that there is a duty to preserve the results of this experiment “by record”. The aim is to create an objective record of what has been excavated that can be continually reexamined and reinterpreted for infinity.The record acts in- proxy for the site that has been destroyed.This model remains a basic tenet of archaeological practice.But in a postmodern age, most would now accept that there is no such thing as objectivity or absolute truths that can be revealed by excavation and the reexamination of records. Similarly, as Hinton has noted, preservation by record is “a reflection of retention and recording policy already exercised on site, coloured by the research objectives and methods of the day”. Nevertheless, archaeologists cling on to the “preservation by record” orthodoxy. The second premise is that museums have a duty to preserve their collections forever.Curators must not let collections deteriorate, and they must not dispose of them.For archaeology, this is made more difficult because museums do not choose what they are expected to collect – they cannot decide how much archaeology comes out of the ground, it is in the hands of others, the cultural resource managers, the developers, the state archaeologists.So, theoretically, museums are making a commitment to the endless curation of an endless supply of archaeological material.Yet, even though it is essential to preserve and record everything, and then keep everything, the majority of the members of the archaeological profession do not seem to be prepared to find the resources for proper curation, or make use of this resource by continual reexamination and research.The archives from key sites do get reworked and reanalysed.In Britain, the Mesolithic hunting camp at Star Carr, Yorkshire, is a good example of this. But this is only a tiny drop in the ocean compared with the vast amount of material that is not being actively worked on. Is there still a strong argument for keeping all the archaeological collections that exist and all the material that comes from new excavations? The question of disposal goes back to those two gospels of archaeology and museums: preservation by record and keeping things forever.This is a subject that is now being addressed in the United Kingdom for museum collections in general and a debate has begun about archaeological material specifically. Similarly, in the United States, the National Park Service is currently considering a deaccessioning policy.The debate is centred on the fact that we are spending a lot of money curating many museum collections that are hardly ever used. If the profession can, for a moment, put aside the preservation by record
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 142 School of Distance Education
ethos, just what is the evidence that material is worth keeping? A model based on asking what samples are really required for future research should underpin archiving. Some categories of archaeological material are highly researched and have the potential to reveal new information in the further as scientific techniques improve and the knowledge base increases. Human remains are one such category. It is also the case that the archives from amjor sites, type-series, and important objects will always be in demand. Strong assemblages from good contexts on representative sites will also always have an important part to play in research, display, and education. However, unstratified material, uncontextualised material; residual fragmentary material; mass, mundane, and repetitive bulk finds; and very small assemblages from evaluations have a very limited research potential.Also, releasing this material from archives allows a more imaginative use of the material for teaching and other uses. Archive Use Of course, any discussion about disposal must be linked to an understanding of what is being used and how. In 2003, a 3-year “Archive Archaeology” project was set up, funded by the Higher Education Funding Council for England (or HEFCE).It was undertaken by Bristol University, Durham University, and University College London in partnership with the Museum of London’s LAARC.The project is seeking to encourage English universities to take the use of archives seriously as a teaching and research resource for undergraduate and graduate study. The project started with a survey; the results of which are summarised in Table 5.The findings of this survey make predictable if depressing reading.They show clearly the importance put on excavation as an essential archaeological tool but the failure to recognize the archives, collections, and records that result from excavation as an equally important and linked resource.It is easy to make a direct correlation between these findings and the lack of use of archives and museum collections by archaeologists, and the resulting lack of value these resources are given by the majority of the profession. As early as 1991, Peter Hinton was concerned at the apparent underuse of archives at the very time when their importance was being championed.The 1998 Swain survey also suggested that archives were underused.The report showed that 29% of archive repositories had received no enquiries or visitors at all in the previous year and that usage overall was low and dominated by research for displays.Ironically, if predictably, the survey also showed TABLE 5. How students at the twenty-four English Universities that teach archaeology use fieldwork, and archives, and museums in their teaching.(From unpublished interim report of the HEFCE Archive Archaeology project)
QUESTIONS YES, YES, NO COMPULSORY OPTIONAL
Is fieldwork an element of degree? 24 0 0
Does this include postexcavation element 23 1 0
Are there dedicated training excavations? 24 0 0
Is there a dedicated postexcavation 1 0 25 training?
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 143 School of Distance Education
Do students visit excavations? 24 0 0
Do students visit 2 19 3 SMRs/HERs?
Do students visit museum galleries? 5 18 1
Do students visit museum collections 0 17 7
Do students visit an archive centre? 5 3 15
that the archives that were most in demand were those from examples that had been most fully published and disseminated.The classic example of this is the archive for the Danebury Iron Age Hillfort, which was excavated between 1969 and 1988 by Barry Cunliffe and very fully published in a series of synthesized discussions and through a series of major monographs.The site is internationally known and is often referred to in major overviews of archaeology.The archive is held at Hampshire Museum service and is regularly used by research projects from around the world.It also provides the content for the Museum of the Iron Age, Andover.The site is arguably a victim of its own success, and professor Cunliffe’s energy, in being taken too readily as a type site for the Iron Age, but must be seen as a model for the speedy postexcavation analysis, dissemination, and full archiving that should be the norm. Collecting Areas Museum collecting areas for archives do though have a particular importance.This is because of the way that archaeological archives are generated by fieldwork quite independent of museum concerns.Under the PPG16 model, archaeological fieldwork will take place wherever and whenever a decision is made in advance of development that preservation by-records is preferable to preservation in situ.The fieldwork will then generate an archive and that archive will need to be curated in an appropriate regional repository, normally expected to be a museum. However, nothing in this system ensures that such a museum is available.As noted, there is no legislation to insist that local authorities provide museum services, and in some parts of the United Kingdom, no services exist, and some of those that do, have neither the capacity, nor the staff expertise to accept and then curate archives.Occasional large examples in areas otherwise not known for rich archaeology can exacerbated this situation.In the late 1980s, a large Romano- British town was discovered and excavated in advance of house building at Heybridge in Essex.No local museum existed that could accept the archive, let alone one with archaeological curatorial expertise.The archive, along with many others remains were left in the care of the archaeological contractors who carried out the excavation.In England, several attempts have been made to map museum collecting areas for archaeology under the auspices of the SMA and AAF.The most recent survey, undertaken in 2006, hopes to provide a definitive map of collecting areas and where provision is need or overlaps. Although it might be hoped that important finds will cross local authority boundaries in order to find a suitable museum home, the expense of curating archives, and the way museums are normally closely linked to specific local authorities covering specific areas means there is
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 144 School of Distance Education
normally a reluctance for museums to take on material from another area.Indeed, there have been examples of museums deaccessioning material that they collected historically and now falls outside their funding area.This happened in London with the (now closed) Passmore Edwards Museum that, at one time, collected through historic “West Essex” or east London but then sought to deaccession all material that did not originate from the London Borough of Newham where the museum was located and from where it was funded.This situation is not confined to the United Kingdom and will exist wherever the contract, developer-led archaeology model has been developed independently of a museum system.A familar situation exists in the United States, even though there is not the close linkage between archives and museums. Archives and the Social History of Archaeology As the discipline of archaeology ages the value of archives in telling the story of archaeology’s development is also being realized.In the United Kingdom, it was Diana Murray who first argued for using archives in this way, and for the need for the creation of archives to record those involved, not just what they were recording.Archives are being used more and more as historical resources.The plans from examples at Maiden Castle at Dorchester Museum, written in Mortimer Wheeler’s own hand, have taken on a greater significance than their role simply to record archaeological events.The Canterbury Roman Museum actually displays some of the early boxes, packaging, and labeling of its early finds as artefacts in their own right. Outside the United Kingdom This part has dealt almost entirely with the very specific circumstances of archives in United Kingdom, primarily English, museums.This is not because it is a purely English situation but because it is the United Kingdom where the development of market-led planning-related archaeology is very advanced and has highlighted the flaws in the traditional model that sees archives as an essential result of excavation that is deemed worthy of long-term curation and reuse.Most particularly, it is an outcome of the great increase in the archaeological material that has come from well-regulated planning-led contract archaeology.The other part of the World where this system is as well-established is the United States.Indeed, in the United States a problem arose with large amounts of archaeological finds and records without a sustainable future before it did in Europe.By the 1970s, many repositories were filling up without resources for curation.A number of surveys have identified a similar ongoing “crisis” to that in the United Kingdom.A 1986 government report revealed, for example, that a large number of excavation archives for sites dug prior to 1975 were lost or destroyed. It also estimated that US50 million would be required to catalogue the backlog of finds held by the National Parks Service. In the United States, arguments have been made for regional repositories. For an up-to-date and detailed analysis of the archive situation in the United States.They paint a picture very similar to the one in the United Kingdom, although they put a different emphasis on causes and effects. They talk about a crisis in curation of archaeological collections that has primarily developed out of a failure of archaeologists to accept that curation is not something that is only thought about at the end of the fieldwork and research process.They note The U.S. Government Accounting Office report Cultural Resources – Problems Protecting and Preserving Federal Archaeological Resources (GAO 1987) that stated, “repositories were understaffed, overstuffed, and under funded”.There was a move in the United States towards standards for the care of archives in the 1980s due to the great increase in excavations, and this was reinforced by Federal legislation. Sullivan and Childs suggest the solution to the “curation crisis” lies with
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 145 School of Distance Education
education and training of more curation staff, and better communication and interaction between curators and field archaeologists. Many archaeological repositories do exist in the United States, often run by major universities, national organizations, private organizations, or through state funding that meets the very highest standards of curation and care. Examples include the State Archaeological Repository and Conservation facility for Maryland and the APVA resource at Jamestown.Some of these centres are truly excellent. A further example is the Smithsonian resource centre at Suitland, MD, for the National Museum of the American Indian that not only includes excellent curatorial and research facilities but has been built in sympathy with Native American wishes over such things as materials, orientations, colours, and even dedicated spaces for ceremonies.Elsewhere in the world, plenty of examples can be found of archaeological collections poorly stored, underused, and inaccessible.However, so far few others places have sought to confront this situation directly, although debate has begun in Europe.On a global scale, there are still far too many examples of foreign university projects that take archives out of their country of origin making them often inaccessible for future research, and, obviously, unusable within communities.Surveys are needed to discover just how serious the problem is internationally. Overall, the picture painted for the situation in the United States by Sullivan and Childs (2003) and others, although differing in detail, is incredibly similar to the situation in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in Europe, suggesting there are problems fundamental to archaeological practice at its core rather than particular circumstances in particular places. HUMAN REMAINS Once dealt with simply as another type of artefact, for a number of reasons human remains, normally skeletons but also examples of “soft tissue”, are now thought of quite separately and are currently a major subject of debate that includes such issues as repatriation and reburial. They also have the potential to be hugely important as scientific evidence and controversial subjects for display. Background 15 years ago, human remains would not have merited their own chapter in this part.For most museums, and for most archaeologists, they were dealt with in the same way as any other type of artefact, or at the best as scientific samples.In recent years, they have taken on a far more prominent place in collections.Most would now accept they have a unique status that requires a unique treatment.This change has its origin in the political empowerment of Indigenous communities in Australia and North America and claims for the restitution and reburial of ancestral dead held in museum ethnographical, archaeological, and medical collections.This, in turn, has led to a debate about the role of all human remains in museums. Against this is a background where most archaeology museums hold human remains of some kind, normally skeletons, and archaeologists continue to regularly excavate remains and argue for the immense importance of human remains on display in museums.These include Egyptian mummies and skeletons as parts of grave assemblages from many later periods.These sometimes include remains with surviving soft tissue of some form.Occasionally, remains are displayed as examples of palaeopathology, sometimes to show specific cultural practices, and sometimes simply as props. It has been estimated that the remains of, at the least, 61,000 human individuals are held in 132 English museums.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 146 School of Distance Education
The study of human remains can contribute to a large range of research topics.Ancient human remains, and their context, are an important source of direct evidence about the past, including: the study of “human evolution and adaptation, and genetic relationships: population relationships through genetics and morphology; past demography and health; diet, growth and activity patterns; disease and causes of death; history of disease and of medicine; burial practices, beliefs and attitudes; and the diversity of cultural practices in which the body and its parts are used”.The study of human remains also contributes to the treatment of disease and to the development of forensic science, which assists in the identification of human remains and in crime detection.Ironically, this means that of all categories of archaeological material, human remains are the ones that most curators would least like to see lost.The majority of the museum-going public also feel comfortable about seeing skeletons and other human remains on display in museums and it has been suggested that the presence of human remains in displays is one way of bringing the public into direct contact with past people and “humanizing” displays and interpretations. Indeed, many look forward to seeing human remains in museums, and there is no doubt that there is an element of voyeurism, or at the least morbid titillation about viewing remains. Popular culture is dominated by the supernatural and the recently dead and long dead are a potent part of this. The use of mummies and other ghosts from museum displays in popular culture shows how, within Western culture, human remains have been divorced from the sacred.They are not inherently sacred; they only acquire this label by association.This is not the case for many other cultures.Many archaeological, ethnographical, and medical collections hold the human remains of cultures for which the treatment of the dead is sacred.Many remains were also taken from societies who were, and are politically, disempowered and to whom the holding of ancestor’s remains by others perpetuates wrongs done.It is through this morale maze that the museum archaeologist needs to tread.Is it acceptable to display skeletons in Western museums for school children to feign horror at? Is it acceptable to return or reburry human remains that have the potential to answer key questions about humanities past? And the hardest question to answer of all: do the dead have rights? Who is best placed to speak for them when they cannot speak for themselves? Human Remains and Archaeology Human remains are of particular importance to archaeologists, not only because they offer our only physical evidence for ancient people themselves, but also because in the vast majority of cases they are found as they were deposited and therefore offer evidence of the beliefs and practices of past peoples; they are not the rubbish and discard that characterise most archaeological finds.There is a large literature on the study of human remains in archaeology.Human bone will survive in the majority of soil conditions.The older the remains, the less likely their survival; but bones have to be many thousands of years old before they fail to survive.Their contribution falls into three main areas. First, large cemetery assemblages, with good archaeological records, providing date and context, offer a cross section of past populations and can be used to help understand their nature (average life expectancy, health, demography, etc.) and how they were affected by their environments. Second, human remains from graves can contribute to an understanding of the beliefs and practices of past societies.Third, very early remains, sometimes fossilised, and examples from around the world, help us understand human evolution and how the human race has spread itself around the world and adapted to different
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 147 School of Distance Education
environments.New scientific techniques, such as the study of DNA and isotopes, have the potential to identify the origins of skeletons and the health and living conditions of the dead. The Excavation of Human Remains, Law, and Guidance in the United Kingdom In the United Kingdom the legal basis for the excavation of human remains is very clear.There is the legislation and planning advice concerned with archaeology in its widest sense.This includes the 1979 Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act and Planning and Policy Guidance Note 16: Archaeology and Planning (PPG16).When it comes to human burial, the law is not designed purely for the purpose of archaeology.Under the 1857 Burial Act, it is illegal to disinter a body without lawful authority.This authority comes in the form of a licence from the Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs (until 2004, the licences came from the Home Office).Other legislation exists that covers the development of disused burial grounds and the removal of cemetery furniture, such as tombstones.Permission to disturb bodies buried in consecrated ground must come from the church.Therefore, in effect, cemetery excavations in England occur when a developer seeks to build over a disused burial ground.The local authority decides whether the development can go ahead, and if it does, the archaeologist concerned obtains a licence from the government to remove the burials.The licences will normally state that the excavation will be for the purpose of the scientific study of the burials and that reburial will take place at an appropriate time after study has been completed.Often, they will also state that remains of high scientific value can remain archived rather than being reburied. The licences do not make any stipulations or offer any guidance about the museum use of human remains.So; guidance must be sought from elsewhere on such issues as display and handling. A large and detailed literature on the ethics of excavating, curating, and displaying human remains has developed.However, this has dealt almost entirely with foreign cultures and religions.Concerns about the ethics of excavating earlier generations of Britons, beyond those who may have living close relatives, has until recently been less clear-cut. A good early summary of the issues was published in 1995 by Mike Parker Pearson.Pearson (1995) notes that in Britain therefore is a history of controversy but that it has not settled on a consensus viewpoint: “British attitudes to dead bodies are ambivalent, contradictory and volatile” and that, as such, there is still latitude in the way human remains are treated.One reason for this is that the Christian faith does not have strong views on the sanctity of the dead body once the soul has departed. Indeed, excavation shows it was very normal in the past for the church itself to disturb burials. It is normal to find burials and indeed extensions to churches cutting earlier burials, and to find charnel pits of disturbed bones where areas of cemeteries have been cleared. Parker Perason concluded with a code of ethics for human remains. This makes a sueful addition to museum codes of conduct with relation to human remains produced by the Museums Association and International Council of Museums (MA 1999; ICOM 1996). However, as already mentioned, most of these codes refer to the treatment of human remains from particular ethnic, cultural, or religious groups which hold strong beliefs as to the treatment of the dead, and to the treatment of human remains where existing relatives might still be alive.Once these have been discounted, the main call is for suitable respect and the kind of professional treatment that would be visited on any archaeological remains.This rather vague situation has changed radically within the last few years, and there is now clear guidance on both the excavation and curation of remains in British museums.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 148 School of Distance Education
Human Remains within Museum Collections The whole landscape for the acquisition, study, display, and curation of human remains in British museums is changing rapidly.This is due to a number of separate but not unrelated initiatives.These include the passing of the Human Tissue Act that regulates the rights of those dealing with human tissue less than 100 years old into the use of human remains in museums, and the subsequent guidance fro museums published in 2005 and, finally, the 2005 report by the Church of England and English Heritage into the excavation and study of human remains from Church of England sites. These initiatives cover England, Northern Ireland, and Wales, but not Scotland.Guidance already exists there for the excavation of human remains and a working group is currently convened to cover the same areas as the DCMS guidance. The 2005 DCMS Guidance for the Care of Human Remains in Museums along with the Human Tissue Act and Church of England/English Heritage report, provides, for the first time, clear guidance and regulation for dealing with almost all aspects of human remains as they have an impact on archaeology and museums in England.The catalyst for these changes can be found in three places. First, the Alder Hey scandal of the 1990s, where it was discovered that the organs of children who had died in hopsital had been retained without the consent of parents.This led to a widespread analysis of how and where human remains were held by public institutions and under what circumstances.Second, the disquiet felt by many over the traveling exhibition Body Worlds that used “plastinated” human remains to illustrate anatomy and other aspects of human physiognomy.Third, there have been a growing number of claims for the repatriation of human remains from Indigenous peoples, and the changes in legislation in the United States, and policy in Australia that facilitated return in those countries.British museums and universities acquired large collections of human remains in the nineteenth and early twentieth century from Indigenous peoples, normally without the consent of those peoples, and, in most cases, for the purpose of proving modals of racial superiority that are now disproved and discredited.A number of remains have been rapatriated, normally from non-national museums with ethnographic collections.As yet, no returns have taken place from institutions with large collections of human remains held primarily as scientific collections. Britain will be affected in its future action by its particular historical past.Enlightenment values and the Church of England, neither of which put any particular sacred significance on remains, have heavily shaped domestic attitudes to human remains.Nondomestically; Britain must deal with its colonial past and the attitudes of Empire that came with it. A particular driver for relations with Indigenous people has been the claims for repatriation from Australian Aborigines and the support Australian domestic and foreign government policy have given their claims. In July 2000, the British Prime Minister Tony Blair and his Australian counterpart John Howard made a joint commitment to improve communication between British museums and Aborigine communities and to facilitate better methods for dealing with claims for return.This, and the Alder Hey scandal, led eventually to the Human Tissue Act and the forming of the British Government Working Group on Human Remains.This group reported in 2003 (DCMS 2003) with a consultation paper following in 2004 (DCMS 2004).From this work came the 2005 DCMS drafting group that delivered guidance for museums holding remains.A final factor in this debate was a growing concern over the increasing number of human remains that were being disturbed from cemetery sites in Britain by redevelopment and the wish to regulate this activity in terms of archaeological value.This led to the formation, in 2001, of a joint English Heritage – Church of England working group that published its work in 2005.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 149 School of Distance Education
All of the above may not have a particularly profound immediate effect on many museums and how they deal with remains.Although, the spring of 2006 saw the British Museum agree to return two cremation bundles to Tasmania. However, this is almost certainly the start of a process that will see human remains dealt with differently and lead, in time, to a new philosophy to their acquisition, care, and use.What is notable is that most pressure for change is coming from within the profession or from external influences, not from museum visitors.There is no evidence that members of the public do not visit museums because human remains are on display – if anything, the opposite is true.Similarly, there appears, on the basis of what evidence there is, to be a string support for the excavation, study, and display of human remains from archaeological sites in the United Kingdom (see the next section). As noted in this part, human remains form an important and prominent part of museum archaeological collections in many parts of the world and often feature in displays. A walk round the galleries of the British Museum reveals rooms of Egyptian mummies, some in their sarcophaguses, some outside them, some partly unwrapped.There are also examples of early natural mummification, including the predynastic burial known as “Ginger” which has good soft tissue preservation. Other galleries include skeletons from other cultures and “Peat Marsh” the late Iron Age “bog body” from Cheshire that also has complete soft-tissue preservation.At the Museum of London, prehistoric skeletons can be viewed as well as skulls recovered from the Wallbrook stream and River Thames.At the Kulturen I Lund in Sweden, unassociated skulls from plague cemeteries are displayed in the medieval gallery along the tops of other displays along with the names of known victims – although there is no direct link between the names and associated skulls. Also in Sweden, both the Gotland Fornsal Museum and the Drotten Archaeological Museum Lund include osteological displays, as does the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen. A trip to the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Balzano, Italy, will find the body and equipment of the “Ice Man” known as “Otzi”. (It is interesting that it is the soft-tissue remains that have been given nicknames.)The National Museum of Greenland in Nuuk displays the bodies of a fifteenth-century family preserved in frozen conditions. The Xinjiang Regional Museum in China displays the famous mummies of Urumqi.At the Archaeological Museum of Sanskrit Pedro de Atacama in Chile, Andean mummies is displayed. These are just a few examples of the thousands of human remains that can be seen on public display. And the public flock to see these displays, and no one calls for their removal. However, there are no human remains on display at the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, DC, and generally throughout North America the remains of Indigenous Americans are no longer displayed.Similarly, the remains of Aboriginal people are not displayed in Australian museums.For the 1998 permanent exhibition at the Australian Museum in Sydney, the curators failed to persuade Aboriginal communities to display skeletons, casts, or images of aboriginal human remains.For key parts of the exhibitions story, “outline shapes” were displayed.Recently, Peruvian Indigenous cultural organizations demanded that the Imka mummies on display be removed because they symbolise genocide and should not be used to attract visitors to a museum.Similarly, the plans to display 500-year-old, incredibly well- preserved, mummies of children from the Andes in the Museum of High Altitude Archaeology in Salta province, Argentina, has led to objections from Indigenous groups who have called this an “insult to their ancestors”.A leader of indigenous groups is reported to have said that the planned display was “a violation of our loved ones” and that “they should not put our children on exhibition as if in a circus”.The Director of Argentina’s national museum Americo Castilla
