TITLE PUB DATE CE 002 023 Outlook for Technology and Manpower In

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 096 422 CE 002 023

AUTHOR Critchlow, Robert V.; Herman, Arthur S. TITLE Outlook for Technology and Manpower in Printing and Publishing. Bulletin 1774. INSTITUTION Bureau of Labor Statistics (DOL), Washington, D.C. REPORT NO Bull-1774 PUB DATE 73 NOTE 49p. AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 ($0.75)

EDRS PRICE NF-$0.75 HC-$1.85 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS Automation; Eaployaent Trends; Industrial Relations; Industrial Technology; Industrial Training; implant Programs; Manpower Needs; Media Technology; On the Job Training; *Printing; Production Techniques; *Publishing Industry; *Technical Occupations; *Technological Advancement; Vocational Adjustment; *Vocational Retraining

ABSTRACT In an effort to assess the manpower implications of technological innovations in the printing and publishing industry, the study undertakes to provide answers to the following questions: How extensively are the various innovations being used andwhat is the trend of their use for the future? What factors, such as costs and benefits, govern the future trend of adoption? How has employment been affected by these innovations? What changes in occupational requirements are brought about? What are the training needs for the various innovations? What industrial relations problems arise? The bulletin focuses on two of the most important divisions of the industry: newspaper publishing and printing and commercial printing. These two groups utilize most of the technological changes in the industry. A description of three major printing processes and a selected annotated bibliography are provided in the appendixes. (NW) Outlook for Technology and Manpower in Printing and Publishing Bulletin 1774 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Peter J. Brennan, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Ben Bun lefty, Deputy Commissioner

1973

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Microfiche edition available from Nional Technical information Service. Springfield. Va. 22151. at 95 cents a set. Make checks for microfiche payableto NTIS. Preface

'This bulletin describes changes in technology in the printing and publishing industry, a major industry employing over 1 million workers. The study focuses on the impact of new technology on productivity, employment, and occupational requirements, and describes methods of adjustment. It is one of a series of reports prepared to meet the requirements of the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962. which 'irects the Secretary of Labor to establish techniques and methods for detecting in advanee the potential manpower effect of automation. technological change, and other innovations that may result in changes in the structure of production. This type of advance information could he of great assistance to management and union leaders, educators, government officials, economists, and others in planning policies to cushion the effects of change. Information for the stt dy was obtained by members of the BLS staff during field visits to newspapers and commercial printing establishments where new technology wasintroduced and from experts in industry, labor, and government. Information also was obtainedfrom secondary source materials, particularly trade and technical journals. The study includes firsthand information on the impact on production and manpower of electronic computers, phototypesetting equipment. web-offset printing, and other innovations at the nine printing firms which participated in the study. The report also discusses the outlook for future diffusion of new printing technology and describes measures undertaken to maintain job security at survey plants and elsewhere. The Bureau of Labor Statisticsisgrateful to the many individuals who provided useful information and reviewed the draft of the report. We also wish to thank the Harris-Intertype Corporation for providing us with photographs. The bulletin was prepared in the Division of Technological Studies, Office of Productivity and Technology, by Robert V. Critchlow and Arthur S. Herman. under the direct supervision of Richard W. Riche and the general direction of John J. Macut, Division Chief.

iii Contents

Page

Introduction 1

Highlights 2

Chapter 1. The printing industry's importance in the economy 4 Definition of the industry 4 Employment 4 Production and productivity 5 Capital spending 5 Research and development 5

Chapter 2. Key technological changes 7 Composing room 7 Platemaking 10 Press operations 12 Mailroom 13

Chapter 3. Introducing new technology at survey plants 15 Planning 15 Installation 13 Costs and benefits :5

Chapter 4. Employment trends and occupational changes 18 Employment trends 18 Impact on occupations and skills 18

Chapter 5. Training for new technology 27 Union training 27 Industry trade associations 27 Manufacturer and user training 27 Entry level training 27 Training at survey plants 28

Chapter 6. Adjustment of workers to technological change 30 Contract provisions relating to technological change 30 Manpower planning in survey plants 31

Chapter 7. Outlook for technology and manpower 34 Outlook for technology 34 Outlook for manpower 37 ContentsContinued

Page Tables: 1. Employment in printing and publishing, selected subgroups and periods, 1947- -71 4 2. Production and employment in printing and publishing, 1954- 71 5 3. Expenditures for new plant and equipment in printing and publishing, selected subgroups and periods, 1947-71 4. Advanced equipment and techniques in use at newspapers and printing plants visited 8 5. Costs of new equipment at selected survey plants 16 6. Technological changes in the composing room at selected survey plants 9 7. Technological changes in platemaking, presswork, and mailrooms at selected survey plants 14 8. Training programs for technological change at selected survey plants 9. Provisions relating to technological change from selected collective bargaining agreements 32 10. Employment in printing and publishing, 1960 and 1970, and projections for 1980 37 11. Employment in craft occupations in printing and publishing. 1960 and 1970, and projections for 1980 37

Appendixes: A. Three major printing methods and the printing process 38 B. Selected annotated bibliography 41

vi Introduction

Although the printing and publishing industry has a innovations? What changes in occupational requirements history of slow technological change, the pace of change are brought about?What are the training needs for the has quickened considerably in all the major production various innovations? What industrial relations problems steps during the past several decades.Typesetting, for arise? example, was performed by hand for several centuries, This bulletin presents general information for the until the first commercial typesetting machines became entire printing and publishing industry (SIC27), but available in the 1880's. The next important innovation, focuses on two of the most important divisions of this the teletypesetter, was developed 50 years later. Two industry: newspaper publishing and printing (SIC 271) decades later, in the 1950's, photographic typesetting and commercial printing (SIC 275). These twomajor machines were commercially available. Technological industry groups employ about two-thirds of the total innovation has been much faster in the Ian 10 years; industry work force of more than1 million and are computerized typesetting, cathode ray tube typesetters, utilizing almost all of the major technological changes optical character reading equipment, and high speed data available to the industry. transmission are among the major advances. Consider- able information describing these recent technologies is To better understand the implications of the new available. but much less is known about their effects on technologies in printing, it is important to realize that all workers in plants where the innovations are being used. of the sectors of the printing industry have common In an effort to assess the manpower implications of productionoperations. Theseincludecomposition, these emerging technologies, this study undertakes to platemaking,printingpressoperations, and various provide answers to the following questions: How exten finishing operations. These production operations, in sively are the various innovations being used, and what is turn,arecommontothethreemajorprinting the trend of their use for the future? What factors, such processes letterpre;s, gravure, andlithography (offset). ascosts andbenefits, governthefuture trend of For a more comprehensive description of major printing adoption? How has employment been affected by these processes and production operations, seeappendix A. Highlights

New technology is being introduced in nearly all installed, the nature and co:nplexity of the application, phases of the printing industry. These innovations and the type and size of the user firm. Costs o7 frequently involve the application of electronic tech- computers, for example, ranged from $22,000 for a niques in place of mechanical equipment. In the compos- small special-purpose computer at a local newspaper to ing room, typesetting computers, high speed electronic $610,000 for an advanced model, general-purpose com- phototypesetting, new techniques to prepare camera- puter at a commercial printer. ready copy, and optical character recognition equipment Some of the more important objectives for introduc- are among innovations having an impact on productivity ing new technologies atthe survey plants were to and manpower. The electronic computer can undertake increase the quality of product, expand output, reduce severalkey composing room functions traditionally labor costs, increase operating capabilities, and reduce carried out by composing room craftsmen, including waste. word hyphenation and margin uetermination. Allthe plants achieved most of the gains they Phototypesetting is another major innovation affect- anticipated and benefits were substantial in some cases. ing composing room operations and involves typesetting Gains were achieved by increasing output per worker, by photographic processes which are significantly faster decreasing typographical errors, reducing paper costs and than the conventional "hot metal" method. Phototype- makeready time, decreasing labor costs, and increasing setting systems willbe introduced more widelyin out put . medium- and large-sized newspapers and hook and Total employment at survey printing firms generally periodicalprinters. Other innovations affecting man- hadincreased,although occupations and skillsof power and productivityinprintingfirms that are employees working with new technology hadbeen expectedto he diffused more widely include new altered.In departments where new technology had been platemaking methods and materials, automatic plate introduced. however, the employment situation was processors, electronic methods to separate color in color mixed: in some units employment was higher; in others, printing,automatic equipmenttoprocessfilmsin lower levels were reported. Significant reductions in unit making negatives, automatic electronic controls and labor requirements in some instances followed introduc- higher speeds on printing presses, any automatic mail- tion of technology, with the largest productivity gains room equipment. occurring in newspaper maeroom operations. Only six Implementing new printingtechnology did not full-time employees were involuntarily separated (and require a substantial amount of technical manpower and later reinstated) and none were down graded at the nine generally did not take a long time. Planning for new firms included in the study. equipment at most survey plants was undertaken by a Occupations and skills in all of the major production smallgroup of highlevelmanagement employees. steps of compositionplatemeking, presswork, and including shop foremen in some instances. Most of the newspaper mailroom operations are undergoing change:. engineering and installation effort was performed by In survey printit g firms, linecasting machine operator staff provided by the supplier of the new technology. positions were ueing eliminated; computer programer the size and composition of the team depending upon and related jobs were being added; and composing room the type of equipment purchased and the complexity of employeeswerebeingretrained inphotographic the installation. General-purpose computers -.ere among methods, intyping skillsto prepare tapes used to the most complicated new technologies to implement operate computers and phototypesetters, and in mainte- since they required a large amount of progiaming effort nance procedures for electronic equipment. The use of and specialized peripheral equipment. computers has simplified keypunch operations in ti.pe Adoption of new printing technologies is encouraged preparation. reduced errors, and improved productivity by lowered production costs, higher quality, and faster In platemaking and press operations, new equipment and output. The cost of new technology varied widely at methods require more technical skill and less of the survey plants, depending upon the type of equipment traditional craft skills.In1.11..: mailroom, manual tasks

2 associated with counting, handling. and tying news. positions, determining wage rates for new and modified papersarebeingdrasticallydecreased through the positions, and providing training to employees whose job growing use of automatic equipment. duties were modified. Training workers to function with new printing The outlook for new technology illthe printing technologylitts essential and has been the foremost industry is Pr significant growth.By 1980. industry Method ofmanpilwer adjustment.Training was provided experts optimistically forecast that nearly all newspapers by majorunions,industryassociations,vocational intheUnitedStateswill he using computers for schools, equipment manufacturers. and printing firms. In composing room and various business data processing the shift from hot metal composition to computers and operations. The diffusion of computers in commercial phototypesetters. many employees received on-the-job printing is expected to he slower.

instruction. lasting from 1 week to 15 months; some Newprinting technology will continue to affect attended classes at the computer manufacturer's school. employment and fob skills during the decade of the Newprinting technology has fiteused attention on 1970's.Total employment in printing is expected to techniques to maintain job security.Printing unions increase over the next decade. In the newspaper seg- generally favor technological change, provided measures ment, however, employment is projected to be lower by are undertaken to protect members from displacement 1980 because of the impact of new technology. As and other adverse effects. Collective bargaining agree- technology becomes more sophisticated, more profes- ments at unionized survey plants andin theindustry sional managers, engineers. technicians, and computer generally contain provisions applicable when new tech- personnelwillbeneeded,andcomposing room nology is introduced, including those relating to jurisdic- employees increasingly will need to acquire skills in tion, advance notice, training, selecting employees for keypunching, photography. and electronics. Although new jobs, layoffs. and severance pay. Atthe nine firms limited displacement of compositors, typesetters, elec- surveyed, substantial advance manpower planninv, was trotypers and stereotypers, and others is expected, the undertaken. including providing notice up to 3 years impact may he eased as demand for printed products priortotheinstallation of new printing equipment, increases and attrition and training facilitate manpower selecting employees to staff new computer and related adjustments.

3 Chapter 1.The Printing Industry's Importance in the Economy

The printing and publishing industry is a major U.S. As shown in table1. employment in the industry industry, employing over 1 millionworkers.Itis grew at an annual rate of 1.8 percent from 1947 to characterized by the predominance of small firms and 1971. Employment in newspapers grew by a slightly the presence of strong craft unions Economic new's in lower rate1.5 percent a year. The greatest difference in the industry are towards increasing employment. wising growth rates was between the two major sectors of productivity, growing capital investment, and intensified commercial printing - nonlithographic and lithographic. research and development. This chapter contains a Employment in nonlithographic commercial printing definitionof theindustry, adescriptionof the grew at an annual rate of less than 1 percent, while in importance of the printing industry in the Nation's lithographic commercial printing, although smaller in economy. and a discussion of the major economic absolute terms, employment maintained a growth rate of trends.Itprovidesthe background for subsequent 4.4 percent a year. chapters on changes in technology and their manpower About 22 percent of all printing employees work in implications. printing craft occu,ations; the remaining 78 percent are employed in positions such as clerks, salesmen, general Definition of the industry office workers, reporters and editors, and managers.

According to the Bureau of the Census, the printing andpublishingindustryconsistsof approximately 38,000 establishments. of which about 4 out of 5 Table 1. Employment in printing and publishing. employ fewer than 20 workers. selected subgroups and periods, 1947-71 The 11.S. Government's Standard Industrial Classifica- tion (SIC) designates nine industry subgroups. These include establishments engaged in printing newspapers. Commercial Total printing hooks. periodicals, and business forms; lithographic and Printing Period _. NewspapersExcept nonlithographic commercial printing; and establishments and Litho. Publishing litho- that perform services for the ...nting trade, such as graphicgraphic boolbinding, typesetting, photoengraving. and electrotyping. NUMBER OF This report focuses on two of the most important ot' EMPLOYEES (thousands) these industry divisions: newspaper publishing a, .1. printing (SIC 271) and commercial printing (SIC 275). Each 1947 721.0 248.5 179.8 49.5 of these two divisions employs about one-third of the 1958 872.6 314.1 194.0 73.7 1971 1.087.7 370.0 209.1 128.2 total industry's work force. and both are undergoing significant technological change. PERCENT CHANGE

1947-71 50.9 48.9 16.3 159.0 Employment 1947.58 21.0 26.4 79 48.9 1958.71 24.7 17.8 7.8 739 In 1971. there were nearly 1.1 million employees in ANNUAL RATE theprinting and publishing industry approximately OF CHANGE 367.000 more than in1047. This constituted a 51 percent growth in printing industry employment. in 1947.71 1.8 1.5 0.7 4.4 1947-58 1.9 1.9 1.1 4.1 contrastto a 20 percent growth in employment in 1958.71 2.0 1.4 0.8 4.7 manufamring as a whole. and a 12 percent gain in employment in nondurable goods. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics.

