ANCIENT FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A.D.

BY ROBERT F. PENNELL REVISED EDITION WITH PLANS AND COLORED MAP Edited by Candida Martinelli

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2 CHAPTER XI DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN PREFACE ...... 7 TERRITORY—NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD....40

CHAPTER I GEOGRAPHY OF ...... 8 ROADS ...... 41 NOTED MEN ...... 41 CHAPTER II THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF

ITALY...... 11 CHAPTER XII FOREIGN CONQUEST ...... 44 CHAPTER III THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY CHAPTER XIII ROME AND GOVERNMENT...... 13 BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND (241-218) ...... 49 CHAPTER IV THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL OF ROME ...... 15 CHAPTER XIV THE — FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO THE ARMY ...... 16 THE (218-216)...... 52 CHAPTER V THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS CHAPTER XV THE SECOND PUNIC WAR-FROM

...... 19 CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA (216-202)..58 CHAPTER VI THE CONSULS AND .. 21 AFFAIRS IN ...... 59 CHAPTER VII THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN ...... 60 THE AGRARIAN LAWS...... 24 OPERATIONS IN ITALY ...... 61 CHAPTER VIII THE CONTEST OF THE INVASION OF ...... 62 FOR CIVIL RIGHTS...... 26 CHAPTER XVI ROME IN THE EAST ...... 64 CHAPTER IX EXTERNAL HISTORY...... 31 CHAPTER XVII THE SYRIAN WAR ...... 67 THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341)...... 33 CHAPTER XVIII CONQUEST OF THE WAR (340-338)...... 33 AND (I71-146) ...... 70 THE SECOND AND THIRD (326- CHAPTER XIX THE , AND 290)...... 34 FALL OF CARTHAGE ...... 73 CHAPTER X WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272) . 37 CHAPTER XX ROME AND SPAIN-THE 3 NUMANTINE AND (206-132) ..... 76 GAUL ...... 114 THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133) ...... 77 THE WAR WITH THE ...... 115 THE SERVILE WAR (134-132) ...... 78 THE VENETI—INVASION OF GERMANY ...... 116 CHAPTER XXI INTERNAL HISTORY—THE INVASION OF BRITAIN...... 117

GRACCHI...... 79 FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE ...... 117 CHAPTER XXII EXTERNAL HISTORY— CHAPTER XXXI CLODIUS AND MILO—DEATH

PERGAMUM— (118-104)...... 84 OF CRASSUS...... 120 THE WAR WITH ...... 84 CHAPTER XXXII 'S STRUGGLE WITH —BATTLE OF PHARSALIA ...... 123 CHAPTER XXIII THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES—POLITICAL QUARRELS ...... 87 CHAPTER XXXIII CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN , ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN...... 131 CHAPTER XXIV INTERNAL HISTORY-THE

SOCIAL WAR (90-88)...... 90 CATO-METELLUS SCIPIO ...... 135

CHAPTER XXV MARIUS AND -CINNA... 93 CHAPTER XXXIV MURDER OF CAESAR ...... 136 THE REFORMS OF SULLA ...... 96 CHAPTER XXXV THE SECOND — AND ACTIUM...... 138 CHAPTER XXVI SERTORIUS——

LUCULLUS—POMPEY AND CRASSUS...... 98 PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM...... 138 TULLIUS ...... 141 POMPEY AND CRASSUS ...... 100 CHAPTER XXXVI (30 B.C.-14 A.D.) CHAPTER XXVII CAESAR—CICERO—VERRES ...... 142 ...... 103 CHAPTER XXXVII THE AUGUSTAN AGE ...... 146 CHAPTER XXVIII TROUBLES AT ROME— CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE...... 107 CHAPTER XXXVIII THE AND ...... 149 CHAPTER XXIX THE .. 111 (14-37 A.D.)...... 149 CHAPTER XXX CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN (37-41)...... 151 4 THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS ...... 151 CHAPTER XLII INVASIONS AND DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER XXXIX THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS 155 OF THE BARBARIANS...... 168 VESPASIAN (69-79)...... 155 CHAPTER XLIII ROMAN LITERATURE ...... 174 (79-81)...... 156 (254-184) ...... 174 DOMITIAN (81-96)...... 156 (195-159) ...... 174

CHAPTER XL THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS... 157 (139-69)...... 174 CICERO (106-43)...... 174

NERVA (96-98)...... 157 CAESAR (100-44)...... 175 TRAJAN (98-117)...... 157 NEPOS (94-24)...... 175

HADRIAN (117-138)...... 158 (98-55) ...... 175

TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138-161)159 (87-47) ...... 175 ANTONÍNUS (161-180).... 159 (70-19)...... 176

THE CHRISTIANS...... 160 (65-8)...... 176 CHAPTER XLI PERIOD OF MILITARY (54-29) ...... 176 DESPOTISM—DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE...... 161 (49-15) ...... 176 COMMODUS (180-192) ...... 161 (43 B.C.—18 A.D.)...... 176 (192-193) ...... 161 (59 B.C.—17 A.D.)...... 176 JULIANUS (193).— (193- ...... 176 211)...... 161 SENECA (8 B.C.—65 A.D.)...... 177 CARACALLA, MACRINUS, AND CURTIUS ...... 177 HELIOGABALUS ...... 162 PERSIUS (34-62) ...... 177 FROM ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO THE AGE OF (39-65)...... 177 THE THIRTY (222-268)...... 162 (23-79)...... 177 FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (268-283) ...... 163 , , , .177 (284-305)...... 163 (54-119)...... 177 DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE ...... 165 (62-113) ...... 178 VALENTINIAN AND VALENS (364-375)...... 165 CHAPTER XLIV —PROVINCES 5 ...... 179 EDUCATION ...... 196 PROVINCES...... 180 BOOKS—LETTER WRITING ...... 196 CHAPTER XLV ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC...... 182 CHAPTER XLVII PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC...... 198 THE CONSULS ...... 183 ...... 183 CHAPTER XLVIII COLONIES—THE ...... 183 CALENDAR—RELIGION ...... 201 ...... 184 THE CALENDAR...... 201 TRIBUNI PLEBIS ...... 184 RELIGION...... 201 CENSORS ...... 184 FLAMINES...... 202 ...... 185 THE SALII...... 203 ...... 185 THE AUGURES...... 203 PONTIFICES ...... 185 THE FETIALES ...... 203 ...... 185 CHAPTER XLIX THE IN

POTESTAS ...... 186 CAESAR'S TIME...... 204 CHAPTER XLVI HOUSES, CUSTOMS, CHAPTER L LEGENDARY ROME...... 206 INSTITUTIONS, ETC...... 187 CHRONOLOGY...... 212 MEALS...... 188 B.C...... 212 DRESS—BATHING...... 189

FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC...... 191 THE EMPIRE ...... 214 THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS...... 215 ...... 192 HARVARD COLLEGE ...... 215 A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION ...... 193 YALE COLLEGE...... 216 POMOERIUM...... 194 UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK..219 NAMES ...... 194 ABOUT THE AUTHOR ...... 229 MARRIAGE...... 194 FUNERALS ...... 195 6 range of requirement in leading colleges. PREFACE The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for This compilation is designed to this book. The design has been be a companion to the author's to make them as clear and open . It is hoped as ; consequently, that it may fill a want, now felt in names and places not mentioned many high schools and in the text have, as a rule, been academies, of a short and clear omitted. statement of the rise and fall of Rome, with a biography of her ROBERT F. PENNELL. chief men, and an outline of her RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. institutions, manners, and 1890. religion. [Illustration: IULIUS For this new edition the book has CAESAR, from original been entirely rewritten, additional publication.] matter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary to meet recent requirements.

The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in the text and Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced to indicate the present invasions of the country. The (Gaul this side of the Alps), and Apennines, which are a corresponds in general to CHAPTER I continuation of the Alps, extend modern Lombardy. The little GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY through the whole of the river Athesis, north of the Padus, peninsula. Starting in the flows into the Adriatic. Of the Maritime Alps, they extend tributaries of the Padus, the easterly towards the Adriatic Ticínus on the north, and the Italy is a long, narrow peninsula coast, and turn southeasterly Trebia on the south, are of in the southern part of Europe, hugging the coast through its historical interest. between the 38th and 46th whole extent. This conformation parallels of north latitude. It is of the country causes the rivers The portion of Northern Italy 720 miles long from the Alps to of any size below the basin of the bordering on the Mediterranean its southern extremity, and 330 Po to flow into the Tyrrhenian is a mountainous district, and miles broad in its widest part, i.e. (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into was called LIGURIA. In this from the Little St. Bernard to the the Adriatic. district on the coast were Genua hills north of Trieste. It has an and Nicaea. The district north of area of nearly 110,000 square the Athesis, between the Alps miles, about that of the State of and the Adriatic, was called Nevada. VENETIA, from which comes the

name . Here were located The Alps separate Italy on the Patavium (Padua), , and north and northwest from the rest Julii. of Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the Dolomites, Italy Gallia Cisalpína contained many least difficulties is through the flourishing towns. North of the Julian Alps on the east. It was Northern Italy, between the Alps Padus were Veróna, Mediolánum over this pass that the and the Apennines, is drained by (), Cremóna, Mantua, Barbarians swept down in their the Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPÍNA Andes, and Vercellae, a noted 8 battle-field. South of this river coast were , PICÉNUM, , , were Augusta Taurinórum and . , Salernum, Casilínum, (Turin), Placentia, Parma, and . The famous volcano Mutina, and . The The cities of were Rome, of Vesuvius was here, and also Rubicon, a little stream flowing on the , and its seaport, . into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia Ostia, near the mouth of the Cisalpína on the southeast. The same river. Ten miles northwest In Umbria, on the coast, were Mucra, another little stream, was of Rome was , an Etruscan Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the the southern boundary on the city, and about the same interior were and other side of Italy. distance southeast was Alba Camerínum. The river Metaurus, Longa. Nearly the same noted for the defeat of , Italia Propria, distance directly south of Rome, Hasdrubal, was likewise in or Italy Proper, included all of the on the coast, was Lavinium, and Umbria. peninsula below these rivers as east-northeast of Rome was far down as and . Tibur. Neighboring to Alba In Picenum was Ancona. In In this division are the rivers Longa were and the Samnium were Cures and Tiber, Arnus, , and Volturnus, Alban Lake. The Pomptine Beneventum. which empty into the Marshes were near the coast, in Mediterranean, and the the southern part of Latium. included Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, Lake Regillus was near Rome. APULIA and on the which empty into the Adriatic. Adriatic, LUCANIA and In were Florentia, BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian The most important subdivision Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Sea. of Central Italy was LATIUM, Volaterrae, , and bordering on the Tyrrhenian Sea. Tarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus. Apulia is the most level of the North of it on the same coast was In were , countries south of the Rubicon. ETRURIA, and to the south was Neapolis (), , Its only stream is the Aufidus, on CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic , a watering place, the bank of which at Cannae was 9 fought a famous battle. Arpi, Selínus, Egesta (or Segesta), Asculum, and Canusium are Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna. interior towns. There are many mountains, the chief of which is Aetna. In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and SARDINIA is nearly as large as Tarentum. Sicily. CORSICA is considerably smaller. ILVA (Elba) is between The chief towns in Lucania and Corsica and the mainland. Bruttium were settled by the IGILIUM is off Etruria; CAPREAE Greeks. Among them were is in the Bay of Naples; Heracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris, STRONGYLE (Strombóli) and and Thurii, in Lucania; and LIPARA are north of Sicily, and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in the AEGÁTES INSULAE are Bruttium. west of it.

The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about 10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by the poets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained many important cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these were Syracuse, Agrigentum, Messána, Catana, Camarína, Gela, Map of Italy today 10 whom settled in Venetia, the Many well preserved monuments latter in Liguria. of their art have been discovered, CHAPTER II THE EARLY but no one has yet been able to INHABITANTS OF ITALY The ETRUSCANS at the time decipher any of the inscriptions when Roman history begins were upon them. The power of these a powerful and warlike race, people was gradually lessened superior to the Italians in by the Romans, and after the fall So far as we know, the early civilization and the arts of life. of Veii, in 396, became inhabitants of Italy were divided They probably came from the practically extinct. into three races, the IAPYGIAN, north, and at first settled in the ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The plain of the Po; but being The ITALIANS were of the same were the first to afterwards dislodged by the origin as the Hellénes, and settle in Italy. They probably invading Gauls, they moved belonged to the Aryan race, a came from the north, and were farther south, into Etruria. Here people that lived in earliest times pushed south by later they formed a confederation of possibly in Scandinavia. While immigrations, until they were twelve cities between the Arno the Hellénes were settling in crowded into the southeastern and the Tiber. Of these cities the Greece, the Italians entered Italy. corner of the peninsula most noted were , the (Calabria). Here they were head of the confederacy, Veii, At this time the Italians had made mostly absorbed by the Greeks, Volaterrae, Caere, and Clusium. considerable progress in who settled in the eighth and This people also formed civilization. They understood, in seventh centuries all along the scattering settlements in other a measure, the art of agriculture; southern and southwestern parts of Italy, but gained no firm the building of houses; the use of coast, and who were more highly foothold. At one time, in the sixth wagons and of boats; of fire in civilized. Besides the Iapygians, century, they were in power at preparing food, and of salt in and distinct from the Etruscans Rome. Corsica, too, was at this seasoning it. They could make and Italians, were the Venetians time under their control. Their various weapons and ornaments and the Ligurians, the former of commerce was considerable. out of copper and silver; husband 11 and wife were recognized, and harbors. It is watered by two the people assembled and the people were divided into rivers, the Tiber, and its tributary, offered sacrifice to their common clans (tribes). the Anio. Hills rise here and god, (Latiaris). there; as Soracte in the That portion of the Italians known northeast, the promontory of [Illustration: Latium, from the as the settled in a plain Circeium in the southwest, original publication.] which is bounded on the east Janiculum near Rome, and the and south by mountains, on the Alban range farther south. The west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and low lands (modern Campagna) on the north by the high lands of were malarious and unhealthy. Etruria. Hence the first settlements were made on the hills, which also could be easily fortified.

The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up other towns, as , Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum, , and Lavinium.

These towns, thirty in number, Italian countryside formed a confederacy, called the LATIN CONFEDERACY, and This plain, called LATIUM (flat chose Alba to be its head. An country), contains about 700 annual festival was celebrated square miles (one half the size of with great solemnity by the Rhode Island), with a coast of magistrates on the Alban Mount, only fifty miles, and no good called the Latin festival. Here all 12 early Romans as a stronghold the Romans were no exception, against the Etruscans. It was were composed of several CHAPTER III THE connected with Rome by a groups of FAMILIES. The ROMANS AND THEIR wooden bridge (Pons Sublicius).] Romans called these groups EARLY GOVERNMENT rising to a considerable height, GENTES, and a single group around one of which, the was called a . All the PALATINE, first settled a tribe of members of a gens were Latins called RAMNES,—a name descended from a common We have learned the probable gradually changed to ROMANS. ancestor, after whom the gens origin of the LATINS; how they received its name. settled in Latium, and founded When this settlement was formed numerous towns. We shall now is not known. Tradition says in examine more particularly that 753. It may have been much one of the Latin towns which was earlier. These first settlers of destined to outstrip all her sisters Rome were possibly a colony in prosperity and power. from Alba. In the early stages of their history they united Ancient walled community in Italy Fourteen miles from the mouth of themselves with a Sabine colony the Tiber, the monotonous level that had settled north of them on The head of each family was of the plain through which the the QUIRÍNAL HILL. The name called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he river flows is broken by a cluster of TITIES was given to this new had absolute authority [Note: of hills [Note: The seven hills of tribe. A third tribe, named Called patria potestas.] over his historic Rome were the Aventine, LUCERES, composed, possibly, household, even in the matter of Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline of conquered Latins, was life and death. (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine, afterwards added and settled Quirínal, and Viminal. The upon the COELIAN HILL. The Roman government at first Janiculum was on the other side was conducted by these Fathers of the Tiber, and was held by the All early communities, to which of the families, with a KING, 13 elected from their own number, addressed, were called PATRES, Roman citizens who could bear and holding office for life. His or "Fathers”, for they were arms. [Note: We must remember duties were to command the Fathers of the families. that at this time no one was a army, to perform certain Roman citizen who did not sacrifices (as high priest), and to The Romans, as we saw above, belong to some family. All other preside over the assembly of the were divided at first into three residents were either slaves or Fathers of the families, which tribes, Ramnes, Tities, and had no political rights, i.e. had no was called the SENATE, i. e. an Luceres Each tribe was voice in the government.] This assembly of old men (Senex). subdivided into ten districts assembly of Roman citizens met, called CURIAE, and each from time to time, in an enclosed This body was probably originally into ten clans called GENTES (3 space called the , composed of all the Fathers of tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 which means a place of the families, but in historical gentes). Every Roman citizen, gathering or coming . times it was limited to THREE therefore, belonged to a This was between the Palatine HUNDRED members, holding life particular family, at the head of and Quirínal hills near the office, and appointed during the which was a pater- familias; FORUM, or market-place. This regal period by the king. Later every family belonged to a assembly itself was called the the appointment was made by particular gens, named after a COMITIA CURIÁTA, i.e. an the Consuls, still later by the common ancestor; every gens assembly composed of the 30 Censors, and for nearly one belonged to a particular curia; curiae. This body alone had the hundred years before Christ all and every curia to a particular power of changing the existing persons who had held certain tribe. laws; of declaring war or peace; offices were thereby vested with and of confirming the election of the right of seats in the Senate. We have learned that in the early kings made by the senate. The Hence, during this later period, government of Rome there was a voting in this assembly was taken the number of Senators was king, and a senate that advised by each curia, and the majority of greatly in excess of three the king. Besides this, there was the curiae decided any question. hundred. The Senators, when an assembly composed of all 14 successor, , extending about ten or twelve subdued several cities along the miles from the river. It was not CHAPTER IV THE river, and at its mouth founded a materially increased during the EARLY GROWTH AND colony which was named OSTIA, next two centuries. INTERNAL HISTORY OF the seaport of Rome. ROME The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were called PATRICIANS, i.e. belonging to the Patres, or The position of Rome was Fathers of the families. They superior to that of the other formed a class distinct from all towns in the Latin Confederacy. others, jealously protecting their Situated on the Tiber, at the head rights against outsiders. of navigation, she naturally Attached to the Patricians was a became a commercial centre. class called CLIENTS, who, Her citizens prospered and grew though free, enjoyed no civil wealthy, and wealth is power. rights, i.e. they had no voice in Her hills were natural the government, but were bound strongholds, easily held against a to assist in every way the The Tiber river foe. Thus we see that she soon , called PATRON, to and the became the most powerful of the whom they were attached. In

Latin cities, and when her return, the latter gave them his At this time (about 625 B.C.) the interests conflicted with theirs, support, and looked after their Roman territory (ager Románus) she had no scruples about interests. These clients comprised nearly 250 square conquering any of them and corresponded somewhat to serfs, miles, being irregular in shape, annexing their territory. Thus worked on the fields of their but lying mostly along the Alba was taken during the reign patrons, and bore the name of southern bank of the Tiber and of , and his the gens to which their patron 15 belonged. Their origin is acted as their patron. not Patricians or slaves were uncertain; but they may have called Plebeians. come from foreign towns These three classes, clients, conquered by the Latins, and slaves, and resident foreigners, whose inhabitants had not been were all of a different race from made slaves. the Romans. This should be constantly borne in mind. In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were the We have learned that Rome, as property of their masters, and she grew in power, conquered could be bought or sold at many of the Latin towns, and pleasure. Sometimes a slave added their territory to hers. The was freed, and then he was inhabitants of these towns were called a LIBERTUS (freedman) of the same race as the Romans, Ancient Italian town and became the client of his but were not allowed any of their former master. civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants. Many of THE ARMY As Rome grew into commercial them were wealthy. This class of prominence, still another class of inhabitants on the ager people flocked into the city from Romanus, or in Rome itself, were Until the time of foreign places, who might be called Plebeians (Plebs, (about 550) the army was called resident foreigners, multitude). Their very name composed entirely of patricians. corresponding in general to the shows that they must have been It was called a Legio (a word Metics at . Such were numerous. They belonged to no meaning levy), and numbered many merchants and workmen of gens or curia, but were free, and three thousand infantry called all trades. These all were allowed to engage in trade and to milites, from mille, a thousand, supposed to be under the own property. In later times one thousand being levied from protection of some patrician who (from about 350) all who were each tribe. The cavalry 16 numbered three hundred at first, eighteen centuries of cavalry. one hundred from each tribe, and was divided into three companies In the second, third, and fourth called Centuries. classes there were twenty centuries each, ten in active During the reign of Servius the service, and ten in reserve. The demands of the plebeians, who fifth class had thirty centuries of had now become numerous, for soldiers, and five of mechanics, more rights, was met by the so musicians, etc. called SERVIAN reform of the constitution. Heretofore only the The first four ranks of the troops patricians had been required to were made up of the infantry serve in the army. Now all males from the first class. All were Roman soldiers were liable to service. To armed with a leather helmet, accomplish this, everyone who round shield, breastplate, Each soldier of the infantry paid was a land-owner, provided he greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and for his own equipments; the owned two acres, was enrolled sword. The fifth rank was cavalry, however, received from and ranked according to his composed of the second class, the state a horse, and food to property. There were five who were armed like the first, keep it. "Classes" of them. The several without breastplate. The sixth classes were divided into 193 rank was composed of the third This new organization of both subdivisions called "Centuries," class, who had neither patricians and plebeians was each century representing the breastplate nor greaves. Behind originally only for military same amount of property. In the these came the fourth class, purposes,—that the army might first class there were forty armed with spears and darts, and be increased, and the expenses centuries in active service, the fifth class, having only slings. of keeping it more equitably composed of men under forty-six, divided among all the people. forty centuries of reserve, and But gradually, as the influence of 17 the wealthy plebeians began to assembly was virtually controlled be felt, the organization was by them. In this assembly found well adapted for political magistrates were elected, laws purposes, and all the people made, war declared, and were called together to vote judgment passed in all criminal under it. It was called the cases. COMITIA CENTURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly of centuries. The [Illustration: Campania, from the place of meeting was on the original publication.] , a plain outside of the city.

In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decided by the majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this system was to give the wealthy the whole power; for since each century represented the same amount of property, the centuries in the upper or richer classes were much smaller than those in the lower or poorer classes, so that a majority of the centuries might represent a small minority of the people. The majority of the wealthy people at Rome were still patricians, so the 18 , and near by used. shrines to and . CHAPTER V THE This temple to Jupiter was called Under the second king of this DYNASTY OF THE the CAPITOLIUM, and from it we dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city TARQUINS get our word CAPITOL. It was was surrounded with a wall, looked upon as the centre of which included the Palatine, Roman religion and authority, Quirínal, Coelian, and Aventine and at times the Senate was hills, and also the Janiculum, Of the seven traditional kings of convened in it. which was on the opposite side Rome, the last three were of the river, and connected with undoubtedly of Etruscan origin, the city by a bridge (pons and their reigns left in the city sublicius). many traces of Etruscan influence. The Etruscans were The establishment of the new great builders, and the only military organization, mentioned buildings of importance that in the previous chapter, was Rome possessed, until a much attributed also to this king. later period, were erected under this dynasty. The names of Statue of and Remus The pupil will notice the similarity these kings are said to have nursing from the wolf on the between these reforms of Tullius been TARQUINIUS Capitoline in Rome. and those of Solon of Athens, , SERVIUS TULLIUS, who lived about the same time. his son-in-law, and LUCIUS During this reign the famous Thus early was the Greek TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great influence felt at Rome. sewer intended to drain the Under the first of these kings Campagna, is also said to have During the reign of Tullius a were built the fine temple of been constructed. This sewer temple in honor of DIÁNA was JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the was so well built that it is still erected on the Aventine, to be 19 used by all the Latin towns.

Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMÁNUS the territory of the city of GABII, and planted two military colonies, which were afterwards lost. The dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrow of this king, and a Republic was established, which lasted until the death of .

20 of office never exceeded six some of the richest of the landed months, and he must be a plebeians, and called them CHAPTER VI THE patrician. He exercised his CONSCRIPTI. [Note: This is the CONSULS AND authority only outside of the city origin of the phrase used by TRIBUNES walls. It was at this time, about speakers addressing the Senate, 500, that the COMITIA viz.: "Patres (et) Consripti"] CENTURIÁTA came to be the These, however, could take no more important assembly, part in debates, nor could they At the close of the dynasty of the superseding in a great measure hold magistracies. Tarquins, the regal form of the COMITIA CURIÁTA. government was abolished, and In the Senate, thus constituted, instead of one king who held We must remember that in this the nomination of all magistrates office for life, two officers, called assembly all criminal cases were made in the Comitia Centuriáta CONSULS, were elected tried, magistrates nominated, and was confirmed or rejected. In annually from the PATRICIANS, laws adopted or rejected. We this way it controlled the election each of whom possessed must not forget that, since it was of the Consuls, whose duties, we supreme power, and acted as a on a property basis, it was under must remember, were those of salutary check upon the other; so the control of the patricians, for generals and supreme judges, that neither was likely to abuse the great mass of plebeians were though every Roman citizen had his power. This change took poor. Still there were many the privilege of appealing from place towards the close of the wealthy plebeians, and so far the their decision in cases which sixth century before Christ. assembly was a gain for this involved life. party. In times of great emergency a Two subordinate officers, chosen person called DICTATOR might About this time the Senate, which from the patricians, were be appointed by one of the heretofore had consisted solely appointed by the Consuls. Consuls, who should have of Fathers of the families These officers, called supreme authority; but his tenure (Patres), admitted into its ranks QUAESTÓRES, managed the 21 finances of the state, under the Publicans), would extort all they troops, were patricians, and direction of the Senate. could from the tax-payers, thus naturally favored their own party. enriching themselves unlawfully. Hence we see that the cavalry The wars in which the Romans So the hard times, the service was at this time made up had been engaged, during the oppression of the tax-gatherer, entirely of young patricians, while century preceding the and the unjust law about debt, the older ones were in the establishment of the Republic, made the condition of the poor reserve corps, so that the brunt had impoverished the state and unendurable. of military duty fell on the crippled its commerce. This was plebeians. felt by all classes, but especially by the small landed plebeians This state of things could not last, whose fields had been and, as the opportunity for devastated. They were obliged rebelling against this unjust and to mortgage their property to pay cruel oppression was offered, the the taxes, and, when unable to plebeians were not slow in meet the demands of their accepting it. creditors, according to the laws they could be imprisoned, or The city was at war with the even put to death. neighboring , Aequians, and Volscians, and needed extra The rich land-owners, on the Statue of Roman soldier men for defence. One of the other hand, increased their Consuls liberated all who were wealth by "farming" the public The military service, too, bore confined in prison for debt, and revenues; i.e. the state would let hard upon them. Many were the danger was averted. Upon out to them, for a stipulated sum, obliged to serve more than their the return of the army, however, the privilege of collecting all due time, and in a rank lower those who had been set free import and other duties. These, than was just; for the Consuls, were again thrown into prison. in turn (called in later times who had charge of the levy of The next year the prisoners were 22 again needed. At first they within the city walls, and could refused to obey, but were finally never be exercised outside of persuaded by the Dictator. But them. after a well-earned victory, upon their return to the city walls, the The person of the Tribunes was plebeians of the army deserted, also made sacred, to prevent and, marching to a hill near by, interference with them while in occupied it, threatening to found discharge of their duties, and if a new city unless their wrongs any one attempted to stop them were redressed. This is called he was committing a capital the First Secession of the Plebs, crime. Thus, if the Consuls or and is said to have been in 494. Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to extremes, or to The patricians and richer be unjust in the levying of troops, plebeians saw that concessions the Tribunes could step in, and must be made, for the loss of by their VETO stop the matter at these people would be ruin to once. Rome. Those in debt were released from their obligations, This was an immense gain for and the plebeians received the the plebeians, and they were right to choose annually, from justified in giving the name of their own numbers, two officers SACRED MOUNT to the hill to called TRIBÚNI PLEBIS, who which they had seceded. should look after their interests, and have the power of VETOING The number of Tribunes was any taken by any afterwards increased to five, and magistrate in the city. This still later to ten. power, however, was confined 23 the first secession, were filled by interest to the plebeians. By it elections held at first in the any member could be punished CHAPTER VII THE Comitia Centuriáta, but later in for misconduct, and though at COMITIA TRIBUTA AND an assembly called the COMITIA first measures passed in it were THE AGRARIAN LAWS TRIBÚTA, which met sometimes not binding on the people at within and sometimes without the large, it presently became a city walls. determined body, with competent and bold leaders, who were felt The next gain made by the This assembly was composed of to be a power in the state. plebeians was the annual plebeians, who voted by "tribes" appointment from their own ranks (tributa, meaning composed of The aim of the patricians was of two officers, called AEDILES. tribes), each tribe being entitled now to lessen the power of the [Note: The word "" is to one vote, and its vote being Tribunes; that of the plebeians, to derived from Aedes, meaning decided by the majority of its restrain the Consuls and extend temple.] These officers held individual voters. [Note: These the influence of the Tribunes. nearly the same position in "tribes" were a territorial division, Party spirit ran high; even hand reference to the Tribunes that the corresponding roughly to "wards" to hand contests occurred in the Quaestors did to the Consuls. in our cities. At this time there city. Many families left Rome They assisted the Tribunes in the were probably sixteen, but later and settled in neighboring places performance of their various there were thirty-five. The to escape the turmoil. It is a duties, and also had special plebeians in the city lived mostly wonder that the government charge of the temple of . In in one quarter, on the Aventine withstood the strain, so fierce this temple were deposited, for Hill.] was the struggle. safe keeping, all the decrees of the Senate. The Comitia Tribúta was The AGRARIAN LAWS at this convened and presided over by time first become prominent. These two offices, those of the Tribunes and Aediles. In it These laws had reference to the and Aedile, the result of were discussed matters of distribution of the PUBLIC 24 LANDS. Rome had acquired a dues. In course of time, this large amount of land taken from land, which was handed down SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able the territory of conquered cities. from father to son, and frequently man, now came forward (486?), This land was called AGER sold, began to be regarded by proposing a law that the state PUBLICUS, or public land. the occupants as their own take up these lands, divide them property. Also the land tax into small lots, and distribute Some of this land was sold or (TRIBÚTUM), which was levied them among the poor plebeians given away as "homesteads," on all ager privátus, and which as homes (homesteads). The and then it became AGER was especially hard upon the law was carried, but in the PRIVÁTUS, or private land. But small plebeian land-owners, troublesome times it cost the most of it was occupied by could not legally be levied upon Cassius his life, and was never permission of the magistrates. the ager occupátus. Thus the enforced. The occupants were usually rich patricians who possessed, not patricians, who were favored by owned, this land were naturally the patrician magistrates. This regarded as usurpers by the land, so occupied, was called plebeians. AGER OCCUPÁTUS, or possessio; but it really was still the property of the state. The rent paid was a certain per cent (from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head for cattle on pasture land. Although the state had the undoubted right to claim this land at any time, the Italian hilltop farm magistrates allowed the occupants to retain it, and were The first object of the AGRARIAN often lenient about collecting LAWS was to remedy this evil. 25 notwithstanding violent according to the wishes and opposition by the patricians, a traditions of the patricians only. CHAPTER VIII THE measure to the effect that the A change was demanded. This CONTEST OF THE Tribunes should hereafter be was obtained by the PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL chosen in the Comitia Tribúta, TERENTILIAN ROGATION, a RIGHTS instead of the Comitia Centuriáta. proposal made in 461 by Gaius Thus the plebeians gained a very Terentilius Harsa, a Tribune, to important step. This bill is called the effect that the laws thereafter the PUBLILIAN LAW be written. The patrician The plebeians were now (about (Plebiscítum Publilium). [Note: families, led by one Kaeso 475) as numerous as the All bills passed in the Comitia Quinctius, made bitter opposition. patricians, if not more so. Their Tribúta were called Plebiscíta, Kaeso himself, son of the famous organization had become and until 286 were not Cincinnátus, was impeached by perfected, and many of their necessarily binding upon the the Tribune and fled from the leaders were persistent in their people at large; but this bill city. efforts to better the condition of seems to have been recognized their followers. Their especial as a law.] Finally it was arranged that the aim was to raise their civil and Comitia Centuriáta should select political rights to an equality with For the next twenty years the from the people at large ten men, those of the patricians. The struggle continued unabated. called the DECEMVIRATE, to struggle finally culminated in the The plebeians demanded a hold office for one year, to direct murder of one of the Tribunes, WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS. the government and supersede Gnarus Genucius, for attempting all other magistrates, and to veto some of the acts of the We find among all early peoples especially to draw up a code of Consuls. that the laws are at first the laws to be submitted to the unwritten ones of custom and people for approval. A VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, precedent. The laws at Rome, commission of three patricians now (471) proposed and carried, thus far, had been interpreted was sent to Athens to examine 26 the laws of that city, which was were approved, but they position of the debtor was now (454) at the height of its neglected to do so, and began to apparently made more prosperity. Two years were act in a cruel and tyrannical endurable. The absolute control spent by this commission, and manner. The people, growing of the over his upon their return in 452 the uneasy under their injustice, family was abolished. The close above mentioned Decemvirate finally rebelled when one of the connection heretofore existing was appointed. , , between the clients and patrons passed a sentence that brought was gradually relaxed, the former The laws drawn up by this board an innocent maiden, Virginia, into became less dependent upon the were approved, engraved on ten his power. Her father, Virginius, latter, and finally were absorbed tables of copper, and placed in saved his daughter's honor by into the body of the plebeians. the Forum in front of the Senate- stabbing her to the heart, and Gentes among the plebeians House. Two more tables were fleeing to the camp called upon now began to be recognized; added the next year. These the soldiers to put down such previously only the patricians had were the only wicked government. been divided into gentes. Roman code. A second time the army deserted Thus we see, socially, the two its leaders, and seceded to the orders were approaching nearer SACRED MOUNT, where they and nearer. nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching into the city, they In 449 Valerius and Horatius compelled the Decemviri to were elected Consuls, and were resign. instrumental in passing the so Forum Romanum from the called VALERIO-HORATIAN Capitoline The TWELVE TABLES have not laws, the substance of which was been preserved, except in as follows:— The DECEMVIRI should have fragments, and we know but little resigned as soon as these laws of their exact contents. The I. Every Roman citizen could 27 appeal to the Comitia Centuriáta influential, that for a long time no against the sentence of any In 445 the Tribune Canuleius plebeian was elected. magistrate. proposed a bill which was passed, and called the As an offset to these gains of the II. All the decisions of the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians, the patricians in 435 Comitia Tribúta (plebiscita), if plebeians the right of obtained two new officers, called sanctioned by the Senate and intermarriage (connubium) with CENSORS, elected from their Comitia Centuriáta, were made the patricians, and enacting that own ranks every five years binding upon patricians and all issue of such marriages (lustrum) to hold office for plebeians alike. This assembly should have the rank of the eighteen months. now became of equal importance father. with the other two. The duties of the Censors were:- Canuleius also proposed another III. The persons of the Tribunes, bill which he did not carry; viz. I. To see that the citizens of Aediles, and other plebeian that the consulship be open to every class were properly officers, were to be considered the plebeians. A compromise, registered. sacred. however, was made, and it was agreed to suspend for a time the II. To punish immorality in the IV. The Tribunes could take part office of Consul, and to elect Senate by the removal of any in the debates of the Senate, and annually six MILITARY members who were guilty of veto any of its decisions. TRIBUNES in the Comitia offences against public morals. Centuriáta, the office being open Two years later (447), the to all citizens. The people voted III. To have the general election of the Quaestors, who every year whether they should supervision of the finances and must still be patricians, was have consuls or military tribunes, public works of the state. This intrusted to the Comitia Tribúta. and this custom continued for office became in after years the Heretofore they had been nearly a half-century. The most coveted at Rome. appointed by the Consuls. patricians, however, were so 28 A few years later, in 421, the II. To forbid any citizen's holding interests were now more likely to plebeians made another step more than 500 jugera (300 acres) be protected. The temple of forward by obtaining the right of of the public lands, or feeding in the Forum was electing one of their number as thereon more than 100 oxen or dedicated by Camillus as a mark . There were now four 500 sheep. of gratitude for the better times Quaestors. that these rogations promised. III. To compel all landlords to Thus the patricians, in spite of employ on their fields a certain The plebeians, however, did not the most obstinate resistance, number of free laborers, stop until all the offices, except sustained loss after loss. Even proportionate to the number of that of , were thrown the rich plebeians, who had their slaves. open to them. First they gained hitherto often found it for their that of Dictator, then those of interest to side with the IV. To allow all interest hitherto Censor and of , and patricians, joined the farmers or paid on borrowed money to be finally, in 286, by the law of lower classes. deducted from the principal, and , the plebiscita the rest to be paid in three yearly became binding upon all the Finally, in 367, the Tribunes instalments. people without the sanction of Licinius and Sextius proposed the Senate and Comitia and passed the following bills, These rogations were a great Centuriáta. After 200 the sacred called the LICINIAN gain for the poorer classes. It offices of PONTIFEX and ROGATIONS. gave them an opportunity for AUGUR also could be filled by labor which had previously been plebeians. I. To abolish the six military performed mostly by slaves. tribunes, and elect annually, as They were less burdened by Thus the strife that had lasted for formerly, two Consuls, choosing debts, and had some prospect of two centuries was virtually one or both of them from the becoming solvent. But most of ended; and although the Roman plebeians. all, since the office of Consul was patricians still held aloof from the open to them, they felt that their commons, yet their rights as 29 citizens were no greater than those of the plebeians.

To recapitulate:—

Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz.: that of trading and holding property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that of intermarriage (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES).

The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the second they obtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBÚTA; the third by the CANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequent bills.

