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CONSTRUCTIVISM AS a BASIS for UNDERSTANDING TRANSNATIONAL TERRORISM: the CASE of AL QAEDA by DAVID SCHILD 200504766 Dissertation

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CONSTRUCTIVISM AS a BASIS for UNDERSTANDING TRANSNATIONAL TERRORISM: the CASE of AL QAEDA by DAVID SCHILD 200504766 Dissertation CONSTRUCTIVISM AS A BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING TRANSNATIONAL TERRORISM: THE CASE OF AL QAEDA by DAVID SCHILD 200504766 Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF ARTS in POLITICS in the FACULTY OF HUMANITIES at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG SUPERVISOR: DR. C.A. GEORGHIOU CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF. D.J. GELDENHUYS MAY 2011 ii ABSTRACT The essential nature of global politics has changed profoundly over the course of the past twenty years, becoming significantly more complex. The international system has evolved in such a way as to often render traditional, materially-determined theoretical approaches to International Relations ill-equipped to compellingly account for action. Increasingly, ideational concerns play a vital role as mobilising influences, causing actors to behave in an unprecedented manner. One of the phenomena most emblematic of this trend towards increased complexity and the rise of the power of ideas is that of contemporary transnational terrorism. Ideologically-motivated and often seemingly irrational, new terrorism confounds mainstream theoretical understandings of anticipated action and reaction and constitutes a particularly salient area of study, as security scholars grapple with effective means of counteraction. This exploratory study attempts to pave the way towards an appropriate understanding of contemporary transnational terrorism by utilising a theoretical perspective specifically tailored towards embracing the complexities of global political reality and championing the critical importance of ideational determinants of action, viz. constructivism. Constructivism is utilised as a basis to understand the intangible ideational mechanics informing the activities of the most significant contemporary transnational terrorist group, Al Qaeda, thereby simultaneously highlighting the value and appropriateness of constructivist enquiry compared to its outmoded theoretical peers and providing insight into more effective future counter- terrorist policy. The primary prescriptive finding of the investigation is that the key to combating Al Qaeda and, indeed, contemporary transnational terrorist groups in general, involves, through some intervention, heightening the perceived discordance between the espoused group norms which attract membership and actual group action. Such discordance has been seen in practice – in the case of Al Qaeda in Iraq – to cripple the efficacy and power of terrorist group functioning. Such an approach requires a comprehensive understanding of a terrorist organisation's worldview, coupled with a campaign of carefully directed public diplomacy tactics. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to offer my sincerest thanks to my supervisors, Dr. Costa Georghiou and Prof. Deon Geldenhuys, for their boundless wisdom, encouragement and patience. Similarly, I am forever indebted to my girlfriend, Nicole, and my long-suffering parents, Barbara and Steve, for their tireless love and support. A special thank you also to Suzanne and Victoria Graham for being my selfless mentors and academic lifeguards over the past six years. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Glossary ix Chapter 1: Introduction and research methodology 1 Introduction 1 1. Objective of study 2 2. Assumptions 2 3. Conceptualisation 3 4. Literature review 4 5. Research Design 6 6. Methodology 6 7. Organisation of investigation 8 Chapter 2: An orientation of constructivism within IR 10 Introduction 10 1. Constructivism within the context of the International Relations discipline 11 1.1. The historical context 12 1.2. Mainstream IR theory: neo-realism, neo-liberalism and structuralism 13 1.2.1. Neo-realism 14 1.2.2. Neo-liberalism 16 1.2.3. Structuralism 18 1.2.4. The "neo-neo" debate and prevailing positivism in IR 19 1.3. Post-positivist fringe 22 1.3.1. Critical theory 23 1.3.2. Normative theory 24 1.3.3. Post-modernism 25 1.3.4. Feminism 27 1.3.5. The key post-positivist objection 28 1.4. Constructivism as a third way 29 1.4.1. Key contrasts to mainstream theory 29 1.4.2. Key contrast to post-positivism 31 1.5. A disciplinary topography 32 v 2. The philosophy of science and the basis of constructivist thought 33 3. Constructivism within International Relations 35 3.1. Constructivist factions 36 3.1.1. Modern and post-modern constructivism 36 3.1.2. Systemic constructivism and holistic constructivism 39 3.2. The constructivist thesis 39 3.2.1. Norms and ideas 40 3.2.2. Identities, interests and action 40 3.2.3. The relationship between agents and structures 42 4. Criticisms