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 150 School of Distance Education
added to the debate by stating, “today it is no longer considered ethical to put human remains on display” . Policy in Australia means that wherever possible Aboriginal remains have been returned to tribes, normally to be reburied, or put in a keeping place in the National Museum where access is given only to Indigenous people, not Western scientists.The majority of these remains would not be considered of high archaeological importance but there are exceptions.Australian Aboriginal people do not accept Western concepts of time and lineage.Place is far more important so any remains from tribal land, however ancient, are considered ancestors. Occasionally this has led to disputes.The most famous example of this is the so-called Lake Mungo Woman.These remains, discovered in 1968, are the oldest known cremation in the world at more than 30,000 years old and as such of huge scientific value as well as being considered of immense spiritual significance to the local and national Aboriginal community. To recognize this shared value, a compromise was arrived at whereby the remains were returned to Aboriginal communities but held in a keeping place whereby they would not be lost completely too future study. A more recent, and better-known example of controversy over ancient human remains, has been the case of so-called Kennewick Man in the United States.These remains were discovered in 1996 on Federal U.S. Army land in the state of Washington.They date to about 9,000 years ago. Five Native American tribes claimed the bones under the provision of NAGPRA with the intention of reburial without scientific analysis. A group of physical anthropologists sued the Federal government to release the remains for study and a series of acrimonious and very public debates have ensued, while the remains have been kept at the Burke Museum in Seattle.In 2004, 8 years after the lawsuit begun, judges finally agreed that the remains should be made available for scientific study. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA ) enacted in the United States in 1990 calls on all museums holding Indigenous human remains (and other material) from Federal land to publicly list their holdings and proactively seek to repatriate their holdings to appropriate tribes.It has had a profound effect on U.S. museums both in terms of forcing them to research their collections and also for the process of repatriation and the links the museums have had to build with Indigenous communities.As an example, the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (SMNH) has repatriated about 3,300 of its 18,000 native Indian human remains under the terms of NAGPRA. There are mixed views in the United States over the effects of NAGPRA. Although some have been dismayed at the loss of collections, many have seen the process as positive in the way it has made the museum and archaeological community build links with Indian communities. Public Responses So, should museums continue to collect, store, display, and research human remains?As already noted the situation in North America, Australia, and New Zealand is very different to that with human remains from non-contested origins in Europe.A small survey of the public who visited archaeological events and museums in Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom, showed that of 220 responses 85% were aware that archaeologists frequently kept skeletons after excavation; 70% thought they should be reburied, but of these 71% thought this should only be when all scientific potential had been exhausted; 88% thought it was appropriate to keep human remains for further scientific study; 56% thought the dead person’s previous religious beliefs should be a factor in the treatment of remains; 79% expected to see human remains on display in museums;
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 151 School of Distance Education
73% thought this was appropriate; 71% expected to see remains at “one-off public events hosted by archaeologists”, and 69% thought this was appropriate. Similar support was found in a survey of visitors to displays of Ancient Egyptian remains in UK museums where 82.5% of respondents supported display although 14.2% supported a “more appropriate and respectful environment”.When the Museum of London staged the London Bodies exhibition in 1998-1999, the exhibition was a success with visitors.Figures suggest about 15,600 people came to the Museum specifically to see the exhibition.Since detailed records started in 1992, London Bodies registered the highest proportion of visitors going round and the highest average daily visitor figures of any of its temporary exhibitions (the figures have since been surpassed by other exhibitions). 28 comments on the exhibition were left in the visitor comments box and 134 comments were made as part of market research surveys.Of these, 110 were positive, and 62 were negative (figures will not exactly correlate as some individuals gave more than one view).Of the negative comments, only one visitor was unhappy about the ethics of displaying human remains.This compares with seventeen who were unhappy with captions and displays being too high; one visitor who was hoping the exhibition would be “more shocking”; and one visitor who wanted to see more skeletons.Hopefully these figures justify the museum’s belief that the general public is happy to see skeletons displayed under the correct circumstances.Ironically, during the run of London Bodies, the Museum had to deal with far more complaints about a small exhibition on Oliver Cromwell that had neglected to comment on his actions in Ireland. One year after London Bodies, Museum of London archaeologists unearthed a late Roman stone sarcophagus containing a lead coffin at Spitalfields close to the city.Clearly a very rich burial with possible good levels of survival within the lead coffin, it was brought unopened back to the Museum and put on display.Media interest was very high, and this, in turn, led to a high level of public interest.The coffin was opened one evening after the Museum had closed and the skeleton was immediately put on public display, and it remained there for 1 month. This discovery led to an extra 10,000 visitors coming to the Museum. Some queued for 1.5 hours to see the skeleton and other finds.Again, there was no negative response from anyone.The London Bodies and Spitalfields experiences show clearly that not only are the vast majority of the public comfortable seeing skeletons in museums, on occasions they can be a special draw.The Museum has continued to use skeletons in its permanent galleries.This includes that of a child with rickets in the World City gallery that covers the period 1789-1914 (although this has now been taken off display), and two complete skeletons and several skulls in the London before London exhibition that covers the Greater London area in prehistory. Again, there has been no negative response. The Museum has also continued to carry out visitor surveys about the use of human remains.These have taken place as part of research for the development of the new Medieval London gallery and related to public events using the skeletons from excavations.These surveys, normally including about 100 respondents, always produce a figure of more than 85% (normally more than 95%) in support of the Museum holding, studying, and displaying human remains. Admittedly, these surveys have always drawn their respondents from a very particular group: those already choosing to visit the museum or from a group with an interest in history and archaeology.All of this would suggest a clear division between the views of the Western museum-going public who remain comfortable with human remains in all their forms in museums (no doubt for various reasons) and peoples of other cultures who object to remains being on display and in collections for religious, cultural, or political reasons. The question is
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 152 School of Distance Education
whether these different views will affect each other.There are some examples of Native American Indians taking an interest in the study of their ancestor’s remains. It is also the case that the “Indigenous view” has led to some soul searching amongst the Western museum community about human remains, and this is beginning to have an effect on some displays and policies.Indeed, the DCMS (2005a) document might be seen as evidence of this. The Value and Use of Collections As we have already noted, many museums with archaeological collections hold human remains. In many cases, these might be only a few examples, maybe just skulls, often from antiquarian collections. Such collections seldom have nay archaeological value, and in many cases it might be difficult to justify them being kept in the collection. More significant are the large archaeological collections that have often come from cemetery excavations and that have the potential to contribute to research.The largest collections in the United Kingdom are the Duckworth Collection at the University of Cambridge that is not part of a museum collection, and the collection of the Natural History Museum.Both of these institutions hold about 19,000 human remains each.They include large archaeological assemblages but also individual skeletons and smaller assemblages from all around the world, and their value is primarily for offering examples for physical anthropological study.The Museum of London currently holds about 17,000 human skeletons.Apart from a few skeletons and parts of skeletons in the core collections – mainly skulls, normally derived from antiquarian collections – the vast majority are held as part of archaeological excavation archives in the London Archaeological Archive and Research Centre. These have been recovered as parts of controlled excavations on sites due for re- development in Greater London over the last 30 years. All are associated with archaeological records that give information about the context and circumstances of their burial.The majority come from large assemblages (the largest group of about 10,000 from the medieval hospital of St. Mary Spital, which makes them statistically viable for scientific research. The Museum is currently undertaking a project funded by the Wellcome Trust to produce an online database of 5,000 of the skeletons to promote research.A further 5,000 of the skeletons from St. Mary Spital are being added to this.Recent projects have identified the presence of congenital syphilis in medieval skeletons – the disease was previously thought to have been introduced to Europe by Columbus’s expedition to Central America.Another project identified major differences between the health of medieval monks and their hospital charges and an ongoing project is trying to identify evidence of a known medieval famine in an assemblage of skeletons from victims of the Black Death (from excavations at the Royal Mint site in East Smithfield). Traditionally, the skeletons have been treated in the same way as other “bulk” archaeological finds; kept in plastic bags, within cardboard boxes on shelves amongst other archaeological finds in one of our off-site stores.The Museum of London has recently reviewed the status of the collections and divided the human remains into three categories; those of no possible future scientific value that can be reburied (about 1,000 of which have indeed been reburied), those of limited research value because of the small sample size that can be stored with limited access (about 1,000); and those of high and continuing research value (about 15,000).Although the above figures would suggest that the vast majority of the London remains will remain within the museum’s collections, the important principle is to continually review their status and remember that all remains are in temporary care and are not part of the permanent collections. All of the skeletons are kept in a dedicated store away from other material.A summary of the remains is
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 153 School of Distance Education
available from the Museum’s website that will in time be joined by the full database of all remains. Skeletons that are reburied, all of which are from Christian burials, have been reburied in a mass grave at a London cemetery. In the meantime, it is hoped that a long-term store in a disused church or church crypt might be found for the remaining skeletons, where they would be on consecrated ground but still available for researchers. A similar solution has already been found for medieval skeletons excavated from Barton-on Humber in North Lincolnshire, where following study the skeletons will be stored in the organ loft of a local redundant church. The Church of England/English Heritage (2005) report has identified the need for such stores. The Museum of London is at one extreme of the range of human remains held by museums.Perhaps a more typical example is Perth Museum and Art Gallery in Scotland. Perth’s human remains collections include a full skeleton used as a biological specimen as part of the Museum’s Natural Science collection. It was purchased for 45 florins, in 1893, from V. Fric in Prague, suppliers of biological specimens and preparations.It is part of the Museum’s much- reduced osteological collection, largely put together in the nineteenth century and presently also comprising five teeth and seven skulls.The museum also holds Scottish archaeological material, all of it of local provenance; ethnography collections including a small volume of human remains, namely a pair of heads from New Zealand and a pair of heads from South America, finally there are Egyptology collections, a mummy and sarcophagus and several mummified body parts. Prior to the 1970s, the mummy was on permanent display, and there is a strong collective memory in Perth of seeing it on display and expecting it to be on display.As part of its education service, tours are given to see the mummy.The mummy is also used in the occasional exhibition or special event. The museum has had no complaints about the use of the mummy, indeed, given the choice most visitors would like to see it on permanent display.Of its Scottish remains, Perth holds archaeology collections that comprises prehistoric cremated remains, a complete early medieval skeleton, and skeletons, skulls, and fragments from medieval burials in Perth (primarily around St. John’s parish church) and from the nearby Elcho nunnery. Perth has repatriated its New Zealand material. This was met by a level of misunderstanding and naïve reporting in the local media and complaints by New Zealand white supremacists. The Display of Human Remains At present, human remains are displayed in museums as if they were any other type of artefact; normally within glass cases in amongst other displays.Often, attempts are made to reconstruct graves as archaeologists found them.So it is normal to see skeletons with grave goods and sometimes surrounded by real or fake rocks or soil. Soft-tissue remains sometimes require particular environment conditions, and these can affect display conditions.For many museums, such displays remain an acceptable and even an ideal way to attract visitors. The recent redisplay of the exhibition section of the Jorvik Viking Centre in York put emphasis on the skeletons from excavations because these were seen as a powerful way of making a direct link between visitors and the people of the past. However, in response to the reconsideration of the place of human remains in museum collections already discussed, some museums have begun to approach display in a new way. An early attempt to consider the ethics of human remains display was made for the redisplay of the Alexander Keiller Museum in Avebury, Wiltshire.Human remains are still displayed but careful consideration was made of visitor views before a decision was made. For its Digging for
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 154 School of Distance Education
Dreams exhibition, the Petrie Museum put human remains from ancient Egypt on display but behind a shroud that visitors only lifted at their own choice.At the Egyptian exhibition at New Walk Museum in Leicester, parts of a mummy are displayed but specifically to challenge the visitor to question the ethical correctness of this approach.The Turin Egyptian Museum has recently redisplayed an Egyptian mummy not a lot unlike “Ginger” at the British Museum.Here, the skeleton itself has been placed in a large case with blanked in sides so it can only be seen from above. This gives both “privacy” to the remains and also makes the decision to view it a conscious one by the visitor.The accompanying displays make the body the centre of a shrine- like display that gives it a special place that invites contemplation and respect.A similar approach has been taken at the Latenium Museum in Switzerland, where skeletons are displayed in a small room within the overall display. China has a more ambivalent approach to display.In the Turpan Museum, human remains are displayed in a separate room are clearly marked, “Exhibition of Turpan Ancient Dried Bodies”.The remains are incredibly well-preserved natural mummies and include a pregnant woman with a baby still in her womb and a man whose face is contorted with pain.The remains are displayed with a velvet case lining and, interestingly, the groin area is covered with similar fabric for modesty. At the Silk Road Cultural Relics Museum, remains are exhibited in a circular antechamber and have their heads facing Mecca, according to Muslim custom.This are despite the fact that these bodies predate the spread of Islam in the area. Occasionally, new technology is allowing for human remains to be displayed in different ways. Some museums use x-ray photographs to show the inside of unwrapped mummies.The British Museum’s Mummy, the Inside-Story focused on a single mummy and a three-dimensional film of its investigation using medical body-scanning technology to investigate it without having to unwrap it. Between 27 October 1998 and 21 February 1999, the Museum of London staged the exhibition London Bodies. The exhibition traced how the appearance of Londoners has changed since prehistoric times, with the central feature a series of skeletons presented below perspex covers, laid out in marble dust on mortuary trolleys.The exhibition showed how archaeological evidence from human burials could supplement historical evidence and tell the story of peoples’ changing shapes through time. It drew upon the very large collection of human skeletons within the Museum’s archaeological archive, and on the detailed analysis that is currently taking place on this material by Museum of London specialists. Apart from the complete skeletons, a number of other human bones were featured to illustrate specific medical conditions, including the pelvis bones from a medieval woman and those of her unborn child, both who had died during the birth. The museum gave careful thought to its motivations for the exhibition, how the right balance would be achieved between a suitable respect for the human remains and the maximum public access to the stories they told.A defining moment came with the press launch for the exhibition. There was a need to “hook” the press to obtain the publicity the exhibition needed. A themed breakfast was arranged involving “long bone toast” and bloody (strawberry) fruit juice.Journalists were issued torches and led into the subterranean store.There, specialists in white coats gave a presentation under spotlight in the otherwise darkened basement. But the showmanship was only allowed to go so far.A request from the PRACTICE consultants that all museum staff should wear surgical masks was refused.It was clearly explained why the museum had the care of these skeletons, the legal foundation for this care, and the reasons behind excavation and analysis.During all dealings with the press and media, only the osteologists and
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 155 School of Distance Education
conservators handled bones. Only photographs taken or supervised by the Museum were permitted. Only material from archaeological specimens was used. In undertaking the exhibition, the museum was conscious that some might be disturbed or upset by it content, or simply not wish to see it. For this reason, it was carefully shielded from the rest of the museum with clear panels explaining its content.Unaccompanied children and school parties were not allowed to enter.The museum prepared a statement on the context of the use of remains for use with external enquiries.The museum has since prepared guidelines for the future display of remains.The guiding principle in this states: “Human skeletons are an important part of the Museum of London’s archaeological collections and provide important evidence about the past lives of Londoners. If dealt with in a responsible and sensitive way they have the ability to act as a powerful method of interpretation for the Museum”. It will be interesting to see whether there continues to be a place for major exhibitions and displays featuring human remains.The Simthsonian National Museum of Natural History is currently planning a major exhibition Written in the Bone that will tell the story of the very first European settlers on the American Atlantic Seaboard using their skeletons as recovered from archaeological excavations.It is also interesting that at the very time that museums are questioning the use of remains in other spheres, the place of human remains is being given a new dimension.Gunther von Hagens’ touring Body Worlds exhibition has met with controversy but also large and enthusiastic visitor numbers. The exhibition features “plastinated” and dissected human bodies.Von Hagens has also carried out public autopsies and anatomy classes, some of which have been transmitted on British terrestrial television. A second touring exhibition Bodies, the Exhibition has used similar material. Another popular aspect of the display of human remains in recent years has been the reconstruction of faces using forensic techniques. This allows for the reconstruction of the possible appearances of people from their skulls by building up muscle and flesh based on known averages.So popular has this technique become that most museums in Britain with archaeological displays also have an example of one of these heads (many were produced for the BBC television series Meet the Ancestors).Unfortunately, for the very reason that these reconstructions are based on averages, and are not given expressions, they all tend to end up looking the same and then rely on artistic interpretation put on things, such as a hairstyle, to give them an identity. The Human Remains of Archaeologists We finish this part with an example that perhaps illustrates the contradictions inherent in the human remains debate.In 1943, on his death, the great archaeologist Flinders Petrie left his skull to the Royal College of Surgeons London as an example of a typical European type, hoping it would be of use in comparative studies of human skulls and, thus, races.Petrie died in Palestine and his head was duly removed, preserved in fluid, and sent to London. For reasons that are unclear, the head was never defleshed but instead it was left in its preserving fluid and consigned to a cupboard where it was largely forgotten.In recent years, staff at the Royal College of Surge4ons and others, including staff of the Petrie Museum, University College London once more became aware of the great man’s head.Some initial consternation, and the question of identity over the head’s dark brown hair (Petrie died in old age with white hair), was overcome with analysis that showed the preserving fluid had dyed the hair and beard.Other than this, the head is perfectly preserved, but what were they to do with it?There would appear to be three
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 156 School of Distance Education
options.The head could still be defleshed thus fulfilling Petrie’s stated desire.But there would be no scientific use for such a skull in the way Petrie had hoped.The head could be kept as it is, but again it is difficult to find any use other than curiosity, and Petrie’s wish was clearly for his skull to be kept, not the complete head. Finally, the head could be buried or cremated and thus be “laid to rest”. RESEARCH For many museums, pure research is becoming more and more of a luxury.However, much past archaeological research has taken place within museums or is based directly on museum collections.This part deals with the types of research museum archaeological collections can support, how this can be achieved and worked into wider programmes, and how it can relate to other research establishments such as universities. Introduction In considering archaeological research in its widest sense, museum archaeology is normally considered the poor sibling.University archaeologists deliver new theory, field archaeologists deliver new data. Museum archaeologists simply keep the stuff in boxes and put things inside glass cases and possibly write catalogues.This is a perception delivered by the archaeological hegemony that has placed fieldwork and theory as supreme.However, much archaeological research in the past has been undertaken by museum archaeologists and has used museum collections.In recent decades, as theory has been divorced from real things, and fieldwork has been driven by development rather than research, museums and curators have been even more marginalised from the process of new knowledge generation.But they remain key players. One of the prime reasons that archaeological material is collected, curated, and managed is so that research can take place and new knowledge and ideas about the past developed.Inevitably, archaeological research undertaken in museums will primarily be collections and object based, although much other research, including fieldwork, has taken pace from a museum base. Discussions about archaeological research in museums normally revolves around staff not having the time or resources to undertake it, and not enough other archaeologists choosing to do it – preferring instead to undertake yet another excavation.Excavation has always been the prime means by which archaeologists have gone about accumulating new data.Although this might have been justified in the past, for a long time now, for many places and periods, even without the arguments about excavation being destructive, excavation is being undertaken for a diminishing return of new data while vast amounts of unrecorded data sit in museum archives. Similarly, it is suggested that university academics shy away from the research of collections while archaeology becomes more and more theory based. Many academics exist primarily in a theoretical world divorced from real things.Museum curators are also spending more and more time writing about museology, and its history rather than actually studying their collections.But, this is simplifying the situation.There is a long tradition of highly important primary research into archaeological museum collections that draw on the advantages of having large catalogued, contextualised, and provenanced collections in one place. For example, Wise (2001) notes the role of the early curator/scholar/digger, such as Rex Hillin Colchester, for laying the foundations to the archaeological knowledge we now use. Much current archaeological knowledge, particularly about artefacts, was based on museum collections or collections that are now in museums.Although it has been observed that, archaeologists in general, and museum curators in
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 157 School of Distance Education
particular, have stopped cataloguing and publishing major corpora of collections that would then facilitate new research. Archaeology has also continued to suffer from a division of expertise whereby few archaeologists regularly excavate sites and undertake artefact studies.It is a depressing observation that there has always been and continues to be a gender and a philosophical divide between the male site supervisors and diggers and female finds workers, specialists, and conservators.How essential is new research to the curatorial process? Must curators be experts with that expertise founded on research, or can they be custodians facilitating the research of others? Is it enough just to know what is held and what its significance is? The normal stated view from within museums is that research into collections is essential, should be fundamental to curatorial practice, and must come from within an institution.If it is accepted that knowledge about collections for a museum is essential, and then research becomes essential as knowledge is not static and timeless, but is dynamic and changing. It could be argued that the research could be done “off-site” and accumulated as knowledge for on-site use.But the staff that are called on to make use of the knowledge and research must be confident in its use. This overall situation is not helped by a traditional idea of the role and methods of research held by many museum authorities. It is seen as the personal preserve of scholars and has some form of tangential relationship to the overall purpose and running of an institution. As such, research tends to be seen as marginal and wasteful.Curators go to the grave, or at least retire, with their accumulated knowledge rather than embedding it in the knowledge base of their institutions.Or, colleagues and peer groups wait impatiently for the definitive publication that will finally share research with a wider world.Museum archaeological research can be summarised under a number of headings: research undertaken by museum staff as part of, or a by product of, other work such as exhibitions or collections management; research by museum staff for its own sake; and research by nonmuseum archaeologists into museum collections. Research Frameworks In the United Kingdom, a by-product of the commercialisation of archaeology and the peripatetic nature of archaeological organization was the development of national and regional research frameworks.These were born out of a concern that commercial archaeology was not being driven by research questions.The idea behind research frameworks is that they will be dynamic documents that summarise current knowledge, identify relevant research questions that can be answered by directed work, and lay out strategies for this to be undertaken. Swain gives a summary of the research agenda process as pursued in London including the research agenda process as developed by English Heritage. On the whole, and with London as the exception, research frameworks have largely bypassed museums and museum collections and their potential as research resources. However, they are useful summaries of archaeological knowledge and do accept the importance of research within mainstream archaeology. Reference Collections An area where museum collections have, and continue to make a major contribution to archaeological research, is through the creation and management of reference or type collections of finds.These were often developed historically by individuals for research or by field units to help them, for example, date sites, but are now often maintained by museums. For example, a ceramic repository for the eastern United States was developed at the Museum of Anthropology at the University of Michigan in 1927, and detailed ceramic reference collections for London
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 158 School of Distance Education