4 Production and productivity Table 2. Production and employment in printing and publishing, 1954.71

An index of productivity tor printing aril publishing Employment is not published by the Bur.niu of Labor Statistics, Period Production fall employees) primarily because output data tin the industry are limited. Physical output data are poor or nonexistent INDEX. 1967100 and, although value of shipments data exist, appropriate 1954 53.6 77.7 deflators are not available, 1955 59.0 79.7 The Federal Reserve Board (FRB) publishes an index 1956 62.7 82.3 of production which, while not reliable enough to he 1957 64.9 83.0 used in the construction of productivity indexes, none- 1958 63.3 83.3 theless canhe usefulas an approximation of the 1959 67.6 84.8 magnitude of change in production. From 1954 to 1971, 1960 70.4 87.0 production (FRB index) in total printing and publishing 1961 70.7 87.5 nearly doubled an increase of 91 percent, or an average 1962 73.3 88.4 of 4.2 percent per year as demand for printed materials 1963 77.1 88.8 83.6 90.8 rose with expansion of population, businessactivity, 1964 1965 89.5 93.5 income levels, and leisure time. In contrast, the increase in total employment (BLS data) over this period was 34 1966 98.1 97.1 100.0 below the 1967 100.0 percent or 1.X percent per year, substantially 1968 103.0 101.7 rate of growth of production. (See table 2.)Although 1969 105.7 104.3 definitive measurements of productivity for the industry 1970 104.1 105.6 are not available, these figures do suggest animprove- 1971 102.5 103.8 mentin manpower utilization duringthe 1954 71 PERCENT period as new and more productive equipment was CHANGE

introduced into printing establishments. 1954.71 91.2 33.6 1954-63 43.8 14.3 1963.71 32.9 16.9 Capital spending ANNUAL RATE Printing firms spent S9S2 million for new plant and OF CHANGE equipment in 1971. Average capital expenditures per 1954.71 4.2 1.8 employee one indicator of the pace of technological 1954-63 3.5 1.5 1963.71 3.7 2.3 changehave been rising. (See table 3.) Data on value of .11111 considered a more valid indicator capital stock in place SOURCE: Federal Reserve Board and Bureau of Labor Statistics. of technological change than annual capital expendi- turesare not available for printing and publishing. employee in commercial lithographic printing between In 1947. the three industry subgroups of newspaper, 1947 and 1963 (an increase of 144 percent) probably nonlithograplue commercial printing, and lithographic reflected the introduction of such new technologies as commercial printing had greater capital expenditures per phototypesetting and web-offset presses into commercial employee than the industry as a whole. lithographic printing during the 1950's and early 1960's. By 1971. this situation had changed considerably The wave of new technology that caused the large Expenditures for newspapers and nonlithograplac com- growth in commercial lithographic printing spread to mercial printingfellbelow the $903 per employee newspapers in the early 1960's. Averageexpenditures for lithographic com- industry average. Expenditures in new plant and equipmentpernewspaper employee mercial printing. howeverrose to a figure in excess of increased fiom 5411 in 1963 to 5742 in 1971Total 51,300 per employee well above the industry average. capital expenditures more than doubled while employ- lithographic Moreover, totalcapital expenditures in ment increased by 12 percent. commercial printing in 1971 ( S197 million) reversed the past pattern and exceeded the total for nonlithographic printing (S 154 million 1. Research and development The relatively large gain in capital expenditures per Research and development (R&D) activities are in- liureau of the ('enw%. creasing, althoughitis estimated that for the total

c Table 3. Expenditures for new plant and equipment new products, and firms not generally associated with in printing and publishing, selected subgroups and the printing industry such as computer manufacturers- periods, 1947-71 arc developing new products for the industry. Possibly the entry of new firms into the manufacture of printing Commercial printing Total equipment prodded the traditional manufacturers to printing greater development activity than would have occurred Except 1Litho- Period and Newspapers litho- otherwise. publishing graphic graphic Other sources ofR&D are trade associations,such as the NationalAssociation of Printing Ink Manu- DOLLARS PER facturers, the Technical Association of the Pulp and EMPLOYEE Paper Industry, the Institute of Paper Chemistry, and 1947 $313.96 $328.30 $337.47$ 351.25 the American Newspaper Publishers Association, which 1963 ...... 498.50 411.07 505.35 858.26 have sponsored research and, in the case of theANPA 19711 903.19 742.16 734 10 1539.00 Research Institute, have performed research. PERCENT Research organizations-both industry-supported and CHANGE independent-are very important sources ofR&D. 194711 ... 187.7 126.1 117.5 338.1 Among the industry-supported organizations are the 144.3 1947.63 . 58.8 25.2 49.7 Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, Gravure Research, 1963.711 81.2 80.5 45.3 79.3 Inc., The Book Manufacturer's Institute, and the Photo- Pfeil Minify. engraver'sResearchInstitute.Independentresearch institutesthat conduct research on a contract basis SOURCE: Bureau of the Census and Bureau of Labor Statistics. includetheBattelle MemorialInstitute, involved in printing industry research since 1934 and the developer printing industry only 1 percent or less of each sales of the process of xerography; the Massachusetts Institute dollar goes intoR&D. Incommercial printing, the of Technology, which performed some of the basic proportion spent forR&Dis reportedly well below the research on the Photon phototypesetter; the Stanford 1 percent indastry average.2 is carried out by equipment and material ResearchInstitute. presently conducting research on MostR&D electrostatic printing; and the Rochester Institute of manufacturers,tradeassociations,industryand independent research organizations, and a rather small Technology, which has a comprehensive graphic arts training and research program. number of medium to large-sized printing firms with the capital and willingness to experiment. The number of printing and publishing firms within-plantresearch 2U.S. Industrial Outlook197(1. p.71. departments increased during the 1960's and this trend 3J. Homer Winkler, "How Research and Development Spark the Printing Industry,"Inland Printer/American Lithographer, is expected to continue.; November 1968, p. 27. Also see Winkler, "Research: The Key to Traditional manufacturers of printing equipment and Graphic Arts Vitality,"Inland PrInterblinerican Lithographer, printing materials have hastened their development of May 1969, pp. 41-44. Chapter 2.Key Technological Changes

New technology is being introduced inall major machines. Special-purpose computers are small, simple phases of printing including composing room, plate- machines designed to justify copy. Some special-purpose making, pressroom, and mailroom operations. This computers also can hyphenate words, but the inclusion chapter describes some key innovations underway in the of this capability adds to the complexity and expense of industry and provides examples of their use at survey the machine. The more expensive general-purpose com- plants. Table 4 lists the innovations installed at the nine puters can perform, in addition to justification and newspapers and printing plants included in the study. hyphenation, many ncncomposition operations, such as accounting, payroll preparation, and customer billing. Thus, one general-purpose computer can be used for a Composing room variety of business data processing and production needs. As indicated in appendix A, the printing process In composing room operations, computer inputis begins in a composing room where manuscript copy is either magnetic or punched paper tape. Punched paper set in type and checked for errors. Some of the most tapeis more widely used, primarily because it was technological changes are occurring inthe dramatic commonly used to operate conventional typesetting composing room where approximately half of all print- machinery. Tape is punched on teletypesetter equipment ing craftsmen are employed. Important among the or on the newer tape-punching machines that utilize a innovations being introduced are (1) typesetting com- typewriter keyboard. The latter are probably somewhat electronicphototypesetting, puters.(2) high speed faster and easier for new employees to operate since (4) opticalcharacter (3) strike-ontypesetting.and anyone who can use a typewriter can learn to use the recognition. relatively simple extra keys and controls. In contrast, the teletypesetter keyboard is entirely different, requiring Computers fin- typesetting. Computers can perform operators to be specially trained. severalimportant composing room operationsthat Inpreparing copy for computer justification and traditionally have been performed 1:yhighly skilled hyphenation, the operator first types instruction codes, composing room employees. The most common applica- such as line length and spacing, and then types the tions are automatic margin setting (justification) and manuscript without regard to line length and hyphena- word hyphenation. tion. The result is a reel of "unfinished" tape that is of typesetting computers has been The diffusion ready for computer processing. The computer performs proceeding at a rapid pace. According to Composition allthe necessary typesetting functions and puts out Information Services. Inc., typesetting computer installa- "finished" tape that can operate automatic hot metal or tions in the United States increased from 98 in 1964 to photographic typesetting machines. 663 in 1968 a gain of nearly 600 percent .4 As demand A secretary with average typing skills with only a for new printing technology grows, major computer small amount of trainingcan type unfinished tape on areentering the printing manufacturers increasingly an electric typewriter and feed the tape into a computer industry market which previously had been supplied for processing. Consequently, skilled composing room primarily by two large printing machinery firms. craftsmen who havetraditionallyset type can be thelargestusers of typesetting Newspapers are bypassed and the work can be completed faster and computers, accounting for nearly two-thirds of total reportedly at lower cost. installations. Computers were being used for composing room Generally. composing room computers are divided operations at seven of the nine printing firms contacted special-purpose and general-purpose into two classes. for information. The two large metropolitan dailies were using advanced general-purpose computers to perform 4(IS Survey of Computerked Typesetting.Composition hyphenation and justification as well as general business InformationSCINICC%. 1.0% Angele,.October15. 1968. tasks. One of these newspapers also was usingits

7 Table 4. Advanced equipment and techniques in use at newspapers and printing plants visited

Automatic Plastic Computerized Phototype. Optical stereotype Type of plant character printing typesetting setting platemaking recognition plates machines

Newspaper: Large metropolitan daily x x x Small local daily.. x x x Large metropolitan daily x x x lx Small local daily.. ..

Small local daily . . . x Commercial printing plant: Publications printer (books, magazines, pamphlets) Typesetting plant for books (mainly textbooks). x x Typesetting plant for directories, catalogs, etc. x x Publications printer (mainly magazines) x ---x Automatic Web- Advanced Automatic film offset press mailroom processing press controls equipment

Newspaper Large metropolitan daily x x Small local daily x . Large metropolitan daily x x Small local daily . x x x Small local daily x

Commercial printing plant : Publications printer (books, magazines, pamphlets) x x x Typesetting plant for books (mainly textbooks) Typesetting plant for directories, catalogs, etc Publications printer (mainly magazines)

1 Experimental. SOURCE: Plant visits. computer system for press control and mailroom operation with data transmission. The latter newspaper, then tions. the headquarters of a statewide chain of local news- A local newspaper visited was using a small special- papers, installed a large general-purpose computer for purpose computer for justification only; another local typesetting and set up a data transmission network paper in the survey. an innovator in the industry, was linking the computer to a number of its other papers. using a highly sophisticated computer system in connec- The newspapers in the system transmitted "unfinished"

8 copydirectlytothecomputer, which performed complexity, CRT typesetters regularly use computers to hyphenation and justification. and sent "finished" copy "input" data, institute commands, and generate type backtotheoriginator'sterminal where tape was characters. punched for use in automatic typesetting machines. In the mid-1960's, an estimated 1,000 phototype- Two commercialprinterscontactedwereusing setting machines, performing about 2 percent of total special-purpose computers: a book typesetting plant for typesetting, wereinuse: by early 1973, however, hyphenation and justification, and a publications printer installations had risen substantially, with an e:*inated for justification only. A directory typesetter, on the 10,000 phototypesetting machines performing about 35 other hand, had installed a powerful third-generation percent of all typesetting.s general-purpose computer to be used with an advanced Phototypesettingoffersseveralmajor economic third-generation phototypesetter. advantages which make the process highly attractive for use by newspapers. It operates at a typesettingspeed Phototypography. Another important innovation in the unattainable by hot metal processes, especially when printingindustry istypesettingbyphotographic phototypesetting equipment is linked to a computer, processes (phototypesetting), a much faster technique The machine error rate for computerized phototype- than hot metal typesetting which it is displacing. The setting is generally lower than for hot metal typesetting. mostadvancedautomatichotmetaltypesetting Manpower requirements in the composing room can also machines can set 7 to 10 type characters a second, be reduced with computers and phototypesetters. Some compared with computerized phototypesetters which of these economic advantages, however, can be realized operate at speeds up to 1,000 characters a second. without shifting completely to a computerized photo- In phototypesetting, type is set on photographic film typesetting system by using computers to drive hot or paper rather than in metal. The brassmolds used in metal typesetting machines or using phototypesetting hot metal typesetting are replaced, in all but the new without a computer inapplications such as setting cathode ray tube models. by photographic negatives advertisements. called "matrices." Depending upon the machine used, a Three of the newspaper and two of the commercial matrice may be small and contain only one character, or printers in the study were using phototypesetting equip- larger, containing one or more complete alphabets. The ment at the time of visit. Three newspapers were using desired character is alined between a light source and a second-generation phototypesetters. In addition, one of lens, and its image is exposed through the lens, onto film the newspapers was experimenting with a third-genera- or paper. By changing the position of thelens, or using tion (cathode ray tube) unit, although it was not fully differentlenses, the character can be exposed in a operational at the time of visit. variety of different sizes. When the film or paper is Among the commercial printers, e book typesetter exposed. itis developed and used to make printing was using both first- and second-generation units and plates. found them suitable toitsoperations. A directory Three generations of phototypesetters currently are typesetter had just replaced a second-generation com- in use. The earliest are mechanical, keyboard-operated puterized phototypesetter system with an advanced machines that select and expose one character at a time system incorporating a large computer and a cathode ray at speeds up to 10 characters a second. Second-genera- tube phototypesetter. This firm was changing and tion phototypesetters are electro-mechanical machines updating catalogs, directories, and price list, jobs which that usually are tape-operated, rather than manually lend themselves to processing by a high speed third - controlled. These machines use matrices that contain generation computerized phototypesetting system. one or more complete alphabets (sometimesreferred to as "grids"), rather than single-character matrices,and Strike-on. This composing system utilizes typewriter-like expose 10 to 30 characters a second. typesetting equipment which produces justifiedtext The recently developed third-generation machines composition in a limited range of styles and sizes. Text operate by more advanced electronic principles. These copy is produced by impacting the imagethrough a machines generate characters from matrices or digital carbon ribbon onto proofing paper (in the same way information stored in a computer and display them on a that a letter is typed on a typewriter). The proofing cathode ray tube (CRT) similar to a TV picture tube. paper is then ready for assembly with headliner and The characters, as they appear on the face of the tube, artwork, after which it is photographed and made into a arepicked up by the lens and are exposed onto printing plate. photographic film or paper. These machines can turn out 1,000 characters a second, and compose entire pages sKodak Highlights, February 1973, p. 9. Published by the instead of a line at a time. Because of their speed and Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester. New York.