[Illustration: City of Rome to the extent of the ]

30 was fought on July 18, 390. The Romans subsequently planted Romans were thoroughly many, were outposts established CHAPTER IX defeated and their city lay at the to protect conquered territory. A EXTERNAL HISTORY mercy of the foe. The , band of Roman citizens was however, delayed three days armed and equipped, as if for before marching upon Rome. military purposes. They took with Thus the people had time to them their wives and children, The first authentic history of prepare the Capitol for a siege, slaves and followers, and Rome begins about 400. The which lasted seven months, established a local government city then possessed, possibly, when by a large sum of money similar to that of Rome. These three hundred square miles of the barbarians were induced to colonists relinquished their rights territory. The number of tribes withdraw. as Roman citizens and became had been increased to twenty- Latins; hence the name LATIN five. Later it became thirty-five. During this siege the records of COLONIES.] The neighboring

the city's history were destroyed, Latin town of TUSCULUM, which In 391 a horde of Celtic and we have no trustworthy data had always been a faithful ally, barbarians crossed the for events that happened was annexed to Rome. Apennines into Etruria and previous to 390. attacked CLUSIUM. Here a The trying times of these years Celtic chief was slain by Roman The city was quickly rebuilt and had caused numerous enemies ambassadors, who, contrary to soon recovered from the blow. In to spring up all around Rome; but the sacred character of their 387 the lost territory adjacent to she showed herself superior to mission, were fighting in the the Tiber was annexed, and them all, until finally, in 353, she ranks of the Etrurians. The military colonies were planted at had subdued the whole of Celts, in revenge, marched upon Sutrium and Nepete upon the Southern Etruria, and gained Rome. The disastrous battle of Etruscan border, and also at possession of the town of the ALLIA, a small river about Circeii and Setia. [Note: These CAERE, with most of its territory. eleven miles north of the city, military colonies, of which the The town was made a 31 MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind. spreading over the southern half each other, been waging war of Italy, had in 423 captured the upon the . The Samnites The inhabitants, being of foreign Etruscan city of CAPUA, and went so far as to attack Teánum, blood and language, were not three years later the Greek city of a city of Northern Campania, allowed the full rights of Roman CUMAE. Since then they had which appealed to Capua for aid. citizenship, but were permitted to been practically masters of the The Samnites at once appeared govern their own city in local whole of Campania. before Capua, and she, unable to matters as they wished. Many defend herself, asked aid of towns were subsequently made Rome. MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE Alarmed at the advances of the SUFFRAGIO, "citizens without Samnites, Rome only awaited an suffrage." excuse to break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans During the next ten years (353- surrendering their city 343) Rome subdued all the unconditionally to Rome, so that, lowland countries as far south as in attacking the Samnites, she TARRACÍNA. To the north, would simply be defending her across the Tiber, she had subjects. acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPÉNA. Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half In 354 she formed her first Painting, The Household Gods, a century with varying success, connections beyond the Liris, by by J. W. Waterhouse and which were interrupted by a treaty with the SAMNITES, a two truces. It is usual to divide race that had established itself in After the treaty of 354 mentioned them into three parts, the First, the mountainous districts of above, both the Romans and Second, and Third Samnite Central Italy. This people, Samnites had, independently of Wars. 32 Rome a proposition that one of part of the Ager Románus, and the Consuls and half of the the inhabitants Roman plebeians. THE FIRST SAMNITE Senate be Latins; but it was WAR (343-341) rejected. A war followed, in the Besides acquiring Latium, Rome third year of which was fought also annexed, as municipia, the battle of Trigánum, near three more towns, Fundi, The accounts of this war are so Mount Vesuvius. The Romans, Formiae, and Velítrae, a Volscian uncertain and confused that no with their Samnite allies, were town. clear idea of its details can be victorious through the efforts of given. It resulted in no material the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS LATIUM was now made to advantage to either side, except TORQUÁTUS, one of the include all the country from the that Rome retained Capua and illustrious names of this still Tiber to the Volturnus. made it a municipium, annexing doubtful period. The remainder its territory to her own. of the operations was rather a Rome about this time established series of expeditions against several MARITIME (Roman) individual cities than a general COLONIES, which were similar THE LATIN WAR (340- war. to her MILITARY (Latin) 338) COLONIES, except that the In 338 all the Latins laid down colonists retained all their rights their arms, and the war closed. as Roman citizens, whereas the The cities of the LATIN The Latin confederacy was at an military colonists relinquished CONFEDERACY had been for a end. Rome now was mistress. these rights and became Latins. long time looking with jealous Four of the Latin cities, TIBUR, The first of these colonies was eyes upon the rapid progress of PRAENESTE, CORA, and ANTIUM (338); afterwards were Rome. Their own rights had LAURENTUM, were left established TARRACÍNA (329), been disregarded, and they felt independent, but all the rest of MINTURNAE, and that they must now make a stand the towns were annexed to (296). Others were afterwards or lose everything. They sent to Rome. Their territory became founded. 33 the Etruscans. The last of these Later, when Antium was changed was the weakest, and had been into a military colony, its navy declining ever since the capture was destroyed, and the beaks by the Romans of Veii in 396, (rostra) of its ships were taken to and of Caere in 353.

Rome, and placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite In the contest which followed the Senate-House. Hence the Maenius, one of the Censors, between Rome and the name ROSTRA. was chiefly instrumental in Samnites, the combatants were bringing about these very nearly matched. Rome had At this time the FORUM, which improvements. her power more compact and had been used for trading concentrated, while the Samnites purposes of all kinds, was were superior in numbers, but improved and beautified. It were more scattered. They were became a centre for political THE SECOND AND both equally brave. discussions and financial THIRD SAMNITE WARS proceedings. The bankers and (326-290) During the first five years of the brokers had their offices here. war (326-321), the Romans were

Smaller Fora were started near usually successful, and the The results of the First Samnite the river, as the Forum Boarium Samnites were forced to sue for War and the Latin War were, as (cattle market) and the Forum peace. In this period Rome we have seen, to break up the Holitorium (vegetable market). gained no new territory, but Latin confederacy, and enlarge founded a number of military the domain of Rome. posts in the enemy's country.

There were now in Italy three The peace lasted for about a races aiming at the supremacy, year, when hostilities were again the Romans, the Samnites, and renewed. By this time the 34 Samnites had found a worthy Caudine Forks (321), one of the (310) the Samnites were so leader in Gavius Pontius, by most humiliating defeats that thoroughly whipped by whose skill and wisdom the ever befell the Roman arms. The FABIUS, then Dictator, at LAKE fortune of war was turned against army was made to pass under VADIMÓNIS in Etruria, that they the Romans for seven years the yoke,—which was made of could no longer make any (321-315). He allured the three spears, two stuck into the effective resistance, and at last Romans into a small plain, at ground parallel to each other and (304) agreed to relinquish all each end of which was a defile the third placed above them,— their sea-coast, their alliances (Furculae Caudinae). On and then suffered to depart. and conquests, and acknowledge reaching this plain they found the supremacy of Rome. Pontius strongly posted to Rome was filled with dismay at oppose them. After a bloody but the news. The citizens dressed During this war the Etruscans fruitless attempt to force him to in mourning, business and made their last single effort retreat, the Romans themselves amusements were suspended, against the Roman power. An were compelled to give way. But and every energy was devoted to expedition was sent in 311 to meanwhile Pontius had also repairing the disaster. attack the military colony of occupied the defile in their rear, Compliance with the terms of the Sutrium, which had been and they were obliged to treaty was refused, on the founded seventy-six years surrender. ground that no treaty was valid before. The Consul Quintus unless sanctioned by a vote of Fabius went to the rescue, raised A treaty was signed by the the people. It was determined to the siege, drove the Etruscans Consuls Titus Veturius and deliver the Consuls who had into the Ciminian forests, and Spurius Postumius, according to signed it to the enemy. there completely defeated them. which peace was to be made, and everything restored to its Pontius, indignant at the broken Six years intervened between the former condition. faith, refused to accept them, and Second and the THIRD the war was renewed. It SAMNITE WAR (298-290). This Such was the affair at the continued for seven years, when time was employed by the 35 Samnites in endeavoring to unite and, rushing into the midst of the other nations on the south from Italy against Rome. They were enemy, was slain. [Note: It is the Umbrians, Gauls, and joined by the UMBRIANS, said that the father of Decius Etruscans on the north. GAULS, and ETRUSCANS. The acted in a similar manner in a LUCANIANS alone were with battle of the Latin war.] His In 283, at Lake Vadimónis, the Rome. soldiers, rendered enthusiastic Romans defeated the Senonian by his example, rallied and and Boian Gauls, and founded The war was of short duration, pushed back the Gauls. The the military colony of SENA and was practically decided by victory was now complete, for the GALLICA. the sanguinary battle of Samnites were already fleeing SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. before that part of the army The Samnites, led by Gellius which was under Fabius. Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS The war dragged on for five FABIUS MAXIMUS and years, when the Consul MANIUS DECIUS MUS. CURIUS DENTÁTUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also In this battle the struggle was the SABINES, who had recently long and doubtful. The Samnites joined them. The Samnites were were assisted by the Gauls, who allowed their independence, and were showing themselves more became allies of Rome. The than a match for the part of the Sabines were made Roman Roman army opposed to them, citizens (sine suffragio), and their and commanded by Decius. territory was annexed to the Ager Following the example of his Románus. This territory now illustrious father, the Consul reached across Italy from the vowed his life to the Infernal Tuscan to the , Gods if victory were granted, separating the Samnites and 36 their jealousy of each other; so bound themselves not to allow that they were unable to oppose their vessels to appear in the CHAPTER X WARS any firm and united resistance to Gulf of Tarentum beyond the WITH PYRRHUS (281- the progress of Rome. It had Lacinian promontory. As usual, 272) been their custom to rely largely the Romans found no difficulty in upon strangers for the recruiting evading their treaty whenever it and management of their should profit them. armies,—a fact which explains in In the early times of Rome, while part the ease with which they Thurii was attacked by the she was but little known, it had were overcome. Lucanians, and, despairing of aid been the custom of Greece to from Tarentum, called on Rome send colonies away to relieve the for assistance. As soon as pressure of too rapid increase. domestic affairs permitted, war We find them in Spain, France, was declared against the Asia Minor, and especially in Lucanians, and the wedge was Sicily and Southern Italy, where entered which was to separate the country became so from Hellas, and thoroughly Grecianized that it deliver the former over to Rome. was called MAGNA GRAECIA.

Here were many flourishing Satellite image of Sicily with Etna Pretending that the war was cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, erupting instigated by Tarentum, Rome Croton, and Thurii. These had, decided to ignore the treaty, and at the time of their contact with Of these cities TARENTUM was sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Rome, greatly fallen from their now the chief. With it a treaty Bay of Tarentum. It was a gala former grandeur, owing partly to had been made by which the day, and the people were the inroads of barbarians from Tarentines agreed to certain assembled in the theatre that the north, partly to civil limits beyond which their fleet overlooked the bay when the dissensions, and still more to was not to pass, and the Romans ships appeared. It was 37 determined to punish the 3,000 cavalry, and 20 elephants. surprise of a charge of elephants intrusion. A fleet was manned, He at once set about compelling than by the tactics of the and four of the Roman squadron the effeminate Greeks to prepare . However, they retired were destroyed. for their own defence. Places of in good order. Pyrrhus is said to amusement were closed; the have been much impressed by An ambassador, Postumius, sent people were forced to perform the heroic conduct of the foe, and by Rome to demand satisfaction, military duty; disturbers of the to have said, "Another such was treated with insult and public safety were put to death; victory will send me back without contempt. He replied to the and other reforms were made a man to ." He recognized mockery of the Tarentines, that which the dangers of the the inferior qualities of his Greek their blood should wash out the situation seemed to demand. allies, and determined to make a stain. The next year one of the Meanwhile the Romans acted peace. A trusted messenger, Consuls was ordered south. with promptness, and boldly CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He challenged him to battle. The was noted for his eloquence, Meanwhile Tarentum had sent armies met in 280 on the plain of which was said to have gained envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, HERACLÉA, on the banks of the more for his master than the the young and ambitious KING Liris, where the level nature of sword. Through him Pyrrhus OF EPÍRUS. He was cousin of the country was in favor of the promised to retire to Epirus if , and, since Greek method of fighting. The safety was guaranteed to his he had obtained no share in the Macedonian phalanx was the allies in Italy. division of the conquests of this most perfect instrument of great leader, his dream was to warfare the world had yet seen, The eloquence of Cineas was found an empire in the West that and the Roman legions had fortified with presents for the would surpass the exhausted never yet been brought into Senators; and though these were monarchies of the East. collision with it. refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him, when the aged Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 The Romans, under LAEVÍNUS, with a force of 20,000 infantry, were defeated, more by the (Blind) was led into the Senate, 38 and declared that Rome should Senate; and, on his part, Pyrrhus The wounded beasts became never treat with an enemy in refused to grant the desired furious and unmanageable, and arms. exchange. threw the army into disorder. With this battle ended the career Cineas was deeply impressed by Many Italian nations now joined of Pyrrhus in Italy. He returned the dignity of the Romans, and Pyrrhus, and hostilities were home, and two years later was declared that the Senators were renewed. The armies again met accidentally killed by a woman at an assembly of kings and Rome in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, Argos. itself a temple. in Apulia; but though the Romans were defeated, it was only The departure of Pyrrhus left all Pyrrhus then tried force, and, another of those Pyrrhic victories Italy at the mercy of Rome. Two hastily advancing northward, which were almost as disastrous years later, in 272, the garrison appeared within eighteen miles as defeat. at Tarentum surrendered, the city of the city. Here his danger walls were demolished, and the became great. The defection he The same year Pyrrhus retired to fleet given up. had hoped for among the Latins Sicily to defend Syracuse against did not take place, and the the Carthaginians, who were armies which had been operating allied to the Romans. He elsewhere were now ready to remained on the island three unite against him. He therefore years. Upon his return to Italy he retired into winter quarters at met the Romans for the last time Tarentum, where he received the in 274, near BENEVENTUM, famous embassy of GAIUS where he was defeated by the FABRICIUS, sent to propose an Consul MANIUS CURIOUS interchange of prisoners. It was DENTÁTUS. The Romans had in vain that bribes and threats by this time become accustomed were employed to shake the to the elephants, and used courage of the men sent by the burning arrows against them. 39 districts (tribes), four of which to thirty-five. were in Rome. The elections CHAPTER XI DIVISIONS were all held at Rome. b. Of the ALLIES of Rome OF THE ROMAN (), whose cities and TERRITORY—NOTED These districts were made up,— adjoining territory composed MEN OF THE PERIOD more than one half of the country a. Of ROME. controlled by Rome.

b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES, These allies were allowed local Rome was now mistress of all mostly maritime, now numbering government, were not obliged to Italy south of the Arnus and seven, but finally increased to pay tribute, but were called upon Aesis. This country was divided thirty-five. to furnish their proportion of into two parts. troops for the Roman army. c. Of the MUNICIPIA (towns I. The AGER ROMÁNUS, bound to service). The inhabitants of this country including about one quarter of were divided into five classes, the whole, bounded on the north d. Of the PRAEFECTÚRAE viz.— by CAERE, on the south by (towns governed by a praefect, FORMIAE, and on the east by who was sent from Rome and a. Those who possessed both the APENNINES. appointed by the Praetor). PUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTS as citizens, i. e. FULL RIGHTS. II. The DEPENDENT The DEPENDENT [Note: Public rights consisted of COMMUNITIES. COMMUNITIES were made the jus suffragii (right of voting at up,— Rome); jus honorum (right of The Ager Románus was holding office), and jus subdivided, for voting and a. Of the LATIN (military) provocationis (right of appeal). financial purposes, into thirty- COLONIES, now numbering Private rights were jus connubii three, afterwards thirty-five twenty-two, afterwards increased (right of intermarriage); and jus 40 commercii (right of trading and of most of the Municipia, who her empire, so that not even the holding property). Full rights possessed only private rights, the successes of caused were acquired either by birth or citizens of all the Praefectúrae, more than a momentary shaking gift. A child born of parents, both and the citizens of all the Latin of fidelity, for which ample of whom enjoyed the jus colonies. punishment was both speedy connubii, was a Roman citizen and certain. with full rights. Foreigners were sometimes presented with ROADS citizenship (civitas)] b. Those who were subjects and Even at this early date, the did not possess full rights. necessity of easy communication with the capital seems to have been well understood. Roads c. Those who were ALLIES (Socii). were pushed in every direction,— Via Appia Antica with fragments broad, level ways, over which of an ancient tomb d. Those who were SLAVES, armies might be marched or who possessed no rights. intelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound her NOTED MEN e. Those who were RESIDENT possessions indissolubly FOREIGNERS, who possessed together. Some of them remain the right of trading. today a monument of Roman The three most noted men of the thoroughness, enterprise, and period embraced in the two To class a belonged the citizens sagacity,—the wonder and preceding chapters were Appius of Rome, of the Roman colonies, admiration of modern road- Claudius, the Censor and and of some of the Municipia. builders. By these means did patrician; and Manius Curius Rome fasten together the Dentátus and Gaius Fabricius, To class b belonged the citizens constantly increasing fabric of plebeians. 41 APPIA, was built under his Dentátus, was from the We have seen that all plebeians supervision. This road ran at first peasants. He was a Hernican. who were land-owners belonged from Rome as far as Capua. It As a soldier he was successful. to one of the tribes, and could was constructed so well that As a statesman he was vote in the Comitia Tribúta; this, many parts of it are today in good incorruptible, and of great use to however, shut out the plebeians condition. The road was his country. Previous to the of the city who owned no land, afterward extended to battle of Asculum, Pyrrhus and also the freedmen, who were Brundisium, through Venusia and attempted to bribe him by large generally educated and Tarentum. sums of money, and, failing in professional men, such as this, thought to frighten him by doctors, teachers, etc. MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUS hiding an elephant behind a was a peasant, a contemporary curtain; the curtain was suddenly APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, of Appius, and his opponent in removed, but Fabricius, though in 312, deprived the landowners many ways. He was a strong immediately under the elephant's of the exclusive privilege of friend of the plebeians. He trunk, stood unmoved. voting in the Comitia Tribúta, and obtained for the soldiers large gave to property owners of any assignments of the Ager In this generation we find Roman sort the right to vote. Eight years Publicus. He drained the low character at its best. Wealth had later this law was modified, so and swampy country near Reáte not flowed into the state in such that it applied to the four city by a canal. He was the large quantities as to corrupt it. tribes alone, and the thirty-one conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of The great mass of the people rural tribes had for their basis sterling qualities, frugal and were peasants, small land- landed property only. unostentatious, after his public owners, of frugal habits and life he retired to his farm and moral qualities. But During the censorship of Appius, spent the remainder of his days comparatively few owned large Rome had its first regular water in seclusion as a simple peasant. estates as yet, or possessed supply by the aqueduct. large tracts of the Ager Publicus. The first military road, the VIA GAIUS FABRICIUS, like A century later, when most of the 42 available land in the peninsula was held by the wealthy and farmed by slaves, we find a great change.

The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Large treasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in Southern Italy. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate. Greed for wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of the Romans. From now on the moral tone of the people continued to degenerate in proportion as their empire increased.

43 Carthaginian power. The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands CHAPTER XII FOREIGN Like Rome, Carthage had an passed the gold and pearls of the CONQUEST obscure beginning. As in the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; case of Rome, it required ivory, slaves, and incense of centuries to gain her power. Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze of Cyprus; and the iron of ROME AND CARTHAGE.— It was the policy of Carthage to Elba. . (264-241) make a successful revolt of her [Note: The word "Punic" is subdued allies an impossibility, But the harsh and gloomy derived from Phoenici. The by consuming all their energies in character of the people, their Carthaginians were said to have the support of her immense cruel religion, which sanctioned come originally from population and the equipment of human sacrifice, their disregard , on the eastern her numerous fleets and armies. of the rights of others, their well coast of the Mediterranean. Hence all the surrounding tribes, known treachery, all shut them Their first ruler was . The once wandering nomads, were off from the higher civilization of Latin student is of course familiar forced to become tillers of the Rome and Greece. with Virgil's story of Dido and soil; and, with colonies sent out Aenéas.] by herself, they formed the so The government of Carthage was

called Libyo- Phoenician an ARISTOCRACY. A council While Rome was gradually population, open to the attack of composed of a few of high birth, enlarging her territory from all, and incapable of defence. and another composed of the Latium to the Straits of Messána, Thus the country around very wealthy, managed the state. on the other shore of the Carthage was weak, and the Only in times of extraordinary Mediterranean, opposite Italy and moment a foreign enemy landed danger were the people less than one hundred miles from in Africa the war was merely a summoned and consulted. Sicily, sprang up, through siege of its chief city. industry and commerce, the Rome had made two treaties with 44 Carthage; one immediately after MAMERTINES, a band of intervention of the Carthaginians, the establishment of the brigands who came from a truce had been formed Republic, in 500, the other about Campania. The latter, making between Hiero and the brigands, 340. By these treaties Messána their head- quarters, and the siege of Messána was commerce was allowed between had been pillaging all of the raised. The city itself was Rome and its dependencies and island that they could reach. occupied by a fleet and garrison Carthage and her possessions in Being shut up in Messána by of Carthaginians under HANNO, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on The Romans, though the the Romans were not to trade in the ground that they were from Mamertines no longer needed Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Campania. Although Rome was their aid, landed at Messána and Carthage. in alliance with Hiero, and had dislodged the Carthaginians, but recently executed 300 In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had mercenaries for doing in Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC exclaimed, "What a fine battle- Rhegium what the Mamertines WAR. The Romans at once field for Rome and Carthage!" If had done in Sicily,—she formed a double alliance with Carthage were mistress of this determined to aid them, for Sicily Syracuse and Messána, thus island, Rome would be shut up in was a rich and tempting prey. gaining control of the eastern her peninsula; if Rome were in coast of Sicily and getting their possession of it, "the commerce first foothold outside of Italy. of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze The most important inland city of of one night would carry the Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here Roman fleets to her walls". the Carthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces At this time the island was The Straits of Messina looking to under HANNIBAL, son of Cisco. shared by three powers,— Campania (Calabria) The Romans besieged the city, HIERO, king of Syracuse, the but were themselves cut off from CARTHAGINIANS, and the Meanwhile, however, through the supplies by Hanno, who landed 45 at Heracléa in their rear. Both land. besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last a battle was fought Four naval battles now followed: (262), in which the Romans were 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off victorious, owing to their superior (260); 3d, off TYNDARIS infantry. Agrigentum fell, and (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256). only a few strongholds on the coast were left to the In the first of these only

Carthaginians. seventeen ships of the Romans The ships were made the more were engaged under the The Romans now began to feel formidable by a heavy iron beak, CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS the need of a fleet. That of for the purpose of running down SCIPIO. The fleet with its Carthage ruled the sea without a and sinking the enemy's vessels; commander was captured. rival: it notonly controlled many of a kind of hanging stage was also the seaports of Sicily, but also placed on the prow of the ship, In the second engagement, off threatened Italy itself. With their which could be lowered in front Mylae, all the Roman fleet under usual energy, the Romans began or on either side. It was GAIUS DUILIUS took part. The the work. [Note: In 259, three furnished on both sides with Carthaginians were led by years previous to the battle of parapets, and had space for two Hannibal, son of Gisco. The Ecnomus, the Romans under men in front. On coming to close newly invented stages or Lucius Scipio captured Blesia, a quarters with the enemy, this boarding-bridges of the Romans seaport of Corsica, and stage was quickly lowered and were found to be very effective. established there a naval fastened to the opposing ship by The enemy could not approach station.] A wrecked Carthaginian means of grappling irons; thus near without these bridges vessel was taken as a model, the Roman marines were descending with their grappling and by the spring of 260 a navy enabled to board with ease their irons and holding them fast to the of 120 sail was ready for sea. opponents' ship, and fight as if on Romans. The Carthaginians were defeated, with the loss of 46 nearly half their fleet. way, it gained a victory over the MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS Carthaginian fleet off the A bronze column, ornamented was put in command of the Herméan promontory, sinking with the beaks of the captured Roman forces in Africa. For a 114 of the enemy's ships. vessels, was erected at Rome in time he was very successful, and honor of this victory of Duilius. the Carthaginians became It arrived at Clupea in time to The pedestal of it is still standing, disheartened. Many of the towns save its friends. The war in and on it are inscribed some of near Cartilage surrendered, and Africa was now abandoned. The the oldest inscriptions in the Latin the capital itself was in danger. fleet, setting sail for home, was language. Peace was asked, but the terms partly destroyed in a storm, only offered were too humiliating to be eighty ships reaching port. The third engagement, off accepted. Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn Hostilities continued for six years battle. Regulus, who began to despise without any great results. his opponents, remained inactive Panormus was taken in 254; the In the fourth engagement, off at Tunis, near Carthage, coast of Africa ravaged in 253; Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had neglecting even to secure a line and the island of Lipara 350 sail. Thirty Carthaginian and of retreat to his fortified camp at were taken in 252, and Eryx in twenty-four Roman vessels were Clupea. The next spring (255) 249. sunk, and sixty-four of the former he was surprised, his army cut to captured. The Punic fleet pieces, and he himself taken DREPANA and LILYBAEUM withdrew to the coast of Africa, prisoner. He subsequently died were now the only places in and prepared in the Bay of a captive at Carthage. Sicily, held by Carthage. A Carthage for another battle. But regular siege of Lilybaeum was the Romans sailed to the eastern The Romans, learning of this decided upon, and the city was side of the peninsula which helps defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail to blockaded by land and sea; but to form the bay, and there landed relieve their comrades who were the besieging party suffered as without opposition. shut up in Clupea. While on its much as the besieged, its 47 supplies were frequently cut off meanwhile took the field in Sicily. and the remainder in ten annual by the cavalry of the He was a man of great activity payments. Thus ended the First Carthaginians, and its ranks and military talent, and the Punic War. began to be thinned by disease. Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in a fair way The Consul, Publius Claudius, to regain all Sicily. The apathy of who had charge of the siege, the Senate was so great, that at determined to surprise the last some private citizens built Carthaginian fleet, which was and manned at their own stationed at Drepana (249). He expense a fleet of 200 sail. was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels. Another GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, fleet of 120 sail sent to aid him the Consul in command, was wrecked in a violent storm. surprised the enemy and occupied the harbors of Drepana The Romans were now in and Lilybaeum in 242. A perplexity. The war had lasted Carthaginian fleet which came to fifteen years. Four fleets had the rescue was met and been lost, and one sixth of the destroyed off the AEGÁTES fighting population. They had INSULAE in 241. Hamilcar was failed in Africa, and the two left in Sicily without support and strongest places in Sicily were supplies. He saw that peace still in the enemy's hands. For must be made. six years more the war dragged on (249-243). Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost A new Carthaginian commander, of the war,— about (Lightning), $3,000,000,—one third down, 48 into the government of Rome a their produce, and five per cent new system; viz. the of the value of their imports and CHAPTER XIII ROME PROVINCIAL SYSTEM. exports. They were not obliged AND CARTHAGE to furnish troops, as were the BETWEEN THE FIRST Heretofore the two chief dependants of Rome in Italy. AND SECOND PUNIC magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, had exercised their The provincial government was a WARS (241-218) functions over all the Roman fruitful source of corruption. As possessions. Now Sicily was the morals of the Romans made what the Romans called a degenerated, the provinces were Twenty-three years elapsed provincia, or PROVINCE. plundered without mercy to between the First and Second Sardinia and Corsica formed enrich the coffers of the Punic Wars. The Carthaginians another province (235). avaricious governors. were engaged during the first part of this time in crushing a Over each province was placed a The Adriatic Sea at this time was mutiny of their mercenary troops. , called overrun by Illyrican pirates, who . For this purpose two did much damage. Satisfaction Rome, taking advantage of the new Praetors were now elected, was demanded by Rome of position in which her rival was making four in all. The power of Illyricum, but to no purpose. As a placed, seized upon SARDINIA the governor was absolute; he last resort, war was declared, and CORSICA, and, when was commander in chief, chief and the sea was cleared of the Carthage objected, threatened to magistrate, and supreme judge. pirates in 229. renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than one million dollars The finances of the provinces "The results of this Illyrican war as a fine (237). were intrusted to one or more did not end here, for it was the QUAESTORS. All the means of establishing, for the The acquisition of Sicily, inhabitants paid as taxes into the first time, direct political relations Sardinia, and Corsica introduced Roman treasury one tenth of between Rome and the states of 49 Greece, to many of which the Flaminius, by his agrarian laws This contest continued for ten suppression of piracy was of as gained the bitter hatred of the years, and in 225 Etruria was much importance as to Rome nobility. He was the first invaded by an army of 70,000 herself. Alliances were Governor of Sicily, and there men. The plans of the invaders, concluded with CORCÝRA, showed himself to be a man of however, miscarried, and they EPIDAMNUS, and ; integrity and honesty, a great were hemmed in between two and embassies explaining the contrast to many who succeeded Roman armies near TELAMON reasons which had brought him.] carried an agrarian law, to in 222, and annihilated. The Roman troops into Greece were the effect that this land be given Gallic king was slain at the hands sent to the Aetolians and to the veterans and the poorer of the Consul MARCUS Achaeans, to Athens and classes. The law was executed, CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. . The admission of the and colonies planted. To the PAGE 61 Rome was now Romans to the Isthmian Games Gauls this seemed but the first mistress of the whole peninsula in 228 formally acknowledged step to the occupation of the of Italy, excepting some tribes in them as the allies of the Greek whole of their country. They all Liguria, who resisted a short time states." rose in arms except the longer. Cenománi. The Romans now began to look Three military (Latin) colonies with hungry eyes upon GALLIA were founded to hold the Gauls CISALPÍNA. The appetite for in check; PLACENTIA and conquest was well whetted. CREMÓNA in the territory of the There had been peace with the Insubres, and MUTINA in that of Gauls since the battle of Lake the Boii. The Via Flaminia, the Vadimónis in 283. The ager great northern road, was publicus, taken from the Gauls extended from SPOLETIUM to then, was still mostly unoccupied. ARIMINUM. [Note: During this In 232 the Tribune Gaius Lago Arancio, Sicily period the Comitia Centuriáta Flaminius [Note: Gaius was reorganized on the basis of 50 tribes (35) instead of money.] and ability in camp under his father. He was a fine athlete, Meanwhile Carthage was not well educated in the duties of a idle. After subduing the revolt of soldier, and could endure long the mercenaries in 237, she privation of sleep and food. For formed the project of obtaining the last few years he had been in SPAIN as compensation for the command of the cavalry, and had loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and distinguished himself for personal Corsica. Hamilcar Barca, by bravery, as well as by his talents energetic measures, established as a leader. (236-228) a firm foothold in Southern and Southeastern Hannibal resolved to begin the Spain. inevitable struggle with Rome at once. He therefore laid siege to At his death, his son-in-law, Saguntum, a Spanish town allied Hasdrubal, continued his work. to Rome. In eight months the Many towns were founded, trade place was compelled to prospered, and agriculture capitulate (219). flourished. The discovery of rich silver mines near Carthago Nova When Rome demanded was a means of enriching the satisfaction of Carthage for this treasury. After the assassination insult, and declared herself ready of Hasdrubal, in 220, the ablest for war, the Carthaginians leader was Hannibal, son of accepted the challenge, and the Hamilcar. Although a young man Second Punic War began in 218. of but twenty-eight, he had had a life of varied experience. As a boy he had shown great courage 51 Celtic territory, with little arrived with his troops. He opposition. The last of July obtained all the boats possible, CHAPTER XIV THE found him on the banks of the and constructed numerous rafts SECOND PUNIC WAR— Rhone, opposite Avenio to transport his main body of FROM THE PASSAGE (Avignon). The Romans were troops. A detachment of soldiers OF THE PYRENEES TO astonished at the rapidity of his was sent up the river with orders movements. to cross at the first available THE BATTLE OF place, and, returning on the CANNAE (218-216) The Consuls of the year were opposite bank, to surprise the SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. Celtic forces in the rear. The The former had been in Northern plan succeeded. The Celts fled Italy, leisurely collecting forces to in confusion, and the road to the In the spring of 218 Hannibal attack Hannibal in Spain; the Alps was opened. Thus Scipio started from Carthágo Nova to latter was in Sicily, making was outgeneralled in the very invade Italy. His army consisted preparations to invade Africa. beginning. of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 Scipio set sail for Spain, touching cavalry, and 37 elephants. His at Massilia near the end of June. march to the Pyrenees occupied Learning there for the first time two months, owing to the that Hannibal had already left opposition of the Spanish allies Spain, he hoped to intercept him of Rome. Hannibal now sent on the Rhone. The Celtic tribes back a part of his troops, of the neighborhood were won retaining 50,000 infantry and over to his side. Troops 9,000 cavalry, all veterans. With collected from these were these he crossed the mountains, Scipio bust from Naples, the stationed along the river, but and marched along the coast by Museo archeologico nazionale Scipio's main army remained at Narbo (Narbonne) and Massilia. It was Hannibal's policy Nemansus (Nîmes), through the His course now should have to cross the river before Scipio 52 been to return to Northern Italy and a night, however, the army exhausted soldiers. Here they with all his forces, and take every reached the summit of the pass. encamped, in September, and means to check Hannibal there. Here, on a table-land, his troops recruited their wearied energies. Instead, he sent most of his were allowed a brief rest. troops to Spain under his brother This famous march of Hannibal Gnaeus Scipio, and himself, with from the Rhone lasted thirty- but a few men, set sail for Pisae. three days, and cost him 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across The Romans were still the Isara, through the fertile unprepared to meet Hannibal. country of the Allobroges, One army was in Spain under arriving, in sixteen days from Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Avenio, at the pass of the first Sicily, on its way to Africa, under Alpine range (Mont du Chat). the Consul Sempronius. The Crossing this with some difficulty, only troops immediately available owing to the nature of the country were a few soldiers that had and the resistance of the Celts, been left in the valley of the Po to he hastened on through the restrain the Gauls, who had country of the Centrónes, along recently shown signs of the north bank of the Isara. As defection. he was leaving this river and Map of Hannibal’s crossing of the approaching the pass of the Little Alps Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon St. Bernard, he was again his return from Massilia, took attacked by the Celts, and The hardships of the descent command of these. He met obliged to make the ascent were fully as great, and the fertile Hannibal first in October, 218, amidst continual and bloody valley of the Po was a welcome near the river Ticinus, a tributary encounters. After toiling a day sight to the half-famished and of the Po. A cavalry skirmish 53 followed, in which he was give the enemy a hot reception, joined by the troops that had wounded and rescued by his if, as he expected, they should wintered at Placentia. son, a lad of seventeen, pursue his retreating vanguard. afterwards the famous Africanus. Sempronius was caught in the In the spring, Hannibal, instead The Romans were discomfited, trap, and all his army, except one of attempting to pursue his march with considerable loss. division of 10,000, was cut to by either of the highways which pieces. The survivors took were fortified, outflanked the They then retreated, crossing the refuge in Placentia and Romans by turning aside into Po at Placentia, and destroying Cremona, where they spent the Etruria. His route led through a the bridge behind them. winter. Sempronius himself marshy and unhealthy country, Hannibal forded the river farther escaped to Rome. and many soldiers perished. up, and marched along its right Hannibal himself lost an eye from bank until he reached its The result of TREBIA was the ophthalmia. When he had confluence with the Trebia, insurrection of all the Celtic tribes arrived at Faesulae a report of opposite Placentia. Here he in the valley of the Po, who his course first reached encamped. increased Hannibal's army by Flaminius, who at once broke 60,000 infantry and 4,000 camp and endeavored to Meanwhile Sempronius, who had cavalry. While the Carthaginian intercept his enemy. Hannibal, been recalled from Sicily, was wintering near Placentia, the however, had the start, and was relieved the disabled Scipio. Romans stationed troops to now near LAKE TRASIMÉNUS. guard the two highways leading Early one raw morning in north from Rome and ending at Here was a pass with a high hill December, 218, the vanguard of Arretium and Ariminum, The on one side and the lake on the the Carthaginians was ordered to Consuls for this year were other. Hannibal, with the flower cross the Trebia, and, as soon GAIUS FLAMINIUS and of his infantry, occupied the hill. any resistance was met, to GNAEUS SERVILIUS. The His light-armed troops and retreat. The other troops of former occupied Arretium, the horsemen were drawn up in Hannibal were drawn up ready to latter Ariminum. Here they were concealment on either side. 54 with scarcely any resistance, and was not in immediate danger, the Consul himself was killed. raised another army, and placed Fifteen thousand Romans fell, the Dictator in command. Fabius and as many more were was a man of determination and captured. The loss of the firmness, well advanced in years. Carthaginians was but 1,500, He determined to avoid a pitched and was confined mostly to the battle, but to dog the steps of the Gallic allies. All Etruria was lost, enemy, harassing him and

Bust of Hannibal, Hanba’al in his and Hannibal could march cutting off his supplies as far as own language meaning “mercy of without hindrance upon Rome, possible. Baal” whose citizens, expecting the enemy daily, tore down the Meanwhile Hannibal again The Roman column advanced bridges over the Tiber and crossed the mountains into the (May, 217), without hesitation, to prepared for a siege. QUINTUS heart of Italy to Beneventum, and the unoccupied pass, the thick FABIUS MAXIMUS was from there to Capua, the largest morning mist completely appointed Dictator. Italian city dependent upon concealing the position of the Rome. The Dictator followed, enemy. As the Roman vanguard Hannibal, however, did not condemning his soldiers to the approached the hill, Hannibal march upon Rome, but turned melancholy task of looking on in gave the signal for attack. The through Umbria, devastating the inaction, while the enemy's cavalry closed up the entrance to country as he went. Crossing the cavalry plundered their faithful the pass, and at the same time Apennines, he halted on the allies. Finally, Fabius obtained the mist rolled away, revealing shores of the Adriatic, in what he considered a favorable the Carthaginian arms on the Picénum. After giving his army a opportunity for an attack. right and left. It was not a battle, rest, he proceeded along the Hannibal, disappointed in his but a mere rout. The main body coast into Southern Italy. expectations that Capua would of the Romans was cut to pieces, be friendly to him, and not being The Romans, seeing that the city prepared to lay siege to the town, 55 had withdrawn towards the to the hills with the oxen. Their adhered to his former tactics. Adriatic. Fabius intercepted him engagement with the Romans Marcus made an attack, but paid near , in Campania, on had resulted in a severe loss to dearly for his rashness, and his bank of the Volturnus. Fabius. whole corps would have been The heights that commanded the annihilated had not Fabius come right bank of the river were Hannibal then proceeded, to his assistance and covered his occupied by his main army; and without opposition, in a retreat. Hannibal passed the the road itself, which led across northeasterly direction, by a very winter of 217-216 unmolested. the river, was guarded by a circuitous route. He arrived in strong division of men. Luceria, with much booty and a The season was spent by the full money-chest, at harvest time. Romans in active preparations Hannibal, however, ordered his Near here he encamped in a for the spring campaign. An light-armed troops to ascend the plain rich in grain and grass for army of 80,000 infantry and heights over the road during the the support of his army. 6,000 cavalry was raised and put night, driving before them oxen under the command of the with burning fagots tied to their At Rome the policy of Fabius was Consuls, LUCIUS ÆMILIUS horns, giving the appearance of severely criticised. His apparent PAULLUS and GAIUS an army marching by torchlight. inaction was displeasing to a TERENTIUS VARRO. It was The plan was successful. The large party, and he was called decided to test Hannibal's Romans abandoned the road Cunctator (the Delayer). At strength once more in open and marched for the heights, length the assembly voted that battle. His army was only half as along which they supposed the his command be shared by one strong as the Roman in infantry, enemy were going. Hannibal, of his lieutenants, Marcus but was much superior in cavalry. with a clear road before him, Minucius. The army was divided continued his march with the bulk into two corps; one under In the early summer of 216 the of his army. The next morning Marcus, who intended to attack Consuls concentrated their he recalled his light-armed Hannibal at the first opportunity; forces at CANNAE, a hamlet troops, which had been sent on the other under Fabius, who still near the mouth of the Aufidus. 56 Early one morning in June the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river, with their cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and the left under Varro. The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre.