were first developed to support field-work in the 1970s.At different times, attempts have been made to unify reference collections at a regional, national, or even international level. Research as a By-Product of Other Work The majority of research undertaken in museums probably occurs as a by-product of other activities, most often the preparation of exhibitions and galleries.This process inevitably leads to the reevaluation of a subject and the development of new questions that need to be answered in order to present a coherent and logical story to the public.Just as in other museum subjects, occasionally museum exhibitions have completely changed the way a subject is thought about in the wider discipline. A classic example was Symbols of Power at the Time of Stonehenge held at the national Museum of Antiquities of Scotland in Edinburgh in 1985. The exhibition, and the accompanying publication, drew from then current archaeological theory but summarised and illustrated it brilliantly, and this has effected the way this period of pre-history has been considered since.Similarly, 23, S Archaeology and Environmental History of the Southern Deserts held in 2005 at the National Museum of Australia is an example of innovative research thinking that was born out of a conference and delivered a major book. Other exhibitions, such as Archaeology in Britain since 1945: New Views of the Past, held at the British Museum in 1986, Capital Gains! Archaeology in London 1970-86 held at the Museum of London in the same year, and I Celti held at the Palazzo Grassi in Venice in 1991, perhaps do not offer new primary research but do lead to a synthesis and presentation of existing data.If exhibitions are one type of museum work that generates research, another is collections documentation.This often starts before an object is even acquired by the museum.The essential process of identifying and provenancing objects leads tonew information about them.This process continues as an object is developed within a collection.As noted elsewhere, conservation work on objects, including cleaning, has the potential to provide new information. Answering public enquiries about collections also has the potential to deliver new research. For all of this new technology and, in particular, digital technology has the potential to revolutionise the speed of research, its nature, and how it is held for future use. Research by Museum Curators Although almost all museum activity leads to research of one kind or another, it is the case that pure research by museum staff into collections is now rare.Some institutions such as university museums still exist largely to allow their staff to undertake research.The large national museums also still preserve the role of the curator scholar. Using the British Museum as an example, Gaimster shows how the curators are the creators of new research. In 1996, the British Museum staff produced 68 monographs and 184 referenced papers in addition to exhibition catalogues, and gave 518 lectures to learned societies, institutes, and the public.Gaimster (2001, p. 5) has suggested that curators are “too often bogged down by the tyranny of archive managemtn” to allow them to udnertake research.However, even to consider such a luxury is beyond many.At the other extreme, small museums with only single generalist curators not only will not find research a practical possibility it will be outside their job description. For example, it is estimated that there is Egyptian material in 200 museums in United Kingdom, but only about 10-12 specialist Egyptology curators.This is not a situation particular to archaeology.In its Renaissance in the Regions report and subsequent establishment of Subject Specialist Networks (SSNs), the United Kingdom MLA has acknowledged the need for specialist curators and the need for museums to work together to support specialist collections.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 159 School of Distance Education
An area where museum archaeologists have traditionally contributed to wider museum research is in the creation and publication of object catalogues.Saville argues persuasively for the value of museum collections catalogues, not only as a key output of research but as a fundamental building block of synthetic research by archaeologists; and a sine qua non of basic museum identification and documentation. Many catalogues of objects from museum collections have been created over the years and often remain standard works used by field archaeologists, curators, university researchers, and even dealers and metal detector users.For example, the London Museum’s Medieval Catalogue first published in 1940 (London Museum 1940) has remained in demand as a standard work and was republished in 1993. Many catalogues to specific exhibitions become standard works for identifying objects. An example of field archaeologists and museum archaeologists working together to produce catalogues of archaeological finds, supported by museum collections, is that in London where the seven volumes of Medieval finds uses the large collections of stratified objects from Thames waterfront excavations that are often found in fragmentary form but can be identified and supplemented by unstratified, but complete objects from core primarily antiquarian collections.The internet and applications of digital data have obviously had a major influence on how collections catalogues can be created and disseminated. Museums have perhaps been slow to fully grasp this opportunity and there is a sense that many still prefer the idea of printed and bound volumes. However, in the last few years, major catalogues of museum collections have begun to appear in a digital form often housed on museum websites.Sometimes there is a conflict as to who the audience is for these and many have aimed at a wider audience than the pure research community.Examples that try to be exhaustive and are primarily aimed at researchers include the Museum of London’s Ceramics and Glass Collections), and the Ashmolean Museum’s Potweb that catalogues its ceramics collections) to name just two of thousands available.The British Museum’s Compass and Children’s Compass) is an example of a more selective site that tries to engage a wider audience. One of the problems with the research of collections is not knowing exactly what is in them.This goes for large museum collections that are simply too big to be exhaustively studied and even more so for the small dispersed collections that donot have expert curators and need to be compared with other collections to reveal their potential.The haphazard and peripatetic way in which museum collections were accumulated in the nineteenth and twentieth century has exacerbated this.The proposed SSN initiative is aimed at combating this situation.One f its pilot projects is already allowing the diaspora of Flinders Petrie’s Egyptian collections across English museums to be summarised collectively on a single database.For many years, a similar initiative has been undertaken by the West Midlands Archaeological Collections Research Unit (WEMACRU) that brings together archaeologists from a number of museums to identify common and shared collections. Research by Nonmuseum Archaeologists What museum collections should offer researchers are well catalogued, accessible collections of objects, hopefully with detailed contextual information, or at the very least information about what is known of collections.Such seminal works as Stuart Piggott’s identification of the so- called Wessex Culture or David Clarke’s encyclopaedic study of British Beakers are based on museum collections that were put together mainly under the antiquarian tradition.Such primary research has led to continual reassessment, for example, Renfrew of Piggott (1968) and Lanting and van der Waals’ of Clarke (1972), that has helped to develop and to evolve archaeological
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 160 School of Distance Education
thought; that the research of material culture becomes a product of “created” classificatory systems is a challenge for archaeologists to overcome rather than an inherent failing of the system. Of course, museums also remain in the vast majority of cases the holding place for archaeological archives.As such the ongoing reexamination of key excavations and sites becomes a museum archaeology discipline.It is the case that the very best and most widely published sites are oftenthese that continue to be most researched. So, the Star Carr archive from Clark’s 1949-1951 excavations, held at amongst other places the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, is still perceived as fundamental in understanding the Mesolithic, as does Barry Cunliffe’s archive for the excavations at Danebury Hillfort, held by Hampshire Museum Service, for understanding the Southern British Iron Age.Indeed, the way a relatively few well-known and well-recorded and published sites continues to dominate thinking may be to the detriment of the subject. The sheer mass of new data from developer funded excavations and the fact that much primary evidence is not easily accessible makes its study problematic.A recent study of British prehistory using this very material by Richard Bradley is a test as to how accepted theories might be overturned by the analysis of the new evidence available, and just how difficult this process will be (British Archaeology 2006). The biggest challenge is persuading archaeologists to use museums and museum collections, especially archives, for research.The current HEFCE funded Archive Archaeology project in England is aimed at encouraging university archaeology undergraduate courses to include an element in archive study, in the same way as they include fieldwork.It has been suggested that research into U.S. archaeological collections has increased in recent years (in 1990, 16% of Ph.D. dissertations were on museum collections, and this had risen to 30% in 1994-1995). It has been suggested that this may be as a result of NAGPRA and the renewed interest into Native American collections that it has fostered. Fieldwork as Research The most obvious type of archaeological research is that carried out through fieldwork, normally excavation.Yet, it is something very few museums now actively undertake.Where fieldwork still occurs, it tends to be from large well resourced museums such as the British Museum, for example, excavations in the 1980s of the High Lodge Palaeolithic site and the Runnymede later prehistoric site or by field units attached to museums, as is still the case with, for example, the Museum of London Archaeology Service or Norfolk Museums Service field unit.Elsewhere, museum based fieldwork is undertaken primarily as part of community outreach and for training, for example, the Shoreditch Park project at the Museum of London or the fieldwalking teams operating at Leicestershire Museums. DOCUMENTATION (Please refer the above also) The specimen of the museum is simply an object unless it conveys some meaning in association with certain information.So, much more useful information in connection with the specimens is necessary phenomena for a museum.The arrangement of these information are required a specific process of record keeping system. In fact, the record keeping with a systematic arrangement is helpful for identification, stock verification and conservation work of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 161 School of Distance Education
the specimens. Thus, the record keeping system as a whole is also known as documentation. But actual documentation starts from the collection of the object as specimen. Acquisition and Identification The acquisition and the identification, both the terms are very common to the people concerned with the museum. The acquisition is to get something by acquirement and the identification is the establishment of identity of the object.In general, the acquisition comes before identification, but sometimes it may happen reversely as per demand of the situation.Therefore everything is depending on the nature and types of collected object or the object to be collected.Simply, the acquisition is a process of collection, which may be classified in the following ways: By Loan The museum is acquired the specimens in exchange of own specimens with other museum. The exact face value or price of exchanged objects is not necessary to be equal in amount. The acquisition register keeps a record as permanent loan regarding the specimens on exchange. As Gift The specimens are collected as the gift from any institution or individual that wishes to donate without applying condition.The acquisition register keeps a record with a mark as ‘G’. Through Purchase It is a popular way of collection among the museums, especially art and culture, folk-culture, ethnographic/anthropological museums.This process of acquisition is to be made by purchase of the objects from local market, from the individual, out of fieldwork; etc.The acquisition register is maintained with a mark ‘P’. Excavation/Exploration The excavation is an important process of acquisition for Geological, Archaeological and Anthropological specimens. After excavation, a large number of site museums were developed near to archaeological site. The exploration is the popular process of acquisition for science museum as well as Anthropological Museum. In this process, most of the specimens are acquired on the basis of proper scientific manner to disseminate knowledge for the visitors.In fact, acquisition is the collection of specimens with something meaningful and identification by visual observation.The documentation is an end part of acquisition and identification.The documentation of the specimen is taken up by following the steps, such as photography, measurements, weight, colour, texture, material used, functions, name, chronological sequences, etc. with a proper record.The supplementary work of documentation is maintained by the preparation of card index, to use of computer, video-filming, still photography and microfilming. Archaeological Archaeology is the study of antiquities.It is the science of earlier history for understanding the Nations and its people from the evidences of buildings, burial places, implements, utensils, ornaments and artifacts of the period of a few or no written records. First part of Archaeology is dealing with prehistoric antiquities and other part is concerned with the artifacts of historical time period. The Archaeological specimens in total are classified in the following groups, such as Palaeolithic implements, Neolithic Celts, Inscriptions, examples of Architecture, Sculptures, etc.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 162 School of Distance Education
Most of these antiquities are coming up through excavation by means of vigorous fieldwork.Excavation had been played an important role in Archaeology since before 18th Century A.D. General Pitt-Riverse of Great Britain, since 1827-1900 AD, had been introduced the principle of three-dimensional recording system in excavation work.The methodology of that system was a record management device by accurate plans and was a record management device by accurate plans and section-drawings along with detailed drawings; description of excavated sites; and immediate publication of the report.In 1944-1948, Sir, Mortimer Wheeler projected this recording system in India with some significant developments.Today, much more technological advancement has been adopted in the methodology of excavation work. Archaeological remains are kept under a shade near excavation site for identification, documentation and preservation. Most of the artifacts are either sculptures or some portion of sculptures.This shade near excavation site is surrounded by natural setting or known as the sculpture shade.Gradually it becomes a site museum with some necessary transformation.We can find thirty-one site museums and thirty sculpture shade in India till the year 2000. These structures are all under direct control of Archaeological Survey of India.Archaeological specimens are required a concise knowledge for acquisition and identification. Precisely it may be summarised in the following points for collection as the specimens: (i) Any coin, sculpture, paintings, epigraph or other work of art or artisanship. (ii) Any article, object or thing detached from a building or cave. (iii) Any article, object or thing illustrative of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals or polities of former ages. (iv) Any article, object or thing of historical interest. (v) Any article, object or thing declared by Government of India, by notification in the Official Gazette, as an antiquity which has been in existence for not less than the hundred years. (vi) Any manuscript, record or other document, which is of scientific, historical, literary or aesthetic value and it, has been in existence for not less than seventy-five years. Anthropological Anthropological specimens are dealing with the genesis of Man and his inhabitancy in different regions. Anthropology is the Study of Man in all aspects and especially behavioural patterns of human beings. It is nothing but a holistic study of humankind. At present, the Bio- cultural Anthropology engulfs the first part of Anthropology or Palaeo-anthropology.Bio-cultural Anthropology is scientifically definable process of human evolution with proper perspectives. In fact, it is an integrated history of human evolution along with his cultural development.A continuous history of human habitation with artifacts from Lower Palaeolithic Age, Middle Palaeolithic Age, Upper Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Chalcolithic Age, Iron Age, to Modern Age of today still exists with evidences in Indian Sub-continent. The evidence of earliest hominid is found here as Ramapithecus who was the inhabitant of 8 to 12 million years BP (Before Present). Unfortunately the evidence of human skeletal remains is very poor in our country. But, a large number of stone tools from stone-tool-industry are coming out from different places as the clear evidences of early man’s habitation. Besides, a rich cultural continuity with wide variations is depicting a big canvas of material cultures in India.Another part as the Social-Cultural Anthropology is dealing with Ethnography, Ethnology and other
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 163 School of Distance Education
sections of study in connection with social behaviour of the Man.The Ethnography is concerned with individual culture with a descriptive and non-interpretative study. The Ethnology is the study of one or more culture with a scientific analysis. It is an interpretative approach to study culture on the basis of comparative analysis. It is more important to remember that the anthropological specimens are demanding detail documentation from the very first stage of acquisition.The specimen conveys the scientific view of regional bio-cultural variation with a complete cultural mosaic.The items are required to be documented in association with a special reference to richness and diversity of culture patterns. The anthropological item alone can present a complete story of humankind with a proper perspective.In anthropological museum the items are concerned with fossil remains and many more cultural artifacts.These items are required to understand human evolution and their associated culture. The fossil remains should be collected through excavation. The acquisition of cultural artifacts to be made by means have either through fieldwork or by purchase from the local market.One thing must be kept in mind that the anthropological specimens should be documented in details from the very first stage of the collection. A continuous history of human habitation from Lower Palaeolithic Age to Modern Period still exists in Indian Sub-continent. Earliest evidence of hominid is found here, namely the Ramapithecus who was the inhabitant of eight to twelve million years BP. Though the evidence of human skeletal remains is very poor, but a large number of stone tools prove a clear evidence of human habitation. Besides, a big canvas of material culture is the evidence of our rich cultural continuity.Therefore it may assume that the acquisition of anthropological specimens should be documented in association with richness and diversities of cultural patterns.These specimens should convey the scientific view of regional cultural variation in one hand and a complete cultural mosaic on the other.As a matter of fact, the anthropological specimens are the evidences of man’s existence with the story of its content. Geological The geological specimens are always to be replacing by new ones as because no one specimen is perfect. These specimens are grouped in two different classes, such as terrestrial and extra- terrestrial.Extra-terrestrial items are further classified in the following sections, Meteorites, Tektites and Asteroids.The Meteorites comes from other planets and the Tektites and found from the moon.Both of these specimens are available on earth’s surface as a clear-cut result of accidental findings. But the Asteroids are to be collected by man from outside of the world. The Terrestrial specimens are simply different portions of the Earth, which can also be divided in three following sections, such as Minerals, Rocks and Fossils.The mineral is a natural occurring of inorganic material with a definite chemical composition and atomic structure. It is available in six forms, i.e., stable, unstable, crystals, gemstones, thin sections and polished sections. The rock is the natural aggregate of minerals. It is found in a great bulk without any fixed form of its structure. A simple difference between the rocks and the minerals is in comparison with their fixed forms, though the rock may also be a composition of one mineral.The rocks are found in six classes, viz. coarse grained, fine grained, polished blocks, unconsolidated samples, bore hole, coarse section and thin section.The fossil remains are completely different types of terrestrial item.Simply it is an evidence of past life, which was preserved in rocks. Geological specimen requires a specific expertise and sufficient knowledge of identification for the acquisition of the items.Geologist collects the specimen through fieldwork and good
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 164 School of Distance Education
items are obtained after removing of the weathered portions. These weathered portions are deposited due to continuous action process of deterioration on earth’s surface. Record Keeping In case of museum specimens, a specific process of record keeping system is a part of documentation. It is no doubt that a systematic arrangement of the records of museum objects is extremely helpful for storage, identification, stock verification and its maintenance. Thus, the record keeping system of the specimens is known as the documentation as a whole. First Phase At first, the specimen demands an entry to the Accession Register with following informations, such as, Serial No./Accession No./Name of the Specimen/Local Name/English Name/From whom it was purchased or collected/How it was collected/Place of Collection/Price/Remarks. etc.A Multipurpose Museum is required to maintain a General Accession Register for two reasons, one is to know exact number of the specimens and other one is to increase the scope of the museum. In abroad, it is popularly known as Central Accession Register and operated by the Documentation Unit of the Museum.After first entry of General Accession Register the specimen is to be received by the Sectional Head for a new entry in the Section Register.The Sectional Heads are liable to receive specimens for their own sections.The specimens are sorted out with acute identification as well as more specifications to keep up a record of each specimen.These elaborate informations are recorded in a book known as Classified Register.As an example, the specimen gets an entry by G-n in General Accession Register, thence it goes to Section Register as G-n/A-n and, finally reached the Classified Register with amark as G-n/A-n/An-n.‘An-n’ may be denoted for Anthropology and specimen number in n, which means a numerical status of the specimen. Apart from these, a few other Registers are also maintained accordingly.The Loan Register is opened to maintain uptodate movement of the specimens.The Transit Register follows every movement of the specimens from one section to other within the museum. The Exchange Register is used for incoming specimens in exchange. These articles in exchange are registered and further it should be recorded in General Accession Register as permanent loan. Besides, a specific sign mark is required as an indication in General Accession Register for outgoing specimens in exchange of new ones.The Written-Off Register is demanding a clear-cut record of the specimens, which are no more required in the museum due to natural decay or any other reasons. The objects of this Written-Off Register should be strike out from General Accession Register, Section Register and Classified Register to keep up latest stock position of the museum and this process is called as deaccession. Second Phase In this phase, the documentation is being considered as the identification; in addition, the tag- label is attached with the specimen. Identification of the specimen would be in trouble without this tag-label. Considering this situation the specimen is marked directly on its surface by Accession Number. If the tag-label is lost then the specimen is easily identified by this Accession Number via General Accession Register. Third Phase This phase is exclusively assigned for the preparation of index card. This card shows the exact location of the specimen, especially where it is displayed or kept for storage. In addition
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 165 School of Distance Education
more information is also recorded in this card.Backside of this index-card is utilised for black and white photograph of the specimen and the negative number is marked below this photograph.A large size index-card is a necessity to accommodate more information in connection with the sep and it is shown as Research Reference Card.This card is designed with some additional columns and the sketches of different components of the specimen.In some cases the index-cards are prepared in three sets. Basic philosophy behind this triplicate index- card is ‘quick retrieval’. The arrangement of these cards is found in the following ways, such as: (1) Geographical base; (2) Basis of functional role; (3) On the basis of community or any other. Recently the people are feeling that the accumulation of informations is not useful until we have any quick retrieval system. In fact, the index-card is an adoptive mechanism in relation to quick retrieval of the informations. Besides, the Computer is playing a big role in the process of documentation, which is now inevitable phenomenon for a modern museum. Storage and its Maintenance The storage is a place for accumulation of goods or tangible objects, which are preserved for use in time. The items of the museum are special type of goods demanding more care in every moment.Naturally, the museum store is something different in comparison with ordinary storage.Here, and the items are being reserved systematically with proper classification, care and protection. The items are also required to have easy accessibility to all staff for regular check up. Besides, the museum storage should maintain a proper environment and a careful handling of the specimens. There is no hard and fast rule regarding location of the storage. It is solely depending on Curator’s discrimination. A few points have been mentioned below in connection with the storing of museum specimens: (i) Fragile object requires cautious handling. (ii) Objects made of gold ought to keep in a safe custody. (iii) The silver items are stored within air resistant wrap for its sensitivity to weather. (iv) The copper objects are also to be kept within a wrap in safe to avoid corrosion. (v) The iron articles are preserved in the storage under moisture free condition to avoid rust, which causes permanent damage. (vi) Organic materials are too sensitive to climatic condition. So, it requires regular cleaning as well as chemical treatment. For this type of material the storage should be well ventilated for protection against fungal infection. (vii) Leather articles should be placed with oil-free and grease-free in condition. (viii) Wooden objects are stored in dust-free zone of the storage. (ix) The textile items are kept by rolling it on the PVC pipe or aluminium rod. But, the clothing is requiring a special care to avoid any folding or diagonal stress on it. (x) The storage pattern is different for paper-sheet items. Small pieces of paper documents are kept in storage after lamination or encapsulation. The bigger ones are stored in between cut-mount boards. A wooden box is used for storing eight to
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 166 School of Distance Education
ten cut-mount boards of same size. Paper pulp objects are kept within a polythene pouch along with some dehydrating agent and low doses of insecticides. Periodical check up is a necessary work for the storage of any size and maintenance of the list of recorded items is another activity. The Storage Record List is required to prepare by room- wise, row-wise, showcase-wise, shelf-wise, etc. It is very much important for knowing about the exact position and location inside the store regarding the preserved items. The following points are helpful for maintenance of storage. 1. It must have an easy access for proper classification, labeling, etc. for maintaining the stock of specimens in a clear way. 2. An inventory list is required and that should be kept shelf-wise. It helps in verification, identification and for the purpose of security of the specimens. 3. The objects should be handled carefully to avoid over-handling and dropping-down the floor. 4. The storage of a museum is demanding appropriate furniture for the specimens.Selection of furniture is not possible unless some one is not aware about the new products, which are coming up in the market regularly. Naturally, somebody should have a regular touch with commercial producers of the market. It will activate the zeal for developing as well as modification of the furniture in appropriation with other accessories. The verification is a binding factor of the documentation and the storage.It is a needful job for maintaining uptodate position of the specimens. The verification is to ascertain accuracy of the total holdings along with their factual condition through physical observation.Therefore it is helping in 4 ways, such as: (a) to correction of the errors to arise by human factors: (b) to overcome time lag in documentation of the specimens; (c) to rectify erroneous aging of the specimens to keep safe from confusion; and (d) to avoid complication arises due to shifting of the museum items. The adoption of verification card ensures to get rid of un-necessary complication at the time of verification operation. This card is found in different colour code for easy handling. For example, the verification card or verified card is red and the white is not verified card. But the content of these cards is same. A few yellow cards are kept to find out removal cases of the specimens.This yellow card is important to know why, when, where and expected date of return in concerned specimen. This yellow card and the Transit Register, both are supplementary to each other.Three rubber stamps are used in verification operation, such as ‘Verified’, ‘Missing’, and ‘Rejected’. A note is to be kept in the blue card for surplus specimen with a mark as SUR – 1 and it is indicating the specimen is not recorded in the Accession Register. Certainly it is a temporary measure in verification work as because nothing will surplus in final stage of the verification. The surplus or blue cards should be adjusted with the cards are not been verified. Still some cards may be left as surplus, which will go to the Accession Register for current entry. Not verified or white cards will be marked as ‘Missing’ by rubber stamp. The verified or red cards will be marked by ‘Verified’ stamp.Some of the specimens are found as damaged
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 167 School of Distance Education