9 ; I :! _....000101001.1.1017.111111141 1: I _Boal

it I At

High speed phototypesetting machine

SInke-Otl. or "cold type" composition. is a popular This innovation is an attempt to bypass the worst means of producing composition where cost is a more bottleneck in composing room operations, the manual importantfactor than quality. The system has the manipulation of a keyboard to prepare punched paper potential for hypass'ng many of the traditional compos- tape for computer and typesetter input. Eventually, ing room operations by allowing a typist. with some OCR equipment may be able to read any style of type additional training and using fairly simple typesetting setbeforeit,even handwritten copy. Atpresent, equipment. to prepare text copy. Because of its low however, scanners are in limited use since they have cost. and the ease with which copy can be produced. the many operational limitations and are very expensive. strike-on method has found increased acceptance in One local newspaper, the headquarters of a highly typographic firms. the composing rooms of some com- innovative chain, was using two optical scanners in mercial printers. and in-house composing departments. conjunction with its computerized typesetting system. This was a pioneer installation of this technology in the Optical character twognition. Optical character recogni- newspaper industry. Originally only one scanner was tion (OCR) equipment is a composing room innovation installed: however, when it proved unreliable,a backup that may become more important in the future. This unit was added. Because of the high speed operation and equipmentconsistsof electroopticaldevicesusing great cost of the scanners. utilizing their full capabilities phot,)electric cells to compare characters on the copy to economically was difficult. The scanning system could characters programed into the computer memory of the handle much more copy than the newspaperwas able to scanners. Each character is identified and translated into generate. anelectronic slew!that operates the tape-punching equipment. OCR equipment is designed to "read" copy Platemaking at rates of 75 to 3.200 characters a second and translate it into unjustified tape which can he fed into a Lomputer Platemaking technologyisundergoing significant for justification. change. Most of the innovations involve photographic

10 forms of platemaking used by all three majorprinting expensive and time-consuming to make. The key criteria for letterpress newspaper plates are processesli t hography,lette press, and gravure. that they must he prepared quickly andinexpensively. Lithographic platemakinghas increased in the past However, the quality need nothe comparable to decade because lithographic printingespecially web- commercial printing plates because, with thepossible offsethas grown so rapidly. Most of thegrowth has exception of some advertisements, they are used for one been in commercial printing, but some of it isdue to the adaptation of web-offset by small- andmedium-sited edition only. The recent introduction of two new printing plates newspapers. To make a conventional offset plate, a thinmetal made of thin, flexible plastic may fulfill these criteria sheet (usually aluminum) is coated withlight-sensitive and resultintheirfuture application in newspaper chemicals, and the copy negative exposed onto it by use printing. One type of plate is made byphotographic of a strong arc light. The light-sensitivechemical is processes, and this capacity is beingdeveloped for the with its hardened in the image area, becoming insoluble towater, other plate system, allowing phototypesetting, to be combined with existing and the plateis coated with a special inkreceptive laborsaving potential, lacquer that adheres to the hardened chemical.The plate letterpress printing presses. The cost and the time plates are is washed in water to clean the lacquerand nonhardened required to prepare the newer plastic printing water-soluble chemical from all parts of the plate not about the same as for stereotype plates, but printing carrying the image. Thus, only the image arearetains the quality of the plastic plates is superior, press life is lacquer and remains receptive to ink. longer, ink transfer characteristics are better, and handl- Precoated plates are available which reduce plate ing and storing are easier due to their light weight, large metropolitan daily newspapers preparation work. The most advanced plate comes with One of the visited was experimenting with the newer plastic plate apresensitized, water-receptive coating. This plate can system. Although the platemaking equipment was opera- be unpackaged and exposed to a film negative for about tional at the time of visit, results on the press were not 2 minutes, and is ready for the press no addition of satisfactory. Company officials, however, were chemicals or washing or drying is needed. This method yet optimistic about the eventual success of this systemfor ofplatemakingcontrastsgreatlywiththemore newspaper letterpress printing. complicated and time-consuming techniques needed to make the heavy lead stereotyre plates for conventional letterpress printing. Letterpressprintingwithstereotypeplatemakihg. Several advances also have been introduced in conventional stereotype platemaking for letterpress printing. Letterpress printing with pl.:stic printing plates.The include more highly automated platemaking introduction of plastic printing plates for letterpress These machines which produce original and duplicate plates printing is another development that may prove to he of quickly and inexpensively, and automatic routing equip- major importance in the printing industry. Although a much large amount of letterpress equipment is presently in ment to remove irregularities in non-image areas taster than hand methods. This type of equipment was use, competition from web offset printing presses used visited. Despite n conjunction with phototypesetting has made major in use at the two large daily newspapers these advances, stereotyping is expected to decline in use inroads into letterpress printing. With the significant amount of capital invested in existing letterpress equip- because of the growing competition from lithographic printing and the potential competition from plastic ment, much research and development effort has been undertaken to upgrade and modernize the letterpress plates. process; the plastic plate is the most important result of that effort. Gravure printing.Gravure isaspecialized form of The firstwidely used plasticprinting plate was photoengraving used mainly for high quality magazines introduced in the early 1950's. It can he used for black and hooks and for packaging. The gravure punting plate and white or color printing, electrolytically plated for is a hollow cylinder, usually made of steel or cast iron, long press runs, and used on rotary presses. Plastic and is electrolytically plated with copper. Large gravure printing plates offer excellent ink transfer characteristics cylinders are over 100 inches long and can weigh almost (using slightly less ink than conventionalmetalplates), a ton. Przss life for the cylinder canextend into the and reduce makereadytimeinsome applications. millions of impressions, and operating speed for web-fed Although the plate has received considerable acceptance (rotogravure) presses can exceed 2,000 feet a minute. in most of the printing industry. thus far most news- The main advantage of gravure printing is long run papers have found them uneconomical because they are production with high quality printing. This is especially

II true foi color printing. because gravure puts a thicker qualit}but require no special skills. Automatic film layer of ink on the pap'i than any other process that processing units are operating satisfactorily at a local oiler; e% at a comparable speed. Disadvantago include newspaper and a publications printer visited as part of the relatively high cost and the large amount of time and the survey. handwork needed to prepare cylinders. Due to their size and weight, the cylinders are difficult to handle, plate Other inn nations.Electronic engraving equipment changes cannot he made easily, and cylinder storage can primarily for making gravure cylinders- -scanscopy in a be a problem. fashion similar to electronic color separators, but uses Gravure may he on the edge of rapid growth. Demand the electronic signals to operate a sharp stylus that is strong for the high quality color printing that gravure automatically engravesprinting plates atveryhigh can provide. All of the advances in film processing such speeds. These systems are being used extensively in as color separation, automatic developing, and electronic Europe, and their use is growing rapidly in the United etching apply togravure. Research on new gravure States. Several copy-to-plate camera systems exist that techniques is underway with laser etching of gravure automaticallyphotographcopyandmakeplates. cylinders a major innovation under study. Although copy-to-plate systems are not yet completely perfected, they do eliminate negatives and developing Electronic color separation. In color printing, the colors and stripping operations. must he separated from each other photographically and aprinting plate made for each color. Each plate, Press operations therefore, contains a segment of the total image to he printed. Color separation, until recently, has remained The two most significant changes in press operations essentially a hand process time- consuming, fairly costly inthepast two decades have been the shift from because of high labor input, and requiring highly skilled web-letterpress and sheet-offset to web-offset presses, craftsmen. Color separation has long been a bottleneck in color printing and the problem has become par- and the application of advanced electronic systems to make the controls of presses more automatic. ticularly at ute in recent years because the demand for color printing has increased greatly. Web- offset presses. Web-fed printing presses have been A solution to this problem has been the introduction used for many years in letterpress and gravure printing, of electronic color separation ((II color scanning) equip- but web-fed offset presses did not come intouse until ment. These machines convert light from color copy into the early 1940's, when they were developed specifically electronicsignalsthatcan beusedto expose the for printing business forms. In the 1950's, web-offset separation films. Color scanners do not eliminate all of expanded intocommercial printing and book and the time-consuming handwork involved in color separa- magazine publishing. Small weekly and daily newspapers tion. and they do not greatly reduce color preparation began to convert to web-offset in the early 1960's. By costs. But, when used as part of a color separation and 1970, 47 percent of the 1,400 daily newspaper printing correction system, scanners can reduce substantially the plants and 41 percent of the 6.165 weeklynewspaper amount of manual preparation work and skill required. printing plants were using web-offset presses.6 This They arefaster than conventional procedures., color trend is expected to continue until about 90 percent of separationsthatrequire several hours of work by all newspapers in the country are printed by lithography. conventional camera methods, for example. can he For newspapers, web-offset offers several advantages accomplished in considerably less time with a scanner. over web-letterpress. Web-offset provides a much higher Moreover. their output is more uniform and predictable quality of newspaper printing than does letterpress than conventional hand processes and at least equal in especially in printing photographs for both editorial and quality. advertising purposes. Also, makeready time for web- offset is lower and operating speedsare higher than for Aut(matie tihu prowssingsystems.As with color letterpress. Manufacturers have developeda number of separation, conventional film developing to make nega- web-offset presses to meet the specific needs of small-to tives used for platemaking has involved a considerable medium-sized newspapers. amount of manual work. Automatically controlled film Sheet-fed lithography. never an important factor in processing systems, becoming widely used, provide high newspaper printing, has importance in other sectors of quality developing with less manual work and lower theindustry.In commercial printing,thesheet-fed processing costs. Their major advantage, however, is in the uniformity of output. They standardize and control American PreNs. March 1970.

12 40-or 11. an.

I I

Ark

Modern w set newspaper press method reacheditspeak inthe early 1960's, then New ultraviolet inks and ultraviolet ink-curing systems declined under the impact of the web-fed method, which and hardwarearebeing adoptedincreasingly, par- has the advantages of faster press speeds andless paper ticularlyforweb-offsetprinting. Ink/water balance controls (for offset presses) are the most automated to The two small local newspapers included in the study date, and improvements are progressing on web-tension, switched from web-letterpress to web-offset presses to register, and color controls, and in peripheral equipment gain printing quality. One of these newspaperschanged such as microwave dryers, automatic folders, and flying over when it moved to a newbuilding and found that a pasters. The complete operation of a printing pressby new web-offsetpress costverylittle more than a remote control computers isforeseeable, but only at reconditionedweb-letterpress. The othernewspaper such a great cost that there would probably he no switched as part of a general shift to a computerized economic justification for such an installation. One of phototypesetting system which is more compatible with the large newspapers visited, however, uses its computer offset printing than with letterpress printing. system to control press speed. Anotherlarge newspaper A publications printer contacted for information was surveyed has an automatic system for counting the a pioneer in the use ofweb-offset presses for commercial number of papers printed and shutting down the presses cohr printing.This firmfeltthatthequality of at the proper time to reduce overruns. web-offsetprinting was as good asthatfrom the sheet-fed offset presses that it had been using: therefore, when it needed additional capacity, itinstalled web- Mailroom offset presses. A number of innovations in newspapermailrooms are Other press operations. Improved instrumentationand providing significant laborsavings. Oneof the more ,which counts highlyautomatic electroniccontrol and monitoring important advances is the counter-stacker equipment for printing presses are beingintroduced. finished newspapers, stacks them in pilesof a specified

13 number, and ties them into bundles automatically. This correct number of bundles to trucks for distribution. equipmentis used by three newspapers visited. High Mechanized inserting machines have reduced much of speed conveyor systems,insome casescomputer- the manual labor required to assemble large newspaper controlled, are used by many newspapers to send the edit ions.

14 Chapter 3.Introducing New Technology at Survey Plants

Introducingnewprintingtechnologygenerally accomplish the installation. The size and composition of involves arriving at the decision to undertake the change. this team depend upon the type of equipment purchased forming a management team to implement the conver- and the comp'exity of the installation. Installing new sion. and undertaking thetechnical and manpower web-offset presses in a survey publications printing plant planning requited to ensure an orderly change. In this averaged about2 months per press and required a chapter. some techniques used by survey plants to plan four-man crew suppliedbythemanufacturer. The and implement new printing technology are highlighted. production manager or his assistant spent the 2 months The cost of new printing equipment installed at survey on a full-timebasis supervising the installation and plants also is presented along with some examples of testing the operation of the new press and was involved, operat tug improvements and cost savings. on a part-time basis, for about 6 months after installation to assure successful operation. When press opera- tionsbegan. themanufacturerassignedabout five Planning mechanics and instructors to the plant for several weeks to answer questions and correct minor problems. If Planning for new equipment at most survey plants serious difficulties arose, an engineer was made available was undertaken by a small group of high level managerial by the equipment supplier to assist the team. employees.In alarge newspaper, for example. the Installing special-purpose computers at survey plants decisionto purchase new equipmentis made by a generally was a simple operation. At one plant, for management team which considers any new technology exampl:. the computer was delivered, installed, and that will make possible cheaper or faster output. The made operational inI day. At another plant, however, potential equipment is evaluated on a financial basis and where an installation of a special-purpose computer was purchased only if sufficient dollar return is anticipated. undertaken, six vendor employees spent about 3 months Therefore, no experimental equipment is considered. On trying to de-bug a system. Programing was supplied by the other hand, a small newspaper. the headquarters of a the computer vendor for all three special-purpose com- highlyinnovative chain. installed some of the most puter installations at survey plants. In only one case advancedexperimentalequipmentavailabletothe were programing modifications undertaken by the user. industry. While this firm expected the equipment to he General-purpose computer installations were more profitable, the key criteria were improved volume and complicated since many more data processing functions quality of product. In another small newspaper. when were involved and specialized peripheral equipment was the publisher decides that new equipment is needed, the needed. These systemsrequireda large amount of generalmanager andthe foreman of the affected programing effort. While some of the programing was department visitother newspapers already using the supplied by the vendor, asignificant amount was equipment to evaluate different types of installations. provided by user staff.Allfour survey firms using They report back to the publisher who makes the final general-purpose computers, for example, had programing decision. At a book typesetting firm, the director of departments for their computer systems. The staffs of research performs evaluation studies on new equipment these departments worked with the vendor's programers based on factors such as capacity. cost, and return on and systems analysts in preparing programs for the investment. Management bases the decision to purchase computer. They continued to work on programs for on these studies. dayto-day operations and special applications after the vendor team left. Installation Costs and benefits Once a printing firm decides to acquire the equipment. most of the engineering and installationeffort is Introducing new printing technology at survey plants provided by the supplier, who sendsin a team to generally involved a substantial investment which was