The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked by cavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. The onset was terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courage increased by the thought that their homes, wives, and children were at stake, they were overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell on the field, among whom were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, and eighty men of senatorial rank. This was the most crushing defeat ever experienced by the Romans. All Southern Italy, except the Latin colonies and the Greek cities on the coast, went over to Hannibal. 57 luxurious and effeminate habits, Macedonia, and earnestly urged are said to have injured his Hasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenant CHAPTER XV THE soldiers. But Hannibal's in Spain, to come to his SECOND PUNIC WAR- superiority as a general is assistance. He hoped, with this FROM CANNAE TO THE unquestionable, and his want of army from the north, with BATTLE OF ZAMA (216- success after this was due to supplies and reinforcements from insufficient aid from home, and to Carthage, and with such troops 202) the fact that the resources of as he might obtain from Rome were greater than those of Macedonia, to concentrate a Carthage. The Latin allies of large force at Rome and compel ROME was appalled; but though Rome had remained true to their her into submission. defeated, she was not subdued. allegiance, and only one city of All the Latin allies were importance was under his The Romans, realizing the summoned for aid in the common control. It was an easy matter to position of Hannibal, kept what peril. Boys and old men alike conquer the enemy in open forces they could spare in Spain, took up arms even the slaves battle, but to support his own under the two Scipio brothers, were promised freedom if they army was more difficult, for all Publius and Gnaeus. With these would join the ranks. Italy had been devastated. On they hoped to stop the other hand, the Romans were reinforcements from reaching the Hannibal marched from Cannae well supplied with food from their enemy from that quarter. At the into Campania. He induced possessions in Sicily. same time their army in Northern Capua, the second city of Italy, to Greece effectually engaged the side with him. But his Hannibal saw, therefore, that attention of . Thus two expectations that other cities more active measures than those years (214-212) passed without would follow her example were already employed were any material change in the not fulfilled. He went into winter necessary. He sent to Carthage situation of affairs in Italy. quarters here (215-214). The an appeal for aid. He formed an Capuans, notorious for their alliance with Philip V. of In 212, while the Carthaginians 58 were in the extreme south of was removed to Lucania and Such was the fate of this famous Italy, besieging Tarentum, the Bruttium. The punishment city. Founded in as early times Romans made strenuous efforts inflicted upon Capua was severe. as Rome itself, it became the to recover Campania, and Seventy of her Senators were most flourishing city of Magna especially Capua. Hannibal, killed, three hundred of her chief Graecia, renowned for its luxury learning the danger, marched citizens imprisoned, and the and refinement, and as the home rapidly north, and failing to break whole people sold as slaves. of all the highest arts and culture. through the lines which enclosed The city and its territory were the city, resolved to advance on declared to be Roman territory, Rome itself. and the place was afterwards AFFAIRS IN SICILY repeopled by Roman occupants. Silently and quickly he marched along the Via Latino through the HIERO II, of Syracuse, heart of the territory of Rome, to died in 216. During his long within three miles of the city, and reign of more than fifty years he with his vanguard he even rode had been the stanch friend and up to one of the city gates. But ally of Rome in her struggles with no ally joined him; no Roman Carthage. Hieronymus, the force was recalled to face him; grandson and successor of no proposals of peace reached Hiero, thought fit to ally himself his camp. Impressed by the with Carthage. The young tyrant, unmoved confidence of the who was arrogant and cruel, was enemy, he withdrew as quickly assassinated after reigning a few as he came, and retreated to his months. headquarters in the South. Map showing Capua south-east The Roman Governor of Sicily, Capua fell in 211, and the seat of of Rome MARCELLUS, troubled by the war, to the great relief of Rome, Carthaginian faction in Syracuse, 59 threatened the city with an attack close of the siege by a Roman Carthaginians under HANNO and unless the leaders of this faction soldier, who would have spared HASDRUBAL. The greatest of were expelled. In return, they his life had he not been too intent these was fought in 215 at Ibera, endeavored to arouse the on a mathematical problem to the location of which is uncertain. citizens of the neighboring city of comply with the summons to Spain was gradually being Leontini against Rome and the surrender. On his tombstone, it gained over to Rome, when the Roman party in Syracuse. is said, was engraved a cylinder Carthaginians, making desperate Marcellus at once attacked and enclosing a sphere.] to defeat the efforts, sent large reinforcements stormed Leontini. The movements of the Romans. The there (212). The armies of the Syracusans then closed their city city was finally betrayed by a Scipios were separated, gates against him. A siege of Spanish officer, and given up to surprised, and overwhelmed. two years (214-212) followed, plunder. The art treasures in Both their leaders were slain, and famous for the various devices which it was so rich were Spain was lost to Rome. adopted by the noted conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. mathematician ARCHIMÉDES From this time (212) the city Unless checked, the [Note: Archimédes was a great became a part of the province of Carthaginians would now cross investigator in the science of Sicily and the headquarters of the Alps, enter Italy, and, joining mathematics. He discovered the the Roman Governor. forces with Hannibal, place ratio of a sphere to its Rome in great danger. PUBLIUS circumscribed cylinder. One of CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one his famous sayings was, "Give THE CAMPAIGNS IN of the slain generals, then but me where to stand, and I will SPAIN twenty-four years of age, offered move the world." He exerted his to go to Spain and take ingenuity in the invention of command. He had previously powerful machines for the PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, made himself very popular as defence of Syracuse. Eight of with his brother, GNAEUS Aedile, and was unanimously his works on mathematics are in CORNELIUS SCIPIO CALVUS, elected to the command. On his existence. He was killed at the were winning victories over the arrival in Spain in 210, he found 60 the whole country west of the spent the winter (209-208) in intended to become a candidate Ebro under the enemy's control. Gaul. for the consulship.

Fortunately for the Romans, the The two Carthaginian generals three Carthaginian generals, now in Spain, Mago, and OPERATIONS IN ITALY HASDRUBAL and MAGO, Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, brothers of Hannibal, and retired, the latter to , the HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did former to the Baleares, to wait for The news of the approach of not act in harmony. Thus Scipio reinforcements from home. Hasdrubal caused intense was enabled, in the following anxiety at Rome. Every nerve spring (209), to capture Carthago The next year another battle was was strained to prevent the union Nova, the head-quarters of the fought near Baecula, resulting in of the two brothers. The Consuls enemy. A good harbor was the total defeat of the for this year (207) were GAIUS gained, and eighteen ships of Carthaginians, who retreated to CLAUDIUS , a patrician, war, sixty-three transports, Gadus, in the southwestern part and MARCUS LIVIUS, a $600,000, and 10,000 captives of Spain. plebeian. To the former was fell into the hands of the intrusted the task of keeping Romans. The country being now (206) Hannibal in check in Bruttium, under Roman influence, Scipio while the duty of intercepting Shortly after, Scipio fought crossed the straits to Africa, and Hasdrubal was given to the latter. Hasdrubal, the brother of visited the Numidian princes, Hannibal, at BAECULAE, in the SYPHAX and , The Carthaginian had already upper valley of the Baetis whom he hoped to stir up against reached the neighborhood of the (Guadalquivir); but the battle was Carthage. On his return, after river Metaurus, a small stream not decisive, for Hasdrubal was quelling a mutiny of the soldiers, south of the Rubicon. From here soon seen crossing the who were dissatisfied about their he sent messengers to inform his Pyrenees, with a considerable pay, he resigned his command, brother of his approach and force, on his way to Italy. He and started for Rome, where he proposed line of march. These 61 messengers were captured by INVASION OF AFRICA Spain. Syphax, however, sided Nero, and the contents of their with Carthage; but in 203 Scipio despatches learned. He at once twice defeated him and the pushed north with his forces, Scipio, on his return from Spain, Carthaginian forces. joined Livius, met Hasdrubal on urged an immediate invasion of the METAURUS early in 207, Africa. He was elected Consul in Negotiations for peace followed, and defeated his army with great 205, receiving Sicily as his but the war party in Carthage slaughter. Among the slain was province, with permission to prevailed. Hannibal was Hasdrubal himself. Nero cross into Africa if it seemed to recalled. He returned to fight his returned south without delay, and him wise. He was so popular last battle with Rome, October the first intimation that Hannibal that voluntary contributions of 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short had of this battle was the sight of men, money, and supplies distance west of Carthage. The his brother's head thrown into the poured in from all sides. The old- issue was decided by the valor of camp by the victorious foe. fashioned aristocracy, however, the Roman legions, who loved did not like him, as his taste for their commander and trusted his The war in Italy was now virtually splendid living and Greek culture skill. Hannibal met his first and ended, for, although during four was particularly offensive to only defeat, and Scipio won his years more Hannibal stood at them; and a party in the Senate of AFRICÁNUS. The battle bay in a corner of Bruttium, he would have recalled him, had not was a hard one. After all the was powerless to prevent the the popular enthusiasm in his newly enrolled troops of Hannibal restoration of Roman authority favor been too strong to be had been killed or put to flight, throughout Italy. Nothing now resisted. his veterans, who had remained remained to Carthage outside of by him in Italy, although Africa, except the ground on In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, surrounded on all sides by forces which Hannibal was making his and landed near Utica. He was far outnumbering their own, last stand. welcomed by Masinissa, whose fought on, and were killed one by friendship he had gained in his one around their beloved chief. previous visit to Africa from The army was fairly annihilated. 62 Hannibal, with only a handful, managed to escape to Such was the result of the Hadrumétum. seventeen years' struggle. Scipio was welcomed home, and The battle of Zama decided the surnamed AFRICANUS. He fate of the West. The power of enjoyed a triumph never before Carthage was broken, and her equalled. His statue was placed, supremacy passed to Rome. in triumphal robes and crowned She was allowed to retain her with laurels, in the Capitol. Many own territory intact, but all her honors were thrust upon him, war-ships, except ten, were given which he had the sense to up, and her prisoners restored; refuse. He lived quietly for some an annual tax of about $200,000, years, taking no part in politics. for fifty years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, and she could carry on no war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa was rewarded by an increase in territory, and was enrolled among the "allies and friends of the ."

Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a great Mediterranean power. Spain was divided into two provinces, and the north of Africa was under her protection. 63 which enjoyed a semi- of the Macedonian and Syrian independence. Under kings, sought the protection of CHAPTER XVI ROME IN incompetent rulers, she saw Rome. THE EAST portion after portion of her dominions fall from her. Thus The punishment of the Illyrican arose Pergamus, Pontus, pirates in 228 brought Rome into Cappadocia, and Phrygia. closer relations with Greece. ROME was now in a position to These connections had been add new nations to her list of MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip sufficient to open the Eastern subjects. The kingdoms of the V., and included also a large ports to her trade, but her East which formerly composed a portion of Northern Greece. struggle with Carthage had left part of the vast empire of her no time or strength to Alexander the Great, and which GREECE proper was divided interfere actively in Eastern finally went to swell the limits of between the ACHAEAN and politics, until she was forced to Roman authority, were Egypt, AETOLIAN LEAGUES, the take action by the alliance of Syria, Macedonia, and Greece former including the most of the Philip V of Macedonia and proper. Peloponnesus, the latter the Hannibal, and by the former's

greater part of Central Greece. threatened invasion of Italy in EGYPT was governed by the 214. A small force was sent into Ptolemies, and included at this Ever since the repulse of Greece, which was soon largely time the valley of the Nile, Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly increased by the dissatisfied Palestine, Phoenicia, the island drifting into closer contact with subjects of Philip. of Cyprus, and a number of the East. She formed an alliance towns in . with Egypt in 273. From this The only object of Rome in the

country had come in part her (214-205) SYRIA, extending from the supply of corn during the Second was to prevent Philip from Mediterranean to the Indus, was Punic War. In 205, Ptolemy V lending aid to Hannibal; and in composed of various nations became king, and, through fear this she was partially successful. 64 None of the Macedonian troops peace. barbarity that the people rose entered Italy, but four thousand against him; and from a similar of them were at Zama. Some of Philip's soldiers had cause Greece was driven to seek been captured at Zama. He alliances which would protect her demanded their return. The against him. answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could have it. Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were There were several other induced to vote for one, on the reasons which led to the representation that the only Philip V of Macedonia, 238-179 means of preventing an invasion B.C. (200-197). Philip had agreed of Italy was to carry the war with ANTIOCHUS III, king of abroad. The military operations of this Syria, to attempt with him the war were of slight importance. division of Egypt, since it seemed This year (200) the Consul, Marcus Valerius Laevinus was probable that the young king, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed Epiphanes (Ptolemy V), who was sent with a considerable force the king so hard that he was only four years old, would not be across the Adriatic. His obliged to burn the fleet in which able to make an effectual campaign, and that of the Consul he intended to sail for Italy. resistance. The ministers of Villius during the next year, were Philip was at this time at war with Egypt sought the protection of productive of no decisive results, . Laevinus assisted the Rome. On their journey, the but in 198 the Consul TITUS Aetolians, and the king was too Roman envoys sent to assume QUINCTIUS FLAMINÍNUS, a fully occupied at home to think of the office of protectorship man of different calibre, operations farther away. But in remonstrated with Philip. conducted the war with vigor. He 205, the Romans, wishing to defeated Philip on the Aóus, concentrate their energies upon In Asia Minor Philip had drove him back to the pass of the invasion of Africa, made conducted himself with such Tempe, and the next year utterly 65 defeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE. The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of The king had drawn up his forces Greece" was proclaimed to the in two divisions. With the first he enthusiastic crowds, and two broke through the line of the years later Flamininus withdrew legions, which, however, closed his troops from the so called in around him with but little loss. "three fetters of Greece,"— The other division was attacked , , and by the Romans, while it was Corinth,—and, urging the Greeks forming, and thoroughly to show themselves worthy of the discomfited. The victory of the gift of the Roman people, he Romans was decisive. returned home to enjoy a well earned triumph. About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH The chief result of the second from Philip, and the Rhodians Macedonian war was, therefore, defeated his troops in Caria. the firm establishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE Further resistance was OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. impossible. Philip was left in The wedge had been entered possession of Macedonia alone; and the interference of Rome in he was deprived of all his Eastern affairs was assured. dependencies in Greece, Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, to wage war without Rome's consent. 66 pleasure, the power behind his Thermopylae drove back the throne was HANNIBAL. This intruder, who hastily retired to CHAPTER XVII THE great soldier, after his defeat at Asia Minor. The Aetolians were SYRIAN WAR Zama, did not relinquish the aim punished for their infidelity. of his life. He became the chief magistrate of his native city, and In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS in a short time cleared the moral SCIPIO was elected Consul, and Antiochus III of Syria, who had atmosphere, which was charged put in command of the army in proposed to share Egypt with with corruption and depravity. the East, with the understanding Philip, had been engaged for Under him Carthage might have that he should be accompanied some time in a campaign in the risen again. But his intrigues by his brother Africanus, and East, and did not hear of his with Antiochus, with whom he have the benefit of his military ally's danger until too late to aid wished to make an alliance, gave skill and experience. Under his him. However, he claimed for Rome an opportunity to interfere. command, the Romans crossed himself portions of Asia Minor His surrender was demanded. the Hellespont and sought and Thrace, which Philip had He fled, and, after wandering Antiochus in his own kingdom. previously held, and which Rome from coast to coast, became the now declared free and trusted adviser of the Syrian king. Hannibal could do nothing with independent. He crossed the the poorly disciplined troops of Hellespont into Thrace in 196, Had Antiochus been energetic the king. They were met by the but did not dare to enter Greece, after his arrival in Greece, he invading forces at MAGNESIA, in although earnestly urged to do so could have accomplished Lydia, in 190, and 80,000 by the Aetolians, until after something before the Roman Asiatics were put to rout by Flamininus had withdrawn all his troops came. But he disregarded 30,000 Romans, 50,000 being troops (192). the warnings of Hannibal, and slain. The loss of the victors was

spent valuable time in minor slight. Antiochus was no general. matters. The Romans arrived in Himself irresolute and fond of 191, and under Glabrio at On that day the fate of Asia was 67 sealed. Antiochus relinquished assimilated to their neighbors. the ascendency. Asiaticus was all pretensions to any territory This war is noticeable chiefly for accused of misappropriating west of the river Halys and the the reason that Manlius funds obtained during his Taurus mountains. His chariots, undertook it without the authority campaign in the East. As he was elephants, fleet, and treasures of the Senate, the first instance about to produce his account- were all surrendered. of its kind, and a precedent which books before the Senate, his was too frequently followed in brother, Africanus, seized them, Scipio returned home to enjoy a later times. On his return to tore them to pieces, and threw triumph, and added ASIATICUS Rome he was allowed a triumph, the remnants on the floor. to his name, as his brother had which stamped his act as legal. Asiaticus, however, was taken that of Africanus in sentenced to pay a fine. When it commemoration of his victory. These wars in the East brought was afterwards intimated that his to Rome immense riches, which brother too was implicated, he Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded laid the foundation of its Oriental proudly reminded his enemies Scipio in the East. He made a extravagance and luxury, and that their insinuations were ill- campaign against the Gauls, who finally undermined the strength of timed, for it was the anniversary had settled in Galatia about a the state. From Greece were of Zama. This remark changed century before, and had become introduced learning and the tide of feeling, and no more wealthy by means of constant refinement, from Asia immorality charges were made. plunderings. The excuse for the and effeminacy. The vigor and campaign was, that they had tone of Roman society are Two years later (183), Africanus served in the Syrian army; the nowhere more forcibly shown died in voluntary exile at reason was, their wealth, and the than in the length of time it took , on the coast of ambition of the Consul for glory. for its subjugation by these Campania. He had lived little ruinous exotics. more than fifty years. His wife, The Galatians were easily Aemilia, was the daughter of overcome, their wealth seized, Meanwhile, at Rome the political Paullus, who fell at Cannae, and and they themselves became enemies of the Scipios were in the sister of him who afterwards 68 conquered Perseus of not so courted at Rome as in . [Note: See Macedonia. His daughter, later days. , page 145.] CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famous Hannibal, after the defeat of . Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans, but, escaping, took Next to Caesar, Scipio was refuge in , and Rome's greatest general. During subsequently with Prusias, King the campaign in the East, he met of Bithynia. His surrender was Hannibal at the court of demanded, and troops were sent Hannibal, 247-183 B.C. Antiochus. In the conversation to arrest him. Seeing no way of Hannibal is reported to have said escape, he opened the bead on that he considered Alexander the his ring and swallowed the greatest general, Pyrrhus next, poison which it contained (183). and, had he himself conquered Scipio, he would have placed Thus died one of the greatest of himself before either. commanders, without attaining the aim of his life. He had lived Scipio lived to see Rome grow but fifty-four years, yet his life from an Italian power to be was so marked that people have practically the mistress of the ever since looked with wonder world. He was of marked upon the tremendous magnitude intellectual culture, and as of what he undertook, and came conversant with Greek as with so near accomplishing. his mother tongue. He possessed a charm which made This same year is also him popular at a time when the memorable for the death of "the culture and arts of Greece were last of the Greeks," 69 and was succeeded by his son as CURULE AEDILE, in 192, he PERSEUS. prosecuted persons who had CHAPTER XVIII made an illegal use of the public CONQUEST OF The new king was as able as his pastures. He was sent to Ulterior MACEDONIA AND father, and more impatient of Spain in 191 as governor, where, GREECE (I71-146) subjection. He made friends with after some reverses, he put down the surrounding princes, formed all insurrections. He was Consul a marriage connection with in 182, and did good work in Antiochus IV of Syria, and strove conquering a tribe of marauders Although Philip had aided the to arouse among the Greeks in Liguria. For this he was Romans in their campaign memories of their former allowed a triumph. against Antiochus, he did not greatness. receive from them the expected He was elected Consul a second reward in additions to his The Senate, hearing of his time in 168, and sent against territory. Immediate resistance numerous intrigues, determined Perseus. The war was brought would be futile; but he labored to check him. War was declared to a speedy end by the battle of patiently and quietly to increase in 171; but the forces sent by PYDNA, on the Thermáic Gulf, his resources, and to stir up Rome were at first led by . The king fled to among the neighboring Greeks incompetent men, and nothing Samothráce with his treasures hostile feeling towards Rome. was accomplished until LICIUS and family. He was shortly He placed his army on the best AEMILIUS PAULLUS was made afterwards captured, but was footing possible, and soon began Consul, and took charge of the treated with kindness by the to enlarge his boundaries. war in 168. Consul. Complaints were made to Rome, and the king was compelled to Paullus (229-160) was the son of Paullus now travelled through give up his conquests, and the Consul of the same name Greece. Later, assisted by confine himself to the limits of who was killed at Cannae. His commissioners, he arranged the Macedonia. In 179 Philip died, integrity was first shown when, affairs of Macedonia. The 70 country was divided into four from the various peoples he had became a great friend of the small republics, independent of conquered. younger Africánus, whom he each other, but prohibited from accompanied to the siege of intermarriage and commerce with Perseus spent his last days in Carthage. one another. confinement near Rome, enduring, it is alleged, base and Like Macedonia, Greece was On his return to Rome in 167, he cruel treatment. He was the last separated into parts, enjoyed a triumph, which was king of Macedonia. independent of each other, with graced by Perseus and his three no rights of connubium or children. He was Censor in 164, commercium. Utter and died four years later. demoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive Paullus had two sons by his first to all alliances liable to shake the wife. The elder of these was authority of Rome. adopted by Fabius Maximus Cunctátor, the younger by the Trouble again arose in son of Africánus the elder, his Perseus, last king of Macedonia Macedonia twenty years after brother-in-law. He was of the Pydna, culminating in what is "blue" blood of Rome, of perfect After the victory at Pydna, the sometimes called the FOURTH honesty, and very popular, a sympathy shown in Greece for MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). good general, but somewhat the conquered monarch made Under the leadership of superstitious. A patron of the Romans more watchful of her , who claimed to be learning and the fine arts, he interests there. All suspected to a son of Perseus, the people gave his sons the best training be enemies were removed as rebelled against the protection of under Greek masters. A strong hostages to Italy, and among Rome. They were twice proof of his popularity is the fact these was the historian defeated in 148 by the praetor that his body was carried to its . He lived in Rome QUINTUS CAECILIUS last resting place by volunteers for more than twenty years, and METELLUS, who gained the 71 agnomen of MACEDONICUS. was marked by special cruelties. The country was made a Roman The city was burned to the province, with a Roman ground; beautiful pictures and magistrate at its head. costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Gold in abundance At this time the Achaeans were was carried to Rome. The last quarrelling with . Metellus vestige of Greek liberty vanished. warned them to desist, and when The country became a Roman the Achaeans advanced against province under the name of him, he easily defeated them ACHAIA. near SCARPHEIA. Corinth, the "eye of all Greece," Metellus was a moderate remained in ruins for a century, reformer and a model man. He when it was rebuilt in 46 by Julius belonged to an illustrious Caesar, who planted on its site a plebeian gens, the Caecilian. colony of veterans and freedmen. Before his death in 115 three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth was a candidate for the consulship.

Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harsh leader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH. The Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146 72 prosperity of the city, and from hearted, they sent ambassadors that time never ceased to urge its to Rome. The answer given CHAPTER XIX THE destruction. The embassy did them was obscure. They were THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND not reach any decision, but requested to make reparation to FALL OF CARTHAGE allowed matters to go on as they Rome, and at the same time they might. Finally, when some were assured that nothing should sympathizers with Masinissa be undertaken against Carthage were banished from the city, he herself. But in 149 the Consuls Fifty years had passed since attacked and defeated the crossed with a large army into Zama. It was a period of great Carthaginians, compelled their Sicily, where the troops were commercial prosperity for army to pass under the yoke, and organized, and Carthaginian Carthage, but her government afterwards treacherously ambassadors were expected. was weakened by the quarrels of destroyed it (150). Carthage was conflicting factions. compelled to give up some of her When they appeared, the territory, and pay $5,000,000 Consuls declared that the Senate MASINISSA, King of , an indemnity. did not wish to encroach upon ally of the Romans, was a the freedom of the people, but continual source of annoyance to After this victory, matters came to only desired some security; for Carthage. He made inroads a crisis. The city must be this purpose it demanded that, upon her territory, and, as she disciplined for warring with an within thirty days, three hundred was bound by her treaty not to ally of Rome. Cato never failed children of the noblest families war upon any allies of Rome, her to close any speech he might should be delivered into their only recourse was to complain to make in the Senate with the hands as hostages. This the Senate. In 157 an embassy same cruel words, Delenda est demand was met. The Romans was sent to inquire into the Carthago, "Carthage must be then coolly crossed over to troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS destroyed." The people of Africa, and informed the CATO, the chief of the embassy, Carthage were called to account. Carthaginians that they were was especially alarmed at the Desponding and broken- ready to treat with them on any 73 question not previously settled. PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO The Romans, who expected to AFRICÁNUS, the Younger, was When the ambassadors again find a defenceless population, elected Consul while but thirty- appeared before the Consuls, imagined that the storming of the seven (under the legal age), for they were told that Carthage place would be an easy matter. the express purpose of giving must deliver over all her arms But despair had suggested to the him charge of the siege. After and artillery; for, they said, as Carthaginians means of defence two years of desperate fighting Rome was able to protect her, in every direction. All assaults and splendid heroism on the part there was no need of Carthage were repelled. Everybody was of the defenders, the famished possessing arms. Hard as was engaged day and night in the garrison could hold out no longer. this command, it was obeyed. manufacture of arms. Nothing They were then told that can be more heartrending than Carthage fell in 146, and the Carthage had indeed shown her this last struggle of despair. ruins of the city burned for good will, but that Rome had no Every man and every woman seventeen days. The destruction control over the city so long as it labored to the uttermost for the was complete. A part of her was fortified. The preservation of defence of the city with a furious territory was given to Numidia. peace, therefore, required that enthusiasm. The rest was made a Roman the people should quit the city, province, and called AFRICA. give up their navy, and build a new town without walls at a The year 149 saw the death of distance of ten miles from the two men who had been sea. The indignation and fury Carthage's most bitter enemies, which this demand excited were but who were not allowed to see intense. The gates were her downfall,— MASINISSA and instantly closed, and all the CATO, the one aged ninety, the Romans and Italians who Masinissa, ruler of Namidia other eighty-five. happened to be within the city were massacred. Two years after the siege began, Masinissa's (239-149) hostility 74 dates from the time he failed to capacity as Censor, he acted get the promised hand of with extreme rigor. He zealously Hasdrubal's daughter, asserted old-fashioned , who was given to principles, and opposed the his rival, Syphax. After the battle growing tendency to luxury. All of Zama, most of the innovations were in his eyes little possessions of Syphax fell to less than crimes. He was the Masinissa, and among them this author of several works, one of same Sophonisba, whom he which, a treatise on agriculture, married. Scipio, however, has been preserved. fearing her influence over him, demanded her as a Roman captive, whereupon she took poison. Masinissa was a courageous prince, but a convenient tool for the Romans.

CATO THE ELDER (Major), (234-149,) whose long public career was a constant struggle with the enemies of the state Cato the Elder, the Censor, 234- abroad, and with the fashions of 149 B.C. his countrymen at home, was a type of the old Roman character, Cicero's "Cato Major" represents with a stern sense of duty that him in his eighty-fourth year forbade his neglecting the discoursing about old age with interests of state, farm, or Africánus the younger, and household. In 184, in his Laelius, a friend of the latter. 75 tribes was the CELTIBÉRI, who classes lands on favorable occupied the interior of the conditions, and did much to CHAPTER XX ROME peninsula. They were always produce contentment among the AND SPAIN-THE uncertain and intractable, natives. But farther west, in the NUMANTINE AND continually breaking out into valleys of the Douro and Tagus, SERVILE WARS (206- revolt. In 195, Cato the elder put and in Lusitania (Portugal), there down a rebellion led by them. He seems to have been constant 132) established more firmly the warfare. Roman power east of the Ibérus. He disarmed the inhabitants of In 154, MUMMIUS, the same Africanus the elder left Spain in this part of Spain, and compelled who eight years later sacked 206. After a provincial all from the Pyrenees to the Corinth, was Governor of Farther government of nine years (206- Guadalquivir to pull down their Spain. His defeat by the 197), the country was divided fortifications. encouraged the into two provinces, separated by Celtibéri to revolt again, and the IBÉRUS (Ebro), and each Still the smouldering fires of there followed another defeat, province was assigned to a rebellion were not extinguished, with a massacre of many Roman praetor. It was some time, for, sixteen years later (179), we citizens. Two years later (152), however, before Spain was really find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS brought into a state of complete GRACCHUS, the father of the avenged these losses, founded peace and order. The mountains famous Gracchi, as Governor of Corduba, and governed the and forests were a formidable Spain, fighting the troublesome country humanely. His obstacle to the Roman legions, Celtibéri. He captured over one successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and favored guerilla warfare, hundred of their towns, but and SERVIUS GALBA, were so which makes conquest slow and tempered his victories with cruel and grasping as to drive the laborious. moderate measures, showing Lusitanians into another open himself greater in peace than in rebellion, headed by The most warlike of the Spanish war. He granted to the poorer VIRIÁTHUS, a bold and daring 76 bandit. During seven years (147- THE NUMANTINE WAR which was never lost. The 140) he defeated again and country now, with the exception again the armies sent against (143-133) of its northern coast, was him. The Celtibéri joined his nominally Roman territory. standards, and Spain seemed The Celtibéri, however, were still Several towns were established likely to slip from the Romans. in arms. The strong city of with Latin municipal rights The only check to these NUMANTIA, the capital of one of (municipia), and, on the whole, successes was during the their tribes, witnessed more than order was maintained. Along the command of METELLUS one defeat of a coast of the Mediterranean there MACEDONICUS (143); when he before its walls (141-140). sprang up many thriving and was recalled, matters returned to Finally Rome sent out her best populous towns, which became their former condition. general, Africanus the younger. centres of civilization to the neighboring districts, and were In 140, the Consul Mancínus was After devoting several months to treated by Rome rather as allies obliged to capitulate, and, to the disciplining of his troops, he than as subjects. Some of them save himself and his army, made began (134) a regular siege of were allowed to coin the silver a treaty which the Senate the place. It was defended with money of Rome. The civilizing refused to sanction. the utmost bravery and tenacity, process, due to Roman until, forced by the last extreme influence, went on rapidly in Viriáthus was finally (139) of famine, it surrendered (133). these parts, while the interior assassinated by persons hired by The inhabitants were sold as remained in barbarism. the Consul Caepio; his people slaves, and the town was levelled were then subdued, and the to the ground. The victor was In 105 the peninsula was overrun government was ably conducted honored with the title of by the Cimbri, a barbarous race (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS NUMANTÍNUS. from the north. The country was BRUTUS. ravaged, but finally saved by the The fall of Numantia gave Rome brave Celtibéri, who forced the a hold upon the interior of Spain, invaders back into Gaul. 77 prophet. A number of defeats were suffered by the Roman THE SERVILE WAR (134- armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS 132) RUTILIUS captured the strongholds of the slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and While the Numantine war was thus closed the war. For his still in progress, a war with the success he was allowed an slaves broke out in Sicily, where ovation. they had been treated with special barbarity.

For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that of freemen. The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by the regular slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea and Greece. The owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy.

The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of a wealthy slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS, who pretended to be a Syrian 78 settled by a DECREE OF THE the descendants of the original SENATE (). founders of the city. The nobles CHAPTER XXI To be sure the Comitia declared were the descendants of any one INTERNAL HISTORY— for war or peace, but the Senate who had filled one of the THE GRACCHI conducted the war and settled following six curule offices, viz. the conditions of peace. It also Dictator, Magister Equitum, usually assigned the commands, Consul, Interrex, Praetor, or organized the provinces, and Curule Aedile. These nobles We have seen how the long managed the finances. possessed the right to place in struggle between the patricians their hall, or carry in funeral and plebeians terminated in a The causes for this ascendency processions, a wax mask of this nominal victory for the latter. of the Senate are not hard to ancestor, and also of any other From about 275, the outward find. It was a body made up of member of the family who had form of the old constitution had men capable of conducting held a curule office. undergone little change. It was affairs. It could be convened at nominally that of a "moderate any time, whereas the voters of A plebeian who first held this democracy." The Senate and the Comitias were scattered over office was called a novus homo, offices of state were, in law, open all Italy, and, if assembled, would or "new man." to all alike. In practice, however, not be competent to decide the constitution became an questions demanding knowledge The Senate, thus made up of oligarchy. The Senate, not the of military matters and foreign patricians and nobles, had at this Comitias, ruled Rome. policy. time the monopoly of power. Moreover, the Senate was Legally, however, it had no controlled by a class who The Senate and the Roman positive authority. The right of claimed all the privileges of a nobility were in the main the the people to govern was still nobility. The Comitias were same. All patricians were valid, and there was only wanting rarely called upon to decide a nobles, but all nobles were not a magistrate with the courage to question. Most matters were patricians. The patricians were remind them of their legal rights, 79 and urge the exercise of them. Africánus the younger. The return home he passed through sons, TIBERIUS and GAIUS, Tuscany where he was Such a magistrate was found in grew up under the care of their astonished to see large tracts of TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS noble and gifted mother, who the ager publicus (see Chapter GRACCHUS. With him was was left a widow when they were VII.) cultivated by slave gangs, ushered in the contest which mere boys. while the free poor citizens of the lasted for more than a century, Republic were wandering in and brought to the surface some towns without employment, and of the proudest names of Roman deprived of the land which, history. On one side or the other according to law (see the Licinian we find them,—MARIUS and Rogations), should have been SULLA, CAESAR and POMPEY, divided among them, and not AUGUSTUS and ANTONY— held in large quantities by the arraying Rome against herself, rich land-owners. until the glories of the Republic Tuscan fields and farm were swallowed up in the misrule Tiberius determined to rectify this and dishonor of the Empire. Tiberius (164-133) entered the wrong. In 133 he offered himself army, and served under his as candidate for the tribuneship, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus brother-in- law during the third and was elected. He then began the elder (see Chapter XX) Punic war. Ten years later (136) boldly the battle for the belonged to the nobility, but not he was Quaestor in Spain, where commons. He proposed to to the aristocracy. He married he won the affections of the revise the Agrarian Law, now a CORNELIA, the daughter of people by adhering to the mild dead letter, which forbade the Africánus the elder. They had policy which his father had holding of more than 320 acres twelve children, of whom all but previously followed. His popular of the ager publicus by one three died young. Two sons and measures here displeased his individual. Occupants who had a daughter lived to maturity. The brother-in-law, and he ceased to fenced this land and improved it daughter, SEMPRONIA, married be a favorite with him. On his were to be compensated 80 therefore. violate this rule, and offered patricians were compelled to himself as candidate for the next vacate. But the commissioners The wealthy classes and the year. The election day came, became unpopular, for those who Senate at once took sides and when it became evident that received lands were not always against Tiberius, and the struggle he would be re-elected, the satisfied, and those who were began. One of the other aristocrats, who had turned out in obliged to leave them were Tribunes, OCTAVIUS CAECÍNA, full force on the Campus Martius enraged. The commissioners who was himself a large land- with their retinues of armed were suspended, and the law owner, taking advantage of his slaves and clients, raised a riot, repealed. authority as Tribune, interposed and, killing Gracchus with three his veto to prevent a vote upon hundred of his followers, threw the question. their bodies into the Tiber (133). Thus was shed the first blood of Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the civil struggle. The mob was the justice of his cause, obtained, led by SCIPIO NASÍCA, the contrary to all precedent, the uncle of Tiberius. Africánus, removal of his colleague from when he heard of the murder of , built on part of office, and passed his Agrarian his brother-in-law, exclaimed, the Central Campus Martius Law. Three commissioners were "Justly slain." appointed, himself, his brother, The mantle of Tiberius fell on and his father-in-law, APPIUS The agrarian law, however, GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time CLAUDIUS, to carry it into effect. which had passed, was too after his brother's death he evidently just to be openly retired from politics, and served It was contrary to the law that a ignored. The remaining two in the army in Africa and person should hold the office of commissioners continued their Sardinia, where he was Tribune for two successive years. work, until, within two years, Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, But Gracchus, in his desire to 40,000 families were settled on and justice made him justly carry out his plans, determined to tracts of the public land which the 81 popular, but caused him to be The transferring of the juries to without trial, unless the state was regarded with suspicion at Rome. the made Gaius for a held to be in danger. In 123 he was elected Tribune, time very powerful. He caused and twice re-elected. He revived another law to be passed, to the Nearly all Roman writers unite in his brother's agrarian law, and effect that no Roman citizen attacking the reputation of the became at once the avowed should be put to death without Gracchi; but viewed in the light of enemy of the Senate. As a legal trial and an appeal to the to-day their characters were means of increasing his assembly of the people. noble, and their virtues too popularity, he endeavored to conspicuous to be obscured. admit all the Italians to the But the plan of Gaius to extend privileges of , the franchise to all the Italians A few years previous to this, the and to limit the price of bread. ruined his popularity. The younger Africánus died (129). Roman citizens had no desire to His remark about the death of Gains gained the favor of the share their rights with the Tiberius Gracchus gave dire Equites (Knights), the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots offence to the popular party, and commercial class, by carrying again broke out, as ten years a few days later he was found through the assembly a law by before. The aristocracy again dead in his bed, probably "a which all judicial functions were armed itself. Gaius with 3,000 of victim of political assassination." taken from the Senate and his friends was murdered in 121, intrusted to the Knights. and the Senate was once more Africánus was a man of Heretofore all civil and criminal master of the situation. refinement and culture, a warm cases of importance had been friend of scholars, a patron of the tried before a jury chosen from However, the results obtained by Greek historian POLYBIUS, and the Senate. These juries were the Gracchi still remained. Forty of the poets LUCILIUS and often venal and corrupt, and it thousand peasants had been TERENCE. He was opposed to was a notorious fact that their settled on public land. The jury the tendency of his age towards verdicts could be bought. law was in force. No Roman luxury and extravagance. He citizen could be put to death was an , as well as a 82 general. The one blot on his career is the terrible destruction of Carthage, which he possibly might have averted had he shown firm opposition to it.

SCIPIO NASÍCA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, though , to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia.