condition.These are in need to write-off from the Accession Register with a record in the Written-Off Register.Therefore the red cards regarding these damaged specimens will be stamped by ‘Rejected’ mark.In short, the process of verification can be arranged in the following ways. V C (Red Cards) + N V C (White Cards) + S C (Blue Cards) = Ought to present in the Museum. V C (Red Cards) + ………………………+ S C (Blue Cards) = At present stock of the Museum. …………………+ N V C (White Cards) + ……………………= Missing from the Museum. V C (Red Cards) + N V C (White Cards) + …………………= Total Accession Number in the Register. [VC = Verified Cards; NVC = Not Verified Cards; SC = Surplus Cards]. Display Mechanism Modern display mechanism is a process, which requires a planned approach that can be divided into two steps, such as, a proper planning at first and then its execution.The planning starts right from the museum building then lighting and gradually it passes on towards designing of show cases, colour schemes, reference materials, accessories, and so on. In fact, all efforts are coming out as a principle of display techniques. Principles of Display Technique The term ‘display’ is commonly used in commercial activities. But in case of museum object, it is calculated application of aesthetics with a graphic representation in three dimensions for visual appeal and appreciation.In fact, the museum display means indications of information, which has some bearing in connection with the artifacts – to identify, signify, discover, reveal, disclose, present, exhibit, show, designate, specify, notify, impress, inform, symbolize and to keep up the record for further investigation as well as documentation of heritage. The arrangements of the objects in a space or composition of the objects in the perspective of three dimensions, show cases for security, preservation and looking well, appropriate lighting, combination of texture, colour-scheme, and scale of exhibits are the main concerned aspects regarding the principles of display techniques.Finally, the maintenance of a proper balance along with the harmonious flow among the objects and also the selection of appropriate perspectives are the basic principle of display techniques of museum specimens, which may be pointed out by means of following aspects. Composition This step is very much important measure for arrangement or layout of the objects in the museum hall for display.Composition is the strength of display. It is simply an arrangement, which should be able to attract and hold the attention of the visitors. It is very much clear that every object has a typical size, shape, texture, colour and tone, which is affected simultaneously by the size, shape, texture, colour and tone of each and every other object particularly in composition for the display arrangement of the museum specimens. The physical arrangement of the objects required to create an environmental influence where the visitors can enjoy it, as an example, the difference can be found when we looking at a showcase bound picture instead of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 168 School of Distance Education
open display of that same picture.Therefore it should accentuate, emphasize and focus the attention of viewers. But it must be kept in mind that the object should be more important than surroundings. In fact, the object must be full in view with characteristic features in association with good-looking appropriate surroundings. Light Apart from direct influences of light, the shape, size, texture and colour of the object can not be enjoyed, such as, the light brightens the objects, which can make a clear view of the objects and builds an atmosphere.Intensity of light should be sufficient but must not be glaring. Sources of light should not be visible to the visitors. Objects must be brighter than the surroundings and subdued light is the most effective, which can be developed by use of indirect and reflected light rays. Texture Texture of the object should be considered according to its nature. Texture of the art-object must be brought out in comparison with the texture of the background and that background texture can be treated as simply the background.Naturally, here is a cute question of interplay between object and its background. For example, Rough and Smooth - Smooth bronzes against rough textiles. Light and Heavy – Heavy sculptures against lightwood. Shiny and Dull – Shiny silks for dull terracottas. Clear and Opaque – Clear glassware against opaque textiles. Loose and Tight – Loosely woven textile for closely woven and embroidered clothes. Jewellery is shown on the background of soft silks and velvets. The softness of the background accentuates the hardness as well as richness of jewellery.Texture of the textile should be a good background of sculptures and woodwork. Most interesting interplay is that the softness of textile diverts the mind from soft to hard surface of wood and stone. Again, smooth glassware impresses more with rough textures of textiles or any other surface, which bring out the smoothness of glass. In the same way, smooth background of polished woods is very much effective by use of delicate and soft textiles. Colour Colour is another appealing factor for display. The background colour should compliment and enhance the colour and beauty of objects in presentation, and that background presents matching and contrasting the colours in comparison with the objects. Besides, some utilitarian devices like pedestals, platforms, fixtures, etc. may or may not be identical with the background colour in order to characteristics of the objects. Apart from the visual effect, the colours can also be used for the creation of illusions of the space and distance. For example: Blue and sheds of blue shrink back the background. Red and sheds of red and yellow advance in space. Neutral colours like grey, etc., stay in positions. Light colours reflect light and give brighter appearance.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 169 School of Distance Education
Dark colours need extra lighting as they can absorb light. Red and yellow attract attention. Blues and greens are soothing to eyes. Light colours are responsible to shrink back. Dark colours are always in advance. Scale Scale of the object in comparison with the space of the gallery is a worthwhile consideration.Small objects in a big showcase or a huge gallery with small scale of objects that will get lost proper aesthetics value of display.Rather, it has to be displayed with a proportionate background along with a proper scale of showcase, which should be balanced as well as in proportion with the gallery. Similarly, some huge sculptures in a crowded gallery should required isolation for proper display that makes it beautiful. In fact, temple display with maintenance of a scale is mainly required to develop a pleasant atmosphere for the objects and its visitors.The principle is to be applied in consideration with the circumstances instead of the following any rigidity.It is basically depending on the artistic sense, which will undertake such works of presentation with full of aesthetics. Preparation of Exhibition From the very beginning the important functions of the museum are always to prepare exhibition along with collection and preservation of the objects. It also implies that the preservation is not only limited to use of chemicals, rather it also keeping the objects in good condition by saving from different hazards as well as to prepare for exhibition in a safe mode.In case of museum objects, it is very much necessary to have the responsibility of prevention and controlling the use of any hazardous methods by the designers, where he should guided by the Curator’s knowledge for maintenance of its safety. It may also be found that in many times, the requirements of preservation and presentation of the objects are contradictory.Naturally, in this situation, only museum Curator can handle the matter with experience and the concept of aesthetic sense.It is well known that all types of lighting are not beneficial to the museum specimens from the preservation angle. Particularly the textiles and the paintings are sensitive due to ultra-violet radiation in presence of fluorescent light and the effect of radiation are also to some extent present in presence of the incandescent lights for bleaching out the colour pigments of paintings. Same thing may also happen in case of natural lighting unless it is diffused, reflected, or otherwise controlled. The museum specimens can be protected from these hazards if the Curator or other museum personnel scrutinize various methods of display and to take proper care for preparing the objects for display in advance.Hence more care is needed at the time of planning for display of the museum objects. A simple planning is ensuring the objects against any damages that can save the artifacts to a great extent. Simple Preparation Small items need to be fixed on a base at first, which can hold the object securely.Therefore it should not fall at the time of any types of movement. In case of small figurines and sculptures, a suitable groove is necessary in the base that can hold the object. It should also be secured by
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 170 School of Distance Education
holding the same with wooden wedges.This preparation may be known as the base and pedestal, which facilitate holding of the same when the objects are lifted or carried. Thus, the objects are prepared for exhibition as well as to minimize touching and rubbing of the specimens that can protect the artifacts as well. Large items especially standing sculptures can be fixed with additional support on the backside against the object from which the object can rest and the movement of the object would be prevented by the same way from toppling.Paintings for the exhibition are required to be mounted and the edges of the mounted paintings are also protected for damage. Glass framing of the paintings is much more effective regarding the protection. For better display uniform size of mounts are necessary and it is also convenient for standardizing the frame size. Textiles are prepared by an arrangement of given the edging of cotton tapes, which can be fixed or nailed to the frame or wall panel for display with proper care.Edging is to be provided with loops or rings for hanging the same with ease in a rod. Delicate textiles may be stitched on a strong background of markin-cloth for facility of folding or spreading even in a table case for purpose of display.Costumes should be displayed on padded hangers. Paper items especially manuscript pages may be held securely by fixing it in between the tape-strings that fixed by wrapping. A piece of glass-sheet with smooth edges or a transparent plastic sheet can also be put over the manuscript pages to hold the pages in place.Finally, in order to save the items from dust, the showcases should be used for display. Large objects cannot be put under the showcase, where frequent cleaning with appropriate brushes or vacuum cleaner is more effective. Many alternatives are found for safe display of museum objects with increasing awareness of the problems, which are unending process of museum presentation. Presentation Museum Display The word ‘display’ is a favourite term of commercial activities. It is always commercial because display is neither ornamentation nor decoration rather propagation. In museum world, the term ‘display’ is denoted by the word ‘presentation’ which means to present a view with some technical manner for better information.It is a direct representation of calculated application of aesthetics of the object for visual appeal and appreciation.In fact, the presentation or the museum display is an essential function of the museum continuing over the years long with changing concept of the museum.In time perspective, the mode of museum display has been evolved since from the beginning. Still, the importance of presentation remains unchanged.Museum display is a method of thinking and working together with the help of symbols, signs and available resources.Chiefly, it is an adoption of various technical aspects coming out of different disciplines for making fruitful result. Simply, it is a continuous process maintained by trial and error method by means of available technical supports. It should be kept in mind that nothing is ultimate in presentation of the museum object. The presentation is an unavoidable phenomenon for the success of a museum in relation to its popularity. It can be measured in terms of the museum gallery where the objects are displayed to keep up the minds of its visitors.The objects of a museum can be best remembered if they attract the attention of the visitors due to their distinctive presentation when the question of rarity and importance of the exhibit does not arise. So, the museum display is the ‘spokesperson’ of a museum where the visitors should get an impression about the objects with their mind set up for further remembrance.From that stand point it may be understood that the display mechanism
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 171 School of Distance Education
requires a definite approach of presentation with proper consequences of the objects, which is reflected as a sequence in the story.As a matter of fact, the display is simply a good composition with a successful objective. Proper composition can build up a complete story of its content to make an impression about the museum.Therefore basic objectives of the museum display may be mentioned here in the following ways: (i) We should keep in mind that how much it is enjoyed by the visitors. (ii) It should be maintained a harmony to avoid monotony of viewing (iii) Presentation should be planned and deliberate for specific information. (iv) Museum display should be attractive with more knowledge within a fixed framework. (v) It would be able to develop people’s participation, rather more involvement of the visitors in department of the museum. In case of museum display, the simplest and most commonly found approach can be termed as ‘open storage approach’. In this approach, all objects are installed without any sequence as such.The exhibits are placed within the easy notice of the visitors.Therefore they can look into total collections within a limited time.Besides, some curiosity and interest grow with the guide lectures, which are supplemented through identifications, descriptions and explanations.Another approach is termed as ‘illustrative approach’. In this approach the arrangements and display are to illustrate ideas or concepts about the objects. It consists of labels, captions, charts, diagrams and sketches. Next approach is known as ‘functional approach’.Here one object or a group of objects is displayed to explain function, adaptability and durability of the objects.This approach is fully supported by the photographs. Factors Responsible for Display Museum display is a complex phenomenon, which is dependent on various responsible factors for its success. It requires a proper planning at first then its execution. Thus, the planning for display starts from the construction of museum building to lighting, gallery layout, and design of showcases, colour schemes, reference materials and accessories.These factors are either directly or indirectly interrelated for making successful presentation.Therefore these factors may be accepted as the responsible phenomena for successful display of the museum objects. Museum Building The building of a museum should be pleasant looking exteriorly and the interior should have enough space for working.A good balance in between exterior and interior is necessary to build up a congenial atmosphere for the visitors. The building area is to be essentially divided into two broad divisions, i.e., public area and service area.The service area is meant for office administration and the place for technical staff. The public area includes all other places accessible to the visitors. Lighting Light is indispensable for the exhibits. But, most of the specimens are affected by day light, except a few.The artificial light is very easy to control and install.But, the constant exposure of artificial light is fatigue to human eyes.In this situation the scientists and illuminating engineers are in favour of complete artificial lighting system while the museologists are encourage the
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 172 School of Distance Education
natural light for museum specimens. As a result, a combination of natural and artificial lighting system is well accepted for illuminating the specimens for museum display. Gallery Layout This factor demands a pre-planned work for getting exact length; breadth and height of the gallery correspond to the sizes of the specimens.A partitioned space has to be reserved at the side of the gallery entrance, which is covering brief information about the gallery. This space is known as reference area or introductory area as it provides at glance information regarding the particular gallery.Such a place is actually a representation of the respective gallery with photographs, paintings, sketches and inscription. Besides, a clear way should be kept in between two galleries for easy traffic of the visitors. Design of Showcases Different types of showcases are to be made for the museum, which are solely dependent on the gallery layout. Colour Scheme Colour matching is an effective device, to influence human mind.For that reason it is an important work of application as the colour scheme for display.In fact, colour matching is the selection of necessary colour for making the object prominent.This process is known as colour scheme of museum display.Though the artist’s help is solicited in that respect, but the curator is main responsible person to select the colour schemes by means of trial and error method. Reference Material These are all supportive materials focussing main emphasis over the main exhibits.These materials show a wide range of variation from the display board-to-board pins, posters, and photographs.It is an inevitable part of display to develop a complete story of the exhibits. Accessories Different kinds of equipment as well as gadgets are necessary for the museum gallery to create a special effect in connection with museum display of its exhibits.The accessories regarding the museum display are as follows: slides with automatic slide projector, motorized revolving stand, translite box, video unit, and audio-visual unit with a complete computer backup. Basic Components Presentation of museum objects requires a congenial environment influenced by the spaces to be utilized.It can be classified with three basic components, namely, planning an exhibition gallery; principles of museum presentation; and design inputs of exhibition. Planning of an Exhibition Gallery The space is an important consideration for museum exhibition. Naturally, the available area will be a limiting factor for selection of the number of exhibits.If the number of exhibits is already finalized for display, then one has to find out adequate space for accommodation of the whole lot of the objects.The space has to be found out in adjoining gallery if the gallery-space is not sufficient.Therefore, considering the situation, a layout preparation is required to unifying the spaces for the purpose of display will maintain in such a way that there is a natural break in terms of its different sections which will not show disharmony among the exhibits.The gallery
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 173 School of Distance Education
space is in need a proper lighting, and the lighting of the space is another aspect influencing the exhibition gallery. Nature of exhibits will be determinant factors for selection of lighting. For example, stone sculpture can be illuminated by natural light, which will not at all be suitable for delicate objects like painting, and manuscripts. Again, for painting and other delicate objects, diffused and reflected natural light or indirect artificial light is advisable for gallery. Selection of objects in relation to space and lighting can also be considered as the feasibility of forming an impressive theme.In this regard, a few objects should be selected for their importance including their artistic merit.This phenomenon creates a good understanding of the theme, which will be much better than exhibiting a big lot of objects similar in nature. In general, the large number of displayed objects may also be responsible for development of unwanted space problem. Besides, it may also be boredom to the visitors for viewing the exhibits repeatedly in a short gap. Furniture is also required proper planning and designing to provide suitable places for display.Chiefly, the showcases, pedestals and panels are minimum requirements of the gallery according to the nature and condition of the exhibits.For example, small and delicate paintings, manuscripts, and clay figurines should be displayed behind the glass whereas valuable exhibits like jewellery must be kept in lockable showcases. Again, new and strong textiles are to be exhibited by hung in standing showcases but flat table showcases should be provided for comparatively weak and old textiles.Display panel is required for two-dimensional objects like framed paintings.Apart from these it should be kept in mind that the built-in-locking device for any museum fur is strongly advisable.In comparison with the commercial exhibition the museum showcases should be designed that way, which can be easily opened, rather handled without aid of skilled staff like carpenters, as because the museum furniture needs frequent cleaning. After finalizing the gallery spaces, the necessary step is the selection of the objects.After that, the gallery planning is to decide the mode of display.A gallery layout is very much important for placement of furniture, which is fully dependent on the mode of display. Finally, a scale-model is also required which often helps in judging the proportion of showcases, besides to ensure the movement as well as circulation of the visitor’s traffic in terms of available gallery spaces for exhibition that is also required for space management. Principles of Museum Presentation Design of museum display is primarily dependent on the exhibits.We know that any kind of objects possesses a specific volume and mass.Therefore the objects can be divided into two sections, two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects.Two-dimensional objects are showing only length and breadth.But, three-dimensional objects have the length, breadth and height or thickness. As a matter of fact, if volume of the objects within the gallery space makes a balance in a specific manner, then it can produce a good presentation.Hence it is a proper design display, which is guided by some principles of art.The main principles of presentation may be summarised in the following ways. Space The scale of objects and the display space have a direct relationship for museum presentation.The objects should be displayed in accordance with the space available for display. Small objects in a large showcase as well as small showcase in a large gallery should affect the space balance. Similarly, large and tall objects in the crowded gallery or narrow space will develop strain for viewing to the visitors and they will simply to feel boredom.Therefore naturally, for maintaining space balance, the scale and size of the objects as well as the distance
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 174 School of Distance Education
of viewing should be well coordinated.Automatically, the scale of the object, surrounding place and the level of viewing should be maintained for well coordination.The best level of viewing has to be decided by trial and error method.But, it is good enough to avoid presentation of an object, if it is not being displayed at proper level along with proportionate space. Texture The characters of many objects are exposed by their textures, especially in case of textiles, and surfaces of many other objects.In truest sense, the nature of the object is revealed and captured by means of its textures.It can be visible with the help of lighting as well as background. For example, the smooth velvet with appropriate colour is not only protective for jewellery but its contrast accentuated the rich character of beautiful jewellery.On the contrary, the Bronzes and Terracotta exhibits will be best displayed against the textured cloth, especially khadi (hand- woven thick textured cotton cloth) or silks.As matter of fact, the interplay of textures and their background should help in revealing the true nature of the objects. Colour It is another eye appealing factor, which has a psychological impact. Combination of pleasing colours is much attractive in comparison with garish combinations.The background colour will help to retain their character and it should reveal the colour of objects.For example, an object or white marble or white metal can be best seen against maroon or blue backgrounds rather than white ones. Principally, the colour is used to accentuate objects and not to make an attention or attraction of the background.Therefore the colour contrast should not too much bright, rather it must be pleasant. It should be kept in mind that the pedestal, and the blocks have the same colour as of the background or of walls where the objects are displayed. Besides, the visual effects of colours can also be able to create illusion of spaces and distance. For example, blue and shades of blue recedes the background.Again, the space looks larger while red and yellow are used in their all shades.Neutral colours like grey, buff and cream stay in maintaining the same position of the space. Light colours with soft tones reflect light while dark colours absorb light and so it needs extra or highlighting for effective viewing.Red and yellow shades are hard colour infuse warmth while blue and green shades are soft colour for creation soothing to eyes.Thus, the shades of different colour play an important role, which has a good deal of psychological impact. Scale The scale or size in measurements of the objects is also a considerable phenomenon of the space for display, which has a direct interactional relationship between object and space. As an example, small objects in a large showcase of a small showcase in a large gallery are not seen in general as it gets totally lost of display principle. Similarly, narrow spaces or crowded gallery will cause strain for viewing large and tall objects. In case of painting with intricate details should be hung at the eye-level for avoiding the strain of viewing and in the same way, a flat object with minute engravings should not be placed low that one has to bend for its observation.In this regard, the scale of the object and the distance of viewing are required a well coordination.Hence the scale of object along with its surrounding space and the level of observation should be most important as well as considerable phenomena.As a matter of fact, the best level for viewing of a particular object has to be decided after some trial and error method in reference to available space. Compromise is not suggested at all, it is better not to display if it is not in proper way.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 175 School of Distance Education
Composition Arrangement of the objects is required to have a perfect layout, which should have a proper placement of its varying scales in the space for making an interesting composition.Such an arrangement, whether two-dimensional or three-dimensional objects, the main focus of composition is display.The purpose of composition is defeated; if it is not carried out effectively rather it fails to have visual appeal.Though the exhibits of varied forms, textures and colours are displayed in one space; still it requires an arrangement in such a way to make out some distinct characteristics of the exhibits.Therefore the museum objects should be arranged to bring out a few characteristic features of the exhibits within a preplanned framework of the given space.This arrangement is the composition to create an impact that should capture, accentuate and focus the attention of the viewers in order to increase their curiosities. It should be kept in mind that the museum exhibits should not be either hidden or shadowed in the composition. Besides, other factors are also to be considered as the supportive components such as scale, colour, texture and space for making a god composition without shadowing the presentation of museum exhibits. Design Inputs of Exhibition Exhibition of museum objects is another essential part of presentation while it should have an aesthetic appeal to the viewers.The specimens should impress the minds of the viewers. The exhibits should be able to induce visitors to know more about the specimens for increasing their own knowledge.In this regard the following points may be considered as the basic objectives of design inputs for museum presentation: (i) The exhibits should impress the minds of the viewers with aesthetic appeal. (ii) The visitors should be inquisitive to know more about the exhibits. (iii) The specimens should disseminate some specific information by means of its presentation. (iv) The design inputs of exhibition should provide intellectual relaxation by means of space management, easy traffic and visual appear. (v) Maximum utilization of that unique opportunity, which should be made by imparting informal education rather visual education with great care and thought in the exhibition. Different designs inputs are required for making a successful exhibition.Some important inputs may be mentioned here, such as, lighting, selection of specimens in relation to space, balance between the proportions of exhibits and furniture for display, colour scheme and use of reference materials. Above all, the perspective of presentation should be planned and well coordinated to impart a theme around the exhibition.The planning of gallery layout is required after selection of the specimens.The arrangement of the exhibits may be made in different ways in which the objects can be arranged and grouped.It can be arranged according to their locations, periods, styles, or subject matter, as per preplanned schedule that should be prepared in advance. The placement of showcases should be considered in relation to space of exhibition to be used for display of the furniture.A few objects are to be placed in standing showcases while other can be displayed in table showcases.Apart from these, large and free standing objects are to be fitted by use of pedestals, again a few of such objects can be arranged in a group and sometimes in a common platform.For example, the specimens like textiles can be arranged in standing cases as
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 176 School of Distance Education
well as table cases.Under display techniques, the cases of different forms and shapes should be used to avoid monotony of viewing.Diorama is being commonly used for natural history specimens, which may not be interesting if it is not presented in a gallery with full of Dioramas in combination with a few other presentations.Therefore a museum gallery is required to have a few individual objects, some standing showcases for a groups of exhibits a few table showcases and dioramas to create interesting combinations of exhibition technique.After selection of the theme of an exhibition, the replicas of original specimens along with some photographs are required for an arrangement of that exhibition when the original ones are not available.Besides, the cast or replicas of objects, photographs, maps, charts are often needed for giving references to find out the exact information in addition to labels. An isolated space or corner should be arranged with informative materials for the purpose of giving the proper orientation to the exhibition.This introductory area may be arranged near to the entrance of the gallery.This reference area/introductory area will help in preparing the minds of the visitors and they are introduced by supplying the background information regarding the theme of the exhibition. Required information may be supplied to the visitors before or at the time of entering the gallery by distribution of folders and catalogues.Labels are very much guiding materials for the gallery.In gallery exhibitions the labels can be divided in three categories. The general introductory label is used for disseminating background information of the theme of the exhibition and objects.The sectional labels are also providing information of particular section of the exhibition and objects.The individual labels are used for a group of objects and individual object covering brief information in connection with the particular object. But, it should be kept in mind that these labels should provide brief information for avoiding the consumption of larger area in comparison with the objects.Finally, nothing is ultimate in question of presentation.At present period, the museum presentation is required to develop a complete environment from which the object comes or its environment instead of display individual object. Preparation of Reference Materials References materials are required items to support the presentation. These materials depict a clear background of the specimens at the time of display.These items vary widely in the form of replicas, drawing and paintings, and photographs.Only a few items have been illustrated here in brief. Mould and Casting The mould is simply a cavity in which something is to be shaped.The cast is a product to be shaped by the mould. The replica is considered as an exact copy of original one. In fact, the replica is the product of casting through the mould.Mostly, the original specimens are not easily available due to many reasons.In this situation, the casting is only solution to have the replicas of original one.The size of the objects varies widely from a small one to a big size either two- dimensional or three-dimensional in the form.For a big size object, the mould also demands a big size to produce a big size cast.But, this size creates many problems in handling. Therefore the big size mould is divided in the small pieces for proper handling.After casting the small pieces of casts are rejoined to produce a large size cast.This type of composite mould is known as piece- mould. A few moulds may be prepared for a single use to produce one cast only. This type of mould is known as waste-mould.Hence the preparation of mould is an important task to have a good cast. The clay is required for clay-mould.The plaster of Paris is used in plaster mould.The
