Thirty-Three
AUGUSTE COMTE: TOWARD A NEW AGE
Positivism was a continuation of the conception of science initiated by Francis Bacon and Descartes. The demands that Positivism placed on science were even more rigorous than in the period of the scientific revolution. The Positivistic conception of science claimed to be the most scientific approach, untainted by any elements of mythology, religion, or metaphysics. Positivism embraced a paradigm of science as opposed to domains such as metaphysics and theology that pretended to be scientific. Although the English term “science” comes from the Latin scientia, Positivism restricts its meaning to modern physical science. Auguste Comte (1798–1857) founded Positivism. Comte’s version of Positivism was not limited to a changing specific conception of science or philosophy. It aimed at changing civilization as a whole. While the conception of science was essential, it was only a part of the undertaking. Comte mentions six different senses of the term “positive”, which is at the root of the term “Positivism”: (1) the real, not the illusory; (2) the beneficial, not the futile; (3) the certain, not uncertain; (4) the precise as distinct from value; (5) the opposite of the negative, what serves to build, not destroy; (6) the relative, not the absolute.1 Comte’s ultimate aim was to lead humanity on the road of progress. Positivism’s motto was “order and progress.”2 On the basis of this motto, we can see clearly that Positivism as chiefly an enterprise of civilization, not science. The growth of industry and sociology were important parts of Comte’s plan. Industry would supply humanity with increasing means of living. Sociology would perfect humanity.3 Sociology was Comte’s response to the social changes for which utopian literature had called. Comte thought that with social laws sociology would discover we would be able “to perfect the turns of our fate.”4 His conscious aim was to achieve a state of social perfection and happiness “without God and King.”5 Comte thought that human knowledge progresses through three phases: (1) theological, (2) metaphysical, and (3) positive. He described the theological phase as “fictional.” In the theological phase we try to study the internal nature of things by looking for first causes and final causes. We look to supernatural causes, and we seek absolute knowledge.6 He also calls the metaphysical phase “abstract.” In this stage we replace the supernatural forces of the theological phase with abstract forces, beings capable of causing all phenomena.7 Comte says that only stage we may call “scientific” is the positive phase: 200 SCIENCE IN CULTURE
Finally in the positive phase we recognize that it is impossible to obtain absolute concepts; we renounce the investigation of the origin and destination of the universe and the quest for knowledge of the internal causes of phenomena; instead we try to discover their laws, which means their relations, sequences, and similarities, and we use reasoning together with observation. The explanation of facts becomes merely the establishment of connections between particular phenomena and certain general facts whose number tends to decrease due to the progress of science.8
Positivism’s scientific character consists in its rejection of metaphysical questions and its concentration on acts whose relations we understand with the help of laws. Comte’s theory of science makes frequent mention of Francis Bacon and René Descartes. For example, he says,
As a result of our entire intellectual evolution, especially the evolution of the movement that from the times of Bacon and Descartes has taken in all Western Europe, a normal state of mentality must finally set in after such a long wandering along pathless ways, because the positive philosophy includes the whole extent of investigations and will acquire the rational foundations it still lacks.9
He emphasizes that we base true science upon the observation of facts. He eliminates search for first and final causes from science. Instead, science investigates the circumstances in which phenomena appear. It links the phenomena with relations of sequence and similarity.10 Science is concerned with more than fact-gathering. Science primarily seeks to discover laws.11 These laws should extend to all phenomena, inorganic and organic, physical and moral, individual and social. When we know these laws, we can predict events. Science’s laws provide more than ordinary erudition. Knowledge of these laws has crucial practical consequences in social life.12 According to Comte, the law of gravity is a universal law whereby we can explain all the phenomena in the universe.13 Comte mentioned the following benefits of the Positive philosophy. (1) It is a rational means that emphasizes the logical laws of intelligence. (2) It provides direction for a complete transformation of the system of education. (3) It con- tributes to progress in different sciences. (4) It serves as the basis for social reorganization.14 Comte’s presentation of the structure of science distinguishes theory and practice. When he speaks of theory he does not have in mind science in the classical sense of theoria. He means science’s theoretical aspect that has a practical end: “In considering human work as a whole we should conceive of nature as intended to provide foundations for human action. In short, we express