The Forum at the Time of Marius. The Senate and Assembly (circular)

83 Pamphylia. It was made a the whole kingdom, and attacked province under the name of his other cousin, Adherbal, who CHAPTER XXII ASIA. appealed to Rome. EXTERNAL HISTORY— Commissioners were sent to PERGAMUM— investigate. They were bought JUGURTHINE WAR (118- THE WAR WITH off by Jugurtha, and returned JUGURTHA home without accomplishing 104) anything. Adherbal was afterwards captured, savagely After the destruction of Carthage, tortured, and finally killed. Pergamum was an ancient city of the most important kingdom in on the Caícus, fifteen Africa was NUMIDIA. It The Senate, compelled by the miles from the sea. It first contained a number of flourishing popular indignation to make an became important after the death towns, which were centres of a investigation, moved so slowly of Alexander. Its first king, considerable commerce. that some of its members were (241-197), added a Masinissa left this kingdom to his accused of accepting bribes. large territory to the city. He was son Micipsa. The latter had two War was declared at last, but the an ally of the Romans, and his sons and a nephew, campaign languished, and peace successors remained their firm JUGURTHA. The nephew was a was soon made on such easy friends. The city became one of brilliant young man, who had terms for the prince that it was the most prosperous and famous served under Scipio in the evident his money had again in Asia Minor, noted for its Numantine war, and returned to been freely used. The architectural monuments, its fine Africa covered with honors. He scandalous transaction was library, and its schools. Attalus was named joint heir with his denounced at Rome by the III, at his death in 133, cousins to the kingdom of Tribune MEMMIUS. Jugurtha bequeathed to Rome his Numidia. Micipsa dying soon then repaired to the city in kingdom, which included Lydia, after, Jugurtha murdered one of person, and bought up all the Pisidia, Lycaonia, and his cousins, Hiempsal, claimed authorities except Memmius, 84 whom he found incorruptible. He family of the Caesars. By this had another cousin in the city, marriage with , the aunt of whom he caused to be Julius Caesar, he became a murdered. After this the Senate person of social distinction. ordered him to leave, and as he departed, it is said he exclaimed, The campaign was moderately "Venal city, destined soon to successful. Jugurtha was perish, if a purchaser be found!" , 157-86 B.C. defeated near the river Muthul, and made to retire into the War was now begun in earnest Marius, born at Arpínum in 157, desert, where his stronghold, (110), but resulted in a crushing was the son of a farmer, and was Thala, was captured. He sued defeat of the Romans, whose himself bred to the plough. He for peace, but, as unconditional army was sent under the yoke. joined the army at an early age, surrender was demanded, he still Humiliated by the defeat, the and soon attracted notice for his held out. The popular party at Senate in the following year sent punctual performance of all Rome, irritated that such a petty QUINTUS CAECILIUS duties, and his strictness in prince should give so much METELLUS, nephew of Metellus discipline. He was present at the trouble, demanded that Marius Macedonicus, to take charge of siege of Numantia, and his should be made Consul and the war. He was a man of courage caused Scipio to predict have charge of the war. When integrity, with some experience for him a brilliant career. He the lieutenant asked Metellus for as an officer, and a rigid soon rose to be . leave of absence to enable him aristocrat. Realizing the danger In 119 he was chosen Tribune of to be present at the elections, as of failure, he took with him as his the People, and two years later was necessary according to the lieutenant the ablest soldier that Praetor. The fact that he was law, his general ridiculed the he could find, GAIUS MARIUS. respected and valued in high idea, and told him to wait another circles is shown by his twenty years. He went, however, subsequent marriage into the and was elected in 107, being the first plebeian chosen to that 85 office for more than a century. remainder continued to be governed by native princes, until Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a the civil war between Caesar and triumph, and received the Pompey. In 104 Marius returned agnomen of NUMIDICUS. home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown Marius was every inch a soldier. into a dungeon, and there He saw that the Roman legions starved to death. must be reorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no other occupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men of rank who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was a young patrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrested from Jugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war was over. By his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed (106) into the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor of Marius.

The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward of his treachery, while the 86 Fortunately, they turned to the but the survivors became Pyrenees, and, sweeping over hardened soldiers. Corps of CHAPTER XXIII THE the mountains, overran for a engineers were attached to each CIMBRI AND season the province of Spain. legion, and the soldiers were TEUTONES—POLITICAL taught the use of tools, as well as QUARRELS of arms. At length, in his fourth consulship (102), he felt prepared to meet the enemy.

The war with Jugurtha ended The barbarians, on their return none too soon, for Marius was from Spain, separated their needed in a struggle requiring all forces, the Cimbri marching his talents. around the northern foot of the Alps towards , with the The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, intention of invading Italy from barbarous nations from Northern that quarter, while the Teutones Europe, were threatening the A well equiped Roman soldier remained in Gaul. frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had met with five Marius, appointed Consul a As the latter advanced, Marius successive defeats at their hands second time, devoted his took up his position in a fortified on the banks of the Rhone. energies to forming and training camp near AQUAE SEXTIAE Eighty thousand Romans and the army. He selected the plains (Aix). He allowed the enemy to forty thousand camp followers on the banks of the Rhone in march past him, and then are said to have fallen in these Southern Gaul as best adapted followed cautiously, waiting for a battles. Had the barbarians at for his purpose. Here he drilled favorable opportunity to fall upon this moment chosen to enter his troops, accustoming them to them. In the battle that followed, Italy, the destruction of Rome the greatest possible exertions. the barbarians were no match for would have been a certain result. Many perished under the strain, the drilled legionaries, who were 87 irresistible. The contest lasted nominal price. II. The land in two days, and the vast host of , which the the Teutones was cut to pieces Cimbrians had occupied, should (20 July, 102). At the close of be divided among the Italian and this battle word was brought to Roman citizens. III. Colonies Marius that he had been elected from the veterans of Marius were Consul for the fifth time. to be founded in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia.] and compelled Meanwhile, the Cimbri had the Senators to take an oath to crossed the Alps and were execute their laws. Metellus ravaging the fertile fields of Numidicus refusing to comply Lombardy, meeting with but with their wishes, Saturnínus slight opposition from Catulus, Another well equiped Roman sent a guard to the Senate- the other Consul. soldier House, dragged him out, and expelled him from the city. The next year Marius came to his No sooner was the danger from rescue. Near VERCELLAE the the invasion over than political During this troublesome time, Cimbri met the same fate as their quarrels broke out at Rome with Marius showed that he was no brethren, and Italy was saved great fury. Marius was elected politician. He lacked judgment (101). Consul for the sixth time. The and firmness, and by popular heroes of the hour were endeavoring to please all parties two demagogues, the Tribune he pleased none. SATURNÍNUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. They carried corn On the popular side there were laws and land laws, [Note: These two parties, the moderate one, were the APPULEIAN LAWS led by MEMMIUS, who had (100):—I. Any Roman citizen exposed the Senate in its could buy corn of the state at a dealings with Jugurtha, and the 88 radical one, led by Saturnínus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glaucia both ran for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to be successful, he was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturnínus and Mithradátes, King of Pontus Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in the For the next eight years (99-91) Senate-House, the roof of which Rome enjoyed a season of was torn off, and the wretches comparative quiet. were stoned to death.

The fall of Saturnínus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall of Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it was suspected that he was a victim of treachery.

Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of his vacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, travelling through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradátes, King of Pontus.

89 or occasionally from removal, dollars or more. This name was they were filled by the Censor, given to them because at first CHAPTER XXIV [Note: See the duties of Censor] they served in the army as INTERNAL HISTORY- who appointed a person that had horsemen, though in later times THE SOCIAL WAR (90- held one of the following offices: the cavalry was composed only 88) Dictator, Consul, Praetor, Curule of allied troops. The Equites Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla, were originally from the Quaestor. All persons who had aristocracy alone, but, as the held these offices, or that of plebeians increased in wealth, At this time there was a bitter Tribune, were allowed to join in many of them became rich rivalry between the Senate and debate in the Senate, but not to enough to be included in this the equestrian order, or vote. No Senator could engage class. commercial class. From the in business. Hence he must be former were chosen the wealthy. There was no hostility between governors of the provinces, from the Senate and the Equites until, the latter came the tax-gatherers We saw in Chapter IV that in 123, Gaius Gracchus passed (publicani) and the money- Roman citizens were divided into the Lex Judicaria, which brokers (negotiatores). It will six classes according to their prescribed that the jurors help us to understand better the property, and that these classes (judices) should be chosen from condition of affairs, if we study were subdivided into one the Equites, and not the Senate. the composition of the Senate hundred and ninety-three other From this time dates the struggle and the Equites. classes called centuries. About between the two classes, and the 225, the number was increased breach widened every year. On The Senators, three hundred in to three hundred and seventy- the one side were the nobles, number (later their number was three. Eighteen of the centuries represented by the Senate; on increased to six hundred), held of the first class were called the other side, the equestrian their office for life. When EQUITES, and must have order. Since the jurors were vacancies occurred from death, property worth twenty thousand chosen from the latter, it had 90 control of the courts, and often In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS name ITALIA. All Italians were to made an unscrupulous use of its DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up be citizens of Corfinium, and power, especially in those courts the task of reform. He was here was to be the place of which were established to try noble, wealthy, and popular, and assembly and the Senate- governors for extortion in the he hoped to settle the question House. management of provinces peacefully and equitably. But his (quaestiones rerum attempt to reform the courts Rome, in the face of this danger, repetundarum). From the displeased the Equites, his acted promptly and with Equites, too, were taken the tax- agrarian and corn laws made him resolution. The Consuls, Lucius gatherers of the provinces. They many enemies, and his attempt Julius Caesar and Publius pillaged and robbed the people at to admit the Italians to the rights Rutilius Lupus, both took the will, and, if a governor had the of Roman citizenship aroused field; with each were five courage to interfere with them, a great opposition. lieutenants, among whom were threat of prosecution was held Marius and Sulla. over his head. The average His laws were passed, but the governor preferred to connive at Senate pronounced them null This war (90-88), called the their exactions; the bolder ones and void. He was denounced in SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with paid with fines or exiles for their that body as a traitor, and was the allies (Socii), was at first courage. Another trouble was struck down by an assassin in disastrous to Rome. The allies threatening the commonwealth. the same year. overran Campania, defeated the The Italian allies of Rome did not Romans several times, and possess the franchise belonging The death of Drusus drove the entered into negotiations with the to a Roman citizen. For nearly Italians to despair. Eight nations Northern Italians, whose fidelity two centuries they had shared entered into a close alliance, began to waver. dangers and victories with the chose CORFINIUM, in the Romans; they now eagerly Pelignian Apennines, as their It is not strange, therefore, that demanded all their privileges. capital, and formed a Federal opinions at Rome began to be Republic, to which they gave the turned in the direction of a more 91 liberal policy. It was decided to was torn asunder by violent make concessions. Towards the personal rivalries. There was no 4. That those exiled on suspicion close of the year 90, the Consul class not affected by the wide- of having aided in the Italian Caesar carried the JULIAN LAW, spread tightness in the money revolt be recalled. by which the Roman franchise market. The treasury was empty, was extended to all who had not and many capitalists became In spite of the bitterest yet revolted. The next year this insolvent. War with Mithradátes, opposition, these bills were law was supplemented by the King of Pontus, had been passed. But the triumph of PLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, declared, and both Marius and Sulpicius was of short duration. which allowed every citizen of an Sulla were eager to have the Sulla, who with his troops had Italian town the franchise, if he command. been encamping near Nola in handed in his name to the Campania, marched upon the Praetor at Rome within sixty At this time (88) the TRIBUNE city, and for the first time a days. About the same time was PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS Consul entered Rome at the passed another law, the brought forward the following head of his legions. CALPURNIAN, which permitted bills:— Roman magistrates in the field to bestow the franchise on all who 1. That the command of the war wished it. These laws resulted in against Mithradátes be given to disorganizing the rebellion. The Marius. Samnites and Lucanians held out the longest, but were finally put 2. That the new citizens should down by Marius. be distributed through all the tribes. The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The 3. That any Senator who owed newly enfranchised Italians were more than four hundred dollars not fully satisfied. The Senate be deprived of his seat. 92 his brilliant successes seems to matched against Numidian have been the enthusiastic archers. In 92 he went as CHAPTER XXV MARIUS devotion of his troops, whom he Propraetor to govern the AND SULLA-CINNA always held well under control, province of Asia, and here he even when they were allowed to first met MITHRADÁTES. indulge in plunder and license. It was to Sulla's combined With the name of MARIUS is adroitness and courage that usually coupled that of LUCIUS Marius owed the final capture of CORNELIUS SULLA (138-78). Jugurtha. He served again under "He was a patrician of the purest Marius in the campaigns against blood, had inherited a moderate the Cimbri and Teutones, and fortune, and had spent it, like gave efficient help towards the other young men of rank, victory. But the Consul became lounging in theatres and amusing jealous of his rising power, and himself with dinner parties. He Lucius Cornelius Sulla, 138-78 all friendly feeling between the was a poet, an artist, and a wit. B.C. two ceased. Although apparently indolent, he was naturally a soldier, This monarch, who ruled over After this campaign Sulla lived at statesman, and diplomatist. As Pontus, was an extraordinary Rome for some years, taking no Quaestor under Marius in the man. He spoke many part in politics, and during this Jugurthine War, he had proved a languages, was the idol, of his time his name and that of his most active and useful officer." In subjects, and had boundless rival are almost unheard. He these African campaigns he ambition. He doubted the appeared before the public again showed that he knew how to win durability of the , in 93, when he was elected the hearts and confidence of his and began to enlarge his own Praetor, and increased his soldiers; and through his whole territory, with no apparent fear of popularity by an exhibition of a subsequent career, the secret of Rome's interference. hundred lions in the arena, 93 Cappadocia, a neighboring opportunity to advance his own Strait, connects the sea of country, was under Roman interests and extend his realm. Marmara with the Black Sea protection, and was ruled by a He collected all his available prince, ARIOBARZÁNES, that forces, and invaded Bithynia. Such was the condition in the Rome had recognized. This With his fleets he sailed through East when Sulpicius Rufus country Mithradátes attacked. the Dardanelles into the carried the bills mentioned in the He killed the prince, and placed Archipelago. The extortions of last chapter. One of these bills on the throne his own nephew. the Roman governors had been was that Marius have charge of so great, that Ionia, Lydia, and the war against Mithradátes. Rome interfered, and Sulla was Caria, with all the islands near This was not to Sulla's liking. He instructed to visit the monarch. Asia Minor, gladly revolted from was in Campania with the legions He accomplished his mission Rome, and accepted his that had served in the Social with his usual adroitness, and protection. All the Roman War. The soldiers were devoted returned to Rome with new residents with their families were to him, and ready to follow him honors. He took an active part in massacred on a single day. It is anywhere. Sulla, therefore, the Social War, eclipsing the said that 80,000 persons taking matters into his own fame of his rival, Marius. He was perished. Mithradátes himself hands, marched into the city at now the recognized leader of the next crossed the Bosphorus, and the head of his troops. The conservative and aristocratic marched into Northern Greece, people resisted; Sulpicius was party. The feeling between the which received him with open slain; Marius fled for his life, and rivals was more bitter than ever, arms. retired to Africa, where he lived for Marius, though old, had by no for a time, watching the course of means lost his prestige with the events. popular party. Sulla could not remain long at the It was at this time that capital. The affairs of the East Mithradátes, learning of the called him away; and no sooner

Social War, thought it a good Boat entering the Bosphorus was he gone than the flames of 94 civil war burst out anew (87). murder whomever he wished. Archeláus at CHAERONÉA in The houses of the rich were , and the next year at , a plundered, and the honor of ORCHOMENOS. friend of Marius, was Consul that noble families was exposed to year. He tried to recall Marius, the mercy of the slaves. but was violently opposed and Fortunately Marius died sixteen finally driven from the city. The days after he entered office, and Senate declared him deposed the shedding of blood ceased. from his office. He invoked the aid of the soldiers in Campania, For the next three years Cinna and found them ready to follow ruled Rome. Constitutional The Hellespont(Dardanelles), the him. The neighboring Italian government was practically strait between the towns sent him men and money, suspended. For the years 85 and the Sea of Marmara and Marius, coming from Africa, and 84 Cinna himself and a joined him with six thousand trusty colleague were Consuls, Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, troops. They marched upon but no regular elections were LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and Rome. The city was captured. held. In 84, he was murdered, gained two victories off the coast Cinna was acknowledged when on the eve of setting out of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king Consul, and the sentence of against Sulla in Asia. was now ready to negotiate. outlawry which had been passed Sulla crossed the Hellespont in on Marius was revoked. Sulla left Italy for the East with 84, and in a personal interview 30,000 troops. He marched with the king arranged the terms The next year Marius was made against Athens, where of peace, which were as follows. Consul for the seventh time, and Archeláus, the general of The king was to give up Bithynia, Cinna for the second. Then Mithradátes, was intrenched. Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia, followed the wildest cruelties. After a long siege, he captured and withdraw to his former Marius had a bodyguard of and pillaged the city, March 1, dominions. He was also to pay slaves, which he sent out to 86. The same year he defeated an indemnity amounting to about 95 $3,500,000, and surrender eighty success was largely due. The invest the Senate, the thinned ships of war. next year, 83, the Marian party ranks of which he filled with his was joined by the Samnites, and own creatures, with full control Having thus settled matters with the war raged more fiercely than over the state, over every the king, Sulla punished the ever. At length, however, Sulla magistrate and every province. Lydians and Carians, in whose was victorious under the walls of territory the Romans had been Rome. The city lay at his mercy. In 79 he resigned his massacred, by compelling them His first act, an order for the and went to Puteoli, where he to pay at one time five years' slaughter of 6,000 Samnite died the next year, from a tribute. He was now ready to prisoners, was a fit prelude to his loathsome disease brought on by return to Rome. conduct in the city. Every effort his excesses. was made to eradicate the last The same year that Cinna died, trace of Marian blood and Sulla landed at Brundisium, with sympathy from the city. A list of THE REFORMS OF 40,000 troops and a large men, declared to be outlaws and SULLA following of nobles who had fled public enemies, was exhibited in from Rome. Every preparation the Forum, and a succession of was made by the Marian party for wholesale murders and Sulla restricted the power of the his reception; but no sooner did confiscations throughout Rome magistrates to the advantage of he land in Italy than the soldiers and Italy, made the name of the Senate. Senators were alone were induced to desert to him in Sulla forever infamous. made eligible for the tribuneship, immense numbers, and he soon and no former Tribune could hold found himself in possession of all Having received the title of any curule office. No one could Lower Italy. Among those who Dictator, and celebrated a be Praetor without having first hastened to his standard was splendid triumph for the been Quaestor, or Consul young POMPEY, then but Mithradátic war, he carried (80- without having held the twenty-three years old, and it 79) his political measures. The praetorship. Every candidate for was to his efforts that Sulla's main object of these was to the office of Quaestor must be at 96 least thirty years old. The summoned by the Senate to number of Praetors was return, marched against the city increased from six to eight; that at the head of his forces. He was of Quaestors, from twelve to defeated by Crassus and twenty. The Consuls and Pompey in 78, and soon after Praetors were to remain at Rome died. during their first year of office, and then go to the provinces as and Propraetors.

Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, and all who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate.

The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to the Senate.

On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls; but such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not to raise an army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade his oath by going to Gaul, and, when 97 the Spaniards. Many Roman young man, was sent to co- refugees and deserters joined operate with Metellus. Sertorius CHAPTER XXVI him. He defeated one of Sulla's proved more than a match for SERTORIUS— generals, and drove out of both of these generals, and SPARTACUS— Lusitania (Portugal) METELLUS defeated them near Saguntum. LUCULLUS—POMPEY PIUS, [Note: Son of Metellus Numidicus. He received the The position of the Romans was AND CRASSUS agnomen of Pius on account of becoming critical, for Sertorius the love which he displayed for now formed a league with the his father, whom he begged the pirates of the Mediterranean. He Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a people to recall from banishment also entered into negotiations native of the little Sabine village in 99.] who had been specially with Mithradátes, and opened of Nursia under the Apennines, sent against him from Rome. correspondence with the slaves had joined the party of Marius, in Italy, who were rebelling. and served under him in the The object of Sertorius was to campaigns against the Cimbri establish a government in Spain But intrigues and jealousies and Teutones. In 97 he served after the Roman model. He arose in his camp. The outcome in Spain, and became acquainted formed a Senate of three of these was that he was with the country with which his hundred members, and founded treacherously murdered by fame is chiefly associated. In 91 at Osca a school for native Perperna at a banquet in 72, and he was Quaestor in Cisalpine children. He was strict and with his death fell the Marian Gaul. He was a partisan of severe towards his soldiers, but party in Spain. Marius during his troubles with kind to the people. A white fawn Sulla, and on Sulla's return from was his favorite pet and constant Meanwhile a dangerous enemy the East he left Rome for Spain, follower. He ruled Spain for six was threatening Italy within her where he took the lead of the years. In 77 he was joined by own borders. In 73 a band of Marian party. His bravery, PERPERNA a Roman officer. gladiators, under the leadership kindness, and eloquence pleased The same year Pompey, then a of one of their number, named 98 SPARTACUS escaped from the in Spain, met five thousand of distinguished himself in the training school at Capua and those who had escaped from the Social War, where he gained the took up a strong position on array of Spartacus. These he favor of Sulla, and accompanied Mount Vesuvius. They were slew to a man. Crassus pointed him, as Quaestor, in his joined by large numbers of the moral of his victory by campaign against Mithradátes in slaves and outcasts of every hanging, along the road from 88. With Cotta he was chosen to description, and were soon in a Rome to Capua, six thousand the consulship in 74. The position to defeat two Praetors captives whom he had taken. province of Cilicia was assigned who were sent against them. to him, Bithynia to Cotta. Mithradátes invaded Bithynia, The next year they assumed the defeated Cotta, and besieged offensive; and Spartacus found him at Chalcédon. himself at the head of 100,000 men. Four generals sent against Lucullus, after reorganizing and him were defeated; and for two disciplining his army, went to the years he ravaged Italy at will, and aid of his colleague, drove the even threatened Rome. But king into Pontus, and defeated intestine division showed itself in Two gladiators, relief from first him at Cabíra in 72, and his fleet his ranks; his lieutenants grew century A.D. at Tenedos in 71, compelling him jealous of him, and his strength to take refuge with his son-in-law, began to wane. Mithradátes meanwhile, taking TIGRÁNES, King of Armenia. advantage of the troubles at In 71 the command of the war Rome, was again in arms, and in Lucullus endeavored to work was given to CRASSUS, who 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS reforms in the administration of finished it in six months. LUCULLUS was sent against provincial governments in the Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, him. East. The revenues of the near Brundisium. Pompey, provinces were farmed out, and returning from the Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first the measures of Lucullus were 99 intended to protect the tax- was very rich, and was famed for (106-48) led a soldier's life from payers against the tax-gatherers the luxurious dinners which he his boyhood to his death. When (publicani). His reforms met with gave. a youth of seventeen he fought bitter opposition at Rome, by his father's side in the civil especially from the Equites, struggles between Marius and whose chief source of income Sulla. He was a partisan of the was often this same tax-farming. latter, and connected himself with Intrigues against him by persons the cause of the aristocracy. He sent from Rome began to create defeated the followers of Marius dissatisfaction among his troops. in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 He had been a severe was allowed to enjoy a triumph, disciplinarian, and so it was all though still an Eques and not Roman dinning room, room with the easier to turn the soldiers legally qualified. Sulla then three couches against him. greeted him with the surname of

Magnus, which he ever In 68 he won a victory over afterwards bore. He was then Tigránes and Mithradátes, at the POMPEY AND CRASSUS sent to Spain, with what success river Arsanias; but his legions we have seen in the previous refused to follow him farther, and The Sullan system stood for nine chapter. In 70 Pompey and he was obliged to lead them into years, and was then overthrown, winter quarters in Mesopotamia. as it had been established, by a were elected Consuls amid great The next year his soldiers again soldier. It was the fortune of enthusiasm. mutinied, and he was replaced Pompey, a favorite officer of by Pompey. Sulla, to cause the first violation Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of the laws laid down by his of Spartacus, had amassed Returning to Rome, Lucullus general. immense wealth by speculation, spent the rest of his days in mining, dealing in slaves, and retirement, dying about 57. He GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS other methods. Avarice is said to 100 have been his ruling passion, charge of an expedition against In three months the pirates were though he gave large sums to the the Greek pirates. From the swept from the sea. people for political effect. earliest times these marauders had been in the habit of The next year (66) Pompey's Neither Pompey nor Crassus, depredating on the shores of the powers were still further enlarged according to the laws passed by Mediterranean. During the civil by the MANILIAN LAW, Sulla, was eligible to the wars of Rome they had become proposed by the Tribune consulship. The former had much bolder, so that the city was Manilius. By this law the entire never been Quaestor, and was compelled to take an active part control of the Roman policy in the only thirty-five years old; the against them. They had East was given to Pompey. His latter was still Praetor, and ought paralyzed the trade of the appointment was violently to have waited two years. Mediterranean, and even the opposed by the Senate, coasts of Italy were not safe from especially by CATULUS, the The work of Sulla was now their raids. "father of the Senate," and by the quickly undone. The Tribunes orator HORTENSIUS; but regained their prerogative, the GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed CICERO with his first political veto. The control of the criminal that Pompey should hold his speech (Pro Lege Manilia) came courts was transferred again command for three years; that he to Pompey's assistance, and to from the Senate to the Equites, should have supreme authority him was given the command by and the former body was cleared over all Roman magistrates in which he became virtually of its most worthless members, the provinces throughout the dictator in the East. His who had been appointed by Mediterranean, and over the operations there were thoroughly Sulla. coasts for fifty miles inland. He successful, and, though he was to have fifteen lieutenants, doubtless owed much to the For three years (70-67) after the all ex-praetors, two hundred previous victories of Lucullus, he expiration of his consulship, ships, and all the troops he showed himself an able soldier. Pompey remained quietly at needed. Mithradátes was obliged to flee Rome. He was then put in across the Black Sea to 101 Panticapaeum (Kertch). reign of fifty-seven years. With enjoyed a well earned triumph. him ceased for many years all He was forty-five years old, had In the year 64 Pompey went to formidable opposition to Rome in accomplished a really great work, Syria, took possession of the Asia. had founded several cities which country in the name of Rome, afterwards became centres of and made it a province. Greek life and civilization, and was hailed as the conqueror of Next he was invited to act as Spain, Africa, and Asia. judge between Hyrcánus and Aristobúlus, two aspirants to the The rest of Pompey's life is Jewish throne. His decision was closely connected with that of contrary to the wishes of the Pontus, top right on map Caesar. His wife, Julia, was people, and to enforce it he led Caesar's daughter, and thus far his army against Jerusalem, Besides Syria, Pontus, to which the relations between the two which he captured after a siege Bithynia was joined, and Crete men had been friendly. of three months. He installed were now made provinces. Hyrcánus on the throne on Cilicia was reorganized, and Pompey's absence in the East condition of an annual tribute. enlarged by the addition of was marked at Rome by the rise Pamphylia and Isauria. The to political importance of Meanwhile Mithradátes had three countries in Asia Minor not CAESAR and CICERO, and by returned to Pontus for the yet provinces, but dependencies, the conspiracy of CATILINE. prosecution of his old design; but were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus; so great was the terror inspired Cappadocia, by Ariobarzánes; by the Roman arms, that even and Paphlagonia, by Attalus. his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turn affairs had After an absence of nearly seven taken, the aged monarch put an years, Pompey returned to end to his own life in 63, after a Rome, January 1, 61, and 102 Julius, and Julia, who became when scarcely fifteen, a priest of the wife of Marius. Gaius Julius Jupiter (flamen dialis), which CHAPTER XXVII held no higher office than sacred office carried with it a CAESAR—CICERO— Praetor. He was married to handsome income. VERRES Aurelia, a stately woman of simple and severe tastes. Their son Gaius was born on July 12th, 100. The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian gens, During Cinna's consulship (86), which claimed descent from Caesar is first mentioned as a IÚLUS, the son of AENÉAS. youth, tall, slight, handsome, with Eight generations of Caesars had dark, piercing eyes, sallow held prominent places in the complexion, and features refined Bust of Gaius Julius Caesar commonwealth. They had been and intellectual. The bloody Consuls, Praetors, Censors, scenes attending the Shortly after the death of his Aediles, and were aristocrats of of his uncle Marius, to whose father, in 84, Caesar married the moderate wing. The direct party his father belonged, must Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS have made a deep impression By this marriage he was CAESAR can be traced no upon him. One of his most connected more closely with the further back than his grandfather. intimate companions was popular party, whose champion This gentleman, of the same CICERO, who was six years his he remained. name as the great Caesar, senior. married Marcia, who claimed When Sulla returned to Rome descent from Ancus Marcius, the Marius had seen in his nephew from his Eastern campaign, fourth . They had the materials which make great Caesar was but eighteen. In the three children, Gaius Julius, the men, and determined to help him wholesale murders that followed, father of the Dictator, to promotion. He made him, his party was ruined, his nearest 103 friends dispersed or killed. He against the pirates that were campaign against the pirates himself was yet free from making their head-quarters in who were marauding along the proscription, for Sulla wished to Lesbos. The Praetor, finding his coast of that country. While here win such a promising young man troops insufficient to accomplish he was informed of Sulla's death, to his own side. He made his work, sent Caesar to and at once left the army and proposals that Caesar divorce his Nicomédes, a Roman ally and returned home (77). The next wife and marry one whom he the King of Bithynia, to obtain year he began his struggle with might select. Caesar refused. additional forces. He was the nobility by prosecuting for Force was then tried. His successful in his mission, and, extortion Dolabella, a former priesthood was taken from him, upon his return to Lesbos, Governor of Macedonia. and his wife's dowry. His estate distinguished himself for his Dolabella was a favorite of the was confiscated, and, when this bravery in the attack upon Senate, and his cause was had no effect, he was himself Mityléne, and was awarded the theirs. The best talent was declared an outlaw, and a price oak wreath, a coveted honor, for engaged to defend him, and was set on his head. Influential saving the life of a fellow-soldier. Caesar lost the case. friends, however, interceded in his behalf, and the Dictator was Feeling his deficiency as an finally persuaded to pardon him; orator, Caesar went to but with reluctance, and with the and studied rhetoric under the remark that in Caesar was the famous Apollonius. He had making of many a Marius. The recovered his property and youth then left Italy, and joined priesthood, and could well afford the army in Asia. the time. While on his way he

Another bust of Caeser was captured by pirates, and not Here Caesar served his released until a ransom of some apprenticeship as a soldier. He Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, $50,000 was raised and paid. joined the forces of the Praetor serving under Servilius, in a Upon arriving at Milétus he at Thermus, who had been sent once got together some vessels, 104 returned to the island where he of office he spent in Sicily, in the had been in captivity, seized the MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO performance of his duties. There crew of pirates, took them to (106-43) was a townsman of he obtained an insight into the Pergamus, and had them tried, Marius. He belonged to the corrupt extortions of the Roman convicted, and crucified. He then Equites, and received a good governors. Five years later, he resumed his journey to Rhodes, education under the best Greek conducted his famous case where he remained two years in teachers. As he ripened into against Verres. the pursuit of his studies. Then manhood, he chose in politics the the report of the uprisal of party opposed to Caesar, and for Mithradátes reached him, and he a profession he selected the bar, at once crossed over to the hoping to gain fame as a speaker mainland, collected a body of before the Senate, and finally to volunteers, and saved Caria to become one of its members. He Rome. took part in the Social War (89), but during the troubled times that Having finished his studies, followed he remained quietly Caesar returned to Rome and engaged in literary pursuits. His Bust of Cicero lived quietly for a time with his first public oration (80), the wife and mother, watching the defence of Roscius, who was VERRES had been a follower of course of events. falsely accused of murdering his Sulla, and during the father, was a great success, and had amassed some While Caesar was thus preparing guaranteed for him a brilliant property. Afterwards he held himself for the great struggle in future. Cicero improved the next official positions in Greece and which he was destined to take few years by study and travel in Asia, where he became notorious the leading part, Cicero, the Asia and Greece. Shortly after for his greediness and cruelty. companion of his youth, was his return, in 75, he was elected With the money thus acquired, beginning to attract attention at Quaestor, and thus became a he had bought his election to the Rome. member of the Senate. His year praetorship, became Senator, 105 and was sent by his colleagues which he found the easier as he to govern Sicily. His government It was about this time that Caesar was known to belong to the there may have been no worse finished his rhetorical studies popular party, of which Marius than that of many other abroad, and returned home. He and Sertorius had been leaders. proconsuls in the different was elected Military Tribune as a provinces, but we have a fuller reward for what he had account of it owing to the accomplished in Caria. Two prosecution of Cicero, whose years later, in 68, he was elected speeches against Verres are Quaestor, thereby acquiring a preserved. seat in the Senate. At this time his aunt Julia died, and, as one Verres was Governor of Sicily for of her nearest relatives, he three years. In his official delivered the funeral oration. position, he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suit Caesar was now beginning to brought before him he gave to know Pompey, and saw that their the party that could pay him best. interests were common. The Property was confiscated on latter, although but six years false charges, and works of art of older, was already a great man great value were stolen. By such and a distinguished soldier. a course Verres collected, it is Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died, said, property to the value of and he married for a second wife $4,000,000. Two thirds of this he , the cousin of Pompey. expected to spend in silencing When sent as Quaestor to accusations. The rest he hoped Farther Spain, in 67, he to enjoy in peace, but Cicero's completed the work begun by eloquence forced him to abandon Pompey and settled the finances his defence and retire into exile. of the troubled country, a task 106 aspiring to the consulship was Manilian Law. Thus Cicero LUCIUS SERGIUS CATILÍNA, a reached the goal for which he CHAPTER XXVIII villain steeped in every crime, but had been so long striving. TROUBLES AT ROME— adroit, bold, and withal CONSPIRACY OF captivating. In 68 he had been Caesar was rising at the same CATILINE Praetor, the next year Governor time. The year previous (65) he in Africa, where by his extortions had been Curule Aedile, had built he had obtained enough money, a row of costly columns in front of as he hoped, to purchase his the Capitol, and erected a temple While Pompey was absent in the election to the consulship. On to the Dioscúri (Castor and East, matters at Rome were daily his return home he was Pollux). But what made him becoming worse, and shaping impeached for his especially pleasing to the themselves for the speedy misgovernment, but acquitted populace was his lavish display overthrow of the Republic. There through Cicero's defence and the at the public games and were many who had suffered careful selection of a jury. exhibitions. under Sulla, and who were anxious to regain what they had He then came forward as Caesar was now looked upon as lost, and there were many who, candidate for the consulship of a prominent democratic leader. enriched by the Dictator, had the next year (63). There were In 63 the office of Pontifex squandered their ill-gotten two other candidates, , Maximus, the head of the state wealth, and now only waited a the uncle of , and religion, became vacant by the leader to renew the assault upon Cicero himself. Antony was sure death of its occupant, Metellus the state. The Senate was of an election, so the struggle Pius. Caesar became a jealous of the power of the was really between Catiline and candidate for the office, and was people, and the people distrusted Cicero. The latter was elected, elected, receiving more votes the Senate. owing to the popularity he had than both the rival candidates acquired by his prosecution of combined. He also received Among the patricians who were Verres and his defence of the further evidence of the popular 107 favor by being chosen Praetor for trained soldiers; and those inside time Praetor, and the persons of the next year (62). of the city, headed by Catiline. public officers were sacred. The Here secret meetings were held, Sempronian Law of Gracchus Cicero's consulship would have the purpose of which was to forbade the executing of any closed without adding anything to excite an uprising, kill the Roman citizen without giving him his fame had it not been for magistrates, seize the a right of appeal to the Assembly. Catiline. The latter's failure to be government, and then unite with Too many were implicated in the elected caused him to enter into the army in Etruria. Cicero was conspiracy for this to be safe. a plot to seize and burn the city. informed of these meetings by He had many followers, men of spies, and just before the plans In the debate in the Senate, the noble families, among whom for the uprising were matured, he principal speakers were Caesar, were the former Consul Lentulus, disclosed them to the Senate. Cato, and Cicero. who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the Censors, Cato and Cicero advocated and Cethégus, a bankrupt immediate death; Caesar, spendthrift, who was anxious to imprisonment for life. The regain a fortune by a change in motives of the men are so government. There were characteristic that they form a veterans of Sulla, starving The hills around Fiesole, complete key to their several peasants who had been Tuscany public careers. Cicero, vain and dispossessed of their farms, and selfish, weak in council, and outlaws of every description. Catiline fled from Rome; but his distrustful of the temper of the The conspirators were divided accomplices, of whom Lentulus people and of his own ability to into two parties; those outside of and Cethégus were the most rule their factions, feared that the city, headed by Marcus prominent, were arrested in the they would become dangerous Manlius, whose head-quarters city. A serious difficulty now enemies to himself; Cato, were at Faesulae (Fiesole), arose as to the disposition of the desiring the reformation of the where was gathered an army of prisoners. Lentulus was at that state, would make an example 108 and warning for the future. The there he fell fighting with Nepos, a Tribune, forbade his one, forgetful of the state, was desperate courage at the head of speaking, on the ground that one overcome by personal fears; the his motley force of soldiers near who had put to death Roman other, unmindful of self, would Pistoria. citizens without a hearing did not have purity at any cost. deserve to be heard. Amid the The name of "Father of his uproar Cicero could only shout Caesar, on the other hand, Country" was given to Cicero for that he had saved his country. wished everything done in strict the vigilance shown in this affair. Metellus threatened to impeach accordance with the laws; as a him, and excitement in the city bold and wise statesman, he The execution of Lentulus and was at fever heat. The Tribune urged that nothing was more Cethégus resulted as Caesar moved before the Assembly that impolitic than lawless violence on had expected. It was a lawless Pompey be recalled. The Senate the part of the rulers. Cicero was act on the part of the Consul and feared his coming. Caesar, who the timid magistrate; Cato, the the Senate, and it was felt that by was now Praetor (judge), favored injudicious reformer; but Caesar, it the constitution was still more it, and earnestly seconded the with his keener knowledge and endangered. The people proposal of Metellus. Cato, who stronger hand, was the safer demanded that Pompey return. was also Tribune, ordered guide. In him they thought to have a Metellus to stop speaking, and deliverer from internal strifes. snatched his from his A sentence of death was voted; hand. The aristocrats drew their and Cicero, with unseemly haste, Cicero was wrapped up in his swords, and broke up the caused the conspirators to be own conceit, imagining himself a meeting. Constitutional law was strangled that same night second Romulus. On the last trampled under foot on all sides. (December 5, 63). The day of the year (63), as was the The Senate was riding rough- suppression of the conspiracy in custom of the retiring Consuls, shod over all opponents. the city was followed by the he arose in the Forum to deliver Metellus and Caesar were defeat of the army in Etruria. a speech, reviewing the acts of declared deposed from their Thither Catiline had fled, and his year of consulship. Metellus offices. The people, however, 109 believed in Caesar. He was Rome. His administration was triumphal robe in that body followed to his home by crowds, thorough and complete, and a whenever he pleased. who begged him to be their just reward for it would, he leader, and make an example of hoped, be the consulship. Caesar returned from Spain in the law-breakers in the Senate. 60, with wealth and military fame. But Caesar refused. He would Though feared and detested by have nothing to do with the Senate, he was the favorite lawlessness; he let his of the people, and could depend opponents play that rôle, and upon their support. Pompey had awaited the results. The Senate the army behind him. He soon saw its mistake, and received Caesar with pleasure, requested him to resume his for he had been a friend in all his official duties. career.

The next year (61) Caesar was Caesar felt that, with the people sent to Farther Spain as Roman Spain, Lusitania is and the army through Pompey on Propraetor. He had already left a today’s Portugal his side, he only needed the favorable impression there as capitalists to make his success Quaestor. Portions of the Meanwhile Pompey had returned sure. CRASSUS was counted as country were still unsubdued. from the East. He landed at the richest man at Rome. He Many of the mountain passes Brundisium in December, 62, and was won over. These three then were held by robbers, whose proceeded with a large band of formed what is known as the depredations caused much captured princes and immense FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,—"a union trouble. He completed the treasures to Rome, which he of shrewdness, renown, and subjugation of the peninsula, put entered in triumph amidst the riches," by which Caesar down the brigands, reorganized greatest enthusiasm. By a expected to rise to great power, the government, and sent large special vote of the Senate he Pompey to retain his power, and sums of money to the treasury at was permitted to wear his Crassus to gain greater wealth. 110 ideas of reform, and to show the veterans of Pompey. Caesar aristocracy of what stuff he was proposed to pay the holders a CHAPTER XXIX THE made. reasonable sum for their loss, FIRST TRIUMVIRATE though legally they had no claim It would have been well for whatever on the land. Although Cicero, and better for the state, Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, had the orator been willing to join and the Tribunes vetoed, still the Pompey was ostensibly at the hands with Caesar and Pompey; Assembly passed the law, and head of the first Triumvirate, and but he was too vain of his own voted in addition that the Senate in return supported Caesar in his glory to join hands with those be obliged to take an oath to candidacy for the consulship. who were his superiors, and he observe it. Crassus was to contribute his clung to the Senate, feeling that wealth to influence the election. his talents would shine there Caesar was elected without more, and be more likely to opposition (59); his colleague, redound to his own personal the Senate's tool, was Marcus fame. Bibulus.