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 177 School of Distance Education
rubber-mould is prepared with the materials like the latex-rubber, the vulcanized rubber or the silicon rubber.The clay is a harmless material to the original specimen.The sticky and sand-free clay is used in clay-mould.This clay is directly applied on the object to prepare a mould of it. But, most of the cases replicas are used to make a mould instead of original ones. Plaster of Paris is only item to prepare plaster-mould.It is easily available in the market with two qualities.Country-Plaster and English-Plaster.The Country-plaster will take 20 to 30 minutes for getting a hard condensation.But the English-plaster is demanding only 10 minutes to get the hard in condition.Temple plaster piece-mould is divided in the following parts as the small piece, the cover piece and the mother piece. Such piece-mould is prepared in two or more pieces according to requirements.The reinforcement work with iron rods is required for strengthening the mould as well as cast of large size.In the preparation of rubber-mould, the latex-rubber may be applied directly over original specimen. But it is not at all preferable due to strong grasping power of latex rubber. It is a special kind of problem for rubber-mould, which is also found in case of vulcanized rubber.Hence both of these materials are not suitable for direct use over the specimen for preparing the mould. But the silicon-rubber is the finest variety of rubber with less sticky and strong grasping power. It can be easily used to original object directly for preparing the rubber mould.The silicon-rubber can produce all minute structures of original specimens accurately. It is very expensive material with a quality of unquestionable durability. It is available in the paste form. It demands a catalyst, which is to be mixed with the silicon-rubber paste in proportion of 2gm. Catalyst with 100gm. of silicon-rubber paste. After completion of mixing, the paste is ready for preparing the mould. The ready paste is applied directly over original object by a brush.The material is very soft. Naturally, a hard-grip of plaster-jacket is required to hold it properly after preparation of the mould. The releaser is very important material for avoiding sticky and grasping problem of the mould.The releaser is used for getting correctly and having a satisfactory result in casting operation. It is a kind of soft material rather a separator making no harm of the surfaces.The materials for the use as a releaser varies widely due to different qualities of the mould and cast. The French chalk is a good releaser for clay-mould and clay-cast.This French chalk is also efficient releaser at the time of clay casting in a plaster-mould. A solution of soap is a correct releaser for plaster-mould and plaster cast.The soap solution is a mixture in proportion of water 100% with 4% coconut oil and 2% sunlight soap.This mixture is boiled till the form of air bubbles and it proves that the solution is ready to use as a releaser.Only coconut oil is a good releaser for rubber moulds especially latex-rubber.The releaser is not essential for silicon-rubber mould. But, the coconut oil as a releaser is good enough for silicon-rubber mould if it is required by the situation. The discussions are already made regarding the clay-cast and the plaster cast by use of moulds of different materials. But, the fiberglass is a complete different type of material. It is hard, remarkably durable, and lightweight. But this material is too much expensive.The fibreglass material is available in two forms, such as the fibreglass mat and the fibreglass surface mat.Fibreglass mat is coarse-grained material and the fibreglass surface mat is fine grained to get finer details of original object on a final product as the cast.A fixer solution is used in fibreglass casting. This solution is a mixture in proportion of resin (G.P. Resin) 100% with Accelerator 2.25% and 2.25% of catalyst. Firstly, the resin is fixed with the accelerator then catalyst will be added in proportionately. The fibreglass surface mat is placed on the mould in addition to fixer. Next, the coarse-grained fibreglass mat with fixer is placed upon the first layer of fibreglass
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 178 School of Distance Education
surface mat.The fibreglass cast is demanding two or more layers of application. It must be kept for 10 to 12 hours at least for drying up the materials.The releaser must be applied on the mould before placement of the first layer of fibreglass surface mat. The releaser is an important requirement for fibreglass casting. It is the PVA chemical in liquid form.The chemical is available in powder form, which after boiling in water turns to a liquid state.This releaser can produce a single cast from the plaster-mould.But; the same releaser can produce many of fibreglass casts from the mould of vulcanized-rubber. In case of rubber mould, the spirit-lacquer solution is also another effective releaser.The spirit with lacquer in equal proportion is the combination of spirit-lacquer solution.This solution is also another effective releaser for silicon-rubber mould.The silicon-rubber mould is highly efficient to produce a large number of fibreglass casts from a single mould.A mixture of mason polish with turpentine oil in same proportion may also be a good releaser. At the state of final production, the fibreglass cast is painted with oxide colours. Oil colours of SL quality are most preferable choice. Drawing and Paintings In truest sense, the drawing is rendering an impressive appearance to express the object with their substances, to represent hardness/softness, lines and masses, design and the interrelationship of the whole. In short, the line, form and rhythm are most important aspects of a drawing work. A clear conception of the subject is necessary before to start drawing. In fact, the rough line becomes a sketch and the rough sketch becomes a picture.The drawing board should be kept straight up.One has to sit with drawing board to keeping upside at away from the arm’s length.Give our arm full play, so that we can draw from the shoulder while we should get freedom on our line. Drawing may be made step by step. First thing is to get a clear idea about the form. Next, we need to draw with accuracy. Finally, the drawing is completed with details. In drawing, delineation is essential part, which is represented through simple line. It catches the form, but without attention draws many more lines from which we should select outline that is too essential in delineation.Rhythm is produced by the interplay of fast and slow lines, stiff and flowing lines, strong and weak lines, and of forms, all in proper relationship to the subject.A straight line is fast while a spiral or bent line is slow.The use of lines with varying speeds is important in drawing textures and substances.To maintain accuracy in drawing is also important for making a lively expression.The details in drawing should come out through lines of different nature with creation of shades.The artist can only express light and dark in proper proportion by controlling each shade in relation to the whole. For oil painting, we should use linen or a good grade of cotton canvas board.The grain of canvas is a matter of preference but too absorbent in a ground is not recommended.The drawing should be started with charcoal.The application of a fixative is required to keep up free from colour mixing after a satisfactory charcoal drawing.It is always best to use an easel, inclined forward to prevent shine or reflected rays from striking the canvas.We should use brush as much as possible for oil painting. It should be kept in mind that dark shade is to be painted first and gradually comes in light shade. For multi-colour or polychrome painting the palette is required to arrange systematically:-
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 179 School of Distance Education
1. On the left side – Blue, French Ultramarine, Burnt Sienna, Golden, Yellow Ochre and Alizarin Crimson. 2. In the centre – Zinc White. 3. Next to White on the right side – either Vermilion or Cadmium Red and Light Red. 4. Next line – Viridian Green, Lemon Yellow, Cadmium Yellow and Light Yellow. To use of purified linseed oil is necessary for oil painting.To use of turpentine oil alone is not recommended since it reduces brilliancy of the colours.But, this oil produces good result with the mixture of linseed oil. The mixer is in proportion of 50% turpentine oil with 50% linseed oil. This mixture can maintain the brilliancy of the painting as well as to keep up the fluidity of the oil colour. Besides, this mixture does not take slow drying period in comparison with the 100% linseed oil or poppy seed oil.In general painting, the colour is applied with reasonably loaded brush with a minimum quantity of oil.Technically, any colour can be made by mixing of primary colours such as yellow, red and blue. Each of secondary colours, orange, violet and green is made by mixing of two primary colours on either side of it.Mixing of primary and secondary colours produces intermediate colours, yellow-orange, red-orange, red-violet, blue-violet, blue- green and yellow-green.The complement of each colour is directly opposite it or the mixing of secondary and primary colours.The mixtures of complements make grays.Colours containing a greater proportion of yellow or red are considered as “warm”, conversely the colours containing a greater proportion of blue are “cool”. Besides, many things are required in oil painting that would be achieved by self at the time of painting. Photography Photography is a very successful media of communication.It is a scientific process wrapped with aesthetic sense.It can produce an unquestionable truth with incredible accuracy.The photographer shows the world what he sees.He never produces documents or duplicates of reality.He interprets, give images instead of picture.Modern technology is effected surprisingly in the methods of photography.Now its, application is so vast and widespread that it is an indispensable part of our life.The knowledge regarding simple techniques of photography is mentioned here for young scholars.The photographic process can be divided in two ways, i.e., photo-taking and photo-processing.Photo-taking includes ‘mechanical operation’ in handling of cameras, ‘knowledge of physics’ in controlling of light and finally the sense of composition to select the frame. On the other hand, processing comprises ‘knowledge of chemistry’ which can help to develop the images the sense of composition is also necessary here. The camera is a light-tight box with three important controls, i.e., aperture, shutter speed setting and focusing. Aperture or ‘F’ stop setting is the opening behind the lens through light passes and denoted by ‘F’. Bigger ‘F’ stop number produces smaller opening; so that lesser quantity of light is allowed.Similarly. Smaller ‘f’ stops number increases opening to allow more light.Shutter speed adjusts the exposure time, i.e., how long the shutter will remain open to allow light to fall on the film. Speeds are calculated as 1/60, 1/125, 1/250, etc. of a second.Focussing is required to make a sharp image.All the cameras are depending on this system, and although a wide variation is commonly observed.Knowledge of ‘Depth of field’ is most important phenomenon for photo-taking. It is a zone in which the subjects can move to and from the camera and remain in sharp focus. The span of this zone increases when: (a) The distance in between the subject and the lens increases.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 180 School of Distance Education
(b) Aperture decreases by setting bigger ‘F’ stop opening. (c) The focal length of the lens decreases, i.e., using Tele-photo lens. Therefore, adjusting the said factors the depth of field can be increases or decreases.Another important aspect is the composition.It is a sharp format produced by the photographer’s capability to synthesize own knowledge, creativity with expression and the communicative factors in a single frame. It depends absolutely on aesthetic sense of the creator.The negatives can be graded into the following three groups in general. (a) Contrast negatives, which contain all images very clear and distinct with high contrast.These types of negatives, are formed by over-exposure and over-developing and the size of grain will be increased. (b) Normal negatives are always good.It is a resultant of correct exposure and perfect development. Here, the grain will be finer in nature. It produces maximum tonal variations with details even in the thinnest part (i.e., shadow areas). (c) Flat negatives are formed due to under-exposure and under-developing of the exposed films.In this situation, there are no details in shadowed part of the film; the negative will appear very thin. The following table will definitely useful to know the possible cause and effect on fault- findings in black and white printing:
Effect Cause
1. Prints may very contrast and it may 1. Wrong selection of paper grade. very dull.
2. Prints are dark and lack in details. 2. Prints are over-exposed. Exposure time to be correctly determined by the test bits.
3. Prints are brownish and lack in details. 3. Processed with too short exposure and forced development, i.e., weak/used/exidised developer
4. There is brownish grey colour all over 4. Silver stains persist over the prints. or in corners of the prints Prints have not been fully immersed in fixer/hypo.
5. Prints have yellowish colour in white 5. Processing has done by very weak fixer, portions i.e. used hypo.
6. Prints become yellowish after a month 6. Prints were not properly washed or or two. stop-bath (chemical solution to stop reaction) was not followed.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 181 School of Distance Education
Negative preservation is necessary task for photography.A wooden box is required to preserve them properly.Negatives should be placed in polythene wallets, which in turn may be systematically stored in the wooden cabinet.If possible a register may also be maintained for the negatives.The silica-gel crystals are to be kept inside cabinet for absorption of moistures. It can be concluded that the knowledge and skill regarding photography is essential for museum work.
CHAPTER-VI
MAJOR HERITAGE DESTINATIONS IN INDIA
SELECT WORLD HERITAGE MONUMENTS IN INDIA. AJANTA CAVES (1983), MAHARASHTRA The Ajanta Caves (75 º 40’N. 20º30’ E) are situated at a distance of 107 km north of Aurangabad, the district headquarters.The caves attained the name from a nearby village named Ajanta located about 12 km. These caves were discovered by an Army Officer in the Madras Regiment of the British Army in 1819 during one of his hunting expeditions instantly the discovery became vary famous and Ajanta attained a very important tourist destination in the world.The caves, famous for its murals are the finest surviving examples of Indian art, particularly painting. These caves are excavated in horse-shoe shaped bend of rock surface nearly 76 m in height overlooking a narrow stream known as Waghora. The location of this valley provided a calm and serene environment for the Buddhist monks who retreated at these secluded places during the rainy seasons.This retreat also provided them with enough time for furthering their religious pursuits through intellectual discourses for a considerably longer period. The caves were excavated in different periods (circa 2nd century B.C. to 6th century A.D.} according to the necessity. Each cave was connected to the stream by a flight of steps, which are now almost obliterated, albeit traces of some could be noticed at some places. In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also includes an unfinished one. Out of these, five (cave no. 9, 10, 10, 26, and 29) are chaitya grihas and the rest are viharas. In date and style also, these caves can be divided into two broad groups.The earliest excavations belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhism of which similar examples could also be seen at Bhaja, Kondane, Pitalkhora, Nasik, etc. In total, 5 caves at Ajanta belong to this phase, viz., 9 & 10 which are chaityagrihas and 8, 12, 13, & 15A which are viharas. These caves are datable to the pre-Christian era, the earliest among them being Cave 10 dating from the 2nd century B.C.The object of worship is a stupa here and these caves exhibit the imitation of wooden construction to the extent that the rafters and beams are also sculpted even though they are non-functional. The addition of new excavations could be noticed again during the period of Vakatakas, the contemporaries of the Imperial Guptas.The caves were caused to be excavated by royal patronage and the feudatories under the Vakatakas as illustrated by the inscriptions found in the caves. Varahadeva, the minister of Vakataka king Harishena (A.D. 475-500) dedicated Cave 16 to the Buddhist Sangha while Cave 17 was the gift of a prince (who subjugated Asmaka) feudatory to the same king. The flurry of activities at Ajanta was between mid 5th century A.D.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 182 School of Distance Education
to mid 6th century A.D.However, Hieun Tsang, the famous Chinese traveller who visited India during the first half of 7th century A.D. has left a vivid and graphic description of the flourishing Buddhist establishment here even though he did not visit the caves.A solitary Rashtrakuta inscription in cave no. 26 indicates its use during 8th – 9th centuries A.D.The second phase departs from the earlier one with the introduction of new pattern in layout as well as the centrality of Buddha image, both in sculpture as well as in paintings. The world famous paintings at Ajanta also fall into two broad phases. The earliest is noticed in the form of fragmentary specimens in cave nos. 9 & 10, which are datable to 2nd century B.C.The headgear and other ornaments of the images in these paintings resemble the bas-relief sculpture of Sanchi and Bharhut. The second phase of paintings started around 5th – 6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries. The specimen of these exemplary paintings of Vakataka period could be noticed in cave nos. 1, 2, 16 and 17. The variation in style and execution in these paintings also are noticed, mainly due to different authors of them.A decline in the execution is also noticed in some paintings as indicated by some rigid, mechanical and lifeless figures of Buddha in some later period paintings.The main theme of the paintings is the depiction of various Jataka stories, different incidents associated with the life of Buddha, and the contemporary events and social life also.The ceiling decoration invariably consists of decorative patterns, geometrical as well as floral. The paintings were executed after elaborate preparation of the rock surface initially. The rock surface was left with chisel marks and grooves so that the layer applied over it can be held in an effective manner. The ground layer consists of a rough layer of ferruginous earth mixed with rock-grit or sand, vegetable fibres, paddy husk, grass and other fibrous material of organic origin on the rough surface of walls and ceilings. A second coat of mud and ferruginous earth mixed with fine rock-powder or sand and fine fibrous vegetable material was applied over the ground surface.Then the surface was finally finished with a thin coat of lime wash. Over this surface, outlines are drawn boldly, and then the spaces are filled with requisite colours in different shades and tones to achieve the effect of rounded and plastic volumes.The colours and shades utilized also very from red and yellow ochre, terra verte, to lime, kaolin, gypsum, lamp black and lapis lazuli.The chief binding material used here was glue.The paintings at Ajanta are not frescoes as they are painted with the aid of a binding agent, whereas in fresco the paintings are executed while the lime wash is still wet which, thereby acts as an intrinsic binding agent. ELLORA CAVES (1983), MAHARASHTRA The Ellora caves, locally known as ‘Verul Leni’ is located on the Aurangabad – Chalisgaon road at a distance of 30 km north-northwest of Aurangabad, the district headquarters.The name Ellora itself inspires everyone as it represents one of the largest rock-hewn monastic-temple complexes in the entire world.Ellora is also world famous for the largest single monolithic excavation in the world, the great Kailasa (Cave 16). The visit to these caves is enjoyed maximum during monsoon, when every stream is filled with rainwater, and the entire environ is lush green. The monsoon is not only a season of rains in this part, the local visitors are attracted to visit these ideal locations to have a glimpse of the mother nature in full bloom.The caves are hewn out of the volcanic basaltic formation of Maharashtra, known as ‘Deccan Trap’, the term trap being of Scandinavan origin representing the step like formation of the volcanic deposits.The rock formation, on weathering has given rise to the appearance of terraces with flat summits. At Ellora, one can also have a glimpse of the channels (near Cave 32) through which the volcanic lava once flowed.These channels, due to overheating, have a characteristic brownish
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 183 School of Distance Education
red colour.Similar rock was used in the construction of the Grishneshwar Temple nearby and also utilized for the flooring of the pathways at Bibi-ka-Maqbara. The hills in which the caves are hewn, forms part of the Sahyadri ranges of the Deccan and dated to the Cretaceous era of the Geological time scale (about 65 million years ago).The hills rise abruptly from the surrounding plains on the south and west, the western surface being extensively utilized for hewing the cave complexes. The hill also supports several streams, the prominent among them being the Elaganga, which drains into the Shiv, a stream of the Godavari river system. The Elaganga is in its full vigour during the monsoon, when the overflowing waters of a barrage in the upstream near Mahismati allows the gushing waters to land at “Sita-ki- nahani” near Cave 29 as a crashing waterfall.The volcanic lava flowed during different periods, gave rise to extensive horizontal flows alternating with vesicular trap beds.The vesicular traps formed the upper portion of each of the massive trap beds.The different lava flows also gave rise to vertical as well as horizontal joints in the rock formation.Depending upon the nature and mineralogical content of the lave flow, the rock formations also varied in character and tecture, giving rise to various qualities like coarse grained, fine grained formations. The ancient builders at Ellora, like other places, particularly chose the fine grained formations of the Deccan trap, ideal for sculpting and rock hewing.In addition to this, the ancient builders also traced the horizontal and vertical joints in the rock formation to minimise the labour and time during excavation and rock splitting.The basaltic rock is also ideal for rock hewing, as they are soft during the initial excavation and hardens on exposure to environment. The basaltic formation of the Deccan is ideal for rock hewing, the technique widely understood during ancient times.This induced the religious followers of various creeds to establish their settlements in them.By a rough estimate, there are nearly 1200 caves of varying sizes in the entire Maharashtra, out of which nearly 900 alone belong to Buddhism.The region is also famous for its antiquity.It has been inhabited since time immemorial, the stone tools belonging to the Upper Palaeolithic (around 10,000 to 20,000 years ago).Mesolithic (less than 10,000 years ago) bearing testimony to this fact.The Chalcolithic remains (2500-1000 BC) in the vicinity also indicates the continuity of human occupation in this region. The importance of Ellora during the early centuries of the Christian era is also understood by the findings of coins of Satavahanas, the ruling dynasty during the period.The Satavahanas had their capital at Pratishtana (modern Paithan) and ruled the entire area between the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and bordered by the Narmada River on the north.Ellora being located on the ancient trade route connecting the western ports on the Arabian sea like Sopara (Surparaka, the Supara of Greek, Subara of Arab writers, the ancient capital of northern Konkan), Kalyan a thriving port, Chemula, the Samylla of Greek geographers. Chemula of Silaharas, on the island of Trombay and the inland cities like Paithan (Pratishtana), Territory (Tagara), Bhokardan (Bhogavardhana) etc.The fact that Satavahanas traversed this region is attested by their inscriptions at Nasik caves and donor inscriptions of their times at Pital Khora caves, located at a distance of 40km west of Ellora.Ellora is located directly on the ancient trade route which traversed from Pratishtana via Aurangabad, Ellora, Pital Khora, Patne, Nasika (modern Nasik).Nasik is at the crossroads of an ancient trade route connecting centres on the west to east and those on the north to south.The location on the ancient trade route did not induce any activities at Ellora during the Satavahana rule brisk activities were already on at nearby Pital Khora, Nasik, Ajanta, etc., and this could have been a diversion of the ancient builders to support
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 184 School of Distance Education
any activity here. However, as the multiplication of the religious establishments took place in every nook and corner of Maharashtra, the ideal location of Ellora was unavoidable. Thus grew one of the largest cave excavations at Ellora, that too of three different religious creeds, viz., Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism. The caves are datable from circa 6th-7th century A.D. to 11th century A.D.In total, there are nearly 100 caves in the hill range out of which 34 caves are famous and visited by many tourists, out of which Caves 1 to 12 are Buddhist, Caves 13 to 29 are Brahmanical and Caves 30 to 34 are Jaina.Two more groups of caves are noticed on the Elaganga and on an upper terrace, namely, the Ganesh Leni and Jogeshwari Leni. These religious establishments could have received royal patronage from various dynasties, even though inscriptional evidences are lacking for most of them.The only definite inscriptional evidence is that of Rashtrakuta Dantidurga (c. 753-57 A.D) on the back wall of the front mandapa of Cave 15.The Great Kailasa (Cave 16) is attributed to Krishna I (c. 757-83 A.D), the successor and uncle of Dantidurga. A copper plate grant from Baroda of the period of Karka II (c. 812-13 A.D) speaks about the greatness of this edifice.The inscription tells us that this great edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura (Ellora) and even the celestial beings moving in the sky were struck by its magnificence, as though it was self-existent, not created by mortals, and, even the architect who caused it was wonder struck that he could build it. Apart from the above two inscriptions, the entire cave complexes lack inscriptions of the nature found at other cave sites like that of Ajanta, Nasik, Karie, Kanheri, etc. In the absence of concrete inscriptional evidence, we can deduce the royal dynasties that could have extended their patronage to the religious establishments.The initiation of religious establishments at Ellora coincide with the departure of the tradition at Ajanta. It is well known that the excavations started here before the Rashtrakutas arrived on the scene and the Caves 1 to 10 and Cave 21 (Ramesvara) were definitely constructed before them.These excavations are generally attributed to the Kalachuris of Mahismati, appeared to have gained control of the region around Nasik and part sof ancient Asmaka (region around Aurangabad) including Bhogavardana (modern Bhokardan) and the Chalukyas of Badami who held their sway in this region for a brief period before their feudatories, the Rashtrakutas took over. The majority of the Brahmanical establishments and the remaining Buddhist ones can be attributed to the Rashtrakuta times which indicate the religious tolerance of the contemporary period.The Jaina caves definitelypost-date the Rashtrakutas as indicated by the style of execution and fragmentary inscriptions.This region was under the control of Kalyani Chalukyas and Yadavas of Deogiri (Daulatabad) during this period.The patronage towards Jainism under the Yadavas is also known by the findings of several sculptures of Jaina faith from Daulatabad.Thus; we have the greatest religious conglomeration at a single place, signifying the religious tolerance and solidarity of different faiths. The Ellora caves, unlike Ajanta, have a distinction that they were never lost to oblivion, due to their close proximity to the trade route. There have been numerous written records to indicate that these caves were visited regularly by enthused travelers and royal personages as well. The earliest is that of an Arab geographer Al-Mas’udi of the 10th century A.D. in 1352 A.D. the approach roads to the caves were repaired on the ensuing visit of Sultan Hasan Gangu Bahmani, who also camped at the site and visited the caves. The other important accounts of these caves are by Ririshta, Thevenot (1633-67), Noccolao Manucci (1653-1708), Charles Warre Malet (1794, Seely (1824). During the 19th century A.D. these caves were owned by the Holkars of Indore who auctioned for the right of worship and leasing them for religious as well as a form of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 185 School of Distance Education
entrance fee.After the Holkars, these caves passed into the control of Nizams of Hyderabad, who through their Archaeology Department carried out extensive repairs and maintenance of the caves under the guidance of Archaeological Survey of India.The caves are under the maintenance of the Archaeological Survey of India after the reorganization of states and the dominions of erstwhile Nizams merged into the state of Maharashtra. A brief account on the architectural splendour and artistic expressions of various caves is given here for enabling one to understand the real character and importance of this wonderful place. A tourist can plan the visit of these caves according to the time available and depending upon the interest in ancient art. If a visitor has at his disposal three to four hours, then the Cave nos. 10 (Visvakarma Cave), 16 (Kailasa), 21 (Ramesvara) and 32 & 34 (Jaina group of caves) should not be missed.Thus, by visiting these caves, one can have a glimpse of the representative art of Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism. If a visitor has an entire day at his disposal, the Cave nos. 2,5, 10 & 12 of the Buddhist group.Cave nos. 14, 15, 16, 21 &29 of the Brahmanical group and Caves 32 to 34 of the Jaina group should be visited.The caves are excavated in the scarp of a large plateau, running in a north-south direction for nearly 2 km, the scarp being in the form of a semi-circle, the Buddhist group at the right arc on the south, while the Jaina group at the left arc on the north and the Brahmanical group at the centre.