5 undertaken 41n1y after careful consideration of costs and large web-offset press. As another example, a large anticipated benefitsNearly all of the equipment was metropolitan daily newspaper paid S34,000 per unit for purchasedlatherthanrentedfrom the equipment second-generation phototypesetters, while a commercial manufacturers. The exception was a large metropolitan printer paid $370,000 for one of the more advanced daily newspaper which chose to rent rather than buy its models. (See table 5 for additional information about general-purpose computers. the costs of new equipment at survey plants.) 11w cost of new technology varied widely at survey Someofthemoreimportantobjectivesfor plants, with the volume of investment depending upon introducing new technologies at survey plants were to the type of equipment installed, the nature and com- increase output, reduce labor costs, and increase product plexity of the application, and the type and site of the quality. These objectives were met in varying degrees in user firm. Costs of computers, for example, ranged from all of the installations. Examples of the benefits at S22,000 for a small special-purpose computer at a local survey plantsarepresented below. The nature and newspaper to S610,000 for an advanced model, general- extent of these improvements were influenced by factors purpose computer ata commercial printer. A small suchaslevelof output, type of innovation, and web-offset press for a local newspaper cost SI91,000, efficiency of the preexisting technology. These examples while a commercial printer paid over SI million for a therefore should be considered as illustrative only, since

Table 5. Costs of new equipment at selected survey plants

Plant Type of equipment Cost

Large metropolitan 2 general -purpose computers $5,000rental permonth each daily newspaper 2 second-generation phototypesetters $39,000 each

Small local daily newspaper Web of fset press $191,000 Camera and platemaking equipment for the press $9,300 Automatic film processing system $15,000

Small local daily newspaper Small special-purpose computer $32,500 Small special-purpose computer (back-up unit) $22,000 Mailroom counter-stacker and conveyor system $65,000

Publications printer Large color web-offset press $653,000 Large color web-offset press $1,003,800 Large color web-offset press $720,900 Large color web-offset press $969,200 Large color web-offset press $956,500 Automatic film developing system $12.15,000 Automatic platemaking equipment $30,000

Book typesetter Special-purpose computer $50,000 2 second-generation phototypesetters with 6 keyboards $ 56,000$60,000,depending uponhow equipped

Directory and catalog typesetter General-purpose computer $610,000 Third-generatioi phototypesetter $370,000

Publications printer Special-purpose compiter $ 59,200(includes$1.200 for programs)

SOURCEPlant visits.

16 they could he significantlydifferentinplants not At a small local daily the introduction of a special- surveyed or in survey plants at different times. purpose computer and a tape-driven hot metal typesetter At a large metropolitan daily newspaper automatic led to a reduction in composition time, allowing the stereotype casting and centralized remelt equipment led newspaper to reach the stands 11/2 hoursearlier. Part of to a decline in the number of stereotypers from 44 to this gain was attiihuted to a decline of 35 pc.rcer.t in 33. Automatic press controls and sensing equipment typographical errors. Savings in the composing room reduced press overruns and unaccouned-for-newspapers were estimated to be almost S12,000 per year.In the from about 3,000 -3,500 papers to 200 300 per day. mailroom, automatic equipment led to a reduction of 50 Automatic inserting, stacking. and handling equipment percent in employment, down from eight to four men reduced mailroom employment from 105 workers to 32. on the line, with savings estimated atabout S30.000 per All of these changes occurred during a period when year. output was increasing. A large commercial publications printer shifted to At a small local daily newspaper the shift from hot web-offset from sheet-fed offset and gained increased metal letterpress printing to phototypesetting and web- speed with equal quality, and a reduction in makeready offset led to better quality printing, fewer errors, and time and paper costs. greater speed. A typesetting computer led to faster. A hooktypesettergained increased speedand more accurate tape-punching. These changes allowed a capacity, highertypequality, and areduction in decrease of four employees inthe composing room keyboarding costs of about 20 percent with the intro- despite growing printing volume. duction of a special-purpose computer and first- and At a large metropolitan daily automatic mailroom second-generation phototypesetters. equipment led to a reduction in part-time employment At a directory and catalog typesetter the advanced equivalent to five to six full-time workers. Computers computerized phototypesetting system was too new to and phototypesetting provided an increase of 11 percent determine specific gains. in columns produced per employee over a 9-year period. At a publications printer the installation of a special- .4small local daily gainedgreater speed, higher purpose computer allowed typists to be used insteadof product quality, and capabilities for job printing because skilled linotypers and led to a reduction in the cost of of the substitution of a web-offset press for letterpress composition of about 12 to 15 percent below that of equipment. manual operations.

17 Chapter 4. Employment Trends and OccupationalChanges

Increasing employment in the printing inJustry has of159.0 percent. Lithography ranksas the fastest been accompanied by maim changes in ocLupations and growing part of the printing industry. skills. In this chapter. employment trends it the major Several sectors of the industry do not receive major printing industry sectors are examined in the context of attention in this study, including hook and periodical the impact of new technology on occupations and skills printing and publishing, bookbinding, and packaging in the major production steps of composition, plate- printing. In all of these sectors, employment increased mak :lig. presswork, and mailroom operations. from 1947 and 1971, although in no casewas the increaseasmarkedas incommercial lithographic printing. Employment trends Production workers make up a significantly smaller proportion of total employment in this industry than in As Indicated carpet, nearly 1.1 nullhm people were manufacturing as a whole-6Ipercent of total industry employed inthe printing and publishing industry in employment in 1971 compared with 72 percent for all 1971. The two most impoitant industry subgroupswere manufacturing. Within the major printing and publishing newspapers, with 370,000 employees, and commercial industry subgroups, production workers innewspapers printers, with 390)0. Within commercial printing, the were a relatively low 49 percent of all employees: in two most important groups were "commerLial printing, commercial printing, except lithography, 78 percent: except lithography- and "commercial printing. litho- and in lithographic commercial printing, 75 percent. In graphic.**The nonlithographicsectoraccountedfor 1947, production workers constituted a larger share of 209,000 employees in 1971 and the lithographic sector the work force in both printing and publishing (68 tin 128.000. (See table 1.1 percent) and all manufacturing (84 percent ). Punting industry employment has grown steadily lunployment of women inthe industry increased since 1947. Between 1947 and 1971. itincreased by from 250,200 in 1959 to 353,100 in 1971, a gain of 41 50.9 percent, compared to an increase of 19.7 percent in per,:ent (compared with a 25 percent increase in total manufacturing employment. On an annual basis. as employment over this period). Women also increased as shown in table 1. printing and publishing employment percentage of all employees from 28 percent in 1959 increasedatan average rate of 2.0 percent per year to 32 percent in 1971. Part of the increased employment during the period 195871 compared to an average rate of women can probably he attributed to the increase of of 1.9 peicerh per year during 1947 58. keyboard operations that are associated with computer Ilnployment growth rates varied considerably within and tape-operated phototypesetters. individual sectors of the printing Industry. The number of lobs in newspapers grew from 248.500 in 1947 to 370,000 in 1971an increase of 48.9 percent. No data Impact on occupations and skills are availablefortotal commercial printing overthe 194771 period because this sector underwent a change New technology is changing the duties and skills of in Si( definition that left the 1947 figures incompatible product an workers who perform composition and with those for 1958 and 1971. figures are available. typesetting operations. prepare painting plates (including however.tot thelithographicandnonlithographic camera and film processing). operate printing presses, groups. which accounted f01 over 96 percent of com anti carry out mailroom tasks. One major development is meicial printing employment in both 1958 and 1971. In thecreationof new occupations systems analysts, bothgroups. employmentmeleased.butatvery programers. and console opeiat orsto plan, program, differentrates. Nonlithographic employment Increased and operate electronic computers and 'elated equip- hom 179.800 in 1947 to 209,100 in 1971an increase ment Information on the nature of these and other of 16.3 percent. During the same period. lithographic changes, based on plant visits and secondary sources. Is employment hist. from 49.500 to 128.200 an increase presented in the following text and in tables 6 and 7.

18 Table 6. Technological changes in the composing room at selected survey plants

Firm Innovation Impact on employment Impact on skills

111101111111 Large metropoli- Computers for Production worker employment in 1962 There was amajorskillshift from tan daily news-justificationand(beforeinstallationofcomputersand linecasting machine operators to keypunch paper hyphenation, andpresently used photocomposition machines) operators. The keypunching staff consisted ph o tocomposi-was 217. By 1968, it had increased to 268,a of production typists trained in computer tion equipmentgain of 23.5 percent. Throughout the 6-year codes and retrained linecasting machine usedforsettingperiod, production workers accounted for operators. advertising copy.88.90 percent of total composing room employment. Journeyman typesetters were retrained in photocompositionskillssuchaspaste Jobs eliminated: By 1968, only four makeup, monitoring tapedriven photocom- linecastingmachine operators remained position machines, and photographic film men who wore so close to retirement that processing. they were not willing to be retrained. No new linecasting machine operators were to be hired.

Jobs created: Computer programer and console operator positions were filled by retraining company employees.

Systems anwysts were hired from outside the company, as their skills are based on a considerable amount of computer experience. The company did not considerit practical to train its own people in these skilIs until the computers had been operational for some time.

Small local daily Computers for The change to computerized photocom- Most of the teletypesetter (ITS) typists newspaperjustificationandpositionreduced employment byfour were retrained to type input copy for the (centralnews- hyphenation,people. At thetime ofthe BLS visit, optical scanner. Probably, little retraining was required, as the scanner has reduced paper in a leasedtelephonecomposing room employment (excluding chain of news -lines for data computer personnel but including working skill and training requirementscopy that is typed for the wanner can est read by the papersI transmissionsupervisors) was 114. between other typist.Incontrast,the TES machines newspapers in the produce punched paper tape, .equiring the Jobs created. Computer programer and operators to learn TTS code, ,then "read" chain. photocomconsole operator positions were filled by the holes in the tape. position equip-retrainingemployeesfromwithinthe men t opticalcompany. The programer staff was headed scanning equip-by a former linecasting machine operator. Typesetters were retrained for photocom- ment. position machine monitoring, paste makeup, and film processing operations. Fivesystemsanalystswere hiredat different times from outside the company. However, their lack of familiarity with the printing industry made them unsatisfactory for the newspaper's purposes.

Required new typing skills to operate Book typesetting Computerfor Work force increased from 35 people in firm justification.1961 to 166 by 1969. phutotyoesetting machines. Forst -generation phototypesetting Jobscreated.The computer console Requiredskillstooperate computer machine. operator had previously been a keypunch console. operator. She wastrainedtohandle Secondcomputer input and output tape and to generation (taPeoperate the computer controls. As a secon- driven) photodary duty, this employee also did some typesettingkeypunch work involving hyphenation of a machines and sort that cannot be done by the computer. tape-perforating (keypunch) units.

19 Table 6.Technological changes in the composing room at selectedsurvey plants Continued

Firm Innovation Impact on empioyment Impact on skills

Book typesetting programing was initially provided by an firm outside programing service. Later, the firm Continued switched to a freelance programer and one of the firm s own electronics maintenance employees who hadlearned programing techniques on his own. In addition to his programing work, the employee operated as an electronic trouble-shooter, which was less demanding of his timethan straight maintenance work.

Nine keypunch operators withtyping experience were hired to punch tape for the computer. It was for one of these positions thatthe computer console operator was originally hired.

One ofthe first-generation phototype- settingmachine operators witha good background in typography was trained to operate the new phototypesetting machines. This employee, inturn, trained 12 keypunch operators and four technicians who were hired to operate the new phototypesetting machines.

Di rectory and This firm had At the time of the BLS visit the firm The CRT phototypesetter, when catalog type-gonethrougha employed 12 people (including the installed, would substantially affect one job: setter completechange manager). All of these were, in a sense, new the operator of the presently used photo- of printingtech-jobs resulting from the firm's conversion typesetter was to become supervisor for nologies and, atfrom strike-on typesetting to computerized both that machine and the CRT machine. thetimeof thephototypesetting. All but two employees This person had also received training in BLSvisit, was had some knowledge of programing, even programing, and was to assume greater undergoing a though it might not have been their primary programing responsibilities. second change. job.Five employees were full-time programers. Six were in "operations" work (as Theprogramerstaff distinguished from programing) consisting had to learn The first programing techniques for the new change was from of preparing tape, machine operation and computer. strike on tech-maintenance, and the necessary peripheral niques to use of awork. The latter group was composed of computer and aone keyboard operator, one combination second -generation keyboard operator,/programer one phototypesetter.machinist, one paste makeup artist, one operator/programer trainee, and one person who handled corrections, small typesetting The second jobs,andoccasionalprogramingassign - change consisted men ts. of the installation of a moread- vanced computer The hiring of10 additional employees and lar the time was planned within several months of the BLS visit)following the BLS visit. This group was to a soon- to-be- be inthe"operations"section:six as installed CRT keyboard operators and four as equipment phototypesetter. operators. Jobs created: The CRT machine, when installed, would create a new job opening CRT machine operator -for someone with an electronics background.

Jobs eliminated. The conversion from strike-on typesetting to computerized phototypesetting had eliminated all of the strikedn typist positions.

20 fable 6. Technological changes in the composing room at selected survey plants Continued

Firm Inn,mtion Impact on employment Impact on skills

Publications Computer for Total composingroomemployment, The change in keyboard operator skills printer justification and excluding salaried employees, declined from wrought by computers is illustrated in this hyphenation. 97 in 1965 to 78 in 1969, but employment company by the use of manually of rated in certainoccupations increased.The linecasting machines and automatic line- number of keyboard operators grew from casters driven by computer-prepared tape. twotosevenafterthe computer was Anoperatorwhomustdo his own installed and threetofour proofreaders justification and hyphenation is expected to were added. set 3,000 "ems" an hour. An operator punching "raw" tape that serves as com puter input is expected to set 6,000 "ems" an hour.

Jobscreated:Oneofthekeyboard The firm has introducedautomatic operatorswas trainedtooperatethe (tape-driven) linecasting machines in addi computer console and was promoted to tion to the manually operated linecasters supervise the other keyboard operators. The already in use. Several linecasting machine computer was run for 2 or 3 hours a day, so operatorsweretrainedtooperate and console operation duties were only part monitor the automatic units. time. The balance of this employee's duties included training new keypunch operators The composing room maintenance and operating a keypunch machine. employee received some computer maintenance training from the computer manufacturer.