Caesar's consulship increased Caesar had now reached the his popularity among all except highest round in the ladder of the aristocrats. His AGRARIAN Pompey, Roman General, 106- political offices. He had shown LAW, carefully framed and 48 B.C. himself in all his course to be worded, was bitterly opposed by careful in keeping within the the Senate, especially by his The LEGES JULIAE were a code bounds of the constitution, never colleague, Bibulus, and by Cato. of laws which Caesar drew up exerting himself in political The law provided that large tracts during his year of office. They quarrels except to defend the law of the ager publicus, then held on mark an era in , for against lawlessness. Now he easy terms by the rich patricians, they cover many crimes the was in a position to push his be distributed among the commission of which had been 111 for a long time undermining the two men whom it would be for the tribuneship, and was state. dangerous for Caesar to leave successful. He then proposed to behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, the Assembly that any person The most important of these was hated him bitterly. Cicero, whose who had put to death a Roman the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, ambition was to lead the Senate, citizen without allowing him to aimed at the abuses of governors a body only too willing to crush appeal to the people be of provinces. It required all Caesar, might do him great considered a violator of the governors to make a double harm. It was Caesar's good constitution. The proposal was return of their accounts, one to fortune, or, as some believe, the carried. All knew that Cicero was be left in the province open for result of his own scheming, that meant, and he fled at once to inspection, the other to be kept at both these men were put Macedonia. His property was Rome. temporarily out of the way. confiscated, his houses were destroyed, and his palace in the When Caesar's term of office CLODIUS PULCHER was a city was dedicated to the was nearly ended, he obtained young aristocrat, notorious for his Goddess of Liberty. from the reluctant Senate his wildness. At one time, by appointment as Proconsul of assuming the dress of a woman, The kingdom of Cyprus, which Gaul for five years. He must he had gained admittance to the had long been attached to that of leave the city, however, in safe festival of , which was Egypt, had been bequeathed to hands, otherwise all his work celebrated only by women. He Rome at the death of Ptolemy would be undone. He managed was discovered and brought to Alexander in 80. The Senate the consular elections for the trial before the Senate, but had delayed to accept the next year (58) so adroitly, that acquitted by means of open bequest, and meanwhile the Piso and Gabinius, on whose bribery. Cicero had been island was ruled by Ptolemy of friendship he could rely, were instrumental in bringing him to Cyprus, one of the heirs of the elected. trial, and Clodius never forgot it. dead king. He got adopted into a plebeian There were in Rome, however, family in order to be a candidate Clodius, on the plea that this king 112 harbored pirates, persuaded the Assembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it. He accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties were satisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7,000,000 to increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of the city, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in Caesar's absence.

113 Switzerland, Holland, and had invited a tribe of Germans Belgium. The inhabitants were under Ariovistus to come into CHAPTER XXX all of the Celtic race, except a Gaul and settle, and be their CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS few Germans who had crossed allies. These Germans had IN GAUL the Rhine and settled in the attacked and conquered the North, and the AQUITÁNI, who Aeduans, taken from them lived in the Southwest and who hostages, and with the are represented by the Basques Sequanians were in the Caesar was now in the prime of of to-day. ascendency. manhood, in the full vigor of mind and body. His previous The Gauls were more or less In Switzerland lived the experience in camp life had been civilized since they had come into HELVETII. They had so comparatively small. His early contact with the Romans, but increased in numbers that their service in Asia, and his more they still had the tribal form of country was too small for them. recent campaigns in Spain, government, like the early They therefore proposed to however, had shown his aptitude Romans. There were more than emigrate farther into Gaul, and for military life. fifty of these tribes, which were the Sequanians, whose lands mostly hostile to one another, as bordered on those of the The Romans had already well as divided into factions Helvetians, gave them obtained a foothold in Gaul. among themselves. This permission to march through Since 118, the southern part of condition favored a conquest, for their country. the country along the seaboard the factions were frequently had been a , Roman and non-Roman. Two of Such was the state of affairs called , the chief tribes were the AEDUI when Caesar arrived in Gaul. from the colony of Narbo which and SEQUANI. The former had Feeling that the passage of such the Romans had founded. The been taken under the protection a large body of emigrants rest of Gaul included all modern of Rome; the latter, impatient of (368,000) through Gaul would be France, and a part of control and Roman influence, dangerous to the province (Gallia 114 Narbonensis), he determined to to the Germans who had settled THE WAR WITH THE interfere. The Helvetians were west of the Rhine. After several met at BIBRACTE, near Autun, fruitless attempts at negotiation, BELGAE and after a terrible battle, which during which the bad faith of raged from noon until night, were Ariovistus became conspicuous, While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, defeated with great slaughter the forces came together. he learned from Labiénus that (58). The survivors, about one Though the Germans were the BELGAE were forming a third, were treated kindly, and brave, they were no match for league to resist the Romans. most of them sent back to the drilled legionaries, who This people occupied the Switzerland. fought with the regularity of a northeastern part of Gaul, and machine. Few of the barbarians embraced several tribes, of escaped, but among these was which the principal were the Ariovistus. REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIÓNES, and NERVII. The campaigns of this year being The last were the fiercest and ended, the legions were sent into least civilized. winter quarters among the Sequanians under Labiénus, the Caesar raised two new legions, lieutenant of Caesar. He himself making eight in all, and marched went into Cisalpine Gaul to against the Belgae as soon as attend to his duties as the spring opened. His sudden administrator, and to have approach alarmed the Remi, who communication with his friends at lived nearest to Central Gaul, Rome. Roman Gaul, very roughly and they immediately put today’s France and Belgium themselves under his protection. From them he learned that the Caesar now turned his attention Belgae could muster about 300,000 men. 115 assured. But the enemy fought part of Gaul (Brittany) except the By skilful tactics and a successful on with a bravery that excited the VENETI had given hostages to attack he put to flight and nearly admiration of Caesar. Of sixty Crassus, son of the Triumvir, and annihilated the Suessiónes. The thousand men scarcely five lieutenant of Caesar. This tribe Bellovaci now put themselves hundred survived. The women refused to give hostages, and, under his protection, but the and children were cared for inducing others to join them, Nervii remained in arms. One kindly by Caesar, and settled in seized some Roman officers sent day, while the six legions were their own territory. among them by Crassus. The forming camp on the bank of the campaign of the third year (56) river Sabis, the Nervii and their The Aduatuci, who had assisted was directed against these allies suddenly rushed upon the Nervii in their struggle, were people. They were mostly sailors them from an ambuscade in the conquered by Caesar and sold and fishermen, with villages built woods on the opposite bank. into slavery. on the end of promontories and The troops were entirely easily defended by land. In a unprepared, and so quick was Thus ended the Belgian naval engagement, which lasted the enemy's charge that the campaign (57). The legions were nearly all day, their whole fleet Romans had not time to put on put into winter quarters near was destroyed. The leaders of their helmets, to remove the where the war had been waged, the Veneti were put to death for covering from their shields, or to and Caesar went to Italy. In his their treachery in seizing Roman find their proper places in the honor was decreed a officers, and the rest were sold ranks. Great confusion followed, thanksgiving lasting fifteen days. into slavery. and they became almost panic- stricken. Caesar rushed into The legions spent the winter of their midst, snatched a shield THE VENETI—INVASION 56-55 in the northern part of from a soldier, and by his OF GERMANY Gaul, among the Aulerci and presence and coolness revived neighboring tribes. their courage. The Nervii were checked, and victory was All the tribes in the northwestern During this winter another wave 116 of Germans passed over the time, and returned in September, Rhine into Gaul. They had been as the equinox was near and the driven from their homes by a weather unsettled. The legions powerful tribe called the SUEVI. were sent into winter quarters In the spring of 55 Caesar among the Belgae, and Caesar collected his troops and set out for Cisalpine Gaul. advanced to within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave During this winter (55-54), orders the invaders twenty-four hours to were given to build a large fleet, leave the country. Before the as Caesar intended to return to expiration of the time, they Britain the next year. After all attacked Caesar's outposts, preparations were completed, he killing several Knights, and two set sail, July 20, 54, and the next men of aristocratic families. In day landed on the island. He the general engagement that Roman soldier from first century defeated the Britons under their followed, the Germans were B.C. leader CASSIVELAUNUS, and totally routed and most of them compelled them to pay tribute were slain. and give hostages. Many INVASION OF BRITAIN thousand prisoners were taken, Caesar next determined to cross and sold in Italy as slaves. the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus to inspire the Germans with It was now August and Caesar greater fear of the Romans. He occupied the rest of the season FINAL STRUGGLES OF built his famous bridge, crossed by crossing the Channel to THE GAULS it, remained eighteen days in Britain (England). Landing near Germany, and, thinking his object Deal, with but little resistance on accomplished, returned to Gaul, the part of the natives, he In the winter of 54-53 the legions destroying the bridge behind him. explored the country for a short were distributed among several 117 tribes. That stationed in the previous winter. The tribe was upon Genabum, and plundered territory of the Eburónes was completely destroyed, but their and burnt the town. commanded by the lieutenants, leader, Ambiorix, escaped and Gabínus and Cotta. News was never captured. During this Vercingetorix saw that he was no reached the encampment that summer Caesar again crossed match for the legions in open there was an uprisal of the the Rhine. At the close of the battle. He proposed, therefore, Eburónes. It was decided to summer he returned to Cisalpine to cut off Caesar's supplies by break up camp, and go, if Gaul, supposing that the Gauls burning all the towns of the possible, to the winter quarters of were totally subdued. He was Bituriges, and laying the country their nearest companions. On mistaken. The patriotism of the waste. alone was the march they were surprised people was not yet extinguished. spared. Within its walls were and nearly all killed. Only a few The chiefs of all the tribes placed the best of their goods stragglers carried the news to secretly established and a strong garrison. Thither Labiénus, who was wintering with communication with each other. Caesar marched, and, after a a legion among the Remi. A day was settled upon for a well defended siege, captured general uprising. The Roman the town and killed every person This success moved the Nervii to inhabitants of Genabum, on the in it, excepting eight hundred, attack Quintus Cicero, the Liger, were massacred. The who escaped to the camp of lieutenant who was wintering with leading spirit in this last struggle Vercingetorix. Large quantities his legion among them. Word of the Gauls was of corn were taken, with which was sent to Caesar, who had VERCINGETORIX, chief of the Caesar supplied his soldiers. He fortunately not yet left Gaul. He Averni. then marched against Gergovia, hastened to Cicero's relief, raised the capital of the Averni. As the the siege, and all but annihilated Caesar hastened across the town was on a high plateau, and the revolting Nervii. Alps, surmounted the difficulties too strong to be stormed, he laid of crossing the Cevennes when siege to it. A part of the army, In 53 Caesar punished the the snow was very deep, contrary to instructions, one day Eburónes for their action in the collected his legions, marched attempted to assault the place. 118 The battle which followed was him. The relieving army, though distributed among the soldiers. disastrous to the Romans, and five times as large as his, was Vercingetorix was kept to be the only defeat Caesar received driven back and sent flying exhibited in the triumph at Rome, in Gaul. Forty-six officers and home. and afterwards died in a seven hundred men fell. The dungeon. siege was raised. It was a serious position for Caesar. All With the fall of Alesia, the Gaul was in flames. Retreating subjugation of Gaul was at once, he formed a junction practically completed. with Labiénus at Agendicum, and with all his troops started for The next year (51) Caesar Gallia Narbonensis to protect it honored several chiefs with from invasion. privileges; some of the nobles were granted the franchise, and On his route was ALESIA. Here some admitted to the Senate. Vercingetorix was intrenched The work of Romanizing Gaul with eighty thousand troops. It was fairly begun. Two provinces was, like Gergovia, situated on a Locations of battles in Gaul (note were formed, Gallia and Belgica, hill and considered impregnable. Paris, today’s capital of France) and later (17 A.D.) the former of Caesar laid siege to this place these was subdivided into (52). Vercingetorix appealed to Seeing that all was over, Lugdunensis and Aquitania. all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the Vercingetorix called a council of Roman money was introduced, fortress been invested when his chiefs and advised surrender. and Latin became the official Caesar's army was surrounded A message was sent to Caesar. language. by an immense force of Gauls He demanded unconditional that had come to the rescue. surrender, and was obeyed. The Caesar needed now all his skill people were sold into slavery, and . But they did not fail and the money obtained 119 person which for the moment pressed it. Day after day the was convenient to him; and yet opposing parties met in bloody CHAPTER XXXI for five years this man was the affrays. For seven months the CLODIUS AND MILO— leader of the Roman mob. He brawl continued, until Milo's party DEATH OF CRASSUS could defy justice, insult the finally got the ascendancy; the Consuls, beat the Tribunes, Assembly was convened, and parade the streets with a gang of the recall voted. armed slaves, killing persons During the nine years (59-50) disagreeable to him; and in the For seventeen months Cicero passed by Caesar in Gaul, great Senate itself he had high friends had been in Greece, lamenting confusion prevailed at Rome. and connections, who threw a his hard lot. He landed at The Republic needed a strong, shield over him when his Brundisium on August 5, 57, and firm hand, which would stop the audacity had gone beyond proceeded to Rome. Outside the shedding of blood and insure endurance." Milo was as city all men of note, except his security of person and property. disreputable as Clodius. His avowed enemies, were waiting to Pompey had attempted to bring chief fame had been gained in receive him. The Senate voted about this result, but had failed. the schools of the gladiators. to restore his property, and to There were two prominent Gangs of armed slaves rebuild his palace on the Palatine factions, one led by CLODIUS, accompanied him everywhere, Hill and his other villas at the the other by MILO. and there were constant public expense. But Clodius, collisions between his retainers with his bands of ruffians, "Clodius is the most and those of Clodius. interrupted the workmen extraordinary figure in this engaged in the repair of his extraordinary period. He had no In 57 Consuls were elected who Palatine house, broke down the character. He had no favored Cicero, and his recall walls, and, attacking Cicero distinguished talent save for was demanded. Clodius and his himself, nearly murdered him. speech; he had no policy; he was followers opposed the recall. ready to adopt any cause or The nobles, led by their tool Milo, At last Clodius even attempted to 120 burn the house of Milo. The long provisions, and to avoid being struggle between these two surrounded by the cavalry of the ruffians culminated when Milo enemy. But Crassus allowed was a candidate for the himself to be deceived by an consulship, and Clodius for the Arab chief, who lured him to the praetorship. The two meeting by sandy plains of Mesopotamia at accident in the Via Appia at Carrhae. Bovillae, Clodius was murdered, 20 January, 52. This act of Bust of Crassus, 115-53 B.C., The forces of the Parthians, violence strengthened Pompey, famous for defeating Spartacus divided into many bodies, who was nominated sole Consul. and the slave revolt suddenly rushed upon the Milo was impeached. His guilt Roman ranks, and drove them was evident, and he went into CRASSUS now undertook the back. The young Crassus exile at Massilia. Cicero war against the Parthians. He attempted a charge at the head prepared an elaborate speech in was accompanied by his son, of fifteen hundred horsemen. his defence, but did not dare to who had done good service The Parthians yielded, but only to deliver it. under Caesar in Gaul. They draw him into an ambush, where arrived at Zeugma, a city of he perished, after great deeds of During the interval between the Syria, on the Euphrátes; and the valor. His head, carried on the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Romans, seven legions strong, end of a pike, was borne before Caesar renewed his alliance with with four thousand cavalry, drew the eyes of his unhappy father, his two colleagues in interviews themselves up along the river. who, crushed by grief and that were held at Ravenna and The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man despair, gave the command into Luca. He retained the command of ability, proposed to Crassus a the hands of Cassius. Cassius of Gaul; Pompey, that of Spain; plan of the campaign, which gave orders for a general retreat. Crassus, that of Syria. consisted in following the river as The Parthians subjected the far as Seleucia, in order not to be Roman army to continual losses, separated from his fleet and and Crassus himself was killed in 121 a conference (53).

In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousand Romans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve as slaves in the army of the Parthians.

The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, had sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who married Cornelia, the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of Metellus Scipio.

122 but reconciled to subjugation; a The law requiring a candidate to nation of warriors, as much give up his command had been CHAPTER XXXII devoted to him as his own suspended several times before CAESAR'S STRUGGLE legions." The nobility had this; so that Caesar's request WITH POMPEY— watched his successes with bitter was reasonable. His enemies in BATTLE OF PHARSALIA envy; but they were forced to the city were numerous and vote a thanksgiving of twenty powerful, and he felt that, if he days, which "the people made returned as a private citizen, his sixty." personal safety would be in Pompey was elected sole Consul danger; whereas, if he were a in February, 52. He at once Caesar now declared through his magistrate, his person would be threw off all pretence of an followers at Rome that he considered sacred. alliance with Caesar, and desired a second consulship. devoted himself to the interests But he wished first to celebrate The Senate, on the other hand, of the Senate and aristocracy. his triumph, and on this account felt that, if he carried his point, would not disband his army; for, the days of their influence were The brilliant successes of Caesar according to the custom, he numbered. Their first step, in Gaul had made a profound could not triumph without it. therefore, was to weaken impression upon the minds of the According to another custom, Caesar, and to provide their citizens, to whom the name of however, he must disband it champion, Pompey, with a force the northern barbarians was still before he could offer himself as a in Italy. They voted that Caesar fraught with terror. Caesar had candidate for the consulship. But should return to Pompey a legion won for himself distinction as a he asked permission to set aside which had been loaned him, and soldier greater than the Scipios, this custom, and to become a also should send another legion or Sulla, or Pompey. "He was candidate while he was in the back to Italy. The vote was taken coming back to lay at his province in command of the on the ostensible plea that the country's feet a province larger army. troops were needed in Asia than Spain, not only subdued, Minor against the Parthians; but 123 when they reached Italy they When the action of the Senate marched to Ariminum. were placed under Pompey's was reported to Caesar, he command in Campania. The called together his soldiers, and Consuls chosen for the year 49 addressed them thus: "For nine were both bitter enemies of years I and my army have served Caesar. He had taken up his our country loyally and with some winter quarters at Ravenna, the degree of success. We have last town in his province driven the Germans across the bordering on Italy. From here he Rhine; we have made Gaul a Map showing Ravenna and sent a messenger with letters to province; and the Senate, for Rome the Senate, stating that he was answer, has broken the ready to resign his command, if constitution in setting aside the Meanwhile the report of his Pompey did the same. The Tribunes who spoke in my movements reached Rome. The messenger arrived at Rome, defence. It has voted the state in aristocracy had imagined that his January 1, 49, on the day in danger, and has called Italy to courage would fail him, or that which the new Consuls entered arms, when no single act of mine his army would desert. upon their duties. can justify it in this course." The Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, soldiers became enthusiastic, Praetors, Senators, leaving The letters were read in the and were eager to follow their wives, children, and property to Senate, and there followed a leader without pay. Contributions their fate, fled from the city to spirited discussion, resulting in a were offered him by both men seek safety with Pompey in decree that Caesar should resign and officers. LABIENUS, his Capua. They did not stop even his command. The Tribunes trusted lieutenant, alone proved to take the money from the opposed; but, being threatened false. He stole away, and joined treasury, but left it locked. by the Consuls, they were Pompey. Caesar then sent for compelled to leave the city, and two legions from across the Alps. Caesar paused at Ariminum, and went directly to Ravenna. With these legions he crossed sent envoys to the Senate, the RUBICON into Italy, and stating that he was still desirous 124 of peace. If Pompey would advanced, with constantly readiness for them to depart. depart to his province in Spain, increasing forces, until when he he would himself disband his reached Corfinium his army had Hoping to intercept Pompey, own troops. He was even willing swelled to thirty thousand troops. Caesar hastened to this port. On to have a personal interview with his arrival outside of the town, Pompey. This message was the Consuls, with half the army, received by the Senate after its had already gone. Pompey, flight from Rome. The substance however, was still within the of its reply was, that Pompey did place, with twelve thousand not wish a personal interview, but troops, waiting for transports to would go to Spain, and that carry them away. He refused to Caesar must leave Ariminum, see Caesar; and, though the return to his province, and give latter endeavored to blockade the security that he would dismiss his Mark Antony, 82-30 B.C. port, he was unsuccessful, owing army. to want of ships. This place had been occupied by These terms seemed to Caesar Domitius with a party of Thus Pompey escaped. With unfair, and he would not accept aristocrats and a few thousand him were the Consuls, more than them. Accordingly he sent his men. Caesar surrounded the half the Senate, and the lieutenant, Mark Antony, across town, and when Domitius aristocracy. Caesar would have the mountains to Arretium, on the endeavored to steal away, his followed them, but a fleet must road to Rome. He himself own troops took him and first be obtained, and matters pushed on to Ancóna, before delivered him over to Caesar. nearer home demanded his Pompey could stop him. The The capture of Corfinium and the attention. towns that were on his march desertion of its garrison filled threw open their gates, their Pompey and his followers with In sixty days Caesar had made garrisons joined his army, and dismay. They hurried to himself master of Italy. On his their officers fled. Steadily he Brundisium, where ships were in way to Rome he met Cicero, and 125 invited him to attend the Senate, for Gaul to join his troops on his Afranius and Petreius strongly but he preferred to stay away. way to Spain. intrenched at ILERDA in Caesar entered the city Catalonia (Northern Spain). unattended, and assembled the He had much to accomplish. Within forty days he brought Senate through the Tribunes, Spain was in the hands of them to terms, and Varro, who Mark Antony and Cassius Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius, was in Southern Spain, was Longínus. The attendance was Petreius, and Varro, who had six eager to surrender. All Spain small, as most of the members legions and allied troops. From was at his feet. were with Pompey. In his Sicily and Sardinia came most of address to the Senate Caesar the grain supplies of Rome, and Before leaving Spain, Caesar spoke of his own forbearance it was important to hold these summoned the leading and concessions, of their unjust islands. To Sicily he sent Curio Spaniards and Romans to demands, and their violent and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, Cordova, for a conference. All suppression of the authority of who was in charge of Sicily, promised obedience to his the Tribunes. He was still willing immediately abandoned it and authority. He then set sail from to send envoys to treat with fled to Africa. Sardinia received Gades to Tarragóna, where he Pompey, but no one was found Caesar's troops with open arms. joined his legions and marched willing to go. After three days back to Massilia, which he found spent in useless discussion, Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar hard pressed and ready to Caesar decided to act for found that the inhabitants of surrender. The gates were himself. By his own edict, he Massilia had risen against his opened. All were pardoned, and restored the children of the authority, led by the same Domitius was allowed to escape victims of Sulla's proscription to Domitius whom he had sent a second time. their rights and property. The away unharmed from Corfinium. money in the treasury was voted Caesar blockaded the city, and, Caesar left a portion of his forces him by the Assembly of the leaving Decimus Brutus in in Gaul, and with the rest arrived people. He took as much of it as charge of operations, continued at Rome in the early winter of 49- he needed, and started at once his journey to Spain. He found 48. Thus far he had been 126 successful. Gaul, Spain, debts as they were one year Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were before, the interest was remitted his. He had not succeeded, and the principal declared still however, in getting together a due. This measure relieved the naval force in the Adriatic, and he debtors somewhat. had lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been surprised It was now nearly a year since and killed in Africa, whither he Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Today’s (just above the had gone in pursuit of Cato and Pompey, during the nine months heel of Italy’s boot) has only the Pompey's followers. that had elapsed since his bases of the columns to mark the escape from Brundisium, had end of the Via Appia from Rome During Caesar's absence, affairs been collecting his forces in at Rome had resumed their usual Epírus. Here had gathered many Caesar reached Brundisium at course. He had left the city princes from the East, a majority the end of the year 49. His under charge of his lieutenant, of the Senatorial families of forces were fewer in number than Aemilius Lepidus, and Italy in Rome, Cato and Cicero, the those of his adversary, command of Mark Antony. vanquished Afranius, and the amounting to not more than Caesar was still at Massilia, renegade Labiénus. There were 15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. when he learned that the people nine full legions, with cavalry and But his legionaries were all of Rome had proclaimed him auxiliaries, amounting in all to veterans, inured to toil and Dictator. Financial troubles in the 100,000 men. hunger, to heat and cold, and city had made this step every man was devoted to his necessary. Public credit was leader. shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war began. On the 4th of January he set sail Caesar allowed himself only from Brundisium, landing after an eleven days in Rome. In this uneventful voyage at time estimates were drawn of all Acroceraunia. He advanced at 127 once towards Dyrrachium where movements. were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, and The great general was now ready intrenched himself on the left for action. He built a line of bank of the river Apsus. The strongly fortified forts around country was well disposed and Pompey's camp, blockading him furnished him with ample by land. He turned the streams supplies. of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as possible to the Caesar sent back the vessels on enemy. So the siege dragged on which he crossed to transport his into June. remaining troops, but they were The area of battle, in today’s intercepted on their way across Two deserters informed Pompey Albania, Macedonia, Serbia, and many of them destroyed. He of a weak spot in Caesar's line. Montenegro, and Greece was therefore compelled to At this point Pompey made a confine himself to trifling sudden attack. For once This victory was the ruin of operations, until his lieutenant, Caesar's troops were surprised Pompey's cause. Its importance Mark Antony, could fit out a and panic-stricken. Even his was exaggerated. His followers second fleet and bring over the own presence did not cause were sure that the war was remainder of his legions. When them to rally. Nearly one practically over; and so certain Antony finally crossed, he landed thousand of his men fell, thirty- were they of ultimate success one hundred miles up the coast. two standards, and a few that they neglected to follow up Pompey's forces were between hundred soldiers were captured. the advantage gained, and gave him and Caesar, and his position Caesar opportunity to recover was full of danger; but Caesar from the blow. marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him The latter now retired from the before Pompey knew of his 128 sea-board into . ancient Roman families, the Senate had taken from Caesar. Pompey followed, confident of leaders of society in Roman Outside him on the plain were his victory. The nobles in his camp salons, and the chiefs of the allies covered by the cavalry. amused themselves with political party of the Opposite Pompey was Caesar, quarrelling about the expected (aristocracy) were here present with the famous Tenth Legion. spoils of war. Cato and Cicero on the field. The other great His left and centre were led by remained behind in Epirus, the actions were fought by the his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony former disgusted at the actions of ignoble multitude whose deaths and Cassius Longínus. the degenerate nobility, the latter were of less significance. The pleading ill health. plains of Pharsalia were watered At the given signal Caesar's front by the precious blood of the elect ranks advanced on a run, threw The two armies encamped on a of the earth." their darts, drew their swords, plain in Thessaly near the river and closed in. At once Pompey's Enipeus, only four miles apart. For several days the armies cavalry charged, outflanking the Between them lay a low hill watched each other without enemy's right wing, and driving called PHARSÁLUS, which gave decisive action. One morning back the opposing cavalry, who name to the battle which towards the end of May (August were inferior in numbers. But as followed. 9, old style) Caesar noticed a they advanced flushed with movement in Pompey's lines that victory, Caesar's fourth line, "The battle of PHARSALIA told him the expected attack was which he had held in reserve, (August 9, 48) has acquired a coming. and which was made up of the special place in history, because flower of his legions, appeared in it was fought by the Roman The position of the Senatorial their way. So fierce was their aristocracy in their own persons army was well taken. Its right attack that the Pompeians in defence of their own wing rested on the Enipeus, its wavered, turned, and fled. They supremacy. Senators and the left was spread out on the plain. never rallied. The fourth line sons of Senators, the heirs of the Pompey himself commanded the threw themselves upon names and fortunes of the left with the two legions the Pompey's left wing, which was 129 now unprotected. This wing, needed the common necessaries composed of Caesar's old of life, of dissoluteness and veterans, was probably in no profligacy." But Caesar could not mood to fight its former delay. Leaving a portion of his comrades in arms. At any rate, it forces in camp, by rapid turned and fled. Pompey himself marching he cut off the retreat of mounted his horse and rode off the enemy. Twenty-four in despair. Thus the battle ended thousand surrendered, all of in a rout. But two hundred of whom were pardoned. Domitius, Caesar's men fell, while fifteen whom we saw at Corfinium and thousand of the enemy lay dead Massilia, was killed trying to on the field. escape. Labiénus, Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away The abandoned camp was a by night. Thus ended the battle remarkable sight. The luxurious of Pharsalia. patricians had built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to protect their delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were stretched out ready for them to take repose after their expected victory, and tables were spread with dainty food and wines on which to feast. As he saw these preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are the men who accused my suffering, patient army, which 130 GREAT. He was certainly a Ptolemy was at variance with his good soldier, and is said to have sister, the famous CLEOPÁTRA, CHAPTER XXXIII excelled in all athletic sports, but Caesar sided with her. The CAESAR'S he fell short of being a first-class inhabitants of Alexandría OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, general. He won great revolted, and besieged Caesar in ASIA, AFRICA, AND successes in Spain, and more the palace; but with a handful of especially in the East; but for soldiers he bravely baffled their SPAIN these he was, no doubt, partly attacks. Setting fire to the indebted to what others had neighboring buildings, he already done. Of the gifts which escaped to his ships. Afterwards Pompey, in his flight from make a good statesman, he had he returned and wreaked Pharsalia, hastened by the really none. He was too weak vengeance upon the shortest way to the sea, and, and irresolute to choose a side Alexandrians, establishing seeing a vessel weighing anchor, and stand by it. Pitted against CLEOPÁTRA upon the throne embarked with a few companions such a man as Caesar, he could (47). who had accompanied him in his not but fail. But to his credit be it flight. He went to Mityléne, and said, that in a corrupt time he from there to Egypt, hoping to never used his opportunities for obtain an asylum with the young plunder and extortion." PTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his 28 September, 48. victory with indefatigable activity, set sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy Just before his death Pompey A bust of , Queen of was brought to him. He turned had completed his fifty-eighth Egypt from the sight with tears in his year. "Though he had some eyes. The murderers now saw great and good qualities, he Satisfied with this vengeance, hardly deserved the surname of what would be their fate. 131 Caesar left Egypt, and went to debts should be paid, and the lands had been allotted to each Pontus, where PHARNACES, rights of property respected. He soldier out of the ager publicus, son of Mithradátes, was inciting a restored quiet, and after a brief or out of his own estates. revolt against Rome. Caesar stay of three months prepared to attacked and defeated him at transport his army to Africa. The Africa must now be subdued. ZELA (47), with a rapidity army was in Campania, but Since the defeat and death of rendered proverbial by his words, discontented and mutinous Curio, King JUBA had found no Veni, vidi, vici, I CAME, I SAW, I because of not receiving the one to dispute his authority. CONQUERED. expected privilege of pillage and Around him now rallied all the plunder. They refused to move followers of Pompey, Metellus He now passed quickly down the until certain promised rewards Scipio, Cato, Labiénus, Afranius, Hellespont, and had landed in were received. The Tenth Petreius, and the slain general's Italy before it was known that he Legion broke out into open revolt, two sons, Sextus and Gnaeus had left Pontus. During his and marched from Campania to Pompeius. absence from the capital there Rome to obtain their rights. had been some minor Caesar collected them in the Utica was made their head- disturbances; but the mass of the Campus Martins, and asked quarters. Here Cato collected citizens were firmly attached to them to state their grievances. thirteen legions of troops of him. Few could distrust the They demanded their discharge. miscellaneous character. Raids genius and fortune of the "I grant it, citizens" (Quirites), were made upon Sicily, Sardinia, irresistible conqueror. In October said the . Heretofore and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's of 48 he had been made Dictator he had always addressed them officers, if captured, were put to a second time, and appointed as "fellow soldiers," and the death without mercy. Tribune for life. implied rebuke was so keen, that a reaction at once began, and Cicero alone of the old Pompeian Caesar's return in September, they all begged to be received party protested against such 47, was marked by no again into his service. He cruelties. He remained in Italy, proscription. He insisted that all accepted them, telling them that was denounced by them as a 132 traitor, and charged with currying southeast of Carthage, April 4, successive days; one over the favor of the Dictator. 46, the armies met. Caesar's Gauls, one over Ptolemy of men were so enthusiastic that Egypt, one over Pharnaces, and Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum they rushed to the charge with one over Juba. He gratified his (December 19), effected a one impulse. There was no real armed followers with liberal gifts, landing near Leptis, and battle, but rather a slaughter. and pleased the people by his maintained himself in a fortified Officers and men fled for their great munificence. They were position until he formed useful lives. Scipio was intercepted in feasted at a splendid banquet, at alliances among the his flight and slain. Juba and which were twenty-two thousand Mauretanians. Many Roman Petreius fled together, but, tables, each table having three residents in the province came to finding their retreat cut off, couches, and each couch three him, indignant at Metellus engaged, it is said, in mortal persons. Then followed shows in Scipio's promise to Juba to give combat; when the first, Petreius, the circus and theatre, combats the province to him in case of fell, the other threw himself on of wild beasts and gladiators, in success. Many deserters also his own sword. Labiénus and the which the public especially came in, enraged that two sons of Pompey managed to delighted. precedence was given to Juba escape to Spain. Afranius was over Scipio in councils of war. captured and executed. Honors were now heaped upon But the enemy's army was kept Caesar without stint. A full of new recruits sent from Cato, when he heard of the thanksgiving of forty days was Utica by Cato. defeat, retired to his chamber in decreed. His statue was placed Utica, and committed suicide. in the Capitol. Another was For three months Caesar failed inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. to bring on the desired Thus ended the African A golden chair was allotted to engagement; Scipio had learned campaign. him in the Senate-House. The caution from Pompey's name of the fifth month (Quintilis) experience at Pharsalia. Finally, On his return from Africa, Caesar of the was at THAPSUS, one hundred miles celebrated four triumphs, on four changed to JULIUS (July). He 133 was appointed Dictator for two method of reckoning time had Roman affairs. The remnant of years, and later for life. He been so inaccurate, that now Scipio's African army rested received for three years the office their seasons were more than there in its wanderings. Thus of Censor, which enabled him to two months behind. Caesar Labiénus and Pompey's two sons appoint Senators, and to be established a calendar, which, managed to collect an army as guardian of manners and morals. with slight changes, is still in use. numerous as that which had He had already been made It went into operation January been defeated at Thapsus. Tribune (48) for life, and Pontifex 1st, 45. He employed There were thirteen legions in all. Maximus (63). In a word, he was Sosigenes, an Alexandrian king in everything excepting astronomer, to superintend the Caesar saw that he must make name. reform. one more struggle. He set out for the province accompanied by While Sosigenes was at work on his nephew OCTAVIUS the calendar, Caesar purified the (afterwards the Senate. Many who were guilty of AUGUSTUS), and by his trusted extortion and corruption were friend and officer, DECIMUS expelled, and the vacancies filled BRUTUS. The struggle in Spain with persons of merit. was protracted for several months, but the decisive battle Meanwhile matters in Spain were was fought at MUNDA, 17 not satisfactory. After the battle March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, of Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus, near Cordova. The forces were Statue of Caesar Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius well matched. The advantage in Lepidus had been sent to govern position was on the side of the Caesar's most remarkable and the province. They could not enemy. The battle was durable reform at this period was agree. The soldiers became stubbornly fought, most of it hand the REVISION OF THE mutinous. To Spain flocked all to hand, with short swords. So CALENDAR. The Roman who were dissatisfied with equal was the struggle, so 134 doubtful at one time the issue, CATO-METELLUS that Caesar himself sprang from QUINTUS CAECILIUS his horse, seized a standard, and SCIPIO METELLUS PIUS belonged to rallied a wavering legion. Finally, the illustrious family of the Labiénus was seen to gallop MARCUS PORTIUS CATO Scipios by birth, and to that of the across the field. It was thought UTICENSIS [Note: Cato the Metelli by adoption. He was one he was fleeing. Panic seized his Younger, called UTICENSIS on of the most unjust and dishonest troops, they broke and ran. account of his death at Utica.] of the Senators that opposed Thirty thousand were slain, (95-46) was the great-grandson Caesar. He was the father-in-law including three thousand Roman of Cato the Censor. He was the of Pompey, by whom he was Knights, and Labiénus himself. last of the Romans of the old made a pliant tool against the school. Like his more famous great conqueror. Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost ancestor, he was frugal and his life, but Sextus lived for a austere in his habits, upright, number of years. unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a fanatic, who could not Caesar tarried in Spain, be persuaded to relinquish his regulating affairs, until late in the views on any subject. As a autumn, when he returned to general, he was a failure, having Rome and enjoyed another neither taste nor genius for triumph over the military exploits. He held various (Spaniards). The triumph was offices at Rome, as Quaestor followed, as usual, by games and and Praetor; but when candidate festivals, which kept the for the consulship he was populace in a fever of delight and defeated, because he declined to admiration. win votes by bribery and other questionable methods then in vogue. 135 physicians and scientists were against Caesar, and also been encouraged to settle in Rome. pardoned by him. Cassius, it CHAPTER XXXIV The harbor of Ostia was was said, hated the tyrant, and MURDER OF CAESAR improved, and a road Brutus tyranny. constructed from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the These conspirators were soon Apennines. A temple to joined by persons of all parties; Upon his return from Spain, was built, and an immense and men who had fought against Caesar granted pardon to all who amphitheatre was erected at the each other in the civil war now had fought against him, the most foot of the Tarpeian Rock. joined hands. Cicero was not prominent of whom were GAIUS taken into the plot. He was of CASSIUS, MARCUS BRUTUS, In the midst of this useful activity advanced years, and all who and CICERO. He increased the he was basely murdered. knew him must have felt that he number of the Senate to nine would never consent to the hundred. He cut off the corn CASSIUS LONGINUS and taking the life of one who had grants, which nursed the city MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS been so lenient towards his mob in idleness. He sent out were the leaders in the conquered enemies. impoverished men to colonize old conspiracy to effect Caesar's cities. He rebuilt Corinth, and death, Cassius, a former On the morning of the IDES settled eighty thousand Italians lieutenant of Crassus, had shown (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as on the site of Carthage. As a great bravery in the war with the Caesar entered the Senate and censor of morals he was very Parthians. At Pharsalia he took his seat, he was rigid. His own habits were fought on the side of Pompey, approached by the conspirators, marked by frugality. The rich but was afterwards pardoned by headed by Tullius Cimber, who young patricians were forbidden Caesar. He was married to a prayed for the pardon of his to be carried about in litters, as sister of Brutus. The latter, a exiled brother; and while the rest had been the custom. Libraries nephew and son-in-law of Cato, joined him in the request, he, were formed. Eminent had also fought at Pharsalia grasping Caesar's hand, kissed 136 his head and breast. As Caesar followed; and, in their alarm, As a general Caesar was attempted to rise, Cimber most of the Senators fled. It was probably superior to all others, dragged his cloak from his two days before the Senate met, excepting possibly Hannibal. He shoulders, and Casca, who was the conspirators meanwhile was especially remarkable for the standing behind his chair, having taken refuge in the fertility of his resources. It has stabbed him in the neck. The Capitol. Public sentiment was been said that Napoleon taught first blow was struck, and the against them. Many of Caesar's his enemies how to conquer him; whole pack fell upon their noble old soldiers were in the city, and but Caesar's enemies never victim. Cassius stabbed him in many more were flocking there learned how to conquer him, the face, and Marcus Brutus in from all directions. The funeral because he had not a mere the groin. He made no further oration of Mark Antony over the system of tactics, but a new resistance; but, wrapping his remains produced a deep stratagem for every emergency. gown over his head and the impression upon the crowd. He was, however, not only a lower part of his body, he fell at They became so excited when great general, but a pre-eminent the base of POMPEY'S STATUE, the speaker removed the dead statesman, and second only to which was drenched with the man's , and disclosed his Cicero in eloquence. As a martyr's blood. wounds, that, instead of allowing historian, he wrote in a style that the body to be carried to the was clear, vigorous, and also Campus Martius for burial, they simple. Most of his writings are raised a funeral pile in the lost; but of those that remain Forum, and there burned it. The Cicero said that fools might try to crowd then dispersed in troops, improve on them, but no wise broke into and destroyed the man would attempt it. houses of the conspirators. Brutus and Cassius fled from the Marcus Brutus, 85-42 B.C. city for their lives, followed by the

Great tumult and commotion other murderers.