TAJMAHAL (U.P)
Taj Mahal, the pinnacle of Mughal architecture, was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1628-1658), grandson of Akbar the great, in the memory of his queen Arjumand Bano Begum, entitled ‘Mumtaz Mahal’. Mumtaz Mahal was a niece of Empress Nur Jahan and granddaughter of Mirza Ghias Beg I’timad-ud-Daula, wazir of emperor Jehangir. She was born in 1593 and died in 1631, during the birth of her 14th child at Burhanpur. Her mortal remains were temporarily buried in the Zainabad garden. Six months later, her body was transferred to Agra to be finally enshrined in the crypt of the main tomb of the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal is the mausoleum of both Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan.
The mausoleum is located on the right bank of the river Yamuna at a point where it takes a sharp turn and flows eastwards. Originally, the land where the Taj Mahal presently stands belonged to the Kachhwahas of Ajmer (Rajasthan). The land was acquired from them in lieu of four havelis as is testified by a court historian, Abdul Hamid Lahauri, in his work titled the Badshah-Namah and the firmans (royal decrees). For construction, a network of wells was laid along the river line to support the huge mausoleum buildings. Masons, stonecutters, inlayers, carvers, painters, calligraphers, dome-builders and other artisans were requisitioned from the whole of the empire and also from Central Asia and Iran. While bricks for internal constructions were locally prepared, white marble for external use in veneering work was obtained from Makrana in Rajasthan. Semi-precious stones for inlay ornamentation were brought from distant regions of India, Ceylon and Afghanistan. Red sandstone of different tints was requisitioned from the neighbouring quarries of Sikri, Dholpur, etc. It took 17 years for the monument complex to be completed in 1648.
In all, the Taj Mahal covers an area of 60 bighas, as the terrain gradually sloped from south to north, towards the river, in the form of descending terraces. At the southern point is the forecourt with the main gate in front and tombs of Akbarabadi Begum and Fatehpuri Begum, two other
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 186 School of Distance Education
queens of Shah Jahan, on its south-east and south-west corners respectively called Saheli Burj 1 and 2? On the second terrace is a spacious square garden, with side pavilions. It is divided into four quarters by broad shallow canals of water, with wide walkways and cypress avenues on the sides. The water channels and fountains are fed by overhead water tanks. These four quarters are further divided into the smaller quarters by broad causeways, so that the whole scheme is in a perfect char-bagh.
The main tomb of the Taj is basically square with chamfered corners. The minarets here are detached, facing the chamfered angles (corners) of the main tomb on the main plinth. Red sandstone mosque on the western and Mehman-Khana on the eastern side of the tomb provides aesthetically a clear colour contrast.The Taj has some wonderful specimens of polychrome inlay art both in the interior and exterior on the dados, on cenotaphs and on the marble jhajjhari (jali- screen) around them.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM, BADAMI (District Bagalkot, Karnataka) Badami (Lat. 16º 55’ N. long 75º48’ E) is situated 40 km south-east of Bagalkot.132 km south of Bijapur and about 110km north-west of Dharwad, Badami on the Gadge-Sholapur meter gauge, is the nearest railway station and Hyderabad is the nearest airport. A number of buses ply from Dharwad, Gadge, Bijapur and Bagalkot connecting Badami. Badami was the capital of the early Chalukyas of Badami, who ruled from this place during 6th-8th century A.D.The place, is known with ancient names Vatapi.Vatapiadhistana and Badavi.Even during the succeeding centuries, right up to the beginning of 19th century, it was an important politically strategic place forming part of the dominions of many later dynasties. A number of religious and defense structure were built during these periods at Badami. Beautifully excavated rock caves of Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina affinity with massive sculptures, structural temples of Dravida vimana type illustrating different stages of experimentations all around Agasthya Theertha tank with in the scenic beauty of sand stone formations, make this place a unique tourist destination. The museum is located at the foothills of the northern hill containing the northern fort and near the famous Pallava Narasimhavarman’s inscription.It was established in 1979, as a sculpture shed to collect and preserve explored materials, sculptures, inscriptions, architectural members scattered in and around Badami.Subsequently it was converted into a full fledged site museum in the year 1982.The museum mainly comprises of pre-historic stone implements and sculptures, architectural members, inscriptions, hero stones etc. datable from 6th to 16th century A.D. The museum has four galleries, an open gallery in the veranda and an open air gallery in front.The exhibits chiefly comprise of sculptures of Siva in different forms.Ganapati, forms of Vishnu, panel narrating Bhagavata scenes, Lajjagauri, etc. One of the galleries has a scaled model of a near by pre-historic rock shelter (Shidiaphadi cave) with wall show cases and translides displaying stone artifacts, pre-historic art and their activities, in the open veranda and open air gallery, hero stones, inscriptions, carved architectural members and pair of impressive dwara-palaka figures and exhibited on pedestals in a new gallery, epigraphy and architecture exhibits are being organized.The master pieces in the collection include, Lajja Gouri, Makara Torana carved on both the sides, narrative panel depicting Bhagavata, animal figurines like lion, elephants, Kalarimurthy, Tripurantaka Siva and Bhairavi.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 187 School of Distance Education
FATEHPUR SIKRI (1986), U.P Sikri an extension of the upper Vindhyan ranges is situated on the bank of a large natural lake, which has now mostly dried up. It is a pre-historic site and, with abundant water, forest and raw material, it was ideal for primitive man’s habitation. Rock shelters with paintings exist on the periphery of the lake.Stone Age tools have been found in this area. Ochre Coloured Pottery (c. 2nd millennium B.C) and Painted Grey Ware (c. 1200-800 B.C.) have also been discovered from here.Sikri has been mentioned in the Mahabharata as ‘Saik’.Lexicons define ‘Saik’ as a region surrounded by water. An inscription found on the stone sculpture of Jaina Saraswati (dated 1067 Vikram Samvat = 1010 A.D.) mentions this place as ‘Sekrikya’, which seems to be a similar derivative. All this shows that Sikri was continuously inhabited since the prehistoric period. Babur visited the place on the eve of the Khanwah battle in A.D. 1527 and mentioned it as ‘Sikri’ in his Memoirs. He founded here a garden and a Jal-Mahal surrounded by the lake-water and baoli (step-well) to commemorate his victory in the Khanwah battle.Akbar (1556-1605), grandson of Babur, shifted his residence and court from Agra to Sikri, for a period of 13 years, from 1572 to 1585 to honour the Sufi Saint Sheikh Salim Chishti, who resided here (in a cavern on the ridge). Akbar revered him very much as the Saint had blessed him with a son who was named Salim in 1569. He raised lofty buildings for his use, and houses for the public.Thus grew a great city with charming palaces and institutions. Akbar gave it the name of Fathabad and which in later days came to be known as “Fathpur Sikri”.Here practically, all Mughal institutions such as the ‘Ibadat-Khanah’, ‘Din-i-llahi’, ‘Tarikh-i-llahi, Jharokha-Darshan, the doctrine of Sulh-i-Kul and policy of liberal patronage to indigenous arts and literatures, were founded.It was also here that workshops of various handicrafts were established. Sikri was the first planned city of the Mughals.The sloping levels of the city were connected into terraces which were utilised for various complexes such as Jami masjid.Buland-Darwazah and tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti, Khass Mahal, Shahi-Bazar, Mina-Bazar, the Panch-Mahal, Khwabgah, Diwan-i-Khass, Anup-Talao, Chaupar and Diwan-i-Am.The efficient system of drainage and water-supply adopted here suggest an extremely intelligent town-planning by the Mughal emperor.All these palaces were built of red sandstone in the trabeate beam-and-post order, and composed of pillars, ornamental arches, brackets-and-chhajjas, jharokhas, chhatris, chhaparkhats, chaukhandis and so on.Domes have been used sparingly.Sometimes corbelled pendentives have been employed in the transition phase.The architecture of Fatehpur Sikri has a definite all-India character.It is prolific and versatile Indo-Museum composite style, which is a fussion of the composite cultures of indigenous and foreign origins. SANCHI Sanchi might have originated from sanskrit and Pali word sanch meaning To Measure. In Hindi, however Sanchi or Sancha means for Moulds of Stones. The Sanchi and Bharhut stupas are constructed during the Sung period because before it the Maurya Dynasty ruled for the Magadh kingdom but after it when Ppushymitra Sung came in existence; he established his capital in Bidisha in Madhya Pradesh and constructed both the Sanchi and Bharhut stupas in Sung period.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 188 School of Distance Education
Sanchi is a small village in Raisen District of the state of Madhya Pradesh, India; it is located 46 km north east of Bhopal, and 10 km from Besnagar and Vidisha in the central part of the state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the location of several Buddhist monuments dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 12th century CE and is one of the important places of Buddhist Pilgrimage. It is a nagar panchayat in Raisen district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. Toranas surround the Stupa and they each represent love, peace, trust, and courage. The 'Great Stupa' at Sanchi was originally commissioned by the emperor Asoka the Great in the 3rd century BC. Its nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha. It was crowned by the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolising high rank, which was intended to honour and shelter the relics.The compound Buddhist symbols: Shrivatsa within a triratana, over a Chakra wheel, on the Torana gate at Sanchi.The stupa was vandalized at one point, sometime in the 2nd century BC, an event some have related to the rise of the Sunga emperor Pusyamitra Sunga. It has been suggested that Pushyamitra may have destroyed the original stupa, and his son Agnimitra rebuilt it. During the later rule of the Sunga, the stupa was expanded with stone slabs to almost twice its original size. The dome was flattened near the top and crowned by three superimposed parasols within a square railing. With its many tiers it was a symbol of the dharma, the Wheel of the Law. The dome was set on a high circular drum meant for circumambulation, which could be accessed via a double staircase. A second stone pathway at ground level was enclosed by a stone balustrade with four monumental gateways (toranas) facing the cardinal directions. The buildings which seem to have been commissioned during the rule of the Sungas are the Second and Third stupas (but not the highly decorated gateways, which are from the following Satavahana period, as known from inscriptions), and the ground balustrade and stone casing of the Great Stupa.
Satavahana period
Carved decoration of the Northern gateway to the Great Stupa of Sanchi.The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by the Satavahana. An inscription records the gift of one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana king Satakarni:"Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni". Although made of stone, they were carved and constructed in the manner of wood and the gateways were covered with narrative sculptures. They showed scenes from the life of the Buddha integrated with everyday events that would be familiar to the onlookers and so make it easier for them to understand the Buddhist creed as relevant to their lives. At Sanchi and most other stupas the local population donated money for the embellishment of the stupa to attain spiritual merit. There was no direct royal patronage. Devotees, both men and women, who donated money towards a sculpture, would often choose their favourite scene from the life of the Buddha and then have their names inscribed on it. This accounts for the random repetition of particular episodes on the stupa (Dehejia 1992). On these stone carvings the Buddha was never depicted as a human figure. Instead the artists chose to represent him by certain attributes, such as the horse on which he left his father’s home, his footprints, or a canopy under the bodhi tree at the point of his enlightenment. The human body was thought to be too confining for the Buddha.Some of the friezes of Sanchi also show devotees in Greek attire (Greek clothing, attitudes, and musical instruments) celebrating the stupa.
Later periods
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 189 School of Distance Education
Further stupas and other religious Buddhist and early Hindu structures were added over the following centuries until the 12th century CE. Temple 17 is probably one of the earliest Buddhist temples as it dates to the early Gupta period. It consists of a flat roofed square sanctum with a portico and four pillars. The interior and three sides of the exterior are plain and undecorated but the front and the pillars are elegantly carved, giving the temple an almost ‘classical’ appearance (Mitra 1971). With the decline of Buddhism in India, the monuments of Sanchi went out of use and fell into a state of disrepair.
Western rediscovery
A British officer in 1818, General Taylor, was the first known Western historian to document (in English) the existence of Sanchi (Sāñcī).Amateur archaeologists and treasure hunters ravaged the site until 1881, when proper restoration work was initiated. Between 1912 and 1919 the structures were restored to their present condition under the supervision of Sir John Marshall.Today, around 50 monuments remain on the hill of Sanchi, including three stupas and several temples.The monuments have been listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1989.
Demographics
As of 2001 India census Sanchi had a population of 6,785. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Sanchi has an average literacy rate of 67%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 75%, and female literacy is 57%. In Sanchi, 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.
MAHABALIPURAM Tamilnadu is best known for the hospitality shown towards, by every individual.This tendency of the people has made people visiting Tamilnadu more comfortable and secured.The people are sentimental and lone to be kind and generous.There are many qualities to speak about this state and its people.Tamilnadu has its own history right from the past. Tamil is one of the ancient languages.Tamil is also the source for the others neighboring Dravidian languages such as Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Thulu.Tamilnadu which has in the southern past of India, which is the last of all states in the topography of India, has many beautiful places to watch.There are many beautiful sceneries, ancient monuments, historic temples for their unique sculptures, the cultural and tradition of the natives and so on.There are lots of other things to be spoken as well.One such place to be watched, toward and enjoyed is mahabalipuram.This is a magnificent tourist place.Welcome to mahabalipuram, a legacy in stone. Mahabalipuram lies on the Coromandel Coast which faces the Bay of Bengal.This is an elegant place to watch which a well established sea port was during the 7th and 10th centuries of the Pallava dynasty.This was the second capital of the Pallavas who ruled Kanchipuram. Formerly, mahabalipuram was known and called as Mahabalipuram. The former name of this place ‘Mahabalipuram’ has a history.A very rude cruel king Mahabali reined this place and in a fierce battle king Mahabali was killed by Lord Vishnu and the place was named after the dead, arrogant kind Mahabali.It was during the reign of King Narasimha Varman I, the name Mahabalipuram was changed.It was renamed mahabalipuram which is called till now.There is a
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 190 School of Distance Education
story behind.The name Mamallpuram king Narasimha Varman I was a great and valiant warrior. He was given the title Mamalla which means ‘the great wrestler’ so the name was converted from Mahabalipuram to mahabalipuram considering the great king and his achievements. After the decline of the Gupta Dynasty, the pallavas rose to the pioneer in south India.They ruled over from the 3rd century till the end of the 9th century A.D.The best period of their rule was between 650 and 750 AD and this period was called the Golden Age of the pallavas.The pallavas were very powerful. They were profound thinkers.It was during the rule of the pallavas, great poets, dramatists, artists, artisans, scholars and saints emerged.As one can say that the pallavas are the pioneers and forerunners of new styles both in art and architecture and mahabalipuram is the best place to praise off their skill and talent. New sculptures and unique paintings were innovative and exuberant.This place mahabalipuram itself became their exploring field and they made the best use of the resources. They game a shape and creative energy to what they imagined.It became a dream come true as it witnessed innovations in all styles. The richness in mahabalipuram was not known to many, as these pallavas did not outlet and expose their quality and innovative creations to the outer world for obvious reasons.The aestheticism in mahabalipuram was hidden until the late 18th century. What is special about mahabalipuram? Of course every one can point out the rock-cut caves; temples made from a single rock, temples and strive of different structures, and bas-reliefs which are so artistic and sheer creativity. Mamallpuram is referred as an ‘open-air museum’.The great pallava kings Narasimha I and Rajasimha have well preserved these stylistic qualities that one enjoys in mahabalipuram even in the present day. The beauty of the place is not only due to these architecture but the vast casuarinas trees, the silvery sandy beach the classical hand male crafts around have made them all to form what is a collective splendor. Any visitor who visits mahabalipuram will remain startled and intoxicated with the grandeur.They feel hand hearted and more out from this historical and fascinating tourist spot. HAMPI Hampi (Kannada: Hampe) is a village in northern Karnataka state, India.It is located within the ruins of Vijayanagara, the former capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. Predating the city of Vijayanagara, it continues to be an important religious centre, housing the Virupaksha Temple, as well as several other monuments belonging to the old city.As the village is at the original centre of Vijayanagara, it is sometimes confused with the ruined city itself.The ruins are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, listed as the Group of Monuments at Hampi. The name is derived from Pampa, which is the old name of the Tungabhadra River on whose banks the city is built.The name “Hampi” is an anglicized version of the Kannada Hampe (derived from Pampa).Over the years, it has also been referred to as Vijayanagara and Virupakshapura (from Virupaksha, the patron deity of the Vijayanagara rulers). Hampi is identified with the historical Kishkindha, the Vanara (monkey) kingdom mentioned in the Ramayana.The first historical settlements in Hampi date back to 1 CE.Hampi formed one of the cores of the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire from 1336 to 1565, when it was finally laid siege to by the Deccan Muslim confederacy.Hampi was chosen because of its strategic location, bounded by the torrential Tungabhadra river on one side and surrounded by defensible hills on the other three sides.The site is significant historically and architecturally.The topography abounds with large stones which have been utilized to make larger than life statues of Hindu deities.A structure of historic importance appears every quarter of a mile.The
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 191 School of Distance Education
Archaeological Survey of India continues to conduct excavations in the area, to discover additional artifacts and temples. Hampi is situated on the banks of the Tungabhadra river. It is 353 km from Bangalore and 74km away from Bellary. Hosapete (Hospet), 13km away, is the nearest railway head.The chief languages spoken are Kannada and Telugu.The principal industries of the village are agriculture, the support of the Virupaksha temple and some other local holy places in the vicinity, and tourism. The annual Vijayanagar Festival is organized by the Government of Karnataka in November.Due to the presence of several mineral deposits in this region (iron-ore, manganese), mining has been going on for many years now. But a recent boom for the supply of iron-ore in the international market has led to excessive mining in this district.The World Heritage Site at Hampi as well as the Tungabhadra Dam are now under threat. Important sites at and near Hampi . Achyutaraya Temple/Tiruvengalanatha Temple . Akka Tangi Gudda . Anegondi . Anjeyanadri Hill . Aqueducts and Canals . Archaeological Museum at Kamalapura . Badava Linga . Chandramauleshwar Temple . The Kings’ balance . The Underground Temple . Tungabhadra River . Uddana Veerabhadra temple . Ugra Narasimha . Virupaksha Temple . Vittala temple . Yeduru Basavanna . Yentrodharaka Anjaneya temple . Zenana enclosure . Virupapura . Madhavan Palace with more than 1,000,000 pillars . Sasivekalu Ganesha . Elephant stables . Lotus temple
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 192 School of Distance Education
Hampi has various notable Hindu temples, some of which are still active places of worship.Most notable ones are: . Virupaksha Temple complex: Also known as the Pampapathi temple, it is a Shiva temple situated in the Hampi Bazaar.It predates the founding of the Vijayanagar empire.The temple has a 160-foot (49m) high tower at its entrance. Apart from Shiva, the temple complex also contains shrines of the Hindu goddesses Bhuvaneshwari and Pampa. Global Heritage Fund, in a unique public-private partnership with the Hampi Foundation, Cornell University, and the State of Karnataka, has been actively involved in the conservation of Hampi’s unique cultural heritage.Apart from producing a master conservation plan for the site of Chandramauleshwar Temple, the GHF-led effort is now focusing on “the stabilization of the temple and its associated structural features”. There is now a installation at the Immigration Museum in Melbourne, Australia about the architecture and archeology of Hampi (until January 2010). Hampi is considered the bouldering capital of India.The extensive rock-hewn landscape and enchanting temple-ruins background provides for a unique climbing experience.Climbers have been visiting this place since 1980s, but it was further given a boost after featuring in a Chris Sharma video. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES. NAGARJUNAKONDA Nagarjunakonda (meaning Nagarjuna Hill in Telugu) is a historical Buddhist town, now an island located near Nagarjuna Sagar in Nalgonda district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is 150km south east of the capital, Hyderabad. It was formed when a hill was submerged in the waters of the Nagarjuna Sagar Daoism, constructed in the 1960s. It is one of India’s richest Buddhist sites, known in the ancient times as Sri Parvata.It now lies almost entirely under the Nagarjunasagar Dam. It is named after Nagarjuna, a sout Indian master of Mahayana Buddhism who lived in the 2nd century AD, who is believed to have been responsible for the Buddhist activity in the area.The site was once the location of many Buddhist universities and monasteries, attracting students from as far as China, Gandhara, Bengal and Sri Lanka.The Buddhist archaeological sites there were submerged, and had to later be dug up and transferred to higher land on the hill, which had become an island. History The settlement of Nagarjunakonda (also Nagarjunikonda) was the capital of the Ikshvaku dynasty (225 AD – 325 AD), the successors of the Satavahanas in the eastern Deccan.It is believed that Sadvaha authorised the first monastic construction there during his reign.During the early centuries AD, the site housed more than 30 Buddhist viharas; excavations have yielded art works and inscriptions of great significance for the scholarly study of the history of this early period. Nagarjuna was the exponent of the philosophy of sunyata (void). At the time, Buddhism often spread to Sri Lanka and Burma after using the area and the bustling Bay of Bengal ports of the Andhra to re-stock for the impending journey.Archaeological inscriptions at the site show that Sri Virapurusadatta, the second ruler of the dynasty was a Buddhist, as were his son Ehuvula and their descendants. The inscriptions also show state-sponsorship of construction of temples and monasteries, through the funding of the queen of Ikshvaku. Camtisiri in particular, is recorded as having funded the building of the main stupa for ten consecutive years.The support
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 193 School of Distance Education