Large metropoli- Computers for In 1958 there were approximately 280 Most of the composing room jobs have tan daily news-justification and full-time composing room employees (334, been modified by the introduction of the paper hyphenation. including part-time employees). By 1968, computerized phototypesetting system. full-time employment had increased to 312 Some had to be modified to make use of the S e c o n d (354, including part-time employees). new equipment; in addition, the newpaper's generation ,tape- management decided to develop, among the driven phototype- The number of makeup employees (both composing room employees, a large setter. hot metal and photographic) increased for reservoir of skills in handling various facets tworeasons:more makeup work was ofthenew technologies. A half-dozen training courses were set up and employees Third-genera-necessary because of the increased amount of material being printed; and the were given the opportunity to take as many tion CRT photo- of the courses as they wished. Out of 215 typesetter. newspaper was operatingwithshorter deadlines, allowing less time for correctingcomposing room employees, 275 received at errors. least some training in new or modified job skills. The number of composing room machinists increased due to an increase in The phototypesetting machines, used for the number of machines used, and to more setting advertising copy, modified the jobs intensive use of those machines. of "makeup" employees, who had previous:y set up advertisements and laid out newspaper page formats in three- Jobs created: Seventy people ware hired dimensional metal type. Makeup employees or trained to punch tape for the computers (now classified as paste makeup) were re- (keypunchoperators). Some wereline- trained to use sheets of film and paper to casting machine operators who were re- produce the same result in two-dimensional trainedin 1963.64, v hen the linecasting form from which photographic negatives are machineswereconvertedtocomputer made. Between 35 and 40 people were operation. By 1967 the phototypesetting involved in paste makeup work. machines hadalsobeenconvertedto computer operation, and about 80 percent of the phototypesetter operators decided to Composing room machinists who main- retrain for TTS operations, with the balance tained the phototypesetting machines being retrained for makeup or paste makeup received training in electronics. operations. Amongthe 70 keypunch operators.40were retrained printers (linecasting and phototypesetting machine operators) who had no previous experience withkeyboards. Most ofthe remaining keypunch operators were hired for that specific ability, and needed no training.

21 Table 6. Technological changes in the composing room at selectedsurvey plants Continued

Firm Innovation Impact on employment "MOO on skills

Large metropols- The conversion to linecasting and photo- tan daily news typesettingmachinesthatare operated paper- entirely by computergenereted tape Continued necessitatedtraining a crew of machine monitors. While not a new occupation for the industry. it was new to this newspaper. Approximately 15 people were trained to monitor linecasting machines and five were trained to monitor phototypesetting machines.

Four programerpositionsandone systems analystposition were filled by retrainingjourneymantypesetters.The systems analyst was previously a composing room soPervisor, and was trained first as a programer.

Small local daily S p e c i a I- Work force increased from 61 men at tr., With the exception of employees who newspaper purposecam-tbiae the computers were installed to 66 at set type for advertising, all composing room outer for justifi-the time of the BLS visit. Five composing employeesaretrainedtopunchtape cation. room employees were added because of the (including learning to justify copy, although increased output of the computer: two for this skill is not often needed), operate the handling corrections, one machine monitor, computers (which are relatively simple), and one on the collection bank, and one electri- monitor automatic linecasting machines. cian. A retiring machinist was replaced by a machinist with training in electronics. Computerjustification has simplified keypu.sch work and has reduced typographical errors by 35 percent-the letter because keypunchoperators, no longer required to da justifying, can pay more attention to keypunch accuracy.

Composition and typesetting. Computerized typesetting The laborsaving potential of computers in producing and phototypesetting can have a considerable impact on tape to run automatic machines is illustrated at a survey the occupational structure of the composingroom. firmthatuses bothcomputer-preparedtape and where almost one -halt' of the industry's craftsmenare manually prepared tape. In the computerized method, employed. The introduction of computers into the justification and word hyphenation decisions are carried typesetting process requires several new skills. New job out automatically at high speeds to produce "finished" functions of computer console operator andprogramer tape. Operators preparing computer input tape are are being created, and can often be filled by retraining expected to set 6,000 'ems" an .hour. Operators who composing room employees who might otherwise be must do their own justification and hyphenation are displaced. A large newspaper that installed computers, expected to prepare tape at a rate of 3,000 'ems" an for example, staffed four programer positions with hour. journeyman typesetters who were retrained in a 12-week An increasinglynecessary.butperhaps notso course of programing classes. A relatively small number obvious, skill is the ability to use a typewriter keyboard. of systems analystswillbe needed (only one was in which the keys are arranged in a manner different required by the newspaper mentioned above) and from the widely used Linotype and Teletypesetter (TTS) industry practice thus far generally has beento hire from keyboards.Typewriterkeyboardarrangementsare outsidethe firm tofillthese positions. One firm becoming standard on the more recent tapepunching surveyedhiredsy stems analysts from outsidethe machines that prepare input tape for computers and company because itdid not consider training its own automatic typesetting machines. staff a practical alternative during the early stages of Several new skills are necessary in photocomposition. computer installation. ('old type and graphic displays must he assembled and pasted onto layout sheets (paste makeup). A knowledge Lithography, as the fastest growing printing process, of photographic processes is necessary for both setting will he responsible for most of the growth in plate- copy onto film and developing the film for platemaking. making occupations. As all lithographic printing plates The developedfilmmustthenhe assembled and are made from photographs, newtechnologies such as arranged into pages (stripping). Journeyman typesetters automaticfilm developing systems, electroniccolor at survey plants are being retained in photocomposition separation equipment. and automal plate processors skills such as paste makeup, monitoring tape-driven willmodifyskillrequirementsforlithographic phototypesetting machines, and film processing. plat emakers. Much of the new equipme tis electronic or electro- The employment of photoengravers (not including mechanicalinoperation,ratherthan primarily gravure), most of whom work in commercial printing mechanical. Thus, machinists who maintain new equip- shops, will remain fairly constant in spite of an increase ment generally need a good background inelectronics. inoutput. This willresultfrora combination of At a large metropolitan daily included in the survey. for laborsaving technology and increased competition from example, 12 machinists primarily involved in mechanical lithography. Some photoengravers areretraining for maintenance activities passed a qualifying test and were lithographic occupations -a trend that is expected to given electronics maintenance training to provide new continue. The skill requirements for both occupations skills needed to service phototypesetting equipment. are similar -printing plates made from aphotographic- chemical process. Certain of the new technologies are Platemaking. Several changes are occurring in the making equally applicable to both processes. of printing plates that are having an impact on employ- Employmentinelectrotyping andstereotyping ment and job skills. Some are applicable to all printing duplicateplatemakingprocesses forletterprv.,. processes, some only to particular processes. printingis being adversely affected by technological Many printing plates are made by a photographic- change. New, more durable materials have increased the chemical finish process that has raditionally involved a printing life of electrotype plates, thereby reducing the greatdeal of handwork. Such platemakingistime- number of duplicate plates needed for a given printing consuming, and the quality of the final product is job. Automatic platecasting equipment for stereotype unpredictable. as itis highly dependent upon a crafts- plates(usedprimarilyinnewspapers) has reduced man's skill which is not completely consistent from job manpower requirementsforstereotypers, andthe to job. potential effects of the plastic plate systems now being New technologies such as automatic film developing developed could reduce manpower requirements even systems. electronic color separation equipment, and further. At one newspaper surveyed, for example, the electronic engraving equipment considerably reduce the installationof an automatic stereotype platecasting handwork involved in platemaking. Employees operating system reduced employment of stereotypers by 25 the equipment utilize less craft skill, but must learn new percent over a period of approximately 6 years.More- technical skills. Generally, the new equipmeut requires over, competition from lithographic printinghas pulled less time to produce a given amount of work than did business away from letterpress printing, including those the hand methods. but the demand for artwork and facets of letterpress that use stereotype and electrotype photographs in printing isincreasing so rapidly that plates. As a consequence, the employment of electro- employment should not suffer. Traditionally trained typers and stereotypers is declining. craftsmen can he retrained to operate these new tech- The effectsoftechnologicalchange on gravure nologies, which canaffectallthree major printing printing employment are, at the moment, unclear. As a processesletterpress. gravure, and lithography. form of photoengraving, gravure printing is subject to The several letterpress plastic printing plates that are most of the changes in skill requirements and to the being developedif successfulcaocause some skill laborsaving effects of new technology, which could limit changes. These platemaking systems rely more heavily employment opportunities. But the gravure process can ontechnicalskillthan the triditional craft-oriented produce a very high quality of printing and, if methods processes. Traditionally trained craftsmen. however, can of engraving gravure cylinders more quickly and less he retrained to operate this equipment. expensively can he developed, the demand for gravure Employment inmost platemaking occupations is printing and, consequently, forgravure employees expected to increase over the next 5 years. The new could increase dramatically. platemaking technologyis more productive thanits predecessors. and this will set some limit on employment Press work. The increasing automation of printing press growth. controls is changing the skill requirements of pressmen. Table 7. Technological changes in platemaking, presswork, andmailrooms at selected survey plants

Firm Innovation Impact on employment Impact on skills

Large daily Automatic Manpower requirements for stereotypers Required shift from hot metal typesetting metropolitanstereotypeplate-reduced from 44 men in the early 1960's to techniques to phototypesetting skills. newspaper casting system. 33 men in 1968.

Production workers inthe press room Required new programer and related increased from 85 in 1962 to 137 in 1968. computer occupations.

Automatic Mailroomproductionworker employ. Required familiarity with new mailroom Inserting,ment declined considerably. from 98 in equipment. stacking, and 1961, to 27 in 1968. bundlingsystem in mailroom.

Small local daily Conversion Employment increased after the conver- This newspaper's conversion from newspaper from letterpress sion because the lithographic pressat least letterpress printing to lithographic printing platemaking andinitiallyrequired a larger operating crew (2 causeda considerablechangeinjob Printing press toadditional men per shift). The newspaper structures and skill requirements. lithographic wasinthe midst of retraining over 50 platemaking andpercent of its press operators, and hoped Before conversion, the newspaper main- printing press. that when all operators were sufficiently tained a small lithographic section. so there trained, a reduction in the size of the press were a few employees trainedinlitho- crew might be possible. graphic platemaking and press operations. The conversion resulted in a substantial enlargement of the lithographic department and the virtual disappearance of the letterpress department.

Jobs created: Flying pester operator. The A part of the conversion was the creation previously used press had not been equipped of an offset-engraving" section to perform Withflyingpesters,aswas the new alllithographic platemaking and (orbiting lithographic press. Several custodian press operations. Each "offset-engraving" employees weretrainedto operate the operatoristrainedinallofthe skills flying pester units. necessary to photograph camera-r-eady copy, develop the film, expose it onto printing Jobs eliminated: Seven letterpress plates, etch the plates, mount the plates on operators were separated becaused they the press, and operate the press. refusedto be retrainedforlithographic presswork. During his training, an "offsetengraving" employee generally finds that he prefers eitherthe platemaking operations or the press operations a preference that usually determineshismajor work assignments. Most of the journeyman employees in the "offset-engraving" department had been (or, at the time of the BLS visit, were being) retrained from letterpress operators. Includedwereformerpressoperators, stereotvpers,engravers, and some typesetters.

Publications Advanced Platemaking employment had not The new platemaking equipment had printer model of developchanged. The same employees who had caused some changes in skill requirements. mg room camera.operatedtheolder equipment had been Craft skills were not as important as they Automatic pront-retrained to operate the new equipment. had been with the older equipment, but o n g plate greatertechnicalskillwas requiredto machine. Tape- Jobs created; Dud tothe substantial operate the new machines. Generally, more operatedphoto-dirterences in st II requirements for work is performed with less physital effort composingoperating sheetfed presses and weboffset bytheemployeesoperatingthenew machine.presses, and to the general unwillingness of machines. Web-offset pressessheetoffset pressmen to retrain for added t opress-web-offset work (less than 10 percent of the room previously u s i n g sheet-fer1farm's sheet-offset pressmen were willing to lithographicretrain), new press crews had been hired to pressesonly.operate the web-oftset presses.

24 Table 7.Technological changes in platemaking, presswork, and mailrooms at selected survey plants Continued

Impact on skills Firm Innovation Impact on employment

Publications The greatercomplexity of web-offset printer- necessitated an increase in the size of the Continued press crew. A four-color sheet-offset press requiresafour-manpresscrew:head pressman, assistant pressman, feeder operator, and tender. A four.color web- offset perfecting press requires a five-man crew: head pressman, assistant pressman, p.Asteroperator(cour.erpartoffeeder operator onsheet-offset),tender,and console operator. The console oPeratur monitors web and color register, and adjusts the printing cylinders as needed.

Small local daily Conversion Size of the press and maintenance crews Theentireweb-letterpress crew was newspaper fromweb-letter-increased as a result of the conversion. One retrained to operate the web-offset press. press toweb-man was added to the press crew to set and offset printing. maintaintheinklwater balance end to The cameraman was retrained to work watch tension on the paper roll. w:th lithographic equipment. When the firm Automatic film installedanautomaticfilmprocessing processing machine, the cameraman was trained to machine. operateitinreplacementoftheless automated (and more craft-oriented) method he had previously used.

Automatic The newspaper originally operated .v:th All mailroom employees (including counting and an 8-man crew in the mailroom and none drivers) weretrainedtooperatethe stackingequip. deliverytruckdrivers. nstallinethe courtier-stacker equipment and to drive ment installed in counter-stacker allowed use of a3-to delivilry trucks. They could perform either mailroom. 5-mar, mailroom crew (depending on the of the two types of duties, depending upon speed at which the presses were being run). the newspaper's needs. There was a need to increase the number of delivery truck drivers during this period, however, because cf increased circulation.

Large daily A tomatic Totalf ulleime mailroom employment The counter-stacker brought about con- metropolitancounting and increased slightly from 1959 to 1969, but siderablechangeinskillrequirements. newspaper stacking machine.this increase was due to the newspaper'sBefore its introduction, the work procedure increased circulation. The new equipment was as follows: Newspapers came off the decreasedoverall manpower requirements presses and were carried to the mailroom via and decreased the day oelay fluctuations in a conveyor. Employees manually counted crew size that result from printing news-out groups of 25 or 50 newspapers and put papers of var.eng sizes. In 1959, there were them on another conveyor which led to a ty- 34 full-timemailroomemployees. An ing machine. One man operated the machine, average working-shift crew on the conveyor which wrapped wire around the bundle of and tying machines was 18 men, end could Papers. go as high as 24 men. By 1969,47 men were Now, the counter-stacker automatically employedfull-time. An Average shift counts the newspapers as they come off the working with the increased output of an presses.The stacksarethen manually idditional printing presswas 15 men, and transferred to the second conveyor, where lever exceeded 18 men. they activate a switch that turns on the tying machine which automatically ties the Before the use of automatic inserting stack of papers. equipment, all separately minted sections of Skill requirements changed from work the Sunday newspaper were inserted by that was primarily manual to the operation handpart in the newspaper's mailroom and ofcomplex machinery.Considerable part by the delivery boys. The in-plant work trainingand arudimentarypreventive was performedbyapproximately.100 maintenance program were needed. At first, Part-time employees working shifts during the newspaper's machinist and electrician Saturdays and Saturdaynights.The did equipment maintenance. Later, as the productivity of the inserting machines was mailroom employees became more experi- so much greater that, in spite of a large enced, they took over some of the equip- increase inSundayinserts,manpowe.. ment maintenance. requirements were reduced to about 35 part-time employees on Saturdanights.