137 sagacious, without passion or finding it for his interest, he affection, and showed himself a deserted the Senate, made CHAPTER XXXV THE match for all his opponents. His friends with Antony, and with him SECOND arrival at Rome was disagreeable and Lepidus formed (27 TRIUMVIRATE— to Antony, who was unwilling to November, 43) the SECOND PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM surrender Caesar's property. He TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full claimed that he had already authority to govern and expended it for public purposes. reorganize the state, and to hold Octavius at once paid the dead office for five years. Caesar in his will had appointed Dictator's legacies, mostly out of GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the his own fortune, thus making The provinces were divided as grandson of his sister Julia, heir himself very popular among the follows: Lepidus was to have to three fourths of his property; people. He then joined the party Spain and Gallia Narbonensis; and his other relatives were to of the Senate, and during the Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond have the remaining fourth. autumn and winter of 44 was its the Alps and Gallia Cisalpína; chief champion. He was helped Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Young Octavius was in his by the eloquent Cicero, who was Africa. A bloody prescription nineteenth year when Caesar delivering against Antony his followed. Among its victims were was murdered. He went at once famous fourteen PHILIPPICS,— CICERO, who was surrendered to Rome to claim his inheritance. so called from their resemblance to please Antony, 300 Senators, Caesar's widow, Calpurnia, had to the great orations of and 2,000 Equites. intrusted to Mark Antony all the Demosthenes against Philip. money in the house,—a large sum,—and had also delivered to During the spring of 43 Octavius PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM his care all the Dictator's writings advanced against Antony, who and memoranda. was at Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He The Triumvirs could now Octavius was cool and was then appointed Consul, and, concentrate their energies upon 138 the East, whither BRUTUS and With Brutus fell the Republic. the rebel was overcome. He fled CASSIUS, the murderers of The absolute ascendency of to Asia with a few followers, but Caesar, had fled. These two had individuals, which is monarchy, was taken prisoner at Milétus by organized in the provinces of the was then established. one of the lieutenants of Antony, East an army amounting to and put to death. 80,000 infantry and 20,000 The immediate result of Philippi cavalry. They were employed in was a fresh arrangement of the Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a plundering various towns of Asia Roman world among the part of his province, and an equal Minor, and finally, in the spring of Triumvirs. Antony preferred the share in the government of the 42, assembled their forces at East, Octavius took Italy and Roman world with the other Sardis preparatory to an invasion Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. Triumvirs. But his soldiers were of Europe. After marching induced to desert him, and he through Thrace they entered Octavius tried to establish order was obliged to surrender to Macedonia, and found Antony in Italy, but many obstacles were Octavius. His life was spared, and Octavius opposed to them at to be overcome. Sextus but he was deprived of his power PHILIPPI, with an army of Pompeius, who had escaped and provinces. He lived twenty 120,000 troops. There were two from Munda, was in command of years longer (until 13), but battles at Philippi in November, a strong naval force. He ceased to be a factor in public 42. In the first, Brutus defeated controlled a large part of the affairs. Having rid themselves of Octavius; but Cassius was Mediterranean, and, by all rivals, Octavius and Antony defeated by Antony, and, waylaying the corn ships bound redivided the Empire, the former unaware of his colleague's for Rome, exposed the city to taking the West, the latter the victory, committed suicide. In the great danger from famine. East. second battle, three weeks later, Octavius was obliged to raise a Brutus was defeated by the fleet and meet this danger. At Antony now repaired to united armies of the Triumvirs, first he was defeated by Pompey, Alexandría, and surrendered and, following the example of but later, in 36, in the great sea himself to the fascinations of the Cassius, put an end to his life. fight off NAULOCHUS in Sicily, famous Cleopátra. He assumed 139 the habits and dress of an sea-fight off Naulochus. The the triumph of the conqueror, Eastern monarch, and by his battle lasted a long time, and was followed his example, and was senseless follies disgusted his still undecided, when Cleopátra found dead on her couch, in royal friends and supporters. He hoisted sail and with her sixty attire, with her two faithful resigned himself to luxury and vessels hastened to leave the attendants also dead at her feet. idleness, and finally divorced line. Antony at once followed himself from his wife Octavia, her. The battle, however, sister of Octavius, disregarding continued until his remaining fleet his good name and the wishes of was destroyed, and his army, his friends. Thus gradually he after a few days' hesitation, became more and more surrendered. estranged from Octavius, until finally the rupture resulted in Octavius did not follow Antony for open war. about a year. He passed the winter in Samos, sending The contest was decided by the to Italy with the veterans. naval battle off Cape Actium, in His time was occupied in Octavius as Augustus Caesar Greece, September 2, 31. restoring order in Greece and Antony had collected from all Asia, in raising money to satisfy Octavius was now sole ruler of parts of the East a large army, in the demands of his troops, and in Rome. Before returning to the addition to his fleet, which was founding new colonies. At length capital to celebrate his triumphs, supported by that of Cleopátra. he turned his attention to Egypt. he organized Egypt as a He wished to decide the contest After capturing Pelusium, the key province, settled disputes in on land; but Cleopátra insisted of the country, he marched upon Judaea, and arranged matters in that they should fight by sea. Alexandría. Antony, despairing Syria and Asia Minor. He arrived The fleet of Octavius was of success, committed suicide, at Rome (August 29), and commanded by Agrippa, who expiring in the arms of Cleopátra. enjoyed three magnificent had been in command at the The queen, disdaining to adorn triumphs. The gates of the 140 temple of —which were that he was used and then open in time of war, and had pushed aside, attracted and been closed but twice before, repelled, deceived by the once during Numa's reign, and weakness of his friends and the once between the First and strength of his adversaries; and Second Punic Wars—were at last threatened by both the closed, and Rome was at peace parties between which he tried to with all the world. steer his course.

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO

CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from the dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed by nature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment, and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not sufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to play a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. Thus it happened 141 to six hundred, and required a regular Consuls, of course, were property qualification for only too ready to follow his CHAPTER XXXVI membership. He placed himself wishes. Finally, he was made AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 at its head as Pontifex Maximus, the head of A.D.) (prince), a title which implied that the Roman religion. the Emperor was the first citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, thus lulling any After enjoying his triple triumph, suspicions of the populace. Octavius should, according to the precedents of the Republic, have The Senate still decided the most given up the title of important questions. It had IMPERATOR; but he allowed the jurisdiction in criminal matters, Senate, which was only too glad and the right of ratifying new Bust of Augustus to flatter him, to give him that laws. It was convened three name for ten years,—a period times each month; viz. on the Augustus was now supreme ruler which was repeatedly renewed. 1st, 5th (or 7th), and 13th (or in fact, if not in name. The In this way he became 15th). The Emperor voted with Senate was practically subject to permanent commander of the the other Senators. his will. The Assemblies national forces. Next the gradually lost all voice in the Imperator (Emperor) caused The Senate next conferred upon government, and finally himself to be invested with the Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; disappeared entirely. The authority of Censor. This then it made him Proconsul (an Senate, however, continued enabled him to revise the list of officer with the right to govern nominally to act until the time of Senators, and to restore to this provinces), and Consul, with the Diocletian (284 A.D.). body something of its ancient privilege of having twelve , respectability. By judicious and of sitting in the curule chair As Augustus had exclusive pruning he reduced the number between the two Consuls. The command of the armies, he 142 chose to govern as Proconsul Augustus next devoted himself to those provinces which required the task of conquering the military forces. He himself territory between the Lower resided at the capital, and sent Rhine and , which was deputies (legati) to oversee them. occupied by hardy mountaineers The other provinces, called whose resistance was likely to be Senatorial, were governed by stubborn. His two step-sons, Proconsuls appointed by the Drusus and Tiberius, were in Senate. These were at this time charge of this important work.

Sicily, Africa, Achaia (Greece), relief They were so successful as to Macedonia, Asia (Minor), acquire enough territory to form Ulterior, and Gallia The Roman Empire at this time two new provinces, Rhaetia and Narbonensis. included all the countries Noricum (15 B.C.). bordering on the Mediterranean, The city government now extending east to the Parthian Tiberius also conquered the included all Italy. In this kingdom (the Upper Euphrátes) valley of the Save, and made it Augustus was assisted by three and the Arabian Desert, south to the province of Pannonia Praefects; one in charge of the the Desert of Sahara, and west (Western Hungary), 10 B.C. corn supplies, a second in to the Atlantic Ocean. On the charge of the city proper, and a north the boundary was Drusus, while his brother Tiberius third in charge of his body guard unsettled, and subject to inroads was engaged in Pannonia, made of nine thousand men, called the of barbarians. In the early part of a campaign against the Germans PRAETORIAN GUARD. These his reign Augustus joined to the near the Rhine. He had nearly Praefects soon overshadowed all Empire a new province, Moesia, finished the conquest of the regular magistrates, and comprising the territory along the Germany from the Rhine to the through them Augustus reigned Lower Danube, and making Elbe, when he died (9, B.C.), and supreme. nineteen in all. was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his 143 work. loss in making his way through the pass into the open plain, but Drusus received the was there met by the enemy in of Germanicus for his conquests full force, and his troops were in Germany. His wife was annihilated. In despair Varus Antonia, daughter of Mark killed himself. Germany was Antony, by whom he had two practically lost and the Rhine sons, Germanicus and Claudius, became again the Roman the latter of whom was frontier. This defeat caused a afterwards Emperor. great stir at Rome, and the Emperor is said to have Temple of Mars in the Forum of In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Augustus appointed governor of the newly Varus, give me back my legions!" acquired territory in Germany. Although married three times, the When he endeavored to subject Five years later (14 A.D.) Emperor had but one child, these recently conquered Augustus died. In his last JULIA (39 B.C.—14 A.D.), by his peoples to the forms of the moments he asked his friends if second wife, Scribonia. She Roman provincial government, he had not played well his part in [Julia] was noted for her beauty they rose in rebellion under the the comedy of life. and talents, but infamous for her lead of Arminius (Herman), a intrigues. She was married three powerful chief. times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by Varus was allured from his whom she had five children; and fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. in the Teutoberger Forests, She was banished on account of where he was suddenly attacked her conduct, and died in want. on all sides. After three days' fighting, he succeeded with great OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, 144 was noted for her beauty and and had three sons, two of whom irresponsible he accomplishments, as well as for were adopted by Augustus, but established. He formed his the nobility of her character. Her died before him; the third was empire for the present, to the son MARCELLUS was adopted murdered by Tiberius. utter ignoring of the future. Thus by his uncle, but died young (23 it would seem that the part he B.C.). The famous lines of Virgil Augustus died at the age of played was that of a shrewd upon this promising young man seventy-six. He was frugal and politician, rather than that of a ( VI. 869- 887) were read correct in his personal habits, wise statesman. before the Emperor and his quick and shrewd in his dealings sister, moving them to tears, and with men, bold and ambitious in winning for the author a the affairs of state. His munificent reward. greatness consisted rather in the ability to abstain from abusing After the death of her first the advantages presented by husband, Octavia was married to fortune, than in the genius which Mark Antony, by whom she had moulds the current of affairs to two daughters, through whom the will. His success depended she was the ancestress of three on the temper of the people and Emperors, CLAUDIUS, the peculiar circumstances of the CALIGULA, and NERO. time. His clearest title to greatness is found in the fact that AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent he compelled eighty millions of general and statesman, was a people to live in peace for more warm friend and counsellor of than forty years, He made the Augustus. At the battle of Actium world to centre on one will, and he commanded the fleet of the horrors which mark the reigns Octavius. He married Julia, the of his successors were the only daughter of the Emperor, legitimate result of the 145 stands first in the Augustan age. however, fitted to grapple with Born at Andes, near Mantua, 15 the tasks and difficulties of CHAPTER XXXVII THE October, 70, he was educated at practical life. AUGUSTAN AGE Cremona and Mediolánum. After completing his education he In his fortunes and friends he retired to his paternal estate. In was a happy man. Munificent the division of land among the patronage gave him ample In speaking of Augustus, we soldiers after the battle of Philippi means of enjoyment and leisure; must take into account the (42), he was deprived of his and he had the friendship of all writers whose names have given property, which was the most accomplished men of to his its brightest lustre, and subsequently restored to him by his day, among whom was have made the AUGUSTAN AGE Augustus. He lived partly at Horace, who entertained a strong a synonym for excellence in Rome, partly in Campania. His affection for him. His fame, culture, art, and government. health was never good, and he which was established in his Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a died in his fifty-second year (22 lifetime, was cherished after his host of others, have given his September, 19 B.C.). death as an inheritance in which reign a brilliancy unmatched in every Roman had a share; and time, which is rather enhanced Virgil had neither original nor his works became school-books than diminished by the fame of creative genius. Though he even before the death of Cicero, Caesar, and , who mainly imitated Greek poetry, his Augustus, and have continued preceded, and that of Tacitus, style is graceful and eloquent, his such ever since. Seneca, and others, who tone inspiring and elevating. followed; for they belong to an HORACE (65-8 B.C.) was born epoch in which Augustus stands In disposition he was childlike, at Venusia, but received his the central figure in all which innocent, and amiable,—a good education at Rome and Athens. pertains to the arts of peace. son, a faithful friend, honest, and He was present at the battle of

full of devotion to persons and Philippi (42), where he fought as In literature the name of VIRGIL ideal interests. He was not, Tribune under Brutus. His first 146 writings were his Satires. These perhaps nearest to modern manner, and the latter is he read to his friends, and their civilization, partly on account of constantly referring to him in his merit was at once recognized. his fresh and vivid sense of the poetry. He died (8 B.C.) His great patron was beauties of nature, and partly childless, and left his fortune to MAECÉNAS, who introduced him because his subject is love. His Augustus. to the Emperor, and gave him a representations of this passion fine country seat near Tivoli, are graceful, and strikingly true. among the Sabine Mountains. He also excelled other poets in He died the same year as his the perfect elegance of his form, patron, and was buried beside especially in the character and him at the Esquiline Gate. rhythm of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banished by The poems of Horace give us a Augustus for some reason now Auditorium of Maecenas in Rome picture of refined and educated unknown. Some of his most life in the Rome of his time. They pleasing verses were written The prose writers who lived at are unsurpassed in gracefulness during this period. this period were Livy, Sallust, and felicity of thought. Filled with and Nepos. truisms, they were for centuries One of the most noted men of read and quoted more than those the Augustan age was LIVY is the best of these. He of any other ancient writer. MAECÉNAS, the warm friend was a native of Patavium and adviser of Augustus. He (Padua), a man of rhetorical OVID (43 B.C.-18 A.D.), a native was a constant patron of the training, who spent most of his of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgil literature and art of his time in Rome. The historical and Horace as a poet, but ranks generation. He was very value of his work cannot be high on account of his great gift wealthy, and his magnificent overestimated, on account of the for narration. house was the centre of literary scarcity, and in many cases the society in Rome, He helped both utter lack, of other historical "Of the Latin poets he stands Virgil and Horace in a substantial documents on the times of which 147 he wrote. His style is spirited, republican institutions, a man of The finest building outside of the and always interesting. His great independence of character, city, in the Campus Martius, was accuracy, however, is not to be and a poet of no mean merit, as the PANTHEON, built by compared with that of Caesar. his contemporaries testify. Agrippa, and now used as a Only thirty-five out of the one Unfortunately, none of his Christian church. Here are hundred and forty-two books that writings are preserved. buried many distinguished men. he wrote are preserved. Near by, Augustus erected a The age of Augustus is also mausoleum for himself. Here too NEPOS was a prolific writer, but noted for the architectural was a theatre, built by only a portion of one of his improvements in Rome. Pompey,—the first stone theatre works, De Viris Illustribus, has Augustus is said to have found a of Rome. come down to us; it is neither city of stone, and left one of accurate nor interesting, and of marble. He himself built twelve little value. temples, and repaired eighty-two that had fallen into decay. The SALLUST left two historical FORUM was beautified by five productions, one on the halls of justice (Basilicae), which conspiracy of Catiline, the other were erected around its borders. on the war with Jugurtha. His The most famous of these was Pantheon entrance, Rome style is rhetorical. He excels in the , begun by delineating character, but he is Julius Caesar and finished by often so concise as to be Augustus. Public squares were obscure. planned and begun north of the great Forum, the finest of which GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a was the FORUM OF TRAJAN, statesman and orator of marked finished by the Emperor of that attainments of this time. He was name. strongly attached to the old 148 Rome in 7 B.C., he celebrated a throne at the age of fifty-six. A triumph, and afterwards married silent man, "all his feelings, CHAPTER XXXVIII THE Julia, the dissolute daughter of desires, and ambitions were JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN Augustus. This marriage proved locked behind an impenetrable EMPERORS to be the ruin of Tiberius, barrier." He is said but once to developing everything that was have taken counsel with his bad in his character, and making officers. He was a master of him jealous, suspicious, and dissimulation, and on this TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.) hypocritical. account an object of dislike and suspicion. But until his later years, his intellect was clear and Augustus was succeeded by far-seeing, penetrating all TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO disguises. CAESAR (born 42 B.C.), the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Throughout his reign Tiberius Livia. His mother obtained a strove to do his duty to the divorce from Tiberius, and Empire at large, and maintained married Augustus. Tiberius, 42 B.C – 37 A.D. with great care the constitutional forms which had been Tiberius had great military talent. Augustus, not relishing the established by Augustus. Only He was a severe disciplinarian, changes in his character, sent two changes of importance were and commanded the full him to Rhodes, where he lived made. First, the IMPERIAL confidence of his soldiers. As seven years in retirement. GUARD, hitherto seen in the city commander in Cantabria, Through his mother's influence, only in small bodies, was Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and however, he was recalled in 2 permanently encamped in full Germany, he conducted his A.D., and was afterwards force close to the walls. By this campaigns with success, and appointed the Emperor's course the danger of riots was honor to himself. Returning to successor. He ascended the much lessened. Secondly, the 149 old COMITIAS were practically the imperium or potestas. another, the large circle of abolished. But the Senate was Tiberius stretched the application relatives of Augustus, until finally treated with great deference. of this offence even to words or the aged Emperor found himself conduct which could in any way alone in the palace with Livia and Tiberius expended great care on be considered dangerous to the her son, Tiberius. All Rome the provinces. His favorite Emperor. A hateful class of execrated the Empress, and her maxim was, that a good informers (delatores) sprung up, son feared and hated her. She shepherd should shear, and not and the lives of all were rendered survived Augustus fifteen years, flay, his sheep. Soldiers, unsafe. The dark side of this and died in 29. Tiberius refused governors, and officials of all ruler's character is made to visit her on her death-bed, and kinds were kept in a wholesome specially prominent by ancient was not present at her funeral. dread of punishment, if they historians; but their statements oppressed those under them. are beginning to be taken with SEJÁNUS was the commander Strict economy in public much allowance. of the Praetorian Guard of expenses kept the taxes down. Tiberius. He was trusted fully by Commerce was cherished, and After a reign of twenty-three the Emperor, but proved to be a his reign on the whole was one of years, Tiberius died, either in a deep-dyed rascal. He persuaded prosperity for the Empire. fainting fit or from violence, at the Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the age of seventy-nine. Emperor, to poison her husband, Tiberius was noted especially for the heir apparent, and then he prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, divorced his own wife to marry the slightest pretext. Majestas deserves more than a passing her. He so maligned Agrippína, nearly corresponds to treason; notice. She exercised almost a the widow of Germanicus and but it is more comprehensive. boundless influence on her daughter of Agrippa and Julia, One of the offences included in husband, Augustus. She had that Tiberius banished her, with the word was effecting, aiding in, great ambition, and was very her sons Nero and Drusus. In 26 or planning the death of a cruel and unscrupulous. She he induced the Emperor to retire magistrate, or of one who had managed to ruin, one after to the island of Capreae, and he 150 himself became the real master confiscated their property. He THE CLAUDIAN of Rome. seemed to revel in bloodshed, and is said to have expressed a EMPERORS Tiberius at last finding out his wish that the Roman people had true character, Sejánus was but one neck, that he might slay CLAUDIUS (41-54) arrested and executed in 31. His them all at a blow. He was body was dragged through the passionately fond of adulation, A strong party was now in favor streets, torn in pieces by the and often repaired to the of returning to a republican form mob, and thrown into the Tiber. Capitoline temple in the guise of of government; but while the a god, and demanded worship. Senate was considering this Four years of such a tyrant was question, the Praetorian Guard CALIGULA (37-41) enough. He was murdered by a settled it by proclaiming Tribune of his Praetorian Guard. CLAUDIUS Emperor.

Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Claudius was the uncle of Caesar, son of Germanicus and Caligula and the nephew of Agrippína, grandson of Julia, and Tiberius. He was a man of great-grandson of Augustus, as learning and good parts, but a Emperor. He is better known as glutton, and the slave of his two CALIGULA,—a nickname given wives, who were both bad him by the soldiers from the women. His first wife, buskins he wore. He was Caligula, 12 A.D.-41 A.D. MESSALÍNA, was so notorious twenty-five years of age when he that her name has became began to reign, of weak almost a synonym for constitution, and subject to fits. wickedness. His second wife, his After squandering his own niece AGRIPPÍNA, sister of wealth, he killed rich citizens, and Caligula, was nearly as bad. 151 This woman had by her former noted general AGRICOLA: It or three years he was under the husband, Domitius, a son, whom remained a Roman province for influence of his tutor, SENECA, she induced the Emperor to four hundred years, but the the author, and BURRHUS, the adopt under the name of NERO. people never assimilated Roman Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, The faithless wife then caused customs, as did the Gauls, and and his government was during her husband to be poisoned, and when the Roman garrisons were this period the most respectable her son to be proclaimed withdrawn, they quickly returned of any since the time of Emperor. to their former condition. Augustus. His masters kept the However, many remains of young Emperor amused, and Roman buildings in the island removed from the cares of state. show that it was for the time well But he soon became infatuated under subjection. with an unscrupulous woman, POPPAEA SABÍNA, for whom he The public works of Claudius neglected and finally killed his were on a grand scale. He wife, Octavia. constructed a new harbor at the Claudius, 10 B.C.-54 A.D. mouth of the Tiber, and built the It would be useless to follow in great aqueduct called the AQUA detail the crimes of Nero from At Rome the rule of Claudius was CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of this time. A freedman, mild, and on the whole beneficial. which can be seen to this day. TIGELLÍNUS, became his In the government of the He also reclaimed for agriculture adviser, and was the real ruler of provinces he was rigorous and a large tract of land by draining the Empire. He encouraged his severe. He undertook the the Fucine Lake. master in all his vices and CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in wickedness. Poppaea died from a campaign of sixteen days he NERO (54-68) a kick administered by Nero in laid the foundation of its final anger; Burrhus was disposed of; subjugation, which occurred NERO was but sixteen years old Agrippína, and Britannicus, the about forty years later, under the when he began to reign. For two true heir to the throne, were 152 murdered. The wealthy were Broad regular streets replaced meadows, lakes, groves, and plundered, and the feelings of his the narrow winding alleys. The distant views. In front was a subjects outraged in every new houses were limited in colossal statue of Nero himself, conceivable manner. The height, built partly of hard stone, one hundred and ten feet high. Emperor appeared in public, and protected by open spaces contending first as a musician, and colonnades. The water Conspiracies having been and afterwards in the sports of supply was also carefully formed in which Seneca and the circus. regulated. Lucan were implicated, both men were ordered to take their own The great fire of 18 July, 64, lives. Nero's life after this which destroyed a large part of became still more infamous. In a the city, was ascribed to him, but tour made in Greece, he without sufficient evidence; and conducted himself so the stories of his conduct during scandalously that even Roman the conflagration are doubtless morals were shocked, and pure fictions. It was necessary, Roman patience could endure however, to fix the guilt on some him no longer. The Governor of one; so the CHRISTIANS, then a Nero, 37 A.D.-69 A.D. Hither Spain, GALBA, proclaimed small sect, made up chiefly of the himself Emperor, and marched poorer people, were accused of In addition to rebuilding the city, upon Rome. Verginius, the the crime, and persecuted Nero gratified his love for the Governor of Upper Germany, without mercy. They were often magnificent by erecting a also lent his aid to the enclosed in fagots covered with splendid palace, called the insurrection. The Senate pitch, and burned alive. GOLDEN HOUSE. Its walls proclaimed Nero a public enemy, were adorned with gold, precious and condemned him to death. In rebuilding Rome, Nero took stones, and masterpieces of art He fled from the city and put an every precaution against the from Greece. The grounds end to his life, June 9, 68, just in recurrence of a conflagration. around were marvellous in their time to escape capture. His 153 statues were broken down, his began to dislike him, and when sincerely regretted by the better name everywhere erased, and Burrhus died his fate was sealed. element in the city. his Golden House demolished. By the Emperor's command he With him ended the Claudian line committed suicide. Opening the OTHO, the first husband of of Emperors. veins in his feet and arms, he Poppaea, and the leader in the discoursed with his friends on the insurrection against Galba, was LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 brevity of life until death ensued. now declared Emperor. No B.C.-65 A.D.) was born at sooner did the news of his Corduba in Spain, of a Spanish Seneca is the most eminent of accession reach Gaul than Roman family, and was educated the writers of his age. He wrote VITELLIUS, a general of the at Rome. His father was a moral essays, philosophical army of the Rhine, revolted. teacher of rhetoric, a man of letters, physical treatises, and Otho marched against the rebels, wealth and literary attainments. tragedies. Of the last, the best was defeated, and committed Seneca began to practise at the are HERCULES FURENS, suicide after a reign of three bar at Rome, and was gaining PHAEDRA, and MEDEA. months. considerable reputation, when in 41 he was banished to Corsica. GALBA (68-69)—OTHO VITELLIUS had been a good Eight years later he was recalled (69)—VITELLIUS (69) soldier, but as a ruler he was to be tutor of the young Nero, weak and incapable. He was then eleven years old. He was GALBA entered the city as a killed after a reign of less than a Consul in 57, and during the first conqueror, without much trouble, year, during which he had years of Nero's reign he shared but on account of his parsimony distinguished himself by gluttony the administration of affairs with and austerity he soon became and vulgar sensuality. the worthy Burrhus. His unpopular, and was murdered by influence over Nero, while it his mutinous soldiers fifteen days lasted, was salutary, though after he reached Rome. He often maintained by doubtful belonged to an old patrician means. In course of time Nero family, and his overthrow was 154 simple, putting to shame the of Peace, public baths, and the luxury and extravagance of the famous COLOSSÉUM was CHAPTER XXXIX THE nobles, and causing a marked begun, receiving its name from FLAVIAN EMPERORS improvement in the general tone the Colossus, a statue of Nero, of society. He removed from the which had stood near by. Senate many improper members, replacing them by able men, VESPASIAN (69-79). among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 he put down a formidable

rebellion in Gaul; and when his The East now made a claim for son Titus returned from the the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, capture of Jerusalem, [Note: the soldiers who were engaged Jerusalem was taken in 70, after in war against the revolted Jews a siege of several months, the Vespasianus, 9-79 A.D. in Judaea proclaimed as horrors of which have been Emperor their commander, graphically detailed by the On the whole, Vespasian was TITUS FLAVIUS Jewish historian Joséphus, who active and prudent in public VESPASIÁNUS. He left the was present in the army of Titus. affairs, frugal and virtuous in conduct of the war in charge of The city was destroyed, and the private life. The decade of his his son Titus, and arrived at inhabitants sold into slavery.] reign was marked by peace and Rome in 70. Here he overthrew they enjoyed a joint triumph. The general prosperity. and put to death Vitellius. In the Temple of Janus was closed, and course of this struggle the Capitol peace prevailed during the One of the ablest men of this age was burned. This he restored, remainder of his reign. was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at rebuilding also a large part of the Forum Julii in Gaul, he was made city. Much money was spent on public Governor of Aquitania by

works, and in beautifying the city. Vespasian in 73. Four years In his own life Vespasian was A new Forum was built, a Temple later he was Consul, and the next 155 year was sent to Britain, which which can still be seen. DOMITIAN (81-96) he conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation, increasing the prosperity of the DOMITIAN was the opposite of people and advancing their his brother Titus,—cruel, civilization. He remained in passionate, and extravagant. He Britain until 85, when he was was murdered after a reign of recalled. His life was written by fifteen years, during which he his son-in-law, the historian earned the hatred and contempt Tacitus. Titus Vespasianus, 39-81 A.D. of his subjects by his crimes and inconsistencies. It was during this reign that TITUS (79-81) HERCULANEUM and POMPEII In his foreign policy Domitian were destroyed by an eruption of showed considerable ability. He Vesuvius. In this eruption added to the Empire that part of Vespasian was succeeded by his perished PLINY THE ELDER, the Germany which corresponds to son TITUS, who emulated the most noted writer of his day. His modern Baden and Wirtemberg, virtues of his father. He finished work on Natural History, the only and built a line of fortifications the Colosséum, begun by one of his writings that is from Mentz on the Rhine to Vespasian, and built a triumphal preserved, shows that he was a Ratisbon on the Danube. arch to commemorate his true student. His passion for victories over the Jews. This investigation led him to approach With him ended the line of the arch, called the ARCH OF too near the volcano, and caused FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he TITUS, was built on the highest his death. was also the last of the so called part of the , and on its TWELVE CAESARS, a name walls was carved a given them by the historian representation of the sacred . candlestick of the Jewish temple, 156 TRAJAN, whose character has Trajan also annexed to the its surest guaranty in the love Empire Arabia Petraea, which CHAPTER XL THE FIVE and veneration of his subjects; afforded an important route GOOD EMPERORS and it is said that, long between Egypt and Syria. His afterwards, the highest praise invasion of Parthia, however, that could be bestowed on a ruler resulted in no permanent was that he was "more fortunate advantage. NERVA (96-98). than Augustus, and better than Trajan." Trajan was a soldier,

and, if he lacked the refinements NERVA was appointed by the of a peaceful life, he was Senate to succeed Domitian, and nevertheless a wise and firm was the first Emperor who did not master. owe his advancement to military force or influence. He associated He added to the Empire Dacia, with himself MARCUS ULPIUS the country included between the Trajan’s Column in Forum of TRAJANUS, then in command of Danube and the Theiss, the Trajan the army on the Rhine. Nerva Carpathians and the Pruth. This ruled only sixteen months; but territory became so thoroughly During the reign of Trajan the during that time he restored Romanized that the language of Roman Empire REACHED THE tranquillity among the people, its inhabitants to-day is founded SUMMIT OF ITS POWER; but conferring happiness and on that of their conquerors nearly the first signs of decay were prosperity upon every class. eighteen centuries ago. It was in beginning to be seen in the

honor of this campaign into Dacia financial distress of all Italy, and that the famous COLUMN OF the decline of the free peasantry, TRAJAN (98-117). TRAJAN, which still remains, until in the next century they was erected. were reduced to a condition of Nerva was succeeded by practical serfdom. 157 HADRIAN (117-138) Caledonians and built a fortified line of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from Trajan was succeeded by his sea to sea. The remains of this cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native great work are still to be seen, of Spain. One of the first acts of corresponding nearly to the Hadrian was to relinquish the modern boundary between recent conquests of Trajan, and England and Scotland. He also Trajan, 53-117 A.D. to restore the old boundaries of visited the East, where the Jews the Empire. The reasons for this were making serious trouble, and The literature of Trajan's reign were that they had reached the completed their overthrow. was second only to that of the utmost limits which could lend Augustan age. His time has strength to the power of Rome, On his return to the city, the often been called the SILVER or be held in subjection without Emperor devoted himself to its AGE. Its prose writers were, constant and expensive military adornment. Several of his works, however, unlike those of the operations. The people more or less complete, still Augustan age, far superior to its occupying the new conquests remain. The most famous of poets. The most famous prose were hardy and warlike, these is the MAUSOLÉUM writers were TACITUS, PLINY scattered over a country easy of (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now THE YOUNGER, and defence, and certain to strive known as the Castle of San QUINTILIAN. constantly against a foreign yoke. Angelo.

The poets of this period were Hadrian displayed constant Hadrian was afflicted with bad JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, activity in travelling over the health, suffering much from LUCAN, and STATIUS, of whom Empire, to overlook personally its diseases from which he could the last two were of an inferior administration and protection. find no relief. On account of this, order. He visited Britain, where he and to secure a proper crushed the inroads of the succession, he associated with 158 himself in the government TITUS account of the affectionate brought with it a pestilence, AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS, and respect which he had shown for which spread devastation required him to adopt Marcus Hadrian. He was a man of noble throughout the West. The Annius Verus and Lucius Verus. appearance, firm and prudent, Christians were charged with In 138, soon after this and under him the affairs of state being the cause of the plague, arrangement was made, Hadrian moved smoothly. and were cruelly persecuted. died, leaving the Empire to Titus. Among the victims were Martyr at Rome, and Polycarp at MARCUS AURELIUS . ANTONÍNUS (161-180) The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a On the death of Antonínus, colleague who attracted attention Marcus Annius Verus succeeded only by his unfitness for his Castel Sant’Angelo, Hadrian’s him under the title of Marcus position. The Emperor was thus Mausoleum Aurelius Antonínus. relieved of embarrassments which might well have become The Moors made an invasion into his greatest danger. The TITUS AURELIUS Spain; the barbarians broke into remainder of his reign, however, ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138- Gaul; the army in Britain was scarcely less unhappy. attempted to set up another 161) Emperor; and the Parthians in The dangers from the the East were in an uneasy state. troublesome barbarians grew ANTONÍNUS, a native of Gaul, The Eastern war, however, greater and greater. Rome had was fifty-two years old when he ended favorably, and the now passed the age of conquest, succeeded to the throne. The Parthian king purchased peace and began to show inability even cognomen PIUS was conferred by ceding Mesopotamia to to defend what she had acquired. upon him by the Senate on Rome. But the returning army For fourteen years Aurelius was 159 engaged on the frontiers fighting began rapidly to wane. of adoration. The Christians not these barbarians, and only refused homage to the endeavoring to check their Roman gods, but denounced the advance. He died at Vienna burning of incense as while thus occupied, in the fifty- sacrilegious. AURELIUS gave ninth year of his life (180). his sanction to the most general persecution this sect had yet Peace was shortly afterwards suffered. The last combined made with the barbarians, a effort to suppress them was peace bought with money; an under DIOCLETIAN, in 284, but it example often followed in later Marcus Aurelius, 121-180 A.D. ended with the EDICT OF MILAN times, when Rome lacked the in 312, which famous decree strength and courage to enforce gave the imperial license to the her wishes by force of arms. THE CHRISTIANS religion of Christ.

