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Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters

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Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters Front cover photographs: Middle: Noctiluca bloom, Hai Ha Wan, Hong Kong. Photo by K. D. Wilson Bottom: Fish kill following a high biomass Ceratium furca and Prorocentrum micans bloom leading to oxygen depletion, South Africa. Photo by G. Pitcher. Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters Donald M. Anderson Biology Department Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole MA 02543 Per Andersen Bio/consult as 8230 Åbyhøj Denmark V. Monica Bricelj Institute of Marine Biosciences National Research Council of Canada Halifax NS Canada B3H 3Z1 John J. Cullen Department of Oceanography Dalhousie University Halifax NS Canada B3H 4J1 J. E. Jack Rensel Rensel Associates Aquatic Science Consultants Arlington WA 98223 This report to be cited as: Anderson, D.M., P. Andersen, V.M. Bricelj, J.J. Cullen, and J.E. Rensel. 2001. Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters, APEC #201-MR-01.1, Asia Pacific Economic Program, Singapore, and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Technical Series No. 59, Paris. The designations employed and the presentations of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariats of UNESCO and IOC concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of the frontiers of any country or territory. Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 2 1 INTRODUCTION 21 1.1 HAB Impacts 21 2 BASIC COMPONENTS OF HAB MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 25 2.1 General issues 25 2.2 Basic elements 25 3 MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT METHODS 29 3.1 Methods of Toxin Analysis 29 3.1.1 General Considerations 29 3.1.2 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) Toxins 31 3.1.2.1 Emerging technologies. 35 3.1.3 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) Toxin 37 3.1.4 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) Toxins 39 3.1.5 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) Toxins 41 3.1.6 Other algal toxins 41 3.1.7 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) Toxins 42 3.1.8 Toxin in Finfish and Consumption by Humans 45 3.2 Action or Regulatory Limits for Toxins and Cells 47 3.2.1 Shellfish 47 3.2.2 Finfish 52 3.3 Phytoplankton Cell Detection 54 3.3.1 Sampling of planktonic algae 54 3.3.2 Sampling of benthic microalgae 55 3.3.3 Fixation/preservation of algal samples 55 3.3.4 Labeling and storage 56 3.3.5 Volunteer plankton monitoring programs 56 3.3.6 New Cell Detection Methods 57 3.3.6.1 Antibodies 57 3.3.6.2 Nucelotide probes 58 3.3.6.3 Lectins 60 3.3.6.4 Application of molecular probes to natural populations 60 3.3.6.5 Use of molecular probes in new areas 61 3.3.7 Fish Indicators 62 3.4 Early Warning, Detection and Prediction of Blooms 63 3.4.1 Observing algal distributions in relation to environmental variability 64 3.4.1.1 Secchi disk 64 3.4.1.2 Chlorophyll a 65 3.4.1.3 Fluorescence of chlorophyll in vivo 65 3.4.1.4 Spectral fluorescence excitation and emission in situ 66 3.4.1.5 Spectral attenuation and absorption 67 Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 3 3.4.1.6 Ocean color 70 3.4.1.7 Flow cytometry 71 3.4.2 Characterizing Environmental Variability Relevant to Algal Blooms 72 3.4.2.1 Profiling systems 72 3.4.2.2 Underway sampling on ferries 73 3.4.2.3 Bio-optical moorings 74 3.4.2.4 Moored profiler 77 3.4.3 SEAWATCH™ system 77 3.4.3.1 Estimated costs and requirements for support 78 3.4.3.2 Monitoring algal blooms with SEAWATCHTM 78 3.4.3.3 Forecasting algal blooms with SEAWATCHTM 79 3.4.3.4 A general assessment of SEAWATCH for monitoring and predicting algal blooms 79 3.4.4 Observations from Aircraft 80 3.4.4.1 Visual detection of blooms 80 3.4.4.2 Quantitative observations of ocean color from aircraft 80 3.4.4.3 Imaging spectroradiometer 82 3.4.4.4 Satellite remote sensing 83 3.4.4.5 Remote sensing and forecasts of bloom dynamics 83 3.4.4.6 Remote sensing and research on algal blooms 83 3.4.5 Modeling 84 4 HAB MONITORING PROGRAMS 86 4.1 Fish Mariculture Monitoring 86 4.1.1 Norway 86 4.1.2 Pacific Northwest (North America) 91 4.1.2.1 Background and causative species 91 4.1.2.2 Chaetoceros subgroup Phaeoceros 93 4.1.2.3 Heterosigma akashiwo 