also spread beyond the noble classes, many non-royal names being inscribed in the relics. At its peak, there were more than thirty monasteries and it was the largest Buddhist centre in South India. Inscriptions showed that there were monasteries belonging to the Bahusrutiya and Aparamahavinaseliya sub-schools of the Mahasamghika, the Mahisasaka, and the Mahaviharavasin, from Sri Lanka.The architecture of the area reflects that of these traditions. There were other monasteries for Buddhist scholars originating from the Tamil kingdoms, Orissa, Kalinga, Gandhara, Bengal, Ceylon (the Culadhammagiri) and China. There is also a footprint at the site of the Mahaviharavasin monastery, which is believed to be a reproduction of that of Gautama Buddha. The region declined after the death of Rudrapurusa, the last Ikshvaku king.Excavations began in 1927, and the first finds were made by English archaeologists in 1928.The excavations were continuous until 1931.They unearthed the ruins of stupas and chaityas in 1926 at what was once an immense centre for Buddhist learning in ancient India. This was expanded in 1954 to include the whole valley, unearthing more than 100 further relics dating from the stone age to the 16th century AD.The great stupa at Nagarjunakonda belongs to the class of uncased stupas, its brickwork being plastered over and the stupa decorated by a large garland-ornament.The original stupa was renovated by the Kkshvaku princess Chamtisiri in the 3rd century AD, when ayaka- pillars of stone were erected.The outer railing, if any, was of wood, its uprights erected over a brick plinth.The stupa, 32.3 m in diameter, rose to a height of 18m with a 4m wide circumambulatory. The medhi stood 1.5m and the ayaka-platforms were rectangular offsets measuring 6.7 by 1.5 m. An archaeological catastrophe struck in 1960, when an irrigation dam was constructed across the nearby Krishna River, submerging the original site under the waters of a reservoir. In advance of the flooding, several monuments were dug up and relocated to the top of Nagarjuna’s Hill, where a museum was built in 1966.Other monuments were relocated to the mainland, east of the flooded area.Dedicated archaeologists managed to recover almost all of the relics. LOTHAL Lothal is situated at a distance of 80km from Ahmedabad. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in India. In the dialect of the local people language, Lothal means ‘the mound of the dead’. The site was discovered in the year 1957, followed by excavations done by the Archaeological Survey of India.It was concluded from the excavations that the ruins of the settlement belonged to the Harappan Era, dating back to the 2nd millennium BC.It is an exquisite example of Harappan town planning.One of the most interesting sites here is the dockyard. It reveals the fact that Lothal was once one of the major ports in the region. Then, there is the citadal that is divided into two parts, an acropolis and the lower town.The acropolis contains paved baths, while lower town stands laced with residential quarters, coppersmith workshops, sheds and bead factories.Apart from this, the most fascinating feature is the excellent sanitary drainage system of the town. Lothal was an important trade destination till 1900 BC. The town was destroyed by floods that struck three times.However; this did not weaken the spirit of its residents. Even after being severely struck by floods, they did not abandon the town; rather they reconstructed and restructured it to meet the future calamities. Towards west of the archaeological excavations, there is the site museum. Here, one can see plans, plaster of Paris models and paintings by archaeologists. All this is put together in an attempt to reconstruct what Lothal must have looked like 4000 years ago. Mirrors of Bronze and Copper, and objects
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 194 School of Distance Education
made from stone, shell and bone are enclosed in glass showcases.Other highlights of the museum are perforated and painted potteries, toy bullock carts, beads and jewelry. There are also a number of seals found here, which throw light on the trade prevalent with ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia.According to archaeologists, people believed in animal sacrifice, as an altar has been found there.Thus, Lothal provides an insight into the Indus Valley civilization. ROCK SHELTERS OF BHIMBETKA The sprawling caves of Bhimbetka (2405’N and 76045’E) are located about 45 km northeast of Bhopal, the state capital of Madhya Pradesh. Situated along the Bhopal-Hoshangabad highway, these caves bear proximity to the Bhiyapura village in Raisen district. The northern fringes of the ancient Vindhyachal ranges are home to the extraordinary rock shelters and paintings, its awesome rocks fortifying the ancient treasure within.Ensconced amidst lush greenery in dense forests, and rocky terrain and craggy cliffs, with the lofty rocks guarding the ancient premises, the caves of Bhimbetka present a breathtaking view even from as far as Obaidullaganj, a small town in the vicinity of Bhimbetka. Nomenclature. Bhimbetka owes its name to the characters of the longest epic in the world, the Mahabharata. It is believed that when the five brothers, called Pandavas, were banished from their kingdom, they came here and stayed in these caves, the massive rocks seating the gigantic frame of Bhima, the second Pandava.Further evidence, cited in support of this theory, is the resemblance in names of the nearby places with the names of the Pandavas.Thus, one of the villages is known as Pandapur.While Bhiyapura itself is believed to be a distortion of Bhimpura. As regards the surrounding Lakhajuhar forest, it is said that it was the Pandava’s palace, built of lakh (was).However; the veracity of these claims still remains to be corroborated with concrete evidence. Discovery. The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered in 1957-58 by one of the great accidents of history.An intrepid archaeologist from Vikram University, Ujjain, Dr. Vishnu Wakankar, strayed too far from the beater path and found himself amidst this prehistoric treasure trove.In due course of time, the archaeological excavations yielded remains, serially from the Lower Palaeolithic Age to the Early medieval Ages. Rock Art. Bhimbetka is a natural art gallery and an archaeological treasure. For miles together, the footsteps of the prehistoric man can be easily discemed upon the sands of time, since the caves here house rock paintings, created by man from as early as about 15,000 years ago in vivid and panoramic detail.The rock paintings have numerous layers belonging to various epochs of time, ranging from the Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic Age to the proto-historic, early historic and medieval periods. The most ancient scenes here believed to be commonly belonging to the Mesolithic Age.These magnificent paintings can be seen even on the ceiling of the rock shelters located at daunting heights.The cover of the dense forest and vegetation protected these rocks painting from being lost to the vagaries of nature. Executed mainly in red and white, with the occasional use of green and yellow with themes taken from the everyday events of eons ago, the scenes usually depict hunting, dancing, horse and elephant riders, animal fights, and honey
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 195 School of Distance Education
collection, decoration of bodies, disguises, masks and different type of animals. It depicts the detail of social life during the long period of time, when man used to frequent these rock shelters. Animals such as bison, tiger, rhinoceros, wild boar, elephants, monkeys, antelopes, lizards, and peacocks; have been abundantly depicted in the rock shelters. Popular religious and ritual symbols also occur frequently.The colours used by the cave dwellers were prepared by combining manganese, hemalite, soft red stone and wooden charcoal. Perhaps, animal fat and extracts of leaves were also used in the mixture.The rock art of Bhimbetka has been classified into various groups on the basis of the style and subject. The superimposition of paintings shows that the same canvas was used by different people at different times. The drawings and paintings can be classified under seven different periods. Period I (Upper Palaeolithic) These are linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge figures of animals, such as bisons and boar beside stick like human figures. Period II (Mesolithic) Comparatively smaller in size, the stylised figures in this group show linear decoration on the body, in addition to animals, there are human figures and hunting scenes giving a clear picture of the weapons used in those times.These included barbed spears, pointed sticks, bows and arrows.The depiction of communal dances, birds, mother and child, pregnant women, men carrying dead animal, drinking etc. are seen in this rock shelter range. Period III (Chalcolithic) Similar to the paintings of Chalcolithic pottery, these drawings reveal the association, contact, and mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with the agricultural communities of the Malwa plains. Period IV (Early Historic) The figures of this group have a schematic and decorative style and are painted mainly in red, while and rarely green depicting riders, religious symbols, tunic-like dresses, and the scripts of different periods. Period V (Medieval) These paintings are geometric, linear and more schematic but show degeneration and crudeness in their artistic style.Now paintings of Brahmanical gods like Ganesh and Nataraja appear for the first time in these rock shelters.Thus, the high slopting face of the ceilings of these extraordinary rock shelters bear scenes, frozen in action of a long expanse of time starting from the period when man was a hunter gatherer to the time when iron technology had become quite significant. A study of these painting gives rare glimpses into the activities of the prehistoric man, his clothing, the animals, and numerous other facets of the then day to day life. A visit to Bhimbetka is akin to being transported into the past, while gathering wonderful insights into the psyche and actions of the man that inhabited these caves thousands of years ago. From the nomadic ways of the prehistoric man to a settled agricultural life, his interaction with the communities living in the plains and the gradual change sand adaptations in the crude lifestyle Bhimbetka paintings reflect all this and much more in vivid detail. These caves represent live documentation of the development of style, aptly seen in the myriad images painted on the rocks
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 196 School of Distance Education
which, themselves graduate from being linear representation to more evolved shapes, depicting a variety of forms and images. Other Remains Bhimbetka amazes not only because of its caves and rock paintings. In fact, numerous other archaeological remains which have been excavated are delightfully being savoured by both the archaeologist and the tourist.A trip to Bhimbetka is a journey into the past, and can serve as an adventure for the more discerning visitor. Besides the rock art and rock shelters, Bhimbetka is home to such remains of yesteryears as walls of a ruined citadel, mini stupas indicating Buddhist influence in the Maurya/Sunga periods in this area, besides rock cut beds attributed to Buddhist monks.There are various inscriptions, which date back to the Sunga, Kushan, Gupta periods. Shankha script inscriptions, which are undeciphered so far, are also commonly seen.Some architectural members of a temple belonging to the Parmara period are also noticed. Thus the visible remains including the paintings belong to various periods’ right from the Upper Palaeolithic age to the Medieval times. But the most significant of all discoveries are the large number of stone tools found during the course of excavations carried out by various universities. This suggests that the rock shelters of Bhimbetka served as habitation sites of remote past right from the lower Palaeolithic period. The tools also give welcome insights into the progressive changes that the prehistoric man was undergoing. As the man began hunting for food, his implements for this task evolved from the crude, unworked ones to more technical ones, catering to a variety of his needs and requirements which again were becoming more specific and varied.Overall, Bhimbetka caves with their art treasure, serve as an invaluable chronicle in the history of man.The rock paintings here tract the graudal progress and various adaptations that the prehistoric man was making in his lifestyle. That he was learning slowly to adapt the natural elements to his comfort and convenience aptly reflected in the rock art at Bhimbetka. EDAKKAL CAVES Edakkal Caves are two natural caves located 1000 metres above sea level on Ambukutty Mala 25 km from Kalpetta in the Wayanad district of Kerala in India’s Western Ghats. They lie besides an ancient trade route connecting the high mountains of Mysore to the ports of Malabar coast. Inside the caves are pictorial writings believed to be from Neolithic man indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilization or rather settlement in this region. The stone age carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from south India. Petroglyphs. These are not technically caves but rather a cleft or rift approximately 96 feet by 22 feet, a 30 foot deep fissure caused by a piece of rock splitting away from the main body. On one side of the cleft is a rock weighing several tons that covers this cleft to form the ‘roof’ of the cave. The carvings are of human and animal figures, tools used by humans and of symbols yet to be deciphered, suggesting the presence of a prehistoric settlement. The petroglyphs inside the cave are of at least three distinct types.The oldest may date back to over 8000 years. Evidences suggest that the Edakkal caves were inhabited several times at different points in history. The caves were accidentally discovered by Fred Fawcett, a police official of the erstwhile Malabar state in 1890 who immediately recognized their anthropological and historical importance. He subsequently wrote an article about them, attracting the attention of scholars.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 197 School of Distance Education
Peobable links with Indus valley civilization. Historians M.R. Raghava Varier of the Kerala state archaeology department identified a sign “a man with jar cup” that is the most distinct motif of the Indus valley civilization. The finding made in 2009 September indicates that the Harappan civilization was active in the region. Interestingly, the “a man with jar cup” symbol from Edakkal seems to be more similar to the Indus motif than those already known from Tamilnadu and Karnataka. Mr. Varier said “The discovery foreign the symbols are akin to that of the Harappan civilization having predominantly Dravidian culture and testimony to the fact that cultural diffusion could take place. It is wrong to presume that the Indus culture disappeared into thin air”. The scholar of Indus and the Tamil Brahmi scripts, Mr. Iravatham Mahadevan said the findings were very significant called it a “major discovery”. According to other rock art researchers, such as Arun Peter Malat, Variers such inferences are too early. They think since Edakkal cave is devoid of any scientific dates, it is dangerous to put a date of Harappan (bronze age) to the site. They also claim, it also has to be noted that ‘Harappan claim’ of Edakkal is derived without any archaeological evidence, and in entire state of Kerala there is no single occurrence of Harappan site. The concept of ‘Man in Urn’ remains as a concept, because Edakkal possesses abstract art work, and it is not clear to see ‘Man in Urn’ and hence the discovery.Edakkal art is definitely Prehistoric in nature; there is definite need for proper scientific research. MUSEUMS OF INDIA. NATIONAL MUSEUM,NEW DELHI India is a land with a history and culture that goes back over 5000 years. Innumerable historical sites, cities and monuments across the length and breadth of the country are a testimony to this rich cultural past. India’s museums offer visitors a rare opportunity to observe over five millennium of concentrated culture under a single roof. The National Museum is one of India’s most prominent institutions.The Indus Valley gallery displays many antiquities discovered from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, like terracotta toys, images and pots, jewellery, seals, bronze and copper implements and sculptures.As this museum is situated in the historic Red Fort, it displays objects of the Mughal period such as manuscripts and firmans, which exhibit the fine art of calligraphy, paintings, textiles and costumes.There is also a section, which concentrates on relics of the 1857 war (First War of Independence) like maps and weapons.The National Museum is located on Janpath, south of Rajpath, covering an excellent collection of bronzes, terracotta sculptures, paintings and costumes, which give a complete insight into Indian history and way of life. The collection consists of rare coins and pottery dating back to the Mauryan period 2nd-3rd century BC, exhibits from the Vijayanagar period in south India, miniature and wall paintings, and costumes of the various tribal people. It also has the largest collection of artifacts dating to the Indus Valley Civilization. The museum is absolutely worth visiting. The museum has a rich variety of all facts of ancient Indian history and also of central Asia. The museum takes through a fascinating trip of what ancient India was all about, pottery, rare coins, and numerous such things including art and architecture, costumes. It’s something every tourist should find time to visit even if the schedule is tight. The most outstanding object here is the lyrical bronze Dancing Giri.The Bronze Gallery has some superb pieces from the Chola and Pallava period.Among these the Nataraja figure of Shiva and the Kaliya Mardan Krishna are all time greats. There are a number of rare manuscripts and miniature paintings, textiles, coins and tribal art. However, the museum’s most significant gallery
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 198 School of Distance Education
is the one of Central Asian exhibits. Silk banners from Dunhuang, wall paintings, sculpture and other objects collected by Sir Aurel Stein capture the lifestyle and culture prevalent along the ancient Silk Route that stretched between Europe and China. The color paintings of Moghul, Rajput, and Deccan are praiseworthy.Besides, there are the holy Git Gobinda, the holy Mahabharata, the holy Bhagvat Gita in golden alphabet, Octogonal mini Quran, Babamama in Babar’s handwriting, Jahangir’s diary, musical instruments of more than 300 types, varieties of tribal dresses enriched the museum.The antique collections of Sir Aurel Stein have added to the attraction of the museum. The blue print for establishing the National Museum in Delhi had been prepared by the Gwyer Committee set up by the Government of India in 1946.When an Exhibition of Indian Art consisting of chosen artifacts from various museums of India, sponsored by the Royal Academy (London) with the co-operation of the Government of India and Britain, was on exhibit in the galleries of Burlington House, London during the winter months of 1947-48, it was decided to display the same collection under a single roof in Delhi before the return of exhibits to their respective museums.Accordingly,the exhibition was held in the staterooms of the Rashtrapati Bhawan, New Delhi in 1949, and it turned out to be a great success. In turn, the event proved responsible for the creation of National Museum.On the auspicious day of the 15th August, 1949, the National Museum was formally inaugurated by the Governor General of India, Shri R.C. Rajagopalachari, and it was announced that till a permanent building for housing the National Museum was constructed, the Museum would continue to function in the Rashtrapati Bhawan. The Government also felt to keep the exhibits on show to form the assets of the National Museum and the plan was sent to the participants of London exhibition. It continued to be looked after well by the Director General of Archaeology until the Ministry of Education, the Government of India declared it a separate institution to grow in its collections that were sought carefully. It received several gifts but artifacts were collected mainly through its Art Purchase Committee.In the meanwhile, the foundation of the present building was laid by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India, in the 12th May, 1955 and the new building where works of art were displayed elegantly on scientific lines, was handed over to Museum authorities in June, 1960. The Museum was formally thrown open to the public on December 18, 1960.And it is now within the administrative control and fully financed by the Department of Culture, Ministry of Human Resource Development, and Government of India.The Museum has in its custody approximately 2, 00,000 works of beautiful art of diverse nature, both Indian and foreign and its assets cover a time span of more than 5,000 years of our cultural tradition.While the marvelous chronological show of selected art objects in the various galleries, screening of educational films related to art and culture, guided tours, gallery talks by the experts, special lectures and training programmes, facilities for photography and access to the reserve collection and library for the study, and advice on identification of art objects have brought huge success to the Museum. Collections. The Archaeological Survey of India and the National Museum jointly set up the Harappan gallery. It has a rich collection of a large number of artifacts from the sites of Harappan Civilization.The collection includes pottery, seals, tablets, weights and measures, jewellery, terracotta figurines, and toys. It also has copper tools from Harappan sites like axes, chisels, and knives.About 3,800 objects have been displayed in the modernised Harappan Gallery from the
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 199 School of Distance Education
National Museum collection. This Gallery also has 1,025 excavated artifacts belonging to the Indian Harappan site of the Archaeological Survey of India collection. Archaeology. A prestigious collection of approximately 800 sculptures have been displayed in the Archaeological Galleries on the ground floor, the rotundas on the ground, first and second floors and around the museum building.The sculptures displayed are mostly in stone, bronze and terracotta, dating from the 3rd century B.C., through the 19th century A.D. representing all major regions, periods and schools of art. National Museum, New Delhi, today, has in its ownership over 2,00,000 works of fine art, both of Indian and Foreign origin covering more than 5,000 years of our cultural heritage.Its rich wealth of various creative traditions and disciplines, which represents a unity in diversity, a matchless blend of the past with the present and strong point of view for the future, brings history to life.Apart from the collections of Prehistoric Archaeology, Archaeology, Jewellery, Paintings, Decorative arts, Manuscripts, Central Asian Antiquities, Arms and Armour.The Museum today has a separate branches of publication, Hindi, Public Relations, Education, Library, Exhibition cell, Display, Modelling, Photography, Security and Administration. Arts Collections. The Archaeological Survey of India and the National Museum mutually set up the National Museum of Delhi. It has a rich collection of a large number of artifacts from the sites of Harappan Civilization. The collection includes pottery, seals, tablets, weights and measures, jewellery, terracotta figurines, and toys. It also has copper tools from Harappan sites like axes, chisels, and knives. About 3,800 objects have been displayed in the modernised Harappan Gallery from the National Museum collection.This Gallery also has 1,025 excavated artifacts belonging to the Indian Harappan site of the Archaeological Survey of India collection.The gallery brings to light for the first time 232 special decorative artifacts, which are dated from 18th-20th century. All these useful and decorative objects are made with different material, like ivory, jade, glass, wood, marble, metal and ceramic. In the gallery, 26 large sized well-literature glass transparencies are on show displaying the amazing story of the development of various Indian scripts from Brahmi and coins. The National Museum has a wide Reference Library, which is equipped with variety of books, Periodicals, Journals etc. INDIAN MUSEUM,KOLKATA,WEST BENGAL Indian Museum at Kolkata is a versatile and multi disciplinary institution of national importance.The Museum was established at the Asiatic Society, the initial learned body in the country on 2nd February 1814.Transferred to the present building in 1878 with two galleries, the Museum has now over sixty galleries of Art, Archaeology, Anthropology, Geology, Zoology and Botany sections, spreading over ten thousand square feet area. Many rare specimens both Indian and Trans-Indian origin relating to Humanities and Natural Science are conserved and displayed in the galleries of these sections. The administrative control of the cultural sections, Art, Archaeology and Anthropology rests with the Board of Trustees under its Directorate, and that of the three scientific sections is with Geological Survey of India, Zoological Survey of India and Botanical Survey of India. Indian Museum is an autonomous institution fully funded by the Department of Culture, Government of India. Anthropological Section.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 200 School of Distance Education
This section displays several items like the costumes, ornaments, and equipment of the various tribes and also gives a close sight of the cultural life of both tribal and non-tribal people of India. There is also a gallery of rare musical instruments. Archaeological Section. It comprises the collection of stone-age artifacts from India and abroad, prehistoric antiquities from Mohenjodaro, and Harappa. Some of the galleries in this section are Bharhut, Egyptian, Coins, Orissan Art and Gandhara. Bharhut gallery displays the railings and entrance of the Buddhist Stupa with carvings and sculptures depicting scenes from Buddha’s life excavated from Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh in 1874 by Sir Alexander Cunningham. There is also a vase containing Buddha’s ashes. Due to this, the museum has become a place of pilgrimage.Gandhara gallery holds the best collection of Buddhist Sculptures from Gandhara region and other stone sculptures.The Egyptian gallery has a 4000 year-old ‘mummy’, sculptures, and paintings. The coin gallery has a collection of coins from the 5th century B.C., which displays gold coins issued by Kanishka, Samudragupta, Kumaragupta, Akbar and Jahangir. The Art Section has galleries of textiles, paintings, decorative art objects from China and Japan, specimens from Burma, Nepal and Tibet. The exhibits in the art section comprises Nepalese and Tibetan temple banners, metal images, enamelled wares, bidriwares, ornaments, silver wares, glass wares, pottery, ivory and bone work,and wooden sculptures. The painting gallery has a rich display of Mughal Miniature Paintings, Kangra-Kalam Paintings, Kalighat Patas from Bengal and a section of works of famous painters from Bengal.Along with the collection of Nepalese and Tibetan Thankas dated from 15 to 19 century, the textile gallery has a display of Muslin and Jamdani from Dhaka, Persian Carpets, Phulkari work of Punjab, Kantha work from Bengal, rumal (handkerchiefs) from Chamba in Himachal Pradesh etc. The South East Asian gallery in the Art section has three separate galleries for artifacts from China-Japan, Burma and Nepal-Tabet.In China-Japan Art gallery there are coloured porcelains, wine cups, ivory and rhinoceros horn carved articles, and paintings.Burmese gallery displays brass and bronze figures, woodcarvings, silverwares and lacquer ware objects depicting ‘Jatakas’, scenes from the epic ‘Ramayana’ etc. Nepal-Tibet gallery houses bronze figures and woodcarvings from 9th to 19th century, apron made of human bones, butter-lamp, ornaments etc. The wide Geological Section has over 80,000 specimens, displayed in four galleries showing varieties of meteorites, precious stones, ornamental building stones, rocks and minerals and fossils.The sections dealing with fossil and taxidermy are notable.There are a number of unique fossil skeletons of prehistoric animals and an enormous dinosaur skeleton. Among them the most interesting are a giant crocodile and an amazingly big tortoise. Industrial Section has several thousand botanical specimens bearing upon medicine, forestry, agriculture and cottage industry. In a nutshell, the museum in Calcutta reveals the life and culture of Indians from the ancient times till date. A major attraction for children and elders alike is the Nehru Children’s Museum established in 1972.Exhibits includes puppets depicting the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. There are dolls wearing national costumes from different countries. Miniature working models of railway crossings and other novelties and an elementary science gallery. Library The Indian Museum displays a vast collection of some fifty thousand books and journals along