25 Llectionic nionitois and controls can perform automatic inserting machinery. Prior to the introduction press operations List et and moteaccurately than the of these two innovations, mailroom operations involved press crew. This trees the clew trom many machine semiskilled manual work. Employees manually coun ted operations, allowing them to spend more time on quality and stacked newspapers as they came off the presses. control. but in the process traditional craft skills become inserted separately printed sections (such as the Sunday less important. and technical knowledge and ability comics', ran machines that tied the paper into bundles, become mole critical. old distributed the bundles to trucks for delivery. In Web-offset(lithographic)printingpresseshave addition to being labor intensive, the operation called affected manpower in several ways. Printing companies for a work crew varying with the size of each day's changing from sheet-fed lithographic presses to web-fed newspaper, the Sunday paper requiring the largest crew. presses have to retrain their existing press crews oi train The automating of many of theseoperations entirely new prss crews because the skill requirements counting, stacking, bundle tying, and, to an extent, for the two types of presses are very different. Web- inserting has substantially reduced labor requirements, offset presses, with their faster operating speeds, require changedskillrequirements, and, in some instances, faster decisionmaking. monitoring of more variables, and reducedfluctuationsin work-crewsize. One survey greaterphysicaleffort.If a problem occurs while newspaper which introduced automatic equipment to running a sheet-fed press, there is more time to study it insert sections in the Sunday edition reduced employ- and make a decision on correctingitbefore paper ment inthis operation by 65 percent. Moreover, skill wastage becomes excessive. Because of these differences requirements also were significantly affected, shifting in skill requirements, only some sheet-fed pressmen are from primarily manual tasks to duties involving the willing to retrain for web-offset work. operation of fairly sophisticated mechanical equipment. Companies converting from web-letterpress to web- A training program for operators was initiated. offset (most frequently, this involves newpapers) retrain their otiginal press crews and often enlarge them. The This evidence indicates a strong impact on manpower skill requirements for web-offset and web-letterpress are, resultingfrompresentand expectedtechnological in some respects, similar. There is, however, at least one change. Employment in most occupations is changing very important difference: the ink/water balance used in increasing in some instances, decreasing in others. Skill the lithographic process. Letterpress crews generally are requirements for all production jobs studied (with the unfamiliar withthis complex process and must he possible exception of proofreaders. who are among the retrained inthis stage of press operations. The entire composing room employees) are changing in various web-letterpress crew at a small local daily newspaper degrees. In some cases, technical skills are being required included inthe study were retrainedfor web-offset in addition to the traditional craft skills. Certain skills operations by sending one man at a time to work with are becoming obsolete, although many smaller printing the crew at another newspaper using the same type of plants will continue to use the older methods for some press. Web-offset is a more complex process because of time to come. Some entirely new skills are being created. theink/water balance thatmust be maintainedin Finally, most of the new technologies require less time lithographic printing and this extra complexity generally and/or lower skill requirements to perform a given job means that an additional man must he put on the press than do the older printing methods. crew. Training programs are necessary to avoid job displace- Employment is expected to increase moderately for ment and to build staffs of people capable of operating press operators and assistants. This isattributable to an new equipment. Training programs at survey plants are anticipated increase in printing output. and should he discussed in detail in the following chapter. However, it very noticeableinthatpartof theindustry using should he clear from the data presented in this chapter web-offset printing presses. that considerable training has been carried out at the sirvey plantstraining that has varied from teaching Mailroom. Newspaper mailrooms have been dramatic4lly craftsmen to do the same job in new ways to taking affected bytheintroductionof two technological people who have been displaced from one job and developments: automatic counter-stacker equipment and training them to perform different jobs.

26 Chapter 5. Training for New Technology

Training workers to operate new equipment and work stripping, camera work, darkroom techniques, paste and with new processesis one of the most important makeup, platemaking, and presswork to journeymen techniques used to adjust to technological change in the apprentice union members. The unionalso has initiated printing industry. Training is provided by the major a TechnologicalDevelopments and Education Com- unions (on both the national and local level), industry mittee, whose members visit equipmentmanufacturers associations, vocational schools, equipment manufac- to learn abote the latest machinesand processes and turers. and printing firms. In this chapter,examples of study the impact of technology on members. training programs are provided. Industry trade associations Union training A number of printing industry trade associations are The International Typographical Union has set up a involved in training programs affecting both manage- highly advanced training center in Colorado, offering ment and production workers. The Americanlewspaper courses covering all of themodern graphic arts methods, Publishers Association Research Institute, for example, including such topics as paste makeup, camera use, providestrainingin new processes toproduction darkroomtechniques,keyboardoperation,photo- employees of member firms, with special emphasis on typesetter operation and maintenance,and computer web-offsetprinting.TheGraphicArtsTechnical programing and operation. Classes are small and instruc- Foundation has an education service which consistsof tion techniques consist mainly of working directlywith publishing hooks and technical manuals foruse in equipment. Most courses last 3 weeks and can be taken schools and apprentice programs and providingadvanced by union members on their vacation. All ITU members training sessions for industry, management,and union are eligible for this training, whichis provided without personnel, ranging from formally organized programs to cost, although they, or their employers,must pay for crash in-plant programs. travel and living expenses. Many union members return to their locals after taking courses atthe Center and Manufacturer and user training instruct other load members in the newtechniques. and Assistants' The International Printing Pressmen Manufacturersof printing equipment and other Union of North America has a programconsisting of suppliers to the industry generally provide instruction in decentralized on-thejob training. This programreplaced the operation of their new equipment and processes. aunion printing school when the uniontOundit Some firms set up classroom sessions at theirplants or in impractical to insfall the many new modelsof presses special schools for user employees, while other firms appearing on the market. Members nowreceive training send instructors into user plants to provide training.User on the presses used in theplants at which they are firmsalso haveutilizedextensiveinternaltraining zmployed. The union providestextbooks, visual aid programs to introduce new processes, asindicated by the materials, and manufacturer-trained unioninstrntors to experience at some of the plants visited for this study. assist workers. The Graphic Arts IntonationalUnion also has a large-scale training program. Union policy isthat training Entry level training provisions should he a part of localcollective bargaining agreements, and about 95 percentof the local unions Apprenticeship training under union contract is the have contracts in which employers coiniikute to training most common method of entry intothe printing programs. A total of 54regional training centers have industry for production workers. Approximately11,000 been established by the union, financedby employer apprentices wer; registered in printing trades in1 971. and union member payments. These centersprovide Training lasts from 4 to 6 years and generally consistsof training in lithographic and photoengravingskills such as on-the-joh, classroom, and correspondence school in-

27 struction mon pouting modern printing techniques. In some of them had gone to manufacturers' schools. All addition. thew ale ;thorn 4.000 vocational schools, high employees were paid at a journeyman's rate while taking schools. technical institutions. and colleges that provide training. Approximately 25 older employees, mostly courses in printing for entry level jobs in the industry. proofreaders whose jobs were relatively unaffected by the shift, chose not to take training. Therewas anunusualtraining problem atthis Training at survey plants newspaper. A total of 45 deaf mutes were working in the composing room at the time of the changeover. These All of the newspapers and commercial printers visited employees were graduates of a printing course given by a provided training to affected employees whennew local college for the deaf and had received journeyman equipment and processes were introduced. Examples of union cards under a special union program. A unique training progns at plants are presented in the follow- type of training had to be devised for these workers ing sections. since they functioned by feel and sight, rather than by hearing. As Linotype operators, for example, they could Large metropolitan daily. The shift from hot metal feel the operation of the machine: however, as monitors Compositiontocomputersandphototypesetting they would not have their hands on the keyboard. The required training for almost all the composingroom problem was solved by designating two employees who employees. Computer programer positions were staffed were mutes but not deaf as the initial trainees for the byfourcomposing room journeymen who were group. These two employees then became instructors for provided with about 12 weeks of training ata computer the rest of the group and developed the techniques manufacturer's school and at classes held at the news- requiredforthedeaf mutes to operate the new paper. About 275 of the remaining composing room equipment. journeymen received training in new skills. A total of A publications printershifteditsmajor printing seven categories of instruction were offered. Six were capacity from sheet-fed to web-fed offset presses by designed for composing room employees and consisted adding new web-fed presses, although it still continued of courses in paste makeup, markup, darkroomopera- to operate sheet-fed units. The company trained almost tion, automatic linecaster monitoring, proof press opera- all of its press crews internally. Only about 10 percent of tion, and keypunching. The seventh category was for its121pressroom employees were hiredas skilled machinists andinvolvedmaintenance of electronic workers from the outside. Crews for new presses were equipment. Employees selected for maintenance training staffed by moving skilled workers from existing press ha° to pass a test in electronics, which required prior crews and training lower level employees. When a new home study and attendance at night school. Twelve web-offset press was planned, for example, a skilled machinists passed the test and received the training. pressman was designated to be the head operator of the Company policy was to train every journeyman in the new press, and other skilled workers wen- moved from cdmposing room in any one or more of the categories other presses. Vacancies in existing press crews were that they were interested in. with the exception of the filled by promoting and training lower level workers, TTS course, for which the employee had to pass a typing who were provided with 3 to 4 months of on-the-job test. Over 60 workers were trained in all six categories. training in their new skills. Entry level workers were over 200 received training in more than one category, hired fro.n the outside. The line of progression in a and 275 were trained in at least one new skill. A total of web-press crew in this plant is from footman (general 40 journeymen learned how to operate keyboards. The helper) into a press crew as a fly boy, paster, console length and content of the courses were determined operator, successively, to assistant pressman, to press- jointly by management and a two-man union committee, man, which is the highest level job in the crew. This with the exception of the keypunch course which was plantuses a console operator, which is a new job already covered by the union contract. Darkroom and function. on web-fed presses. Duties of this job involve machine monitoring were1 -week courses, proof press adjustingpressoperationsusingthepress console. was 2 weeks. paste makeup was 4 weeks. markup was 6 Workers inthese functions were provided on-the-job weeks. and keypunch was 15 months. training by the pressman intheir crew. The line of All instruction was on the job. In most cases. one progression in this plant may not be representative of man at a time worked with an instructor. and in some the industry. cases, after initial instruction was given, the employee At a small local daily newspaper the introduction of a gained proficiency in the new techniques by working special-purpose computer required a minimal amount of with equipment by himselfInstructors were journey- training. The computer manufacturer instructed some of men who were already proficient in the new processes: the compositors in the operation of the equipment in

28 one afternoon of on-theob training. Almost all the rest compositors to operate teletypesetter machines, and, of the compositors learned how to operate the computer when computers were installed, retrained the men to later on. Two machinists received 3 weeks of training in punch tape for the computer. This newspaper has an electronics and computer maintenance at the computer agreement with the typographical union allowing union manufacturer's school. Training for the other advanced members to use any of the equipment in the composing composing room equipment, such as the automatic room on their own time in order to learn new skills or Imecasters, was provided by the typographical union, at brush up on previously learned techniques. a local school and on the job, as covered by the contract. Table M provides the highlights of training programs As part of its apprenticeship program, the union trained at other survey plants.

Table 8. Training programs for technological change at selected survey plants

Plant Innovation Type of training

Large metropolitan Computer and photo- Programers and other computer-related jobs were filled from within by daily newspaper typesetting system. testing and retraining employees using both onthe-job training and computer manufacturer courses. Linotype operators were retrained to be keypunch operators. This plant was almost completely nonunion and had a formal entry level training program, equivalent to the union apprenticeship program, which allowed employees t, advance faster if they had the ability and included instruction in the new processes in use in the plant.

Small local daily Computer, photo- Computer programers were trained internally, progressing from tape handlers typesetting system, and to console operators and then to programers. Compositors were retrained from web - offset press. hot metal operations to computerized phototypesetting techniques. Letterpress printers and stereotypers were retrained for lithographic platemaking and press operations using on-the-job training and a buddy system in which a trainee works alongside en experienced worker, Two janitors were retrained for the new job of flying pester operator.

Small local daily Web-offset press. The press crew was retrained from letterpress to web-offset by sending one man at a time to work with the crew at another newspaper using the same type of press. The head pressman and cameraman received a 2week course at a lithography school. All wages and training expenses were paid by the firm.

Book typesetter Cornpu ter and Twelve keypunchers and three technicians were retrained ii; phototypesetter ph oto typesetting operaion. Training for keypunchers was on the 2,11a, ncluded the use of books, system. and was provided by the foreman. Training for technicians was based on prior electronics background and consisted of onthe-job instruction in repairing minor breakdowns. A keypunch operator was provided on-the-job training 1 day a weekfor4monthsto becomea computerconsoleoperator. A phototypesetter technician with an electronics background received onthe-job training in computer technology and maintenance.

Directory and catalog Advanced Five or six employees took a typesetting computer language course and a typesetter computerized photo- 5-day phototypesetter orientation course. Four employees took a 2-week typesetting system. computer assembly language course.