Marcus Aurelius was the The CHRISTIANS, who were PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. gradually increasing in numbers, His tastes were quiet; he was were persecuted at different unassuming, and intent on the times throughout the Empire. good of the people. His faults One ground for these were amiable weaknesses; his persecutions was that it was a virtues, those of a hero. His crime against the state to refuse Meditations have made him to worship the gods of the known as an author of fine tastes Romans under whom the Empire and thoughts. With him ended had flourished. It was also the the line of the GOOD custom to burn incense in front of EMPERORS. After his death, the Emperor's statue, as an act Rome's prosperity and power 160 proudest boasts were of his crown to the highest bidder, who triumphs in the amphitheatre, proved to be DIDIUS JULIÁNUS, CHAPTER XLI PERIOD and of his ability to kill a hundred a wealthy Senator. He paid OF MILITARY lions with as many arrows. After about a thousand dollars to each DESPOTISM—DECLINE a reign of twelve years his soldier of the Guard, twelve OF THE EMPIRE servants rid the Empire of his thousand in number. After presence. enjoying the costly honor two months he was deposed and executed. PERTINAX (192-193) COMMODUS (180-192) In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by On the death of Aurelius, his son, PERTINAX, the Praefect of the their respective armies. Among Commodus, hastened to Rome, city, an old and experienced them was SEPTIMIUS and was received by both the Senator, followed Commodus. SEVÉRUS, an African, belonging Senate and army without His reign of three months was to the army of the Danube. opposition. His character was well meant, but as it was not the opposite of that of his good supported by the military it was of Sevérus was an able soldier. He father. In ferocity and no effect. His attempted reforms disarmed the Praetorians, vindictiveness he was almost were stopped by his murder. banished them from Rome, and unequalled, even among the filled their place with fifty Emperors of unhappy Rome. By thousand legionaries, who acted means of informers, who were JULIANUS (193).— as his body guard. The person well paid, he rid himself of the SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS whom he placed in command of best members of the Senate. His (193-211) this guard was made to rank next government became so corrupt, to himself, with legislative, he himself so notorious in crime, judicial, and financial powers. that he was unendurable. His The Praetorians now offered the The Senate he reduced to a 161 nonentity. CARACALLA, predecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him. After securing the capital, MACRINUS, AND Sevérus carried on a campaign HELIOGABALUS against the Parthians, and was FROM ALEXANDER victorious over the rulers of Sevérus left two sons, both of SEVERUS TO THE AGE Mesopotamia and Arabia. In 203 whom he had associated with he erected, in commemoration of OF THE THIRTY himself in the government. No these victories, a magnificent TYRANTS (222-268) sooner was he dead than they arch, which still stands at the quarrelled, and the elder, head of the Forum. He died at CARACALLA, murdered the ALEXANDER SEVÉRUS was a (York), in Britain, while other with his own hand in the good man, and well educated. making preparations for a presence of their mother. But he endeavored in vain to campaign against the check the decline of the state. Caledonians. Caracalla was blood-thirsty and The military had become all

cruel. After a short reign (211- powerful, and he could effect 216) he was murdered by one of nothing against it. During his his soldiers. By him were begun reign (222-235), the famous the famous baths which bore his baths begun by Caracalla were name, and of which extensive finished. remains still exist. Caracalla was succeeded by MACRÍNUS, who Sevérus was killed in a mutiny reigned but one year, and was led by MAXIMIN, who was Septimius Severus, 145-211 A.D. followed by HELIOGABALUS Emperor for three years (235-

(218-222), a priest of the sun, a 238), and was then murdered by true Oriental, with but few virtues. his mutinous soldiers. His end was like that of his

162 GORDIAN, his successor (238- ruled and revived somewhat the 244), was also slain by his own shattered strength of the soldiers in his camp on the government: CLAUDIUS (268- Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) 270); AURELIAN (270-275); and DECIUS (249- 251) both fell TACITUS (275-276); PROBUS in battle. Under Decius was (276-282); and CARUS (282- begun a persecution of the 283). Aurelian undertook a Christians severer than any that campaign against the famous Aurelian, 214-275 A.D. preceded it. ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMÝRA. In her he found a worthy foe, one The next seventeen years (251- whose political ability was DIOCLETIAN (284-305) 268) is a period of great rendered more brilliant by her confusion. Several generals in justice and courage. Defeated in With this ruler, the last vestige of different provinces were declared the field, she fortified herself in the old republican form of Emperor. The Empire nearly fell Palmýra, which was taken after a government at Rome disappears. to pieces, but finally rallied siege and destroyed. Zenobia Old Rome was dead. Her without loss of territory. Its was carried to Rome, where she Senate had lost the last remnant weakness, however, was graced the triumph of her of its respectability. Seeing the apparent to all. This period is conqueror, but was afterwards necessity of a more united often called the AGE OF THE permitted to live in retirement. country and a firmer rule, THIRTY TYRANTS. Aurelian was the first who built DIOCLETIAN associated with the walls of Rome in their present himself MAXIMIAN, a gigantic position. soldier, who signalized his

FIVE GOOD EMPERORS accession by subduing a (268-283) dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now GALERIUS and CONSTANTIUS, 163 whom he called CAESARS,— (306-337). thirty years, in his sixty-fourth one to have charge of the East, year (337). and the other of the West. By Constantine determined to build means of these assistants he for his Empire a new capital, crushed all revolts, strengthened which should be worthy of him. the waning power of the Empire, He selected the site of and imposed peace and good as offering the order upon the world. greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the Diocletian and Maximian sea and the Golden Horn, it afterwards resigned, and allowed could easily be made almost their two Caesars to assume the impregnable, while as a seaport , 272-337 rank of AUGUSTI, and they in its advantages were unrivalled,— A.D. their turn appointed Caesars as a feature not in the least shared assistants. by Rome. The project was Constantine is entitled to great entered upon with energy; the credit for the uniform kindness Soon after his accession city was built, and named with which he treated his Constantius died, and his son . To people Christian subjects. It is said that CONSTANTINE was proclaimed it, the seat of government was his mother, HELENA, was a Caesar, against the wishes of permanently removed thither, Christian, and that it was to her Galerius. A bitter struggle and every inducement was influence that this mildness was followed, in which Constantine offered to immigration. Thus was due. The sect, notwithstanding finally overcame all his born the GREEK EMPIRE, many persecutions, had kept on opponents, and was declared destined to drag out a miserable increasing, until now we find sole Emperor. For his successes existence for nearly a thousand them a numerous and quite he was named the GREAT. years after Rome had fallen a influential body. It was during his prey to the barbarians. Its reign that the DECREE OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT founder died, after a reign of MILAN was issued, in 313, giving 164 the imperial license to the religion DECLINE OF THE attempted to restore the old of Christ; and also in this reign religion, and thus gained for the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, EMPIRE himself the epithet of in Bithynia (325), met to settle APOSTATE. The Christians, questions of creed. Constantine was succeeded by however, had too firm a hold on his three sons, CONSTANTINE the state to admit of their powers In person Constantine was tall II., CONSTANTIUS, and being shaken. The failure of and majestic: he was dexterous CONSTANS, who divided the Julian precluded any similar in all warlike accomplishments; Empire among themselves (337- attempt afterward. After a reign intrepid in war, affable in peace; 353). Constantine and Constans of three years, he was killed in an patient and prudent in council, almost at once quarrelled over expedition against the Persians. bold and unhesitating in action. the possession of Italy, and the His successor, JOVIAN (363- Ambition alone led him to attack difficulty was ended only by the 364), who was chosen by the the East; and the very madness death of the former. The other army, died after a reign of only of jealousy marked his course two brothers lived in harmony for seven months. after his success. He was filial in some time, because the Persian his affection towards his mother; war in the East occupied but he can scarcely be called Constantius, while Constans was VALENTINIAN and affectionate who put to death his satisfied with a life of indolence VALENS (364-375) father-in-law, his brother-in-law, and dissipation. Constans was his wife, and his son. If he was murdered in 350, and his brother great in his virtues, in his faults was sole Emperor. He died ten After a brief interregnum, the he was contemptible. years later, and was succeeded throne was bestowed on by his cousin, Julian (360- 363) Valentinian, who associated with himself his brother Valens. The JULIAN was a good soldier, and Empire was divided. Valens took a man calculated to win the love the East, with Constantinople as and respect of all. But he his capital. Valentinian took the 165 West, making MILAN the seat of and EUGENIUS (392-394), were barbarians were driven from the his government. So completely either deposed or assassinated, frontiers on the Rhine and in had Rome fallen from her ancient and again there was, for a short Britain; a revolt in Africa was position, that it is very doubtful if time, one ruler of the whole suppressed. Honorius himself this monarch ever visited the city Empire, THEODOSIUS, whom was weak and jealous. He did during his reign. [Note: Since the Gratian had made Emperor of not hesitate to murder Stilicho as building of Constantinople no the East. He was sole Emperor soon as he was old enough to Emperor had lived in Rome. She for one year (394-395). On his see the power he was wielding. had ceased to be mistress even death his two sons divided the With Stilicho's death his fortune of the West, and rapidly fell to the Empire, HONORIUS (395-423) departed. Rome was besieged, rank of a provincial city.] He died taking the West, and Arcadius captured, and sacked by the during a campaign on the the East. barbarian ALARIC, in 410. When Danube. His son GRATIAN this evil was past, numerous (375-383) succeeded him. He contestants arose in different discouraged Paganism, and parts of the Empire, each eager under him Christianity made for a portion of the fabric which rapid strides. His uncle Valens was now so obviously crumbling was slain in a battle against the to pieces. Goths; but so completely were the Eastern and Western Honorius was succeeded, after Empires now separated, that Honorius, 384-423 A.D. one of the longest reigns of the Gratian did not attempt to make imperial line, by VALENTINIAN himself sole ruler, but appointed Honorius was only six years old III. (423-455). The Empire was THEODOSIUS to the empty when he began to reign. He was but a relic of its former self. throne. Gratian, like so many of placed under the care of a Gaul, Spain, and Britain were his predecessors, was murdered. Vandal named STILICHO, to practically lost; and His successors, MAXIMUS (383- whom he was allied by marriage. Pannonia were in the hands of 388), VALENTINIAN II (388-392), Stilicho was a man of ability. The the Goths; and Africa was soon 166 after seized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in the After his death, Ricimer ruled possession of AETIUS, a under the title of PATRICIAN, Scythian by birth, who for a time until the people demanded an upheld the Roman name, Emperor, and he appointed winning for himself the title of ANTHEMIUS (467-472), who LAST OF THE ROMANS. He attempted to strengthen his was assassinated by his position by marrying a daughter ungrateful master. A few months of Ricimer; but jealousy soon later, in 455, the Emperor himself sprang up between them. was killed by a Senator, Ricimer invited a horde of MAXIMUS, who succeeded him, barbarians from across the Alps, but for only three months, when with whom he captured and AVÍTUS (455-456), a noble of sacked Rome, and killed Gaul, became Emperor. He was Anthemius. Shortly after, deposed by RICIMER (457-467), Ricimer himself died. a Sueve, of considerable ability, who for some time managed the Names which appear only as affairs of the Empire, making and names now follow each other in unmaking its monarchs at rapid succession. Finally, in 476, pleasure. After the removal of ZENO, Emperor of the East, Avítus, ten months were allowed declared the office of EMPEROR to elapse before a successor was OF THE WEST abolished, and appointed; and then the crown gave the government of the was bestowed upon MAJORIAN DIOCESE OF ITALY to (457-461). SEVÉRUS followed ODOÁCER, with the title of him, a man too weak to interfere Patrician. with the plans of Ricimer. 167 westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met and Subsequently a remnant of the CHAPTER XLII defeated the GOTHS, a powerful Ostrogoths arrived at the INVASIONS AND tribe that lived to the north of the Danube, also desiring to cross. DISTRIBUTION OF THE Danube, and who were ruled by To them permission was refused, BARBARIANS a king named Hermanric. but they seized shipping and crossed, despite the prohibition The Gothic nation consisted of of the Romans. They found the two branches, the condition of their brethren, the The sieges and captures of OSTROGOTHS, Eastern Goths, Visigoths, so sad, that they Rome by the Barbarians we and the VISIGOTHS, Western united with them in open revolt, present in a separate chapter, Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths defeated a Roman army sent instead of in the narrative of the were the more powerful, but on against them, and ravaged Emperors, because by this plan a the approach of the Huns they Thrace. The Emperor Valens better idea of the operations can were obliged to submit. The took the field in person, and was be given; and especially because Huns moved on, and found but defeated (378). The Goths then we can thus obtain a clearer and little trouble in overrunning the moved southward and westward more comprehensive conception country of the Visigoths, who into Greece, everywhere pillaging of the rise of the nations, which, were so terrified by the hideous the country. tearing in pieces the Roman appearance and wild shouts of Empire, have made up Modern the Huns that they fled to the When Theodosius became Europe. Danube, and besought the Emperor, he acted cautiously, Romans to allow them to cross fortifying strong points from The HUNS, who originated the the river and take refuge in their which to watch the enemy and movement which overthrew the territory. The favor was granted, select a favorable moment for an Western Empire, came, it is but the refugees were treated attack. At length he surprised supposed, from the eastern part with indignity, and compelled to their camp and gained a of Asia. As they moved undergo every privation. complete victory. The Goths 168 were taken into the service of the sincere the barbarian was in his the fleetness of his horse. Empire, and the first chapter of offers of peace may be seen Honorius returned home (404), the barbarian invasion of the from the fact that in two years he and enjoyed a triumph. Empire was brought to a close. invaded Italy (400). Rome had scarcely time to We now meet two of the great Honorius, who was then Emperor congratulate herself upon her names connected with the fall of of the West, was a man so weak escape from the Goths, when Rome, ALARIC and STILICHO. that even the genius of Stilicho she was threatened by a new could not save him. No sooner enemy. Theodosius was succeeded by did he hear of the approach of Arcadius, and before the end of Alaric, than he hastened to a [Illustration on next page: Late the year the Goths broke into place of safety for himself, Roman Empire and Barbarian open revolt under their leader, leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Invasions/Kingdoms, 285-451.] Alaric. Athens was compelled to Troops were called from Britain, pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, Gaul, and the other provinces far and Sparta were taken and and near, leaving their places plundered. No place was strong vacant and defenceless. enough to offer effectual Honorius, who had attempted to resistance. At this juncture, escape to Gaul, was surprised by Stilicho, General of the Western Alaric, and, taking refuge in the Empire, hastened to the scene, fortified town of Asta, was there and succeeded in surrounding besieged until the arrival of the the Goths, but Alaric burst brave Stilicho, who attacked the through his lines and escaped. besiegers, and after a bloody He then made peace with fight utterly routed them. In his Constantinople, and the office of retreat, Alaric attempted to attack Master-General of Illyricum was Verona, but he was again bestowed upon him. How defeated, and escaped only by 169 170 The Huns, pushing westward, the northwest of Spain, but met a lapse of eight centuries had dislodged the northern tribes the same fate as the Alans. The became the second time a prey of Germany who dwelt on the Vandals occupied the southern to the barbarians (24 August, Baltic. These were the Alans, part, and from there crossed over 410). Sueves, Vandals, and to Africa, where they maintained Burgundians. Under the themselves for nearly a century, The city was plundered for five leadership of RADAGAISUS, and at one time were powerful days, and then Alaric withdrew to these tribes invaded Italy with enough, as we shall see, to ravage the surrounding country. about two hundred thousand capture Rome itself. But the days of this great leader men. They were met near were almost spent. Before the by Stilicho, and totally Rome was now for a time end of the year he died, and defeated (406). Radagaisus delivered from her enemies, and shortly after his army marched himself was killed. The survivors the Emperor, no longer needing into France, where they turned backward, burst into Gaul, Stilicho, was easily persuaded established a kingdom reaching ravaged the lower portion of the that he was plotting for the from the Loire and the Rhone to country, and finally separated. throne. He was put to death, the Straits of Gibraltar. One portion, the Burgundians, with many of his friends. remained on the frontier, and The GERMANS, under their king, from their descendants comes With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely CLODION, prompted by the the name of Burgundy. two months after his death, Alaric example of the Burgundians and again appeared before Rome. Visigoths, began, about 425, a The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals He sought to starve the city into series of attempts to enlarge their pushed on into Spain, where they submission. Famine and boundaries. They succeeded in established kingdoms. The pestilence raged within its walls. establishing themselves firmly in Alans occupied the country at the Finally peace was purchased by all the country from the Rhine to foot of the Pyrenees, but were a large ransom, and Alaric the Somme, and under the name soon after subdued by the withdrew, but soon returned. of FRANKS founded the present Visigoths. The Sueves settled in The city was betrayed, and after French nation in France (447). 171 and Eastern Empires; but the captured, and rased to the Clodion left two sons, who prospect of an ally in Gaul, with ground Aquileia. He then quarrelled over the succession. an opportunity of afterwards scoured the whole country, The elder appealed to the Huns attacking Italy from the west, was sparing only those who for support, the younger to too favorable to be neglected. preserved their lives by the Rome. surrender of their wealth. A march of six hundred miles The Huns at this time were ruled brought the Huns to the Rhine. It was to this invasion that by ATTILA, "the Scourge of Crossing this, they continued VENICE owed its rise. The God." The portrait of this monster their progress, sacking and inhabitants, who fled from the is thus painted. His features burning whatever cities lay in approach of the Huns, found on bore the mark of his Eastern their route. the islands in the lagoons at the origin. He had a large head, a head of the Adriatic a harbor of swarthy complexion, small deep- The Visigoths under Theodoric, safety. seated eyes, a flat nose, a few joining the Romans under Aetius, hairs in the place of a beard, met the Huns near Orleans. broad shoulders, and a short Attila retreated towards Chalons, square body, of nervous strength where, in 451, was fought a great though disproportioned form. battle, which saved the This man wielded at will, it is civilization of Western Europe. said, an army of over half a Attila began the attack. He was million troops. bravely met by the Romans; and a charge of the Visigoths Venice’s main square and town At the time he received from the completed the discomfiture of the hall, St. Mark’s Square and the son of Clodion the invitation to savages. Aetius did not push his Doge’s Palace, from above interfere in the affairs of Gaul, victory, but allowed the Huns to Attila was already contemplating retreat in the direction of Italy. an invasion of both the Western The "Scourge" first attacked, 172 (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the widow of the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in revenge sent to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once set sail for the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into his hands on his promise to spare the property of

The Venetian Lagoon in which the Church (June, 455), and for Venice was established fourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. Genseric Attila died shortly after (453) from then left Rome, taking with him the bursting of a blood-vessel, Eudoxia. and with his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. The This was the last sack of the city VANDALS, we have seen, had by barbarians. But twenty-one established themselves in Africa. years elapsed before the Roman They were now ruled by Empire came to an end (476). GENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they were continually ravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with their fleets.

Maximus, Emperor of Rome

173 TERENCE (195-159) CICERO (106-43) CHAPTER XLIII ROMAN LITERATURE TERENCE was a native of MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a Carthage. He was brought to native of Arpínum, ranks as the Rome at an early age as a slave first prose writer in Roman of the Senator Terentius, by literature. As an orator Cicero PLAUTUS (254-184) whom he was educated and had a very happy natural talent. liberated. Six of his comedies The extreme versatility of his

are preserved. Like the plays of mind, his lively imagination, his PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was Plautus, they are free great sensitiveness, his one of the earliest of Roman translations from the Greek, and inexhaustible richness of writers. Born at Sarsina in of the same general character. expression, which was never at a Umbria, of free parentage, he at loss for a word or tone to suit any first worked on the stage at circumstances or mood, his Rome, but lost his savings in felicitous memory, his splendid speculation. Then for some time ENNIUS (139-69) voice and impressive figure, all he worked in a treadmill, but contributed to render him a finally gained a living by QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of powerful speaker. He himself left translating Greek comedies into Rudiae, was taken to Rome by nothing undone to attain Latin. Twenty of his plays have Cato the Younger. Here he perfection. Not until he had come down to us. They are supported himself by teaching spent a long time in laborious lively, graphic, and full of fun, Greek. His epic poem, the study and preparation did he depicting a mixture of Greek and Annàles, relates the traditional make his début as an orator; nor Roman life. Roman history, from the arrival of did he ever rest and think himself

Aenéas to the poet's own day. perfect, but, always working, made the most careful preparation for every case. Each 174 success was to him only a step NEPOS (94-24) to another still higher Eight hundred and sixty-four of achievement; and by continual Cicero's letters are extant, and meditation and study he kept they furnish an inexhaustible , a native of himself fully equipped for his treasure of contemporaneous Northern Italy, was a friend of task. Hence he succeeded, as is history. both Cicero and Atticus. He was universally admitted, in gaining a a prolific writer, but only his De place beside Demosthenes, or at Viris Illustribus is preserved. It all events second only to him. CAESAR (100-44) shows neither historical accuracy nor good style. There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments Of CAESAR'S literary works the of twenty more. His famous most important are his LUCRETIUS (98-55) Philippics against Antony caused Commentarii, containing the his proscription by the Second history of the first seven years of Triumvirate, and his murder near the Gallic war, and the history of TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has his villa at Formiae, in December, the civil strife down to the left a didactic poem, De Rerum 43. Alexandrine war. The account of Natura. The tone of the work is his last year in Gaul was written sad, and in many places bitter. His chief writings on rhetoric probably by Aulus Hirtius; that of were De Oratore; Brutus de the Alexandrine, African, and Claris Oratoribus; and Orator ad Spanish wars, by some unknown CATULLUS (87-47) hand. As an orator, Caesar M. Brutum. Cicero was a lover of philosophy, and his writings on ranks next to Cicero. GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, the subject were numerous. of Veróna, is the greatest lyric Those most read are De poet of Roman literature. One Senectute, De Amicitia, and De hundred and sixteen of his Officiis. 175 poems are extant. HORACE (65-8) OVID (43 B.C.—18 A.D.)

VIRGIL (70-19) QUINTUS HORATIUS PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left FLACCUS left four books of three books of Amores; one of Odes, one of Epodes, two of Heroides; the Ars Amatoria; The great epic Roman poet was Satires, two of Epistles, and the Remedia Amoris; the VIRGIL. His Aenéis, in twelve Ars Poetica. (fifteen books); books, gives an account of the the Tristia; and the . wanderings and adventures of Aenéas, and his struggles to TIBULLUS (54-29) found a city in Italy. The poem LIVY (59 B.C.—17 A.D.) was not revised when Virgil died, and it was published contrary to ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac his wishes. poet, celebrated in exquisitely TITUS LIVIUS left a history of fine poems the beauty and Rome, of which thirty-five books Besides the Aenéis, Virgil wrote cruelty of his mistresses. have been preserved. the Bucolica, ten Eclogues imitated and partially translated from the Greek poet Theocritus. PROPERTIUS (49-15) PHAEDRUS The Georgica, a poem of four books on agriculture in its different branches, is considered SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, his most finished work, and the of Umbria, was also an elegiac flourished in the reign of Tiberius most perfect production of poet, and wrote mostly on love. (14- 37). He was originally a -poetry. slave. His fables are ninety- seven in number, and are written in iambic verse.

176 LUCAN (39-65) poetical talent. He wrote the Thebaid, the Achilleis SENECA (8 B.C.—65 (unfinished), and the Silvae. A.D.) LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp called Pharsalia, upon the civil and witty epigrams, of which For an account of this writer see war between Caesar and fifteen books are extant. He was the chapter on the Emperor Pompey. a native of Spain. Nero. QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a PLINY THE ELDER (23- native of Spain. He was a CURTIUS 79) teacher of eloquence for many years in Rome. His work On the Training of an Orator, is QUINTUS GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of preserved. was a historian who lived in the Northern Italy, was a great reign of Claudius (50 A.D.). He scholar in history, grammar, JUVENAL (47-130), of Aquínum, wrote a history of the exploits of rhetoric, and natural science. His was a great satirist, who Alexander the Great. work on Natural History has described and attacked bitterly come down to us. the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satires are still in PERSIUS (34-62) existence. STATIUS, MARTIAL, PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. TACITUS (54-119) He wrote six satires, which are STATIUS (45-96), a native of obscure and hard to understand. CORNELIUS TACITUS was the Naples, had considerable 177 great historian of his age. His large number of subjects, and birthplace is unknown. His presenting vivid pictures of the writings are interesting and of a times in which he lived. Their high tone, but often tinged with diction is fluent and smooth. prejudice, and hence unfair. He wrote,—

1. A dialogue on . 2. A biography of his father-in-law, Agricola. 3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. 4. A history of the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian (Historiae). 5. Annales, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.

PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113)

Pliny the Younger was the adopted son of Pliny the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine books of his letters, relating to a 178 Ocriculum and Narnia, a branch went east through Spoletium, CHAPTER XLIV ROMAN joining the main line at Fulsinia. ROADS—PROVINCES It then continued through Fanum, Flaminii, and Nuceria, where it again divided, one branch going to Fanum Fortúnae on the The Romans were famous for Adriatic, the other to Ancóna, and their excellent public roads, from from there along the coast to thirteen to fifteen feet wide. The Fanum Fortúnae, where the two roadbed was formed of four branches, again uniting, passed distinct layers, placed above the on to Ariminum through foundation. The upper layer was Copy of a Roman milestone, and Pisaurum. From here it was made of large polygonal blocks ancient paving stones extended, under the name of VIA of the hardest stone, fitted and AEMILIA, into the heart of joined together so as to make an There were four main public Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, even surface. On each side of roads:— Mutina, Parma, and Placentia, the road were footpaths strewn where it crossed the Po, to with gravel. Stone blocks for the 1. VIA APPIA, from Rome to Mediolánum. use of equestrians were at Capua, Beneventum, Tarentum, regular distances, and also and Brundisium. 4. VIA AURELIA, the great coast milestones telling the distance road, reached the west coast at from Rome. 2. VIA LATÍNA, from Rome to Alsium, following the shore along

Aquínum and Teánum, joining through Etruria and Liguria, by the Via Appia at Beneventum. Genua, as far as Forum Julii, in Gaul. 3. VIA FLAMINIA, the great northern road. In Umbria, near 179 PROVINCES his predecessor was expected to consisted of quaestors, leave within thirty days. secretary, notary, lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority After the conquest of Italy, all the The governor was assisted by was supreme in military and civil additional Roman dominions two QUAESTORS, who had matters, and he could not be were divided into provinces. charge of the financial duties of removed from office. But after Sicily was the first Roman the government. Originally the his term had ended, he could be province. At first Praetors were governor was obliged to account tried for mismanagement. appointed to govern these at Rome for his administration, provinces; but afterwards from his own books and those of Many of the governors were persons who had been Praetors the Quaestors; but after 61 B.C., rascals, and obtained by unfair at Rome were appointed at the he was obliged to deposit two means vast sums of money from expiration of their office, with the copies of his accounts in the two the provincials. One of the most title of PROPRAETOR. Later, chief cities of his province, and to notorious of these was Verres, the Consuls also, at the end of forward a third to Rome. against whom Cicero delivered their year of office, were sent to his Verrine orations. govern provinces, with the title of If the governor misconducted PROCONSUL. Such provinces himself in the performance of his At the time of the battle of Actium were called Provinciae official duties, the provincials there were eighteen provinces; Consuláres. The provinces were might apply for redress to the viz. (227 [Note: The generally distributed by lot, but Senate, and to influential figures in parentheses indicate their distribution was sometimes Romans who were their patrons. the date at which the province arranged by agreement among was established.]), Sardinia and those entitled to them. The The governor received no salary, Corsica (227), Hispania Citerior tenure of office was usually a but was allowed to exact certain (205), (205), year, but it was frequently contributions from the people of Illyricum (167), Macedonia (146), prolonged. When a new the province for the support of Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia governor arrived in the province, himself and his retinue, which (146), Gallia Citerior (80), Gallia 180 Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63), Numidia (46), and Mauritania (46).

Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, , Aegyptus, Cappadocia, Galatia, Rhodus, , Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, and Assyria.

181 Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Marius and Cicero. Censor, and Curule Aedile. CHAPTER XLV ROMAN These officers had the right to sit The magistrates were chosen OFFICERS, ETC. in the sella curúlis, chair of state. only from the patricians in the This chair was displayed upon all early republic; but in course of public occasions, especially in time the plebeians shared these the circus and theatre; and it was honors. The plebeian [Note: Most of the information the seat of the Praetor when he magistrates, properly so called, given in this chapter is scattered administered justice. In shape it were the plebeian Aediles and in different parts of the history; was plain, resembling a common the Tribúni Plebis. but it seems well to condense it folding camp-stool, with crooked into one chapter for readier legs. It was ornamented with All the magistrates, except the reference.] ivory, and later overlaid with gold. Censor, were elected for one

year; and all but the Tribunes The magistrates of Rome were of The descendants of any one who and Quaestors began their term two classes; the Majores, or had held a curule office were of office on January 1st. The higher, and the Minores, or nobles, and had the right to place Tribune's year began December lower. The former, except the in their halls and to carry at 10th; that of the Quaestor, Censor, had the Imperium; the funeral processions a wax mask December 5th. latter did not. To the former of this ancestor, as well as of any class belonged the Consuls, other deceased members of the The offices, except that of Praetors, and Censors, who were family of curule rank. Tribune, formed a gradation, all elected in the Comitia through which one must pass if Centuriáta. The magistrates A person who first held a curule he desired the consulship. The were also divided into two other office, and whose ancestors had earliest age for holding each classes, viz. Curule and Non- never held one, was called a was, for the quaestorship, Curule. The Curule offices were novus homo, i.e. a new man. twenty-seven years; for the those of Dictator, Magister The most famous new men were aedileship, thirty-seven; for the 182 praetorship, forty; and for the (), to signify the power of of all civil suits between Roman consulship, forty-three. No the magistrate to scourge citizens. In the absence of both magistrate received any salary, criminals. Outside the city, these Consuls from the city, he acted in and only the wealthy could afford fasces showed an axe projecting their place. Each Praetor was to hold office. from each bundle, signifying the attended by two lictors in the city, power of the magistrate to and by six outside. The Praetor behead criminals." Peregrínus had charge of civil THE CONSULS cases in which one or both At the expiration of his year of parties were aliens. The other office, the Consul was sent to six Praetors presided over the The two Consuls were the govern a province for one year, permanent criminal courts. highest magistrates, except when and was then called the a Dictator was appointed, and Proconsul. He was chief in his were the chiefs of the province in all military, civil, and AEDILES administration. Their power was criminal cases. equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning The Aediles were four officers the Senate and the Comitia PRAETORS who had the general Centuriáta, in each of which they superintendence of the police of presided. "When both Consuls the city, and the care of the were in the city, they usually took There were eight Praetors, public games and buildings. Two turns in performing the official whose duties were to administer of the Aediles were taken from duties, each acting a month; and justice (judges). After the the plebeians, and two, called during this time the Consul was expiration of their year of office, Curule Aediles, ranked with the always accompanied in public by they went, as Propraetors, to higher magistrates, and might be twelve lictors, who preceded him govern provinces. The most patricians. They were elected in in single file, each carrying on his important Praetor was called the Comitia Tributa. Their shoulders a bundle of rods Praetor Urbánus. He had charge supervision of the public games 183 gave them great opportunities for the city's money, as directed by power; but Pompey restored it. gaining favor with the populace, the Senate. A Quaestor always The Tribunes did not possess the who then, as now, delighted in accompanied every Imperator imperium. circuses and contests. A small (general) in the field as his sum was appropriated from the quartermaster. The elections for public treasury for these games; Quaestors were held in the CENSORS but an Aedile usually expended Comitia Tribúta. much from his own purse to make the show magnificent, and There were two Censors, chosen thus to gain votes for the next TRIBUNI PLEBIS from Ex-Consuls, and they held office, that of Praetor. Only the office for eighteen months. They very wealthy could afford to hold were elected once every five this office. There were ten Tribunes, elected years, this period being called a in the Comitia Tribúta. They lustrum. They ranked as higher were always plebeians, and their magistrates without possessing QUAESTORS chief power lay in their right to the imperium. Their duties were: veto any decree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any (1) To take the census, i.e. There were twenty Quaestors. public act of a magistrate. Their register the citizens and their Two were city treasurers at persons were considered sacred, amount of property, and to fill all Rome, having charge also of the and no one could hinder them in vacancies in the Senate. (2) To archives. The others were the discharge of their official have a general oversight of the assigned to the different duties under penalty of death. finances, like our Secretary of the governors of the provinces, and They called together the Comitia Treasury; to contract for the acted as quartermasters. Tribúta, and they also had erecting of public buildings, and Through their clerks, the two city authority to convene the Senate for the making or repairing of Quaestors kept the accounts, and to preside over it. Sulla public roads, sewers, etc.; to let received the taxes, and paid out succeeded in restricting their out the privilege of collecting the 184 taxes, for five years, to the MAGISTER EQUITUM Pontifex Maximus (high priest). highest bidder.[Note: In the Their tenure of office was for life, intervals of the censorship, the and they were responsible to no duties under (2) fell to the This was an officer appointed by one in the discharge of their Aediles. ] (3) To punish gross the Dictator, to stand next in duties. Their influence was immorality by removal of the authority to him, and act as a sort necessarily very great. guilty parties from the Senate, of Vice-Dictator. the Equites, or the tribe. IMPERIUM DICTATOR This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise In cases of great danger the judicial functions conferred upon Senate called upon the Consuls a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or to appoint a Dictator, who should Praetor) by a special law passed possess supreme power, but by the Comitia Curiáta. The whose tenure of office could Imperium could be exercised never exceed six months. In only outside of the city walls later times were not The emperor Augustus as (pomoerium), except by special appointed, but Consuls were pontifex maximus permission of the Senate for the invested with the authority if it purpose of celebrating a triumph. was thought necessary. Sulla The one receiving the Imperium and Caesar, however, revived PONTIFICES was called IMPERATOR. the office, but changed its tenure, the latter holding it for life. The priests formed a body () of fifteen members, at the head of whom was the 185 POTESTAS

This was the power, in general, which all magistrates possessed.

186 corresponded in general to our gold, and frescoing. front hall. From it a door opened CHAPTER XLVI into the ATRIUM, which was a HOUSES, CUSTOMS, large room with an opening in the INSTITUTIONS, ETC. centre of its roof, through which the rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under the opening. To the right and left The private houses of the of the Atrium were side rooms Romans were poor affairs until called the ALAE, and the after the conquest of the East, TABLÍNUM was a balcony Reconstruction of the Atrium of a when money began to pour into attached to it. The passages private Roman house the city. Many houses of from the Atrium to the interior of immense size were then erected, the house were called FAUCES. The main rooms were lighted adorned with columns, paintings, The PERISTYLIUM, towards from above; the side rooms statues, and costly works of art. which these passages ran, was received their light from these, Some of these houses are said an open court surrounded by and not through windows looking to have cost as much as two columns, decorated with flowers into the street. The windows of million dollars. and shrubs. It was somewhat rooms in upper stories were not

larger than the Atrium. supplied with glass until the time The principal parts of a Roman of the Empire. They were merely house were the Vestibulum, The floors were covered with openings in the wall, covered Ostium, Atrium, Alae, Tablínum, stone, marble, or mosaics. The with lattice-work. To heat a Fauces, and Peristylium. The walls were lined with marble room, portable stoves were VESTIBULUM was a court slabs, or frescoed, while the generally used, in which charcoal surrounded by the house on ceilings were either bare, was burned. There were no three sides, and open on the exposing the beams, or, in the chimneys, and the smoke passed fourth to the street. The OSTIUM finer houses, covered with ivory, out through the windows or the 187 openings in the roofs.

The rooms of the wealthy were Roman lamp furnished with great splendor. The walls were frescoed with scenes from , MEALS landscapes, etc. In the vestibules were fine sculptures, The meals were the costly marble walls, and doors JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and Reconstruction of a dining room ornamented with gold, silver, and COENA. The first was our in a private Roman house rare shells. There were breakfast, though served at an expensive rugs from the East, early hour, sometimes as early At elaborate dinners the guests and, in fact, everything that could as four o'clock. It consisted of assembled, each with his napkin be obtained likely to add to the bread, cheese, and dried fruits. and full dress of bright colors. attractiveness of the room. The prandium was a lunch The shoes were removed so as served about noon. The coena, not to soil the couches. These Candles were used in early or dinner, served between three couches usually were adapted times, but later the wealthy used and sunset, was usually of three for three guests, who reclined, lamps, which were made of - courses. The first course resting the head on the left hand, cotta or bronze. They were consisted of stimulants, eggs, or with the elbow supported by mostly oval, flat on the top, often lettuce and olives; the second, pillows. The Romans took the with figures in relief. In them which was the main course, food with their fingers. Dinner were one or more round holes to consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, was served in a room called the admit the wick. They either with condiments; the third course TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden rested on tables, or were was made up of fruits, nuts, House," the dining-room was suspended by chains from the sweetmeats, and cakes. constructed like a theatre, with ceiling. shifting scenes to change with every course. 188 shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until decorations, and all about sixteen, wore a toga with a conveniences for cold, warm, DRESS—BATHING purple hem. hot, and vapor baths. These bath-houses were very The women wore a TUNIC, numerous, and were places of The Roman men usually wore STOLA, and PULLA. The stola popular resort. Attached to many two garments, the TUNICA and was a loose garment, gathered in of them were rooms for exercise, TOGA. The former was a short and girdled at the waist with a with seats for spectators. The woollen under garment with short deep flounce extending to the usual time for bathing was just sleeves. To have a long tunic feet. The pulla was a sort of before dinner. Upon leaving the with long sleeves was considered shawl to throw over the whole bath, it was customary to anoint a mark of effeminacy. The tunic figure, and to be worn out of the body with oil. was girded round the waist with a doors. The ladies indulged their belt. The toga was peculiarly a fancy for ornaments as freely as Roman garment, and none but their purses would allow. citizens were allowed to wear it. It was also the garment of peace, Foot-gear was mostly of two in distinction from the SAGUM, kinds, the CALCEUS and the which was worn by soldiers. The SOLEAE. The former was much toga was of white wool and was like our shoe, and was worn in nearly semicircular, but being a the street. The latter were cumbrous garment, it became sandals, strapped to the bare customary in later times to wear foot, and worn in the house. The it only on state occasions. The poor used wooden shoes. poor wore only the tunic, others wore, in place of the toga, the Bathing was popular among the LACERNA, which was an open wealthy. Fine buildings were cloak, fastened to the right erected, with elegant 189

Customary clothes of Romans: citizen, matron, curule magistrate, emperor, general, workman, slave.