94 4.1.2.4 Ceratium fusus 96 4.1.2.5 British Columbia (Canada) 97 4.1.2.6 Washington State (US) 98 4.1.3 Japan 99 4.3.5.1 Background and Causative Species 99 4.1.4 Chile 102 4.1.4.1 Background and causative species 102 4.1.4.2 Heterosigma akashiwo 102 4.1.4.3 Chilean fish farms and phytoplankton monitoring 104 4.2 Ciguatera 104 4.3 Shellfish Monitoring 105 4.3.1 United States 105 4.3.1.1 Atlantic US: State of Maine 105 4.3.1.2 Pacific US 113 4.3.2 Canada 118 4.3.3 Galicia, NW Spain 126 4.3.4 Denmark 132 4.3.5 New Zealand 137 4.3.6 France 149 Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 4 4.3.7 Control of Imported and Exported Seafood Products 152 4.3.7.1 US: the NSSP/ISSC program 153 4.3.7.2 Canadian import program 155 4.3.7.3 The European Economic Community (EEC) 155 4.4 Monitoring for Pfiesteria-like Organisms 156 4.5 HAB Impacts on Beaches and Recreational Waters 157 4.5.1 Recreational use of beaches/coastal waters 157 4.5.2 Species toxic to humans through inhalation of sea spray, etc. 158 4.5.3 Species toxic to humans through dermal contact 159 4.5.4 Species toxic to animals (including humans) through oral intake while swimming 160 4.5.5 Non-toxic phytoplankton 160 4.5.6 Mitigation/precautionary measures 160 4.6 HAB Impacts on Ecosystems 162 4.7 Monitoring Program Costs 163 5 ADMINISTRATION OF MONITORING PROGRAMS 167 5.1 National/regional HAB Monitoring Programs 167 5.2 Public Education and Communication 168 6 MITIGATION AND CONTROL 174 6.1 Impact Prevention 174 6.1.1 Monitoring Programs 174 6.1.2 Nutrient Reductions 175 6.1.3 Ballast Water Introductions 177 6.1.4 Species Introductions via Mariculture Operations 178 6.1.5 Prediction 178 6.1.5.1 Models 178 6.1.5.2 Remote sensing 178 6.2 Bloom Control 179 6.2.1 Chemical Control 179 6.2.2 Flocculants (clays and long-chain polymers) 182 6.2.3 Physical Control 186 6.2.3.1 Skimming of Surface Water 186 6.2.3.2 Ultrasonic destruction of HAB cells 186 6.2.4 Biological Control 186 6.2.4.1 Grazing by zooplankton and suspension-feeding benthos. 186 6.2.4.2 Viruses 187 6.2.4.3 Parasites 188 6.2.4.4 Bacteria 189 6.2.4.5 Other algae 189 Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 5 6.3 The Arguments Against Controlling HABs 190 6.4 In Situ Bloom Mitigation Methods for Fish Mariculture 191 6.4.1 Aeration 191 6.4.2 Oxygenation 198 6.4.3 Airlift Pumping 199 6.4.4 Moving Pens from Blooms 200 6.4.5 Perimeter Skirts 201 6.4.6 Ozone 203 6.4.7 Site Selection 204 6.4.8 Alternative Fish Culture Systems 205 6.4.9 Filter Systems 208 6.4.10 Dietary or Chemical Treatments 209 6.4.11 Miscellaneous Mitigation Practices 209 6.4.12 Survey of Mitigation Used Worldwide 210 6.5 Impact Prevention, Mitigation and Control Strategies – Shellfish 211 6.5.1 Species Selection 212 6.5.2 Detoxification 212 6.5.3 Tissue-Compartmentalization of Toxins (product selection) 217 6.5.4 Vertical Placement in the Water Column 217 6.5.5 Processing of Seafood 218 6.5.6 Detoxification by chemical agents 220 6.5.7 Biological control 220 6.6 Ciguatera Therapy 221 7 CONCLUSIONS 223 7.1 General Monitoring Issues 223 7.2 Finfish Mariculture and Monitoring 224 7.3 Finfish Mariculture: Mitigation of Fish Kills 225 7.4 Fish Mortality and Toxic Blooms 226 7.5 Effects of Harmful Algae on Shellfish 226 7.6 Biotoxins 227 7.7 Early Warning and Prediction 229 7.8 Control and Mitigation of Algal Blooms 231 8 REFERENCES 236 Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 6 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1.1. Generalized pathways of human intoxication with molluscan shellfish toxins via filter- feeding bivalves and carnivorous and scavenging gastropods. 24 FIGURE 2.1. Theoretical monitoring network for HABs. 26 FIGURE 3.1. Records of water transparency (i.e., Secchi depth, 5-year running mean) and the reported frequency of blooms in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan, before and after the imposition of pollution controls in 1973. 65 FIGURE 3.2. Estimates of chlorophyll concentration based on measurements obtained with moored spectral absorption meters in the southeast Bering Sea, 1993. 68 FIGURE 3.3. Detection of a dinoflagellate bloom with a radiometer buoy measuring ocean color, Aug. 18, 1993, during patchy discoloration of surface waters by high concentrations of the non-toxic dinoflagellate Gonyaulax digitale. 70 -1 FIGURE 3.4.
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