of the constructivist approach 43 4.1. Constructivism as utopianism 44 4.2. Internally contradictory logic 44 4.3. Insufficient ideational operationalisation 45 5. A Caveat Regarding Conventional Theory and the Role of Ideas 46 5.1. Classical Realism 47 5.2. International Society 47 Conclusion 48 Chapter 3: The emergence of new transnational terror 51 Introduction 51 1. Clarifying the notion of "ideological" terrorism 52 2. Terrorist typologies and the unique nature of new ideological terrorism 54 2.1. Rapoport's four waves of modern terror 54 2.1.1. The anarchist wave 55 2.1.2. The anti-colonial wave 56 2.1.3. The New Left wave 58 2.1.4. The religious wave 60 2.2. Whittaker's motivation typology 62 2.2.1. Rational motivation 63 2.2.2. Psychological motivation 63 2.2.3. Cultural motivation 64 2.3. Cronin's motivation typology 65 2.3.1. Leftist terrorists 66 2.3.2. Rightist terrorists 66 vi 2.3.3. Ethnonationalist/separatist terrorists 67 2.3.4. "Sacred" or religious terrorists 67 3. Characteristics of contemporary ideological terrorism 69 3.1. Non-utilitarianism 69 3.2. The role of ideologues 70 3.3. Lack of a discretely identifiable territorial base 71 3.4. Systemic revolution 72 3.5. Immunity to traditional methods of counteraction 72 3.6. Group numbers and sophistication 73 3.7. Attack frequency and lethality 75 3.8. Unquestionable righteousness 75 3.9. Dehumanisation of targets 76 3.10. Compounding influence of certain cultural and social factors 76 Conclusion 77 Chapter 4: The case of Al Qaeda - group norms 79 Introduction 79 1. Al Qaeda as an ideal case study 80 1.1. Background 80 1.1.1. History and context 80 1.1.2. Al Qaeda today 82 1.2. Characteristics of new transnational terrorism exhibited by Al Qaeda 83 1.2.1. Non-utilitarianism 83 1.2.2. The role of ideologues 84 1.2.3. Lack of a discretely identifiable territorial base 85 1.2.4. Systemic revolution 85 1.2.5. Immunity to traditional methods of counteraction 86 1.2.6. Group sophistication 87 1.2.7. Attack frequency and lethality 88 1.2.8. Unquestionable righteousness 89 1.2.9. Dehumanisation of targets 89 1.2.10. Compounding influence of certain cultural and social factors 90 2. Measuring norms 91 2.1. Norm strength 91 vii 2.2. Legro's framework 92 2.3. The exclusion of ideas, identities and interests from discussion 93 3. Al Qaeda's prominent group norms 93 3.1. Anti-Westernism 94 3.1.1. Norm specificity and durability 94 3.1.2. Norm concordance 97 3.2. Militant Islamic fundamentalism 100 3.2.1. Norm specificity 100 3.2.2. Norm durability 101 3.2.3. Norm concordance 102 3.3. The glorification of martyrdom 103 3.3.1. Norm specificity and durability 103 3.3.2. Norm concordance 105 3.4. The necessity of re-establishing a Caliphate 106 3.4.1. Norm specificity and durability 106 3.4.2. Norm concordance 108 Conclusion 108 Chapter 5: The case of Al Qaeda – a constructivist analysis 110 Introduction 110 1. Causation, constitution and constructivism 111 2. Process-tracing 112 2.1. The method 112 2.1.1. Forms of process-tracing 113 2.2. The appropriateness of process-tracing 115 2.3. Adapting process-tracing for the purposes of this study 116 3. Tracing the evolution of Al Qaeda between 2001 and the present day 119 3.1. The 11 September 2001 attacks upon the US 120 3.1.1. Background 120 3.1.2. The enabling context 121 3.1.3. The effect of the context on group norms 123 3.1.4. The manner in which group norms directed consequent action 123 3.1.5. The effect of action upon the enabling context 124 3.1.6. The inability of mainstream theory to account for the attacks 125 viii 3.2. The US-led invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq 126 3.2.1. The effect of the context on group norms 126 3.2.2. The manner in which group norms directed consequent action 126 3.2.3. The effect of action upon the enabling context 127 3.3. The proliferation of Al Qaeda cells and notable terrorist attacks 128 3.3.1. Background 128 3.3.2. The effect of the context on group norms 130 3.3.3. The manner in which group norms have directed consequent action 130 3.4. Al Qaeda in Iraq 131 3.4.1. Background 131 3.4.2. The enabling context 132 3.4.3. The effect of the initial context on group norms 133 3.4.4. The manner in which group norms have directed consequent action 134 3.4.5. The effect of the current context on group norms 134 Conclusion 135 Chapter 6: Conclusion 137 Recommendations for future counter-terrorist policy 139 Bibliography 144 ix GLOSSARY Caliphate – An Islamic system of government first established by Muhammad in the 7th century and, following his death, further developed by his disciples in the Rashidun Caliphate on the Arabian Peninsula. The system attempts to establish a basis for a unified Islamic polity. The term is also used to describe a state which implements such a system. din wa dawla – The notion that Islam is at the same time both religious and political and should thus shape individuals' actions in all spheres of activity.
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