Publications pt.nter Computer. The computermanufacturertrained some employeesto operate and trouble-shoot the computer during the month that they were involved in installation. A Linotype machinist also was trained to maintain the computer during the same period Chapter 6. Adjustment of Workers to Technological Change

Collective bargainingcontractsin theprinting worker would have to he retrained at least three times industry contain provisions to facilitate adjustment of duringhisproductivecareer, andan opinion was workers to new technology. In this chapter, the attitude expressed that the training facilities then existing were of major unions towardchanging technology and so limited that the majority of union members were examplesof provisionsrelatingto advance notice. deniedthe opportunity to adapt and adjust to the training, jurisdiction, maintenance of job security, and demands of a rapidly changing industry. related measures are presented. Training programs, the During the convention, a Committee on Techno- major method of preparing employees for new work, logical Developments was established for the purpose of were described in detail in the previous chapter. studying the employment impact and the cost savings The influx of new technology has been a source of effectsoftechnologicalchanges.The Committee considerableconcernto unions.All of the unions formulates plans for the use of locals in their negotia- generally favor technological change. Underlying this tions with employers that can assist them in acquiring a attitude, howevei,is a fear for the job security of their fair share of the benefits occurring from the techno- menbers if they cannot establish some control over the logical changes. introduction of new processes, for not only do many of The International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' the new processes decrease the amount of manpower Union has long had a reputation for encouraging and necessary for a given job, but they also cross traditional supporting technological change. The union's answers to craft jurisdiction lines or perform work in such a way problems caused by change are to establish retraining thatno one union has clear jurisdictionoverthe programsformembers whoseskills have become operation of the process. This leads to the potential obsolete and to urge an industry rate of growth that will threat of a loss of jobs and members (sometimes to other produce new jobs to balance those lost. Six specific steps unions), and to jurisdictional problems between unions. have been advocated by the union: advance planning, Severalunions have stateda philosophy toward advance information to employees, use of attrition as a technological change. The International Typographical means of reducing excess work force, simultaneous Union, for instance, favors technological change as long planning of new jobs with preparations for the elimina- as member interests are not disregarded. In keeping with tion of old jobs, and, where layoffs are inescapable, this philosophy, the :TIT demands a voice in determining ample warning to minimize the hardships involved. the conditions under which new equipment or processes are introduced, and a share of the benefits resulting from their use. Contract provisions relating to technological change Another part of Mrs philosophy isthe long-held belief that its interests can best he served by supplying The concern of labor unions about the introduction industry with the most skilled workers availab!e. Con- of new equipment and processes is reflected by the large sequently, IT(' places considerable importance on train- number of provisions in labor-management agreements mg and retraining programs forits menthe:is. and has designed to protect members against potential adverse maintained a naming school lo this end for many years. effects. The most common union position is to accept I rtI opposed to the concept of attrition as a means technological change as long as members are not thrown of handling job displacement resulting from new labor- outof work.Ingeneral. when new equipmentis saving machinery. Rather. ITU proposes that industry introduced, unions attempt to gain jurisdiction for their increase its output enough to man :am the present work members over the operation of the equipment. and to fnce. have this jurisdiction made part of their labor-manage- TheGraphic ArtsInternationalUnion(GAIU) ment agreement. Jurisdictional provisions inprinting expressed increasing concerti overthe threats to job industry contracts, therefore, are very specific, with the security resulting from technological change in its 1%5 type of equipment, in some cases even brand names. biennial conventlem. It was predicted that virtually every clearly spelled out. Other common contract provisions

30 relating to technological change include advance notice. Determining skill levels and wage rates.Unions in the training. employee selection, layoffs and severance pay printing industry usually have a formalized system of clauses.Examples of some of these provisions are skilllevels and wage rates intheir labor-management presented in table kt. agreements. hinting craftsmen are generally divided into two skilllevels:journeymen, who are the skilled workers; and apprentices, who are learning the trade. Manpower planning in survey plants Wage systems differ between unions, however. The ITU has a two-scale system, for example. All composing onlysix full-lime employeeswere Alt hough room journeymen in any one contract, regardless of job involuntarily sepalated (and latei reinstated) and no one title, receive the same minimum wage rate. with adjust- was downgraded when new printing technology was mentsforvariousshifts and holidays. Apprentices atthenine firmsvisited by BLS staff. introduced receive a proportion of journeymen's rates that increases advance manpower planning andlabor- substantial as their experience increases. Mailroom workers who are management adjustments generally were required. Six of affiliated with the ITU generally are covered under a the nine survey plants were unionised and the collective separate contract at lower rates. The GAIU, on the other bargaining agreementsprovidedthe mechanism for hand, while' still operating under the apprentice-journey- piokading advance notice of change, undertaking special man skill system, negotiates different minimum wage negotiations to handle disputes. selecting employees for ratesfordifferent jobs. Journeyman photographers, new jobs, determining skill levels and wage rates, and platemakers, and pressmen and feeders, for example. all providing training for new skills. have different hourly wage rates in the same contract. In general. the minimum negotiated wage rate at Advance mnice of technohwical change.Information survey plants tended to become the actual wage rate for about new equipment and processes was provided in all union workers, including those affected by techno- advance of installation at all of the printing firms visited. logical change. However, at a few survey plants, workers Atunionizedplants, company officials notified the who were trained in new technologies were paid bonuses chapel chairman or local union officers of the impending above union .:'ale. The most common explanation was changes. At nonunion plants. the procedure generally that the increases were paid so that these workers would involved infoimal meetings between foremen and super- not leave for jobs with other firms. When a large daily visors and affected employee groups. The timing of newspaper installed a computer and phototypesetting advance notice ranged from 3 months to 3 years prior to equipment. for example, wages for all the composing installation of new printing technology. At a small room employees were increased from $10 to $15 per nonunionplantvisited,thepolicy wastonotify week above scale. A small local daily newspaper paid a employees immediately upon deciding to acquire new composing room machinist $5 per week over scale for equipment. maintenance work on typesetting computers. Among the nonunion plants. with the exception of a large daily Selecting employees iJrnewjobs.Inmost of the whichincreased wageratesforsome unionized plants visited. procedures for selecting produc- newspaper employees, there were no wage rate changes that could tion workers for new jobs were spelled out by labor- he directly attributed to the introduction of specific management agreements. The majo.ity of the new jobs innovations. insurveyplantsInvolvedoperating and programing compute!s and were tilled by training employees from the affectedunits.At a large daily newspaper. for Special negotiations and labor-managementdisputes. At example. programer positions were staffed by composing a large metropolitan daily. the contractwith the ITU room and mailroom employees who had passed a local was modified because of the introduction of programingtestand were givennaming.livenat computers. This newspaper was among the earliest to nonunion plants most computer and related jobs were install computers for typesetting. Originally, the ITU tilled by upgrading employees who already had printing local had no jurisdiction over computers. When the skills. Systems analysts. however, generally were hired decisiontoinstallcomputersfortypesetting was twin outside the firm. Most of the other new positions announced.however,managementandtheunion %vete tilledfromwithin. Two !alumsata small worked out an agreement dealing with jurisdiction over newspaper wane trained to operate the flying palters on the computers which was made a formal part of the a new press. while a commeicial printer trained existing contract and is included in table 9. employees to he console operators and flying paster Union jurisdictional demands shaped a decision about ',pet att.' s on new tkehotket presses. ti type of compute, to pinaase at a small localdaily

31 Table 9. Provisions relating to technological change from selected collective bargainingagreements

Subject of provision Source Content of provision

General technological Agreement between The parties recognize that technological developments, if they are to further change a local of the Graphic the continued growth of the graphic arts industry, place responsibility upon Arts International companies to explore and promote new markets and require the cooperation of Union (GAIU) and the company and union in the development of new skills. In order to insure the commercial printers. orderly and most advantageous introduction of new types of equipment and new processes, the parties agree to meet upon request of either party to consider and develop programs for the retraining or rehabilitation of employees in new skills so that there shall be adequate availability of new skills required and no layoffs as a result of the introduction of new types of equipment ornew processes. It is understood that pending the institution of such programs, there shall be no layoffs by reason of the introduction of new types of equipment or processes.

Jurisdiction over equip- Agreement between Jurisdiction of the union and the appropriate unit for collective bargaining is ment and processes alocalof theInter- defined as including all composing room work and includes classifications such national Typographical as: hand compositors, operators and machinists for all typesetting machines, Union (ITU) and the tape perforating devices, tape reading devices, ...and recutter units for use in Newspaper Publishers composing orproducingtype;proportional spacingtypewriters, ..and Association. proofreading and/or scanning devices; and any andallphototypesetter machines.... For performance of work recognizedas being within the jurisdiction of the union in a computer operation, employees covered by this agreement shall perform all computer operations (except systems analysis... such as: detailed flow charting, coding or preparing programs from detailed flow charts in language acceptable to the computer, testing and debugging the program, operation of the computer and all input and output devices, the preparation and handling of all material to be processed and the maintenance of all equipment and devices.... This agreement goes on to exempt programing and maintenance normally provided by the computer manufacturer under contract and indicates that single purpose composing room computers must be manned wholly by union members while general purpose computers used partially for composing room operations must have a proportional number of union members on the data processing staff.

Advance notice Agreement between The company agrees thatitwillnot change its present methods of a local of the GAIU and lithographic production before giving thirty (30) days' notice of such proposed commercial printers. change to the union in order that the parties may meet to consider whatever other related changes are required. This clause relates only to changes of methods within the plant.

Training for new Agreement between For the purpose of providing retraining necessary for new processes, a Joint equipment and pro- a local of the ITU and Training Committee will plan and prepare training programs for situation cesses t h e Newspaper holders who have held their current situations continuously for at least six (6) Publishers Association. months. However, the 6 months requirement may be waived by mutual agreement. This committee will provide an equitable opportunity to train on the new proces-es in each office to the extent that an adequate number of journeymen will be available to satisfy the needs of the office to operate the new equipment.... This contract goes on to state that the Joint Training Committee will consist of four members, two from the union and two from management, machinists will be given preference to train to maintain the new machines, and equipment and instructors for training will be provided by management.

Layoffs Agreement between The union agrees that if an employee covered by this agreement, who is a local of the ITU and employed in a composing room covered by this agreement, is competent to commercial printers. operate such new machinery, new equipment and/or new processes, he may be assigned to such new machinery, new equipment and/or new processes. However, if a ;ayoff occurs, such layoff must be made in strict priority order. Employees with higher priority than a person working on aforementioned new machinery, new equipment and/or new processes, who have established an aptitude for such retraining as prescribed herein, and who have not previously been given the opportunity for retraining in that office, shall be given such opportunity before being laid off.

32 Table 9. Provisions relating to technological change from selected collective bargaining agreement-Continued

Subject of provision Source Content of provision

Severance pay Agreementbetween When an employee :overed by this agreement is discharged or laid off a local of the ITU and otherwise than as a rest.lt of his own willful and persistent breach of duty or commercial printers. gross misconductwhich a jointcommittee... has acknowledged, such employee shall be paid, in addition to sums otherwise due him, the following at such individual employee's straighttime rate of pay, not including overtime, for the past previous week of employment: One year but less than 2 years service with the employer ... 1-week's pay; 2 years or more of service with the employer ... 2Aveeks' pm..

newspaper This paper had placed an order fora computers at a small local daily newspaper visitedfor general-purpose computer to he used for business and the study. The union went on strike when management typesetting functions. When the unions were notified, dischargedsixunionmembersandattemptedto both the ITU and the Newspaper Guild locals indicated reclassify jobs so that union craftsmen would not be that they wanted to have a union member assigned to allowedto work on the computer. Wage rates for the computer staff. Management felt that, when the remaining printing jobs were deemed unsatisfactory by computer was working on business problems, the two the union. Management hired nonunion workers and union members on the computer staff would he non. continued printing. An NLRB trial examiner ruled in the productive. Therefore. they cancelled the order for the union'sfavor,orderingthatstriking employees be general-purpose computer andpurchaseda special- rehired, strikers be awarded back pay, and the union purpose computer for the composing room only. craftsmen discharged be rehired. Management appealed There was a strike related to the introduction of the decision to the NLRB, and lost.