190 the most ancient festivals, and was held in the , where FESTIVALS, GAMES, were said ETC. to have been nursed by the she wolf (lupa). The priests of Lupercus were called LUPERCI. The SATURNALIA was the They formed a collegium, but festival of , to whom the their tenure of office is not Recreation of Colosseum inhabitants of Latium attributed known. On the day of the festival the introduction of agriculture and these priests met at the Lupercal, Gladiators were men who fought the arts of civilized life. It was offered sacrifice of goats, and with swords in the amphitheatre celebrated near the end of took a meal, with plenty of wine. and other places, for the December, corresponding to our They then cut up the skins of the amusement of the people. Christmas holidays, and under goats which they had sacrificed. These shows were first exhibited the Empire lasted seven days. With some of these they covered at Rome in 264 B.C., and were During its continuance no public parts of their bodies, and with confined to public funerals; but business was transacted, the law others, they made thongs, and, afterwards gladiators were to be courts were closed, the schools holding them in their hands, ran seen at the funerals of most men had a holiday, and slaves were through the streets of Rome, of rank. Under the Empire the relieved from all ordinary toil. All striking with them all whom they passion for this kind of classes devoted themselves to met, especially women, as it was amusement increased to such an pleasure, and presents were believed this would render them extent, that gladiators were kept interchanged among friends. fruitful. and trained in schools (ludi) and their trainers were called The LUPERCALIA; a festival in The QUIRINALIA was celebrated Lanistae. The person who gave honor of Lupercus, the god of on the 17th of February, when an exhibition was called an fertility, was celebrated on the Quirínus (Romulus) was said to EDITOR. He published (edere), 15th of February. It was one of have been carried up to heaven. some time before the show, a list 191 of the combatants. In the show applied to a wooden building the fights began with wooden erected by Caesar. Augustus The THEATRE was never as swords, but at the sound of the built one of stone in the Campus popular with the Romans as with trumpet these were exchanged Martius, but the most celebrated the Greeks. The plays of Plautus for steel weapons. When a amphitheatre was built by and Terence were acted on combatant was wounded, if the Vespasian and Titus, and temporary wooden stages. The spectators wished him spared, dedicated in 80 A.D. It is still first stone theatre was built by they held their thumbs down, but standing, though partly in ruins, Pompey in 55 B.C., near the turned them up if they wanted covers nearly six acres, and Campus Martius. It was a fine him killed. Gladiators who had could seat ninety thousand building, with a seating capacity served a long time, were often people. The name given to it to- of forty thousand. The seats discharged and presented with a day is the COLOSSÉUM. The were arranged in a semicircle, as wooden sword (rudis), Hence open space in the centre was at present, the orchestra being they were called rudiarii. called the ARÉNA, and was reserved for the Senators and surrounded by a wall about other distinguished persons. fifteen feet high to protect the Then came fourteen rows of THE AMPHITHEATRE, spectators from the wild beasts. seats for the Equites, and behind THEATRE, AND CIRCUS Before the time of Caesar the these sat the ordinary crowd. shows were held in the Forum and in the Circus. The . The AMPHITHEATRE was a between the Palatine and place for the exhibition of Aventine Hills, was built for gladiatorial shows, combats of chariot races, boxing, and wild beasts, and naval gymnastic contests. It was an engagements. Its shape was immense structure, with galleries that of an ellipse, surrounded by three stories high, and a canal seats for the spectators. The Recreation of the Circus called Eurípus, and it word Amphitheatre was first Maximus of accommodated one hundred 192 thousand spectators. In the sometimes allowed to enjoy a for sacrifice. 6. Elephants and centre Caesar erected an obelisk triumphal procession, provided rare animals from the conquered one hundred and thirty-two feet he had been Dictator, Consul, or countries. 7. The arms and high, brought from Egypt. The Praetor. No one desiring a insignia of the leaders of the seats were arranged as in the triumph ever entered the city until conquered enemy. 8. The theatre. Six kinds of games were the Senate decided whether or leaders themselves, with their celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; not he deserved one. When a relatives and other captives. 9. 2d, a sham-fight between young favorable decision was reached, The lictors of the Imperator in men on horseback; 3d, a sham- the temples were all thrown single file, their fasces wreathed fight between infantry and open, garlands of flowers with laurel. 10. The Imperator cavalry; 4th, athletic sports of all decorated every shrine and himself, in a circular chariot kinds; 5th, fights with wild beasts, image, and incense smoked on drawn by four horses. He was such as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, every altar. The Imperator attired in a gold-embroidered sea fights. Water was let into the ascended the triumphal car and robe, and a flowered tunic; he canal to float ships. The entered a city gate, where he held a laurel bough in his right combatants were captives, or was met by the whole body of the hand, a sceptre in his left, and criminals condemned to death, Senate, headed by the his brow was encircled with a who fought until one party was magistrates. laurel wreath. 11. The grown up killed, unless saved by the sons and officers of the kindness of the Emperor. The procession then proceeded Imperator. 12. The whole body in the following order:— of infantry, with spears adorned with laurel. A TRIUMPHAL 1. The Senate, headed by the PROCESSION magistrates. 2. A troop of The OVATION was a sort of trumpeters. 3. Carts laden with smaller triumph. The spoils, often very costly and commander entered the city on The Imperator, when he returned numerous. 4. A body of flute- foot, or in later times on from a successful campaign, was players. 5. White bulls and oxen horseback. He was clothed in a 193 purple-bordered robe. His head Caesar. To these names was MARRIAGE was crowned with laurel, and a sometimes added another, the sheep (ovis) was sacrificed, agnomen, given for some exploit, instead of a bull as in the case of or to show that the person was Intermarriage (connubium) a triumph. adopted from some other gens. between patricians and plebeians Thus Scipio the elder was called was forbidden previous to 445, AFRICÁNUS, and all his and after that the offspring of POMOERIUM descendants had the right to the such marriages took the rank of name. Africánus the younger the father. After the parties had was adopted from the Cornelian agreed, to marry, and the The Pomoerium was the sacred gens into the Aemilian gens; consent of the parents or enclosure of the city, inside of therefore he added to his other persons in authority was given, which no person holding the names AEMILIÁNUS. the marriage contract was drawn Imperium was allowed to enter. up and signed by both parties. It did not always run parallel to The women were called only by The wedding day was then fixed the city walls. the name of their gens. The upon. This could not fall upon daughter of Scipio was called, for the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of example, CORNELIA, and to any month, or upon any day in NAMES distinguish her from others of the May or February. The bride was Cornelian gens she was called dressed in a long white robe, with Every man in Rome had three Cornelia daughter of Scipio. If a bridal veil, and shoes of a names. The given name there were more than one bright yellow color. She was (praenomen), as Lucius, Marcus, daughter, to the name of the conducted in the evening to her Gaius. The name of the gens eldest was added prima (first), to future husband's home by three (nomen), as Cornelius, Tullius, that of the next, secunda boys, one of whom carried before Julius. The name of the family (second), etc. her a torch, the other two (cognómen), as Scipio, Cicero, supporting her by the arm. They were accompanied by friends of 194 both parties. The groom washed, and anointed with oil received the bride at the door, and perfumes, by slaves or which she entered with distaff undertakers. A small coin was and spindle in hand. The keys of placed in the mouth of the body the house were then delivered to to pay the ferryman (Charon) in her. The day ended with a feast , and the body was laid out given by the husband, after on a couch in the vestibulum, which the bride was conducted to with its feet toward the door. In the bridal couch, in the atrium, early times all funerals were held which was adorned with flowers. at night; but in later times only On the following day another the poor followed this custom, feast was given by the husband, Noble woman with slaves mainly because they could not and the wife performed certain afford display. The funeral, held religious rites. the ninth day after the death, was FUNERALS headed by musicians playing The position of the Roman mournful strains, and mourning woman after marriage was very women hired to lament and sing different from that of the Greek. When a Roman was at the point the funeral song. These were She presided over the whole of death, his nearest relative sometimes followed by players household, educated her present endeavored to catch the and buffoons, one of whom children, watched over and last breath with his mouth. The represented the character of the preserved the honor of the ring was removed from the dying deceased, and imitated his words house, and shared the honors person's hand, and as soon as and actions. Then came the and respect shown to her he was dead his eyes and mouth slaves whom the deceased had husband. were closed by the nearest liberated, each wearing the cap relative, who called upon the of liberty. Before the body were deceased by name, exclaiming carried the images of the dead "Farewell!" The body was then and of his ancestors, and also 195 the crown and military rewards the Romans was confined to papyrus tree. Besides the which he had gained. The couch reading, writing, and arithmetic; papyrus, parchment was often on which the body was carried but as they came in contact with used. The paper or parchment was sometimes made of ivory, the Greeks a taste for higher was joined together so as to form and covered with gold and education was acquired. Greek one sheet, and was rolled on a purple. Following it were the slaves (paedagogi) were staff, whence the name volume relatives in mourning, often employed in the wealthy families (from volvere, to roll). uttering loud lamentations, the to watch over the children, and to women beating their breasts and teach them to converse in Greek. Letter writing was very common tearing their hair. among the educated. Letters A full course of instruction were usually written with the The procession of the most included the elementary stylus, an iron instrument like a illustrious dead passed through branches mentioned above, and pencil in size and shape, on thin the Forum, and stopped before a careful study of the best Greek slips of wood or ivory covered the Rostra, where a funeral and Latin writers, besides a with wax, and folded together oration was delivered. From course in philosophy and with the writing on the inside. here the body was carried to its rhetoric, under some well known The slips were tied together by a place of burial, which must be professor abroad, usually at string, and the knot was sealed outside the city. Bodies were Athens or Rhodes. with wax and stamped with a sometimes cremated, and in the signet ring. Letters were also later times of the Republic this written on parchment with ink. became quite common. BOOKS—LETTER Special messengers were WRITING employed to carry letters, as there was no regular mail EDUCATION service. Roman letters differed The most common material on from ours chiefly in the opening which books were written was and close. The writer always In early times the education of the thin rind of the Egyptian began by sending "greeting" to 196 the person addressed, and closed with a simple" farewell," without any signature. Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S.D. = sends greeting) would be the usual opening of a letter from Cicero to Pompey.

197 Temples were numerous. The with a face in front and another Pantheon (temple of all the on the back of his head. From CHAPTER XLVII PUBLIC gods), built by Agrippa and him is named the month of BUILDINGS, SQUARES, restored by Hadrian, was January. ETC. dedicated to Jupiter. It was situated outside of the city, in the There were several temples of Campus Martius, and is now Jupiter, the most famous of used as a Christian church. The which was that of Jupiter Rome was built on seven hills,— Temple of Palatínus, built Optimus, Maximus, or the Palatine, the Aventine, the by Augustus, was on the Palatine Capitolínus, built during the Capitoline, the Esquiline (the Hill. It contained a library, which dynasty of the Tarquins, and largest), the Quirínal, the Viminal, was founded by Augustus. The splendidly adorned. (See and the Coelian. Temple of Aesculapius was on Chapter V.) There were also an island in the Tiber; that of numerous temples of Juno, of There were various public Concordia, on the slope of the Mars, and of other deities. squares (forum = square or Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in park). Some were places of 377 B.C., and restored by The COLOSSÉUM was the resort for public business, and Tiberius. The Temple of Janus largest building in Rome. most were adorned with porticos. was an arched passage east of The most celebrated square was the Forum, the gates of which There were three theatres; that of the Forum Románum, or simply were open during war. Up to the Pompey, of Marcellus, and of The Forum. There were also the time of Ovid the gates had been Balbus; and several circuses, the Forum Caesaris and Forum closed but three times, once in most famous of which was the Trajáni. Some served as Numa's reign, again at the close Circus Maximus. markets; as Forum Boarium, the of the Second Punic War, and cattle market; Forum Suarium, after the battle of Actium. Janus The BASILICAE were halls of the hog market, etc. was one of the oldest Latin justice (court-houses). The most divinities, and was represented important was the Basilica Julia, 198 begun by Caesar and finished by commemorate his conquest of Augustus, which was situated on Judaea, The bas- reliefs on this the south side of the Forum, and arch represent the spoils taken the foundations of which can still from the temple at Jerusalem, be seen. carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS The CURIA, or Senate-house, SEVERUS, built by the Senate in was in the Forum. Each of the 207 A. D., at the end of the Via thirty curiae had a place of Sacra, in honor of the Emperor meeting, called also a curia, and his two sons for their where were discussed public conquest of the Parthians and questions pertaining to politics, Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF finance, or religion. SEWERS intersected Rome in all GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OF directions, and some were of CONSTANTINE. The PUBLIC BATHS were immense size. The CLOÁCA numerous. There were Thermae MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was There were two famous (hot baths) of Nero, of Titus, of the largest, and is still in use. Its MAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus, Trajan, of Caracalla, and of innermost arch has a diameter of now in ruins, and that of Hadrian, others, ruins of which still exist. fourteen feet. which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle of Sant’Angelo. Pure water was brought into the There are said to have been city from the surrounding hills by twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of The COLUMNS commemorating fourteen different aqueducts, all which five now remain, 1. The persons or events were of which were well built, and , on the numerous. The most remarkable three of which are still in use. , erected in honor of of these were erected for naval The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH victories, and called COLUMNAE was built about 313 B.C., by OF TITUS, at the foot of the ROSTRÁTAE. The one of Appius Claudius. , built by Titus to Duilius, in honor of the victory at 199 Mylae (261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to each side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of Trajan is perhaps best known.

The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. It was called Milliarium Aureum, or the golden milestone.

[Illustration: Rome and Environs, by K. D. Servoss, Engineer, N. Y., from the original publication.]

200 Latin or military. Members of the came eight days after the Nones. former class had all the rights of If an event happened on these CHAPTER XLVIII Roman citizens; those of the divisions, it was said to occur on COLONIES—THE latter could not vote in the the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of CALENDAR—RELIGION Comitia at Rome. The Latíni, the month. If it happened who were once Roman citizens, between any of these divisions, it and who always felt equal to was said to occur so many days them, were uneasy in their before the division following the Colonies were established by subordinate position. But by the event. The year was reckoned Rome throughout its whole Julian law, passed in 90 B.C., from the foundation of the city history. They were intended to they acquired the right of voting (753 B.C.), and often the names keep in check a conquered at Rome, and were placed on the of the Consuls of that year were people, and also to repress same footing as Roman added. hostile incursions. Many were colonists. founded to provide for veteran soldiers; a practice which was RELIGION begun by Sulla, and continued THE CALENDAR under the Emperors. The Romans were religious, and No colony was established The Roman year began with had numerous gods and without a lex, plebiscítum, or March. There were twelve goddesses: JUPITER and JUNO, senatus consultum. Religious months, and each month had the god and goddess of light; ceremonies always accompanied three divisions, the KALENDS, SATURN, the god of seed- their foundation, and the NONES, and IDES. The Kalends sowing; TELLUS, the goddess of anniversary was observed. fell on the first of the month; the the nourishing earth; CERES, the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, goddess of growth; CONSUS The colonies were divided into July, and October; in other and OPS, who presided over the two classes, viz. Roman, and months, on the 5th. The Ides harvest; PALES, the god of the 201 flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of their meals upon plates. fill the vacancy, and she was of fertility. Various festivals were bound to serve for thirty years. celebrated in honor of these, as The PENÁTES were kept and The Vestals were preceded by a the Saturnalia, in December; the worshipped only in the inmost when in public. They had Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), chambers of houses and private seats in the public shows, and Palilia (Pales), in April; and temples. Their statues, made of and had the power of delivering the Lupercalia, in February. wax, wood, or ivory, were also from punishment any condemned kept in the inner hall. person they happened to meet. was the goddess of the They wore white dresses and house, and as every family had white fillets. Their chief duty was an altar erected for her worship, to keep the fire always burning so the state, as a combination of on the hearth (focus publicus) in families, had a common altar to the temple. They could not her in the . In this marry. temple were also worshipped the Penátes and Lares. FLAMINES The LARES were special guardians of private houses. A woman of ancient Roman Some protected fields and cities. The FLAMINES were priests

Images of Lares of diminutive devoted to the service of some The priestesses of Vesta were size, clad often in dog-skins, particular god. There were six in number, and were called were ranged along the hearth. fifteen, and they were chosen VESTAL VIRGINS. When a The people honored them on the first in the Comitia Curiáta, and vestal was to be elected, the Kalends of May and other festival afterwards probably in the Pontifex Maximus chose twenty days by decking them with Tributa. The most distinguished young girls from high families. Of flowers, and by offering them of all the Flamines was the these one was chosen by lot to wine, incense, flour, and portions FLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). He 202 had the right to a lictor, to the THE AUGURES numbering probably twenty. sella curulis, and to a seat in the They were expected, whenever Senate. If one in bonds took any dispute arose with other refuge in his house, the chains This body varied in number, from nations, to demand satisfaction, were at once removed. This three, in early times, to sixteen in to determine whether hostilities priest, however, could not be the time of Caesar. It was should be begun, and to preside away from the city a single night, composed of men who were at any ratification of peace. and was forbidden to sleep out of believed to interpret the will of his own bed for three the gods, and to declare whether consecutive nights. He was not the omens were favorable or allowed to mount a horse, or otherwise. No public act of any even to touch one, or to look kind could be performed, no upon an army outside of the city election held, no law passed, no walls. war waged, without first consulting the omens. There was no appeal from the decision THE SALII of the Augurs, and hence their power was great. They held office for life, and were a close These were priests of Mars, , filling their own twelve in number, and always vacancies until 103 B.C. chosen from the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the 1st of March, and for several successive days. THE FETIALES

This was another body of priests holding office for life, and 203 The outer garment was a woollen QUAESTOR, or quartermaster. blanket, fastened to the 4. The TRIBÚNI MILITUM, CHAPTER XLIX THE shoulders by a buckle. Higher numbering six in each legion, ROMAN ARMY IN officers wore a long purple cloak. and assisting the Imperator in CAESAR'S TIME The offensive armor was a short, his duties. 5. The PRAEFECTI, straight two-edged sword who held various subordinate (), about two feet long, commands. 6. The worn by privates on the right CENTURIÓNES, who were non- The LEGIO was composed of side, so as not to interfere with commissioned officers, and rose infantry, and, though larger, the shield, but on the left side by in rank for good service. There corresponded to our regiment. It officers. The javelin (pilum) was were sixty centurions in each was divided into ten cohorts a heavy wooden shaft with an legion, six in each cohort, and (battalions), each cohort into iron head, the whole about seven one in each century. They were three maniples (companies), and feet long and weighing fully ten promoted from the ranks, but each into two centuries pounds. All legionary soldiers rarely rose above centurion of (platoons). In theory the number were Roman citizens. The the first rank. All the officers, in each legion was six thousand, auxiliaries were hired or drafted except the centurions, came from in practice about four thousand. troops, and were always light- either senatorial or equestrian The usual order of battle was to armed. The cavalry in Caesar's families. draw up each legion in three time was made up of auxiliaries lines (acies triplex), the first taken from the different The COHORS PRAETORIA was consisting of four cohorts, the provinces. a body of picked troops that second and third of three each. acted as body guard to the The defensive armor of the The officers were: 1. The Imperator. legionary soldier was a helmet of IMPERATOR, or commander in metal or leather, a shield (four chief. 2. The LEGÁTI, or staff The STANDARD (signum) of the feet by two and a half), greaves, officers, varying in number. legion was an eagle with and corselets of various material. Caesar had ten. 3. The outstretched wings, perched 204 upon a pole.

The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They made it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in the same way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiers encamped next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thus surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. The general's tent was called the Praetorium, and the entrance to the camp in front of his tent was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite entrance was called the Decuman Gate.

205 , who left two land. A she wolf, hearing their sons, , the older, and cries, ran to them and suckled CHAPTER L . They divided the them. FAUSTULUS, a shepherd LEGENDARY ROME kingdom, the former choosing the who was near by, seeing this, property, the latter the crown. took the boys home and reared Numitor had two children, a son them. When they grew up and and a daughter. Amulius, fearing learned who they were, they , son of Anchíses and that they might aspire to the killed Amulius, and gave the , fled from Troy after its throne, murdered the son, and kingdom to their grandfather, capture by the Greeks (1184 made the daughter, RHEA Numitor. Then (753) they B.C.?) and came to Italy. He SILVIA, a . This he founded a city on Mount was accompanied by his son did to prevent her marrying, for Palatínus, which they called IÚLUS and a number of brave this was forbidden to Vestal ROME, after Romulus. While followers. LATÍNUS, who was virgins. She, however, became they were building a wall around king of the district where Aenéas pregnant by Mars, and had twin this city, Remus was killed in a landed, received him kindly, and sons, whom she named quarrel with his brother. gave him his daughter, , ROMULUS and REMUS. When in marriage. Aenéas founded a Amulius was informed of this, he city, which he named LAVINIUM, cast their mother into prison, and in honor of his wife. After his ordered the boys to be drowned death, Iúlus, also called in the Tiber. ASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albánus a city, At this time the river was swollen which he called , by rains, and had overflowed its and to it transferred the capital. banks. The boys were thrown

into a shallow place, escaped Recreation of a kitchen in an Here a number of kings ruled in drowning, and, the water ancient Roman home succession, the last of whom was subsiding, they were left on dry 206 Romulus, first king of Rome, king, and then NUMA ruled for thirty-seven years (753- POMPILIUS (716-673 B.C.), a 716 B.C.). He found the city Sabine from Cures, was chosen. needed inhabitants, and to He was a good man, and a great increase their number he opened lawgiver. Many sacred rites were an asylum, to which many instituted by him to civilize his refugees fled. But wives were barbarous subjects. He reformed needed. To supply this want, he the calendar, and built a temple Recreation of ancient Rome celebrated games, and invited to the god Janus. TULLUS the neighboring people, the HOSTILIUS (673-641B.C.) The next three kings were of SABINES, to attend the sports. succeeded him. His reign was Etruscan origin. LUCIUS When all were engaged in noted for the fall of Alba Longa. TARQUINIUS PRISCUS (616- looking on, the Romans suddenly Then came ANCUS MARCIUS 578 B.C.) went to Rome first made a rush and seized the (640-616 B.C.), the grandson of during the reign of Ancus, and, Sabine virgins. This bold robbery Numa. He was a good ruler and becoming a favorite of his, was caused a war, which finally popular. He conquered the appointed guardian of his sons. ended in a compromise, and a Latins, enlarged the city, and After the death of Ancus, he sharing of the city with the built new walls around it. He was wrested the government from Sabines. Romulus then chose the first to build a prison, and to them, and became king himself. one hundred Senators, whom he bridge the Tiber. [Note: This He increased the Senators to two called PATRES. He also divided bridge was called the pons hundred, carried on many wars the people into thirty wards. In sublicius i.e. a bridge resting on successfully, and thus enlarged the thirty-seventh year of his piles.] He also founded a city at the territory of the city. He built reign he disappeared, and was its mouth, which he called the CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great believed to have been taken up OSTIA. sewer, which is used to-day. into heaven. Tarquin also began the temple of JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the One year followed without any Capitoline Hill. He was killed in 207 the thirty-eighth year of his reign oracles and prophecies; but the Collatínus. Unable to bear the by the sons of Ancus, from whom price seemed exorbitant, and he humiliation, she killed herself in he had snatched the kingdom. refused to purchase them. The the presence of her family, sibyl then burned three, and, having first appealed to them to His successor was his son-in- returning, asked the same price avenge her wrongs]. A Republic law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578- for the remaining six. The king was then formed, with two 534 B.C.), who enlarged the city again refused. She burned three Consuls at the head of the still more, built a temple to Diána, more, and obtained from the government. and took a census of the people. monarch for her last three the It was found that the city and original price. These books were Tarquin made three attempts to suburbs contained 83,000 souls. preserved in the Capitol, and recover his power at Rome, all Servius was killed by his held in great respect. They were unsuccessful. [Note: The victory daughter, Tullia, and her destroyed with the temple by fire, of Lake Regillus, which has been husband, Tarquinius Superbus, on July 6, 83. Two men had painted by Macaulay in glowing son of Priscus. charge of them, who were called colors, was gained over Tarquin duoviri sacrórum. The worship of in 509 B.C..] In the last attempt TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS the Greek deities, Apollo and (508 B.C.), he was assisted by succeeded to the throne (534- Latóna, among others, was PORSENA, king of the 510 B.C.). He was energetic in introduced through these books. Etruscans. They advanced war, and conquered many against the city from the north. neighboring places, among which In 510 B.C. a conspiracy was HORATIUS COCLES, a brave was Ardea, a city of the Rutuli. formed against Tarquin by young man, alone defended the He finished the temple of Jupiter, BRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS, and bridge (pans sublicius) over the begun by his father. He also others, and the gates of the city Tiber until it was torn down obtained the SIBYLLINE were closed against him. [Note: behind him. He then swam the BOOKS. A woman from Cumae, The cause of the conspiracy was river in safety to his friends. a Greek colony, came to him, the violence offered by Sextus, [Note: See Macaulay's "Lays of and offered for sale nine books of Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Ancient Rome."] 208 retirement. chosen from their own ranks to During the siege of the city, represent their interests. These QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, officers were called Tribúni a courageous youth, stole into Plebis. the camp of the enemy with the intention of killing King Porsena, Two years later (492 B.C.) Gaius but by mistake killed his Marcius, one of the patricians, secretary instead. He was met and defeated the Volsci, a seized and carried to Porsena, neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. who tried to frighten him by For this he received the name of threats of burning. Instead of Reconstruction of courtyard CORIOLÁNUS. During a famine, replying, Scaevola held his right garden fountains of Roman home he advised that grain should not hand on the burning altar until it be distributed to the plebeians was consumed. The king, In 494 B.C. the plebeians at unless they relinquished their admiring this heroic act, Rome rebelled, because they right to choose the Tribúni Plebis. pardoned him. Out of gratitude, were exhausted by taxes and For this he was banished. Scaevola told the king that three military service. A large part of Having obtained command of a hundred other men as brave as them left the city, and crossed Volscian army, he marched himself had sworn to kill him. the Anio to a mountain (Mons against Rome, and came within Porsena was so alarmed, that he Sacer) near by. The Senate sent five miles of the city. Here he made peace, and withdrew from MENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat was met by a deputation of his the city. Mucius received his with them. By his exertions own citizens, who begged him to name Scaevola (left-handed) on [Note: Menenius is said to have spare the city. He refused; but, account of this loss of his right related for them the famous fable when his wife and mother added hand. of the belly and members.] the their tears, he was induced to people were induced to return to withdraw the army. He was Tarquin went to Tusculum, where the city, and for the first time afterwards killed by the Volscians he spent the rest of his days in were allowed to have officers as a traitor. [Note: See 209 Shakespeare's "."] QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS was Lucius Virginius, and the appointed Dictator. He was one betrothed of Lucius Icilius. He After the expulsion of Tarquin, of the most noted Roman formed, with one of his tools, an the FABII were among the most warriors of this period. The infamous plot to obtain distinguished men at Rome. ambassadors sent to inform him possession of Virginia, under There were three brothers, and of his appointment found him pretence that she was a slave. for seven consecutive years one working with bare arms in his When, in spite of all the efforts of of them was Consul. It looked as field. Cincinnátus told his wife to the girl's father and lover, the if the Fabian gens would get throw over him his mantle, that Decemvir had, in his official control of the government. The he might receive the messengers capacity, adjudged her to be the state took alarm, and the whole of the state with proper respect. slave of his tool, Virginius gens, numbering 306 males and Such was the simplicity of his plunged a knife into his 4,000 dependents, was driven character, and yet so deeply did daughter's bosom, in presence of from Rome. For two years they he reverence authority. The the people in the Forum. The carried on war alone against the could not withstand his enraged populace compelled the Veientes, but finally were vigorous campaign, but were Decemviri to resign, and Appius, surprised and slain (477 B.C.). obliged soon to surrender, and to escape worse punishment, put One boy, Quintus Fabius made to pass under the yoke as an end to his own life. Vibulánus, alone survived to a sign of humiliation. The preserve the name and gens of Dictator enjoyed a well earned MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS the Fabii. triumph. was a famous man of a little later period. He was called a second In 458 B.C. the Romans were In 451 B.C. one of the Decemviri, Romulus for his distinguished hard pressed by the Aequi. Their APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was services. In 396 B.C. he territory had been overrun, and captivated by the beauty of a captured Veii, after a siege of ten their Consuls, cut off in some patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, years. On his return he defiles, were in imminent danger [Note: See Macaulay's "Lays of celebrated the most magnificent of destruction. LUCIUS Ancient Rome."] a daughter of triumph yet seen at Rome. He 210 was afterwards impeached for gold. To increase the weight, not having fairly divided the BRENNUS was the famous Brennus is said to have thrown spoils obtained at Veii, and went leader of the , a tribe of his sword on the scales. At this into exile at Ardea. When Rome Gauls, who invaded Italy about juncture, as the story runs, was besieged by the Gauls under 390 B.C. He defeated the Camillus appeared with his Brennus, in 390 B.C., Camillus Romans at the River Allia (July troops, ordered the gold to be was recalled and made Dictator. 18, 390 B.C.), and captured the removed, saying that Rome must At the head of forty thousand city, except the Capitol, which he be ransomed with steel, and not men he hastened to the city, besieged for six months. gold. In the battle which raised the siege, and in the battle followed, the Gauls were which followed annihilated the During the siege he tried to defeated. Gauls. He was Dictator five surprise the garrison, but was times, Interrex three times, repulsed by Manlius, who was Military Tribune twice, and awakened by the cackling of enjoyed four triumphs. He died some geese. Peace was finally at the advanced age of eighty- purchased by the Romans by the eight. payment of a thousand pounds of

211 390 Siege of Rome by Brennus, Battle at the CHRONOLOGY Allia river (July 18) 387 The planting of the first military or Latin colonies 367 The Licinian Rogations [The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.] 353 Caere: the first Municipium 343-341 First Samnite War 340-338 The Latin War B.C. 338 Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony 326-304 The Second Samnite War 753 Foundation of Rome by Romulus 321 The Caudine Forks 753-510 Regal Period 298-290 The Third Samnite War 753-716 Romulus 295 Sentínum 716-673 283 Lake Vadimónis 673-641 Tullus Hostilius 281-272 Pyrrhus 640-616 Ancus Marcius 280 Heracléa, Cineas 616-578 Tarquinius Priscus 279 Asculum 578-534 Servius Tullius 274 Beneventum 534-510 Tarquinius Superbus 272 Rome mistress of Italy, morality at its 510-30 The Republic height 509 Battle of Lake Regillus 264 Period of foreign conquest begins 508 Porsena, Horatius Codes 264-241 First Punic War 494 Tribúni Plebis, Menenius Agrippa 260 Lipara, Mylae 492 Corioli, Coriolánus 257 Tyndaris 477 Destruction of the Fabian Gens 256 Ecnomus, Regulus at Clupea 458 War with the Aequians, Cincinnátus 249 Drepana 451 The Decemviri, Appius Claudius, Virginia 241 Aegátes Insulae, Catulus, Hamilcar Barca 396 Capture of Veil, Camillus 237 Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established 229 Illyrican War, Important results 118-104 The Jugurthine War, Metellus, Marius, 222 Gallia Cisalpína acquired by battle of Sulla Telamon 102 Aquae Sextiae 220 Hannibal in Spain 101 Vercellae 219 Saguntum 90-89 The Italian or Social War 218-202 Second Punic War 86 Death of Marius 218 Ticinus, Trebia 86-84 Sulla's campaign against Mithradátes 217 Trasiménus, Casilínum 84 Death of Cinna 216 Cannae 80 Reforms of Sulla 212 Capture of Syracuse, Archimédes 78 Death of Sulla 207 Baecula, Metaurus 80-72 Sertorius in Spain 202 Zama 73-71 Spartacus 214-205 First Macedonian War 72-67 Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradátes 200-197 Second Macedonian War 67 Pompey conquers the pirates 198 Cynoscephalae 67-61 Pompey in the East 190 Magnesia 63 Cicero Consul, Catiline 183 Death of Africánus, Hannibal, and 59 First Triumvirate formed, Caesar's first Philopoemen Consulship 171-168 59 The Leges Juliae, Clodius, Cicero's 168 Pydna banishment, Cato sent to Cyprus 149-146 Third Punic War 58-49 Caesar in Gaul 149 Death of Cato the elder 57 Recall of Cicero, Return of Cato 146 Destruction of Carthage and Corinth 53 Death of Crassus, Murder of Clodius, 143-133 The Numantine War Pompey's consulship 134-132 The Servile War 52 Separation from Caesar 133 Tiberius Gracchus 49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon 129 Death of Africánus the younger 49 Siege and capture of Ilerda 123-121 Gaius Gracchus 48 (Jan. 4) Caesar sails from Brundisium, 213 Victory of Pompey near the sea-board, (Aug. 9) 41-68 The Claudian Emperors. Pharsalia, (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey, Caesar 41-54 Claudius establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt 54-68 Nero 47 Battle of Zela, (Sept.) Caesar returns to 68-69 Galba Rome 69 Otho 46 (Apr. 4) Thapsus, Death of Cato the 69-96 The Flavian Emperors younger 69-79 Vespasian 45 (Mar. 17) Munda 79 Destruction of Jerusalem 44 (Mar. 15) Murder of Caesar 79-81 Titus 43 (Nov. 27) The , (Dec.) 80 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii Murder of Cicero 81-96 Domitian 42 (Nov.) Philippi 96-180 The Five Good Emperors 36 Naulochus 96-98 Nerva 31 (Sept. 2) Actium 98-117 Trajan. Limit of Empire reached 117-138 Hadrian 138-161 Antonínus Pius THE EMPIRE 161-180 Marcus Aurelius 180-192 Commodus 192-284 From Pertinax to Diocletian B.C. / A.D. 284-305 Diocletian 306-337 Constantine the Great 30-41 The Julian Emperors 312 Edict of Milan 30-14 Augustus 325 Council of Nice 337-476 From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus A.D.

14-37 Tiberius 37-41 Caligula 214 1888 SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS 1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Roman citizen,--what were they? [Take four.]

HARVARD COLLEGE 2. (a) How did Augustus obtain his power? (b) The reign of Hadrian; (c) The first Punic war. [Take June, 1889 one.]

1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; 3. (a) The Roman religion; (b) Decay of the Empire, Veii; Pharsálus; [Take one] Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what important 4. Sulla's rule in Rome. events was each connected? [Omit one; answer very briefly.] 5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. [4 and 5 2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy. are for "additional readings."]

3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars. 1887 4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome. (a) [Take five.] The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, 5. (a) Education in Rome. (b) Amusements at Placentia, Cannae, Rome. Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates) [Take one] historical events connected with four of these places. [Take any two.]

215 1. How were the members of the September, 1886 chosen at different times? 1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy 2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the before the duties of the Praetor? .

3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, 2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the , shores of the Curia, Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law Mediterranean? For what were three of them of Majestas. celebrated?

Questions on the "additional reading." 3. Describe the three forms of the Roman comitia, and trace [Candidates who have read the books the development of the comitia tributa. recommended for additional reading may substitute one of the following questions for one 4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in of the first three in this group.] the Punic wars? The effect of this victory upon Italy? 4. [TIGHE.] How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ 5. Explain patria potestas, , from its theoretical powers? municipium, ager Romanus, equites.

5. [BEESLEY.] What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria of Gaius Gracchus? YALE COLLEGE.

216 EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION against Catiline.

June, 1889 1887 1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. [Time allowed, 30 minutes.] Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. 1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to Licinian Laws. himself? What change did he make in the government of Rome? What 2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? changes did Constantine In what ways and at make? what times introduced? 2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman 3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's citizenship, the great march. Battles causes of each extension, and dates. in Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did 3. What were the possessions of Rome at the Hannibal fail? beginning of the Christian era? How were they acquired, and when? 4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate. 4. Explain praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis; 5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: comitia centuriata. Actium. The Gracchi. First Samnite War. Pharsálus Regulus. Teutones 5. Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, and Cimbri. Numantia. Pharsalia; where were by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration they? what happened there, and when? 217 June, 1885

1886 1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). 1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was 2. Explain tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, established. imperator.

2. When and where did the principal military events 3. How were the provinces governed under the in the war between Republic, and how under the Caesarians and Pompeians occur? the Empire?

3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius. 4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results? 4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential 5. When and where did the following events take points did the Second Triumvirate differ from the place: the defeat of First? Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over 5. When and for what reasons was the right of Pyrrhus; the death of Brutus and Cassius; the citizenship given to the conquest of the first provinces? Roman province?

6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian?

218 UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW 5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of YORK. Jugurtha; (2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of 35th Academic Examination, November 22, Antony, or death of Cicero? (3) 1889 6. What do you understand by a "proscription"?

Mention the two which Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only 48 credits; necessary occur in Roman history. (3) to pass, 36.

7. What were gladiators? who was their leader 1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the when they rebelled? (2) Roman people. (2)

8. What notable service was rendered to his country 2. Mention one element which Rome has by Camillus; contributed to the civilization Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4) of the world. (1)

9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman 3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome history. (2) on Italian soil; state the result in each contest. (4) 10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the

beginning of the 4. Describe the situation of any two of the following Christian era. (3) places, and state an important historical event connected with 11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it each: Caudine existed in Rome.(2) Forks; Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4)

12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine 219 future events? (2) 20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2) 13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what ground were the Christians punished? (2) 34th Academic Examination, June 14, 1889

14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only 48 credits; necessary fortified towns. to pass, 36. Describe two engines used by them for this purpose.(3) 1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy before 15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2) the founding of Rome.(2)

2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF names of three of them. (4) CORNELIUS SULLA 3. Narrate the circumstances under which the 16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Tribunes were first Sulla belong? (1) elected. (1)

17. Tell something of the reforms which he 4. What were the "public lands"? what political instituted. (2) question arose in connection with them? (2) 18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2) 5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had 19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came he for hoping to succeed? (3) to an end. (2) 220 6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to so called. (2) overcome Rome. Why did he fail? (3) 13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to 7. What importance in Roman history is attached to a stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor the following Titus.(3) dates: B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3) 14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, 8. Briefly describe the political situation when and the character Caesar crossed the of the writings of each. (6) Rubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "the 15. Mention two principal causes which contributed Rubicon"? (3) to the downfall of Rome. (2) 9. What power was intrusted to a ? Mention two instances of this. (3) THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS 10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one 16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? of them. (4) (1)

11. What radical change in the Roman government 17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? was made by (1) Diocletian? (1) 18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the 12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; title of "Saviour tell why he was of his Country"? (1) 221

19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? 6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2) (1) 7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell 20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the something of their quarrels of effect upon the Republic. (2) Marius and Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2) 8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its result? (2) 33rd Academic Examination, March 8, 1889 9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1) Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only 44 credits; necessary to pass, 33. 10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? What 1. What was the early form of government in Rome? Roman general commanded in this battle? (2) (1) 11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2) 2. Tell what you know about the (a) Patricians, (b) Plebeians, (c) Tribune, (d) Consul. (4) 12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of 3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia the Roman people? (2) Tributa. (2) 13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the 4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who result of this secured the first one? (2) war. (2)

5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2) 14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the 222 pirates, giving the birth? with which, by sympathy? (2) cause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3) 21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the 15. What great religious event occurred during the Gracchi of very great reign of the significance? (2) Emperor Augustus? (1)

16. For what were the following men noted: (a) 31st Advanced Academic Examination, Juvenal, June 15, 1888 (b) Seneca, (c) Cato the Censor, (d) Fabius, (e) Caligula? (5) Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only 48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.

THE GRACCHI 1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of 17. Of what great movement did the agitations of Italy be divided? To what great race did they the Gracchi form a belong? (4) part? (1) 2. Who established the comitia centuriata? How did 18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius it differ Gracchus? what measure by from the comitia curiata? (2) Caius Gracchus? (2) 3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1) 19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2) 4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was 20. With which order of the Roman people were the the result of the war? (2) Gracchi allied by 223 5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? 12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? What was the cause of (1) the siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state the 13. In whose reign occurred the last great circumstances of his death. (4) persecution of the Christians? (1) 6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of 14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of conquest, 266-133 B.C. (5) Constantine? (3)

7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern 15. Who was the last Western ? (1) conquests, in regard to literature and morals. (2) THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF 8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla ROME TO SUBJECT STATES represent? (2) 16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite 9. What two foreign wars were conducted by War to an end? (1) Marius. (2) 17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine 10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war Forks, and of between Pompey and the treaty made there. (4) Caesar? (1) 18. What was the result of the ? 11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What Give the terms of illustrious man was slain the final peace between the Romans and the in their proscription? (4) Samnites. (3)

224 19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome 4. Give an account of the appointment of the reserve for Decemvirs and the powers herself? (3) intrusted to them. (2)

20. Distinguish between Roman citizens and 5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or subjects rogations. (2) (or Latins) (2) 6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the cause 30th Advanced Academic Exaination, of the First Samnite War? (2) March 2, 1888 7. Give the name of one of the Roman military Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only 48 credits; necessary roads, tell in which to pass, 36. direction it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3) 1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location of 8. In what locality were most of the contests of the Rome and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of First Punic Latium (6) War? (1)

2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first ANCIENT ROME Consuls? (3) 9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian 3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and general noted in the conduct what were the two of the First Punic War. (2) conditions of the return? (3) 10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result 225 of the Rome. (2) battle.(2) 18. What was the first form of government at Rome, 11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by and after what was the Gracchi.(2) it modelled? (2)

12. Compare the character of Marius with that of 19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Sulla.(2) Curiata in its membership? (2) 13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength did 20. What authority did the king have, and what each contribute to it? (3) duties did the Senate perform? (2) 14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1) 21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1)

15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: 29th Advanced Academic Examination, Nero; Trajan. (2) November 18, 1887

Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only 48 credits; necessary THE EARLY to pass, 36.

16. Into what two principal branches were the early 1. When was Rome founded? (1) Italians divided, and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3) 2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was the 17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of basis of the new constitution? (2) 226 Cato in character and 3. Who was the last king? By whom was the habits. (2) government by kings overturned, and to whom was the power then 10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by intrusted? (3) what Consul was it defeated, and in what manner? (3) 4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, how 11. What causes led to the formation of the First long did it continue, and how did it result? (3) Triumvirate? (1)

5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2) 12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its 6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C., result? (2) where did they contend with the Roman army, and with what result? 13. Describe the manner in which Octavius (3) Augustus became Emperor, and the character of his reign. (2) 7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and 14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and wealth, and when did the Romans and in what year? (2) Carthaginians first contend in arms? (3) 15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention some 8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent articles used by them for food. (2) against Hannibal, what policy did he pursue, and with what result? (3) THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY 9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus INHABITANTS 227

16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the 18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest , known times, what and the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4) part of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latins 17. Upon the map indicate the location of the descended? (7) following: Rome, Naples, Tarentum. (3)

228 Robert F. Pennell was born in Trustees replaced him with Maine in 1850 and received his Carlton Ritter. About the Author AB degree from Harvard Pennell and his wife, Eleanor, University. In 1889 he was in had one son. Robert Pennell California and was principal of died in San Francisco in 1905. the Marysville schools. From 1890 - 1893 he was principal of From University Archives, the Stockton Schools. In 1893, Meriam Library, Special he was elected principal of the Collections normal school at Chico. During his term of office, he promoted the beginning of the Normal Record as the school newspaper and the ungraded or country school was added to the training school. In an introduction to the Normal Record, he wrote " We are trying to lay our course on the broad foundation of scholarship and practical teaching". In January 1896 the graduating class, which had arrived at the normal school at the same time as he did, presented him with a gold headed cane to show their respect and esteem. In 1897, a newly appointed Board of 229