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 201 School of Distance Education
with many rare publications.Books and Journals are available on Musicology, Archaeology, Anthropology and Art. The National Library is India’s largest library. Housed in the former residence of the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, the library contains almost 2 million books and nearly half a million documents. The building displays this treasure inlet was originally the summerhouse of Prince Azim-us-Shan, grandson of Aurangzeb, and in 1854, it became the official residence of the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal. The Library was opened in these premises in the year 1903 and was renamed as the National library in 1948.It is an institution of national importance, which acts as a reference center for research scholars, attracts almost a thousand readers every day. PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM,MUMBAI Amid the hustle and bustle of Mumbai stand some stately buildings, remnants of the British Raj. Among them is that of the Prince of Wales Museum, named after Prince George (Later George V) who visited India in 1905 and laid the foundation stone of the building. Not far from the museum, its architect George Wittet also built the famous Gateway of India on the seafront, near the Taj Mahal Hotel. Through the arch the Prince made his royal entrance to India as King George V for the Delhi Darbar in 1911.The Prince of Wales Museum can be broadly described as a British interpretation of Mughal architecture, the so-called Indo-saracenic style. The structure forms a long rectangle of three storeys, raised in the centre to accommodate the entrance porch.Above the central arched entrance rises a huge dome, tiled in white and blue flecks, supported on a lotus-petal base. Around the dome is an array of pinnacles, each topped by a miniature dome.Indian motifs such as brackets and protruding eaves are combined with so- called Islamic arches and tiny domes.The whole museum complex is situated in a garden of palm trees and formal flowers beds. The plan of the museum is simple, with a central hall from which the staircase leads to the two upper floors with galleries branching out on the right and left. An extension on the right-hand side of the main building (as you stand facing its front entrance) houses the natural history section. The second floor houses the Indian miniature painting gallery, the pride of the museum, and next to it are galleries of decorative art and, to the left of the central well of the staircase, the gallery of Tibetan and Nepali art.Above, on the second floor are the European painting, armoury and textile galleries. The central hall on the ground floor has been converted into the key gallery with specimens of art form all the galleries of the museum.To walk around the key gallery is like experiencing 5,000 years of Indian art in a capsule. There are terracotta’s of the Indus valley Civilization: animal sculptures and figurines including a mother with a child suckling at her breast. Some sample terracotta’s of the pre-Mauryan to Gupta periods in the pinched and hand moulded style are also on display. The art of the Mughal period is represented by a few exquisite paintings including the Portrait of Diniyal with the characteristic Mughal turban.The latter is actually a sketch for a painting and gives an idea of how the artist worked, there is also the well-known painting, Black Buck and Doe, a typical example of animal representation of the 17th century, the buck, with his head held high even in captivity, struts along, while his mate, the dainty doe, looks suspiciously around her at those who have tied the bell chain round her neck and harnessed her pretty head. The aquamarine background, produced by the use of mineral colours, is also characteristic of the period.There are also some classic examples of jade and armoury on display in the key gallery. Jade, not found in India, was imported from the Far East and was treasured by the Mughal rulers. The pale, waxy pieces of jade in hues of green, white and pink were carved into variety of
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 202 School of Distance Education
objects: boxes, wine bowls, buckles and handles for daggers.Not content with simply carving them so fine that they are almost translucent, with light appearing to be trapped within the jade. The sculpture gallery on the first floor has some excellent exhibits form historical sites in different parts on India. Along one of the longer walls of the hall are examples of Gandharan art, with steel-grey stone figures of the Bodhisattva (the ‘Spiritual Guide’).The Gareco-Roman influence can clearly be seen in these sculptures in the way of draping the ‘toga’ the thick wavy treatment of the locks and the rather fashionable moustaches. A beautiful example is that of a Maitreiya (third century), in the key gallery.His head, surrounded by a halo, is slightly inclined.The gentle, sensuous curves of the torso are draped in garments and jewelled chains to suggest texture and movement.Displayed in the main section of this gallery are three huge ceiling slabs from temples in Karnataka dating from the eighth century.This group of temples at Badami, Pattadakal and Aihole was built by the Chalukyan rulers who undertook a very significant experiment in temple architecture which was to influence many generations after them.The three panels on display here depict Uma Mahesvara, Vishnu on Sesha and Brahma.The Uma Maheshvara panel depicts Shiva, Lord of the Universe, seated beside his equally powerful companion-wife, Parvati. The Nandi or bull, the Vehicle of Shiva, is seated behind him as if to provide a backrest; little Ganesh, the elephant-headed god and their son, is prancing around at the left-hand corner.Shiva, holding a snake in his hand, is portrayed with immense grace and elegance. The sculpture panel of Brahma from Aihole, from the same temple as the other two sculptured panels, is a rare representation of this deity of the Hindu trinity.Hindu mythology has it that Brahma lusted after his own daughter, and for this Shiva cursed him, decreeing that no temple would be built in his honour.The sculpture of Vishnu on the Sesha shows the Lords of creation resting in the ocean of eternity on a huge serpent, Sesha.For many hundreds of light years Vishnu rests undisturbed, only to stir when the time for creation comes again. He is completely relaxed in this sculpture; he has cast aside his emblems, the conch and the disc, and they just float on the waves of the ocean. On one arm he rests his head, two others are relaxed, and the fourth is held in the gesture of blessing over the creatures of the sea. His legs are crossed in a rather strange way, but the sculpture was meant to be viewed from below, in its position on the temple ceiling, and perhaps looked all right in its original context. On the first floor central balcony of the museum are displayed objects of decorative art in ivory, silver and wood of the late 18th and the 19th centuries. Some paintings have also been displayed in this area, which leads the visitor into the picture gallery.The latter is divided by partitions to create enclosed cubical spaces.The paintings, donated by various patrons, from one of India’s best public collections of work, representative of many styles and schools. At the entrance of the gallery, to the left, in the first cubicle, is an illustrated manuscript of the Kalpasutra and the Kalikacharyakatha of western India, dated to the end of the 15th century. Paper, introduced into India after the 10th century, began to replace the older palm leaf, used traditionally in India for manuscripts.The illustrations of the Gita Govinda, poems on the love of Krishna and Radha, show one stage in the evolution of painting, in which there is a continued use of primary colours and a profusion of details of birds, animals, trees and flowers, and nature in general.A kind of ‘essence-of-mood’ style of illustration is used in these paintings, in which the sky is just a band of colour, a forest is depicted by just two or three trees, the leaves of the tree are ‘summarised’ to create an illusion of the whole tree, and when lovers are united, the artist shows nature rejoining and even the birds fly around in pairs.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 203 School of Distance Education
The 19th century Pahari School provides a wealth of evidence of a thriving tradition in the hill states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. This school, Concentrating on Hindu themes, depicted the divine Shiva and Parvati, Radha and Krishna as though they were contemporary kings and queens.The expression of these divine characters are suggested simply by a slight inclination of the head, or by an embrace, which makes the gods almost human in the most perfect sort of way.Some superb examples of this school of painting in this gallery are Shiva and Parvati (Kangra), Uma worshipping Shiva and a second Shiva and Parvati (Guler, 18th century), in which Parvati is offering Shiva a gariand of skulls as if it were as beautiful as one made of flowers. Krishna with the cow herds (Garhwal, 18th century) and the work drawing of the Holi festival (Kangra, 19th century) shows Krishna and his friends throwing colour on Radha and her companions to celebrate the spring festival of Holi. Other paintings of importance on display include Aurangzeb reading the Quran (Pahari, Jammu). Bent and with whitened bread, after years of difficult rule, the emperor of the crumbling Mughal empire is depicted deep in prayer and contemplation. In the painting of Raja Balwant Deva with his Barber (Jammu, 18th century), you can almost read the barber’s thoughts: ‘Be still’ he appears to be telling the ruler, as he fashions the ruler’s beard.Lady with an attendant and a peacock (Pahari, Kangra, 1775) is a remarkably beautiful and lyrical work.Similarly, to the south, the Deccani school of painting also gained inspiration from the Mughal school and evolved its own unique and very characteristic style.There are some typical examples of Deccani paintings in this gallery that have pale green, mineral-coloured backgrounds with figures placed squarely in the foreground.The collection of paintings from Bundi, of the 18th century, in this gallery deals with the theme of love.In Lady Looking in a Mirror (Bundi, 18th century), the artist has created a courtyard with a lush garden in the bakground and a pond of lotuses in the foreground that blossom in reflection of the glory of the young girl, or lover. A Nayika in Agony (Bundi, late 17th century) is painting in another mood.The young lady lover is in agony, suffering the torment of separation from her lover. Next to the painting gallery is the hall of decorative arts, with samples of Indian jewellery and object in silver, enameled jars and hookah stands. The samples on display are superb, contrasting starkly with much of the work of today, which shows the sharps decline in standards of craftsmanship since the 19th century.Bidri work, associated with the region of Hyderabad, in particular the small town of Bidar, is made in bellmetal.Craved on the object, the burnished and smoothened until the inlaid silver and the metal blackened with charcoal paste become inseparable.Some jade objects are also on display: a spoon with a curved handle, bowls with fine relief work in which the artist has enhanced the beauty of the stone and set its colours and hues a glow. The Nepal and Tibet gallery faces the painting galley on the first floor. The collection was donated by the Tata family, a large industrial house with interests in the sciences and the arts. For those who might travel to these neighboring countries, the artifacts are particularly interesting because they may held visitors distinguish between genuinely valuable art and the tourist ‘junk’ that is now being sold. There are tanks: cloth hangings either painted or embroidered with geometrical mandala compositions of tiny figures and symbols of Buddhist origin.The Buddhist and Hindu images in metal are gilded, and studded with gems. Statuettes of Tara, the Buddhist goddess of compassion, Vajradhara, Lord of the thunderbolt, and of Lakshmi Narayana are studded with turquoise, ruby and diamond. Most beautiful of all is tiny Avalokitesvara from Nepal, of the 17th century.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 204 School of Distance Education
For those interested in glass, jade and porcelain, the gallery on the second floor presents an extensive collection of art objects donated by Sir Ratan Tata and Sir Dorab Tata. The collection includes objects carved in rock crystal, metalware and lacquered woodwork. There are samples of elaborate ivory work from Japan, like the Cock on a tree, with feathers of ivory. There is a small but brilliantly executed in Japan. There is also a wide range of Chinese blue is designed with tin metal wire ware. On the same floor are the European painting galleries. On entering this area it immediately becomes clear that European art historians dubbed Indian paintings ‘miniatures’ because they were familiar with.Rather charming are the two portraits of Lady Ratan Tata and Lady Dorabji Tata, which if viewed from a distance look exactly like portraits of English ladies, complete with gloves and fans, dressed in the fashion of their British rulers. The Natural History Section Should you plan to visit any of the game sanctuaries or parks in India, it would be worth your while to look at this museum’s exhibits to birds, mammals and fish, for a foretaste of what you might see in the wild. The Natural History Section was added to the museum from the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society.This organization, with founder members and notable scholars like the late Salim Ali, has contributed greatly to the study an understanding of India’s natural heritage. Today, due to their efforts, a start has been made to create awareness amongst the general public of the urgent need to preserve Indian Wildlife. The first room houses an impressive collection of birds, classified according to species, and the exhibits are all well labelled.Among them are the beautiful but untidy magpies, the flash of blue of the kingfisher and well-dressed partridges and pheasants. Dioramas and display panels attempt to provide a natural setting for the taxidermist’s art. Location: Near Gateway of India, Mumbai.The museum is renamed recently as Chhatrapati Shivaji Sangrahalaya. BHAU DAJI LAD MUSEUM/VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM The Museum located at Byculla has interesting exhibits such as archaeological finds, maps and photographs which depict the history of Mumbai. There is a small Zoo nearby. MANI BHAVAN GANDHI SANGHRALYA Located at Laburnum Road at Gamdevi near Chowpatty Beach, Mani Bhavan was the residence of Mahatma Gandhi, where he used to stay from time to time between 1917 and 1934.The Museum houses a pictorial gallery.Personal item of Mahatma Gandhi, a 20,000 volume research libraries and film and recording archive. THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY (BNHS) Adjoining the Chhatrapati Shivaji Vastu Sanghralaya is the Hornbill House, the headquarters of the Bombay natural History Society. It is an institution of a different kind where collectors have been donating their prize specimens of animals and birds for over a century.BNHS also boasts of an extensive library of nature books, which can be used by non members for purpose of research and studies, by taking prior permission. JAHANGIR ART GALLERY The gallery with its four exhibition halls is the most prestigious venue for art exhibitions.Located near the Chhatrapati Shivaji Vaastu Sangrahalaya.
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 205 School of Distance Education
NATIONAL GALLERY OF MODERN ART The Gallery plays host to the work of leading Indian Artists. NAPIER MUSEUM, TRIVANDRUM Kerala is a state located towards the south western part of the Indian peninsula. This culturally prosperous state boasts a rich history spanning up to the Neolithic era, where some of the dolmens have been excavated. Dolmens are single chamber tomb structures made of megaliths, hefty stones. Often dolmens are comprised of three or more vertical megaliths, capped horizontally by another bulky stone. Kerala is home to a number of interesting museums themed on scores of disciplines varying from heritage to art and history to science. There are also museums based on royal palaces flaunting mesmerizing architecture and artistry housing alluring artefacts.Kerala also presents a unique museum promoting art and natural history. This is the famous Napier Museum resting in Kerala’s capital, Trivandrum. Napier Museum and its Art Gallery rest in the heart of Trivandrum City.It was founded in 1855 by Travancore Maharaja. Travancore used to be a princely state of Kerala, governed from Trivandrum by the royal family to Travancore from mid 19th century to mid 20th century. In 1874 this building was brought down and the foundation stone was placed for a new building to rise from the same site. The second building was completed in 1880 and was named after the previous Governor General of Madras, John Napier. A palm lined path, stairway and then an ornate fountain guides you to the Napier Museum. Instantly your eyes will capture its captivating façade adorned with vibrant geometric motifs spanning across its walls. The building features gothic gabled roofs where the central roof is flanked by two turrets adding extra elegance to its overall charisma. This building is a key landmark in Trivandrum while being exalted as an architectural masterpiece. It was designed by the renowned British architect Robert F. Chisholm who worked as the consulting architect for the Madras Government. Napier Museum interior collection is just as impressive as its exterior elegance. Here you can browse through some of the finest artistic artifacts like bronze and stone sculptures as well as ivory and wood carvings. There are also traditional musical instruments over and above handicrafts, lamps and textiles. Among Indian classical dancing, Kathakali is considered as a highly stylized dancing form and the Napier Museum even boasts a collection of Kathakali models. For those who are fond of collecting coins, the museum numismatic collection showcasing coins of several Indian dynasties will be irresistible. If you are fascinated by ancient weaponry, the museum displays some of the best kuftgiri works. They are usually daggers and swords ornately worked in gold and silver wire. Napier Museum is one of the must visit attractions in Trivandrum that you simply cannot miss during your visit to Kerala. Spend your nights at one of the cozy hotels in Kovalam and keep your days occupied by exploring the beauty, culture and heritage of Kerala. If you prefer staying at a hotel near sweeping sandy beaches with vistas of stunning seascapes try The Leela Kempinski Kovalam Beach, Kerala. It is one of the top Kovalam hotels that offer sumptuous rooms and suites to relax and an excellent Ayurveda spa to rejuvenate after a long day of sightseeing and exploring. GOVERNMENT MUSEUM,CHENNAI Fast facts -
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 206 School of Distance Education
1. Government Museum, Chennai was established in the year 1851. 2. The Government Museum in Chennai comprises several galleries under the sections Archaeology, Anthropology, Geology, Botany, Numismatics, Contemporary Art, Zoology and a Children’s Museum 3. The Public Library of the museum Did you know - Students can participate in the exhibitions organized here. Special Exhibition. Certificates are awarded to all the participants on the Valedictory Day. Must do - Students must participate in the programs/exhibitions organized by the museum. If ancient relics are what interests you then come to Chennai and explore the Government Museum. It is the oldest and the largest of the State museums in India. Established in the year 1851, the multi-purpose museum is a favorite destination of the tourists.The Government Museum in Chennai comprises several galleries under the sections Archaeology, Anthropology, Geology, Botany, Numismatics, Contemporary Art, Zoology and a Children’s Museum. The Government Museum, Chennai is considered as one of the top tourist attractions in Chennai.The Government Museum originated from a museum in Madras which was planned by the Madras Literary Sociology in 1846 AD. Sir Henry Pottinger took permission from the Court of Directors of the East India Company in London. In January 1851 AD. Dr. Edward Balfour was the first officer in charge of the Government Museum; Chennai.The Public Library of the museum was inaugurated in 1853 AD and opened to the public in June 1862 AD.Captain Mitchell, Superintendent, was the originator of the Connemara Public Library. The 200 feet high tower of the library was then the highest in Madras. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru inaugurated the museum at the Government Museum, Chennai on November 27, 1951 AD. This museum displayed rich collection of bronzes, increasing work of preservation and various birds. Soon, a separate building for Contemporary Art was opened in January 25, 1984 AD. The museum is of special interest to the children. The Children’s Museum of Government Museum, Chennai promotes scientific temper and spirit of inquiry among the visiting children. THE SALAR JUNG MUSEUM, HYDERABAD It is an art museum at Dar-Ul-Shifa, on the southern bank of the Musi River in the city of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India has an exquisite collection of priceless articles like Ivory, and Marble sculptures.The Salarjung Museum is the third largest museum in India housing the biggest one-man collections of antiques in the world. It is well known throughout India for its prized collections belonging to different civilizations dating back to the 1st century. Nawab Mir Yousuf Ali Khan Salar Jung III (1889-1949), former Prime Minister of the seventh Nizam of Hyderabad, spent a substantial amount of his income over thirty five years to make this priceless collection, his life’s passion. The collections left behind in his ancestral palace, ‘Diwan Deodi’ were formerly exhibited there as a private museum which was inaugurated by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1951.Old timers believe that the present collection constitutes only half of the original art wealth collected by Salar Jung III. His employees siphoned off part of it, since Salar Jung was a bachelor and depended upon his staff to keep a vigil. Some more art pieces were lost or stolen during the shifting of the museum from Dewan Devdi to the present site. Later in 1968, the museum shifted to its present location at Afzalgunj and is administered by a Board of Trustees
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 207 School of Distance Education
with the Governor of Andhra Pradesh as example-officio chairperson under the Salar Jung Museum Act of 1961. Collections Nawab Mir Yousuf Ali Khan Salar Jung III The Salarjung Museum is a royal treat to the connoisseurs with a collection of over 43000 art objects and 50000 books and manuscripts.The collections include Indian Art, Middle Eastern Art, Far Eastern Art, European Art, Children Art along with a Founders gallery and a rare manuscript section. Indian Art includes stone sculptures, bronze images, and jade carvings, painted textiles, wood carvings, miniature paintings, modern art, ivory carvings, textiles, metal-ware, manuscript, arms and armour. Middle Eastern Art contains the collection of carpets, paper (manuscripts), glass, metal-ware, furniture, lacquer etc. from Persia, Arabia, Syria, and Egypt. Collection of Far Eastern Art exhibit porcelain, bronze, enamel, lacquerware, embroidery, painting, wood & inlay work from China, Japan, Tibet, Nepal and Thailand etc. Oil and watercolor paintings form an important part of the European Collection. Galleries The museum building in a semicircular shape with 38 galleries, spread on two floors, displays only a part of the original collections. The ground floor has 20 galleries and the first floor has 18 galleries.The exhibits on different subjects are displayed in separate galleries.Apart from the galleries, there is a reference Library, reading room, publication and education section, chemical conservation lab, sales counter, cafeteria etc. Guides are available at fixed timings free of charge. Important Exhibits There are Aurangzeb’s sword, daggers belonging to empress Noor Jehan, emperors Jehangir and Shah Jehan, the turbans and chair of Tippu Sultan, furniture from Egypt, paintings on display.Among the sculptures stands out the world famous statue of Veiled Rebecca, done by G.B. Benzoni, an Italian sculptor, in 1876. Her beautiful face hazily visible through a marble but gossamer veil. Equally captivating is a double-figure wood sculpture. It stands before a mirror and shows the façade of a nonchalant Mephistopheles and the image of a demure Margaretta in the mirror.The eastern section is of equal importance with its wide variety of silk weaving & different art forms like layer wood cutting paintings, porcelain works & many more dating back to almost 2nd century. The Clock A bewildering variety and array of clocks greets the visitor in the clock room.There are ancient Sandiaers in the form of obelisks to huge and modern clocks of the 20th century.Others in the range vary from miniature clocks which need a magnifying glass to imbibe their beauty and complexity to stately grandfather clocks from as far away as France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Britain.A visual delight is the musical clock Salar Jung bought from Cook and Kelvy of England. Every hour, a timekeeper emerges from the upper deck of the clock to strike a gong as many times as it is the hour of the day.The Indian Parliament has declared the museum an Institution of National Importance. FURTHER READINGS: 1. Gupta, S.P. 2002. Cultural Tourism
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 208 School of Distance Education
2. Sarkar, H. 1981. Museums and Protection of Monuments and Antiquities in India. Delhi; Sundeep Prakshan. 3. Michael, A. Fopp. 1977. Managing Museums and Galleries. Routledge. 4. UNESCO, 1960. Museums and Monuments, ‘The Organization of Museum’, practical Advice, Switzerland 5. Renfrew, C. and Paul Bahn. 1993. Archaeology Theory and Practice 6. Henry Cleere (ed) Approaches to the archaeological Heritage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
******************************************************************************
Heritage Studies – Monuments and sites 209