33 Chapter 7. Outlook for Technology and Manpower

Innovations in printing technology during the decade control. Data collection points can he installed through- of the 1070's will continue to have significant implica- out a newspaper's production department. Data on tionsforprinting methods and manpower.Inthis output from the composing room, page makeup, and chapter. prospects tot specific technologies are discussed printing platemaking can he entered into the infoima- ,along with their potential impact on employment. job tion system. Printing press operation, including measures skills. and training. of rolls of newsprint used, web breaks and paster losses, and the number of newspapers being produced, can he Outlook for technology logged into the computer system. Data collection points can provide information on quantities of newsprint Computers. Continued growth in the number of corn- received, stored, and issued. pulers and applications is anticipated. Computer-assisted As a result of this information system, the computer typesetting(linemstification. and.tosonic extent, will have data concerning all production operations of hyphenation) willprobably continue to be the most the newspaper. Display terminals can be used to provide important application. This is especially true for small management and supervisors with current information newspapers that cannot afford the expensive general- on the production schedule status. The computer also purposecomputersthat canhe appliedto several will he able to detect problem areas, schedule man- differentjohs. These newspapers will probably restrict power, and provide complete production statistics. themselves tothe smaller, much less expensive com- Predicting the rate of computer growth for computers that are designed primarily fin typesetting uses. mercial printers is more difficult than for newspapers 1 he rate at which computerised typesetting will grow due to the much greater diversity of firm size and jobs isdifficultto predict. Two estimates were given by performed.Firms concentrating onprinting books, peopleintheindustry who talked with 13LS staff periodicals, directories, and catalogs are finding com- merrhers. One estimate is that hy 00 percent of all put erited typesettingadvantageous. Those firms newspapeis will he using computers with phototype- performing large amounts of varied work, however, will settingequipment. The otheristhatbyI083all probably find computers to he of limited use. newspapers will he using such equipment. Newspaper mailroomsprovideanotherpotential Newspaper classified advertisements offer consider- application area for computers. Computer printout can ahlepotentialforcomputer application. One large he used to address copies of newspapers going to mail newspaper plans to install a computer photocomposition suhscrihers. system in the foll,wing manner: Computer data entry The printing industry generally uses punched paper terminals which display. visually, information entered tape for computer input and output. This is due to the ink. the system will be located in the classified phone industry's long useof papertape for much of its loom and connected directly to the computer. Typists automated typesetting equipment and the resulting large will enter information on ads into the system at these investmentintape-punching and tape-reading equip- lei urinals and accounting data and text material will he ment. Over time, magnetic tape will he used more widely sinceit recordedimmediatelyinthememory unitof the can be run atfaster speeds and carry more computer system. Running ads may he stopped. cm- information than paper tape. limed. and extended hy classified sales personnel thing the terminals. At the close of the classified business day. Phototypesetting.The useof phototypesetting will the computer will include new classified ads with any increase in hoth newspapers and commercial printing. ad. running from the previous day. format these ads into According to one forecast, about 50,000 phototype- page layouts. and drive high speed phototypesetting setting machines may be carrying out about 75 percent units to set full pages of classified ad text. of all typesetting by MO.' Over the next few years, Ciimptirer ,alsocan heappliedtoproduction 7 scheduling. pressroom cont to!. and newsprint inventory /AdakilrRhtrRlrts.I ehruary 1973. p. 9. 34/36 mostoftheincreasewillheinsecond-generation twolimitingfactors:colorscanners are expensive, equipment. The third-generation (cathoderay tube) requiring a highvolume of work to justifytheir equipment, although wry fast, is still limited primarily installation; and conventional color separation materials to printing directories and catalogs. The thirdgeneration and procedures are improving enough to make conven- equipment presently is too expensive to he within the tional processes competitive with color scanners in some financial range of many printing establishments. instances. By 1980, most small- to medium-sized newspapers will he using phototypesetting. Must of these newspapers will he using web-offset, with which phototypesetting is Plastic letterpress plate.If the plastic letterpress printing very compatible. The larger newspapers will rrobably plate that is now under development becomes successful, convert to computerized phototypesetting if the plastic it will probably be used by most of the large newspapers. printing plate works out successfully. As this plate is made from a photocomposition process, In commercial printing, hook and periodical printers newspapers will he able to take advantage of the benefits willincrease their use of phototypesetting. Small job of phototypesetting without having to sacrifice their shops, however, will probably find phototypesetting of substantial investment in letterpress printing presses. a considerable more limited usefulness. Since amountof researchand developmentisbeing devoted to this plate,itwill probably become commercially successful within the CRT terminals.Cathode ray tube (CRT) terminals, a next few years. relatively new innovation presently in limited use. will he adopted more widely in the printing industry over the Printing presses.The outlook is for continued techno- nextfew years, primarily ineditorial and classified logicalimprovement inprinting presses.In general, operationsinlargenewspapers andin hook and presses will become more sophisticated and efficient and periodicalprinters. The terminals consist of a CRT operate with less waste of materials and more effective display panel and a keyboard and/or light pencil. Copy use of manpower. can he typed into the terminal, or already prepared copy Lithographicpresseswillbe used more widely, can he displayed on it. Editing, makeup and formating, especiallyin newspapers. By1978, an estimated 88 and corrections can he completed on the terminal prior percent of all newspapers primarily those of medium to typesetting. In newspaper applications, the terminal andsmallsize may heusingweb-offset presses. canserve as thefirststepin avery high speed Improvements can he expected in ink-drying equipment, computerized phototypesetting system thatresults in electronic control devices, and, possibly, in the develop- flilly made-up pages. Terminals will generally he tied in ment of more durableprinting plates.If the plastic witha computer. although some self-contained units printing plate does not turn out to he successful, even with their own memory banks will he available. thelargenewspaperswilleventuallyconvert from letterpress to lithography. Sheet-fed lithographic presses, Optic.al character recognition equipment.OCR equip- primarily used in commercial printing, also will increase ment is available. but its dispersion will probably remain innumber, althoughpresssizeprobablywill not increase. Their operating speeds will increase, however, limited. One reason isthatthe equipmentistoo expensive. considen:Ig operational limitations, for many andtheywill he equipped with more sophisticated firms. The operational restrictions may greatly retard instruments and automatic controls. dispersion since copy must he typed in a format that the The outlook for diffusion of letterpress equipment is OCR equipment can "read.- Hence. printing firms that less favorable. Installations of flat-bed letterpress equip- set their own type especially newspaperswill probably ment are declining and may eventually disappear. The number of rotary letterpress units (including web-letter- notfind much useforthe scanner since the typed material they must prepare can serve directly as com- press usedinnewspapers)isexpectedtoremain puter input. thereby bypassing the need for the scanner. unchanged.Iftheplastic printing plate made from OCR equipment will he mo:u useful to those printing photocompositionis successful, installations of web- Finns that receive copy already typed by customers. letterpress equipment could beginto increase. Such printing presses would he different from those presently in use (which have been designed to accommodate the Elcetrfune coltn. %eparatum.As the demand for color comparatively larger and heavier stereotype and electro- sepaiation is growing more rapidly than the supply of type plates). However, itis also possible that web-offset skilled craftsmen. the use of color scanot,r., expected presses could he modified to use the plastic plates with to II1C1CdsC. The amount of growth is uncertain due to even greater success than modified weh.letterpress units.

3(1 Outlook for manpower Table 11. Employment in craft occupations in printing and publishing. 1960 and 1970, and projections for 1980 Total employment in the printing and publishing (Numbers in thousands) industry is expected to increase slightly between 1970 Average annual and 1980 as employment increases generated by a rising Occupation 196019701980 Percent change demand for printed products more than offset employ- 1960.701970-80 ment declines resulting from technological change (see :able 10). In the newspaper segment of the industry, Total printing however, employment is projected .o decline from trade craftsmen 254.3255.9258.5 .1 .1 372,000 in 1970. to an estimated 365,000 in 19b0. In Compositors and typesetters 153.4141.51212 -0.8 -1.6 commercialprintingthelevetof employmentis Electrotypers and projected to be high= -rising from 356.000 in 1970 to stereotypers 8.7 4.7 2.9 -6.0 -4.7 an estimated 190,000 in 1980. Engravers. except Photoengravers 4.6 5.8 8.1 2.3 3A Employment of nonproduction workers is likely to Photoengravers and grow at a faster rate than that of production workers. lithographers 212 30.346.0 3.6 4.3 This is anticipated because the productivity of produc- Pressmen and platemakers 73880.2 1.0 tion workers, using new technology, is expected to 66.4 0.9 increase more than that of nonproduction workers, to when most of the new technology is not applicable. It SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistizs. A detailed discussion of the methodology used to develop 1980 projections may be has also been predicted that, 6,..c to the use of new found inTomorrow's Manpower Needs: Votrne IV, Revised technology, there will he a growing need for more 1971,BLS Bulletin 1737 (1972). professional managers. engineers. and technically trained employees. NOTE: Sums of individual items nay not equal totals Both management and union officials who met with because of rounding. the BLS staff stated that much of the new technology will reduce, as well as change, the skill requirements of many traklzional occupations. There was also general Itis important to keep in mind that technological agreen.ent that composing room employees increasingly change has raised the threat of job displacement in the will need to acquire skills in keypunching, photography, printing industry on several occasions in the past, and electronics to operate and maintain new printing although on a more restricted basis. It occurred with the equipment. introduction of linecasting machines in the .late 19th century and with improvements in printing presses (especiallyinthe development of automatic press Table 10. Employment in printing and publishing. feeders) it the early 20th century. In both instances, 1960 and 1970. and projections for 1980 considerable retraining was necessary, and in the latter instance, one group-manual press feeders -- experienced (Numbers in thousands I considerable displacement.8 But in both cases, demand Average annual increased sufficiently to lessen the impact. In the current Industry percent change 1960 1970 1980 situation, technological change is so widespread that it subgroup 1960-701970.80 affects all facets of the printing process. Displacement willprobably occur in certain occupations such as Total compositors, typesetters, electrotypers, and stereotypers, printing as indicated in table 11, but the combination of an and D.,1311shing 911.3 1.106.8 1,240.0 2.0 1.1 increased demand for printing products, a somewhat slow rate of diffusion of technological change, attrition, Newspapers .. . 325 2 371.9 365.0 1.4 -0.2 Commercial and extensive retraining will ease the impact of new printers 290.7 356.t 390.0 2.0 0.9 technology on mar power.

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. A detailed discussion of the methodology used to develop 1980 projections maybe foundinTomorrow's Manpowe- Needs: Volume IV. Revised 8F lint.cth f:. Baker.Displacement of MenbyMachines(New 1971,BLS Bulletin 1737 (1972). York, CoLimbia University Press. 1)33).

37 Appendix A. Three Major Printing Methods and the Printing Process

The three major printing methods include letterpress, adhere to the chemically treated image areas. The second gravure, and lithography (offset). Letterpress, the oldest difference, to which the word "offset" applies, is that and most widely used printing method, employs a the printing process is indirect, The printing plate prints pnnting plate upon which the printing surface is raised onto a rubber "blanket" cylinder, which in turn prints above the nonprinting surface. (See illustration.) Printing onto paper. Lithographic printing presses are of the is achieved by covering the printing surface with ink and rotary type, and may be either sheet-fed or web-fed. pressing it directly against parr. thus transferring the Lithography is the fastest growing of the three major image onto the paper. Type is set for letterpress by both printing methods. "hot metal" and photographic processes. There are four basic production steps involved in the Platemakingtechniquesincludephotoengraving three major printing processes just described. These (etchingplates made from photographic processes), include composition, platemaking, press operations, and stereotyping and electrotyping (for making duplicate finishing. metal plates from hot-metal or photoengraved originals), and flexography (the use of flexible rubber plates and Composition. The first production step takes place in quick-drying inks). There are three types of letterpress the composing room where manuscript copy is set in printing presses: pla.vn, flat-bed cylinder, and rotary type. Typesetting, or composition, involves selecting a presses, both sheet-fed and web-fed. style and size of type face, determining format and Gravure printing isthe reverse of letterpress. The margins, and the actual setting of type. Copy can be set gravure printing plate is a hollow metal cylinder and has in metal type (hot metal), on photographic film or an image area that is etched into-or below --the non- light-sensitive paper (phototypesetting), or by direct printing surface of the plate. Printing is achieved by impression from special typewriters or similar machines filling the etched areas with ink, scraping excess ink (strike-on). from the non-image areas with a "doctor" blade, and pressing the plate cylinder directly against paper. The Platemaking. Once type has been set, the next step is to plate cylinders are made by a form of photoengraving. convert it into printing plates that can be mounted onto Gravure printing presses are of the rotary type, and can printing presses. At this point, artwork (photographs, be either sheet-fed or web-fed (rotogravure). The gravure graphic displays, etc.) is merged with the type. process can produce very tine quality printing. but Type that has been set in metal can sometimes be preparing the cylinders is expensive and somewhat slow. mounted onto a press without the use of a printing Letterpress and gravure share two printing tech- plate. This, however, is rarely done. Instead, metal type niques: both use a three-dimensional printing plate, and is generally used to make a mold from which duplicate in each method ink istransferred directly from the printingplatesare produced. Film usedin photo- printing plate to paper. composition -and in artwork -is reproduced onto metal Theo third major printing method, lithography (off- printing plates, which are etched to give the effect set),differs significantly from the two other major necessary for printing. These plates can also be used to methods.Lithographyusesasmooth,flat,two- make duplicates. dirriensional printing plate, the operation of which is Printing plates are made from metal, various alloys, based on the principle that grease and water will not plastic, or rubber. They can tange from plastic plates mix. The plate is made by a photographic process and weighing a few ounces to gravure cylinders weighingup chemically treated in such a way that ink will adhere to to a ton. the printing areas but water will not. On the printing press, the plate is moistened with water over all but the Press operations. The step just before startingup the image areas (which repel water), then inked. The ink will presses is "makeready", during which printing plates not adhere to the nonprinting areas because it will not receive a final adjustment to insure uniform and distinct mix with the water already the plate, but it will printing impressions. Makeready can vary from being

38 Three Major Printing Methods

LETTERPRESS Printing area is raised above nonprinting area.

GRAVURE Printing area is below nonprinting area. Depressed area is filled with ink.

LITHOGRAPHY (OFFSET) Printing area is on same plane as nonprinting area.

39 relatively simple to being very ..nd delicate, Basically, there are two types of rotary presses: depending on the printing process arid core ors the sheet-fed and web-fed. These terms pertainto the type of printing plate and press being us,t, manner in which paper is "fed" into the press. Sheet-fed Printing presses come in a wide var P;' sizes and presses print on individual sheets of paper that have been are designed to operate by one of several printing precut to a particular size. Web-fed presses print onto a processes. All share w common principle: ink is dispersed continuous roll, or "web," of paper, over the printing areas of The plates, from which itis transferred, directly or indirectly, to paper or other material. Finishing work. The final step of the printing process is This study focuses on the rotary press, which uses one theassembling of printedmaterial into afinished or mere curved printing plates that are mounted onto a product. For newspapers, this involves inserting the cylinder. As the cylinder rotates, it prints onto paper separately printed sections; counting, stacking, and tying moving past it. Rotary presses are fast and efficient, and together a predetermined amount of newspapers; and can he used in every major form of printing except loading the papers into trucks for distribution. Finishing screen process printing (not included in this study). work for commercial printers varies with the job. Appendix B. Selected Annotated Bibliography

A.Periodicals, books, and articles

"Automatic Litho Plate Processing."Book Production Industry,December 1968, pp. 46-49.

Description of automatic wipe-on, presensitized, and bimetal plate systems, with conclusion that these plate systems allow improved uniformity and continuity between plates.

Bock, Ralph F. "Novel Methods for Drying Inks." Graphic Arts Technical Foundation,Research Progress Report, Number 86, December 1970.

A review of the literature on prospective ink-drying systems for sheet-fed presses.

Bruno, Michael H. "Printing Technology 1971."Inland Printer /American Lithographer.February 1971, pp. 42- 45. "Computer Controls High Speed Mailroom Line."Printing Production,Newspaper Industry Edition, October 1968, pp. 32F32IL Pressroom, mailroom, and dispatch area all tied into computer system that regulates speed and number of newspapers printed, automatically bundles them into standard and odd sizes, and dispatches them for most efficient delivery.

Cosden, Thomas B. "CRT Editing Terminals."Book Production Industry,June 1970, pp. 44-50.

Description of operations and applications of CRT editing terminals. Cosden, Thomas B. "Facsimile Transmission: Publisher's Link to the Future."Book Production Industry, November 1969, pp. 65 -70.

Rapid growth expected for facsimile transmission due to advantages of rapid communication between central editing offices and satellite printing plants.

Cosden, Thomas B. "Publisher Keyboarding: Today's Input To Tomorrow."Book Production Industry,January 1971.pp. 36.40. Keyboarding expected to change from a production operation to an editorial-production system. Problems involved include type of equipment and training, alternatives to use of keyboards, and union-management problems. Eggleston, David. "Today's Printing Plates: Tomorrow's Antiques."Inland Printer /American Lithographer, July 970,pp. 38 -41. Faster press speeds, labor shortages, and pollution requirements are factors that will change printing plate technology in the 1970's.

"Electronic Control Arrives for Sheetfed Litho."Book Production Industry,November 1967, pp. 48-51. Description of recent developments in automatic controls, effects on output, and skill changes necessitated.

Farrell, Guy. "The Larger Meaning of Comprint 90."Book Production Inlustry,January 1971, pp. 30--35.

41 Communications technology will completely change the nature of the printing industry over the next 2U years. Much of the printing done will not he performed by printers as they are known today, but by businesses that offer a wide range of products and services. including printed materials.

Farrell. Guy. "Litho Platemaking Automation Grows."Book Production Industry,March 1970, pp. 48 51.

Automated film processors ease labor shortage problems, and sometimes provide an improvement in quality and speed.

"Gravure: HowWill ItFitInto the Future ofPublishingProduction?"BookProduction Industry,April 1970, rp. 42 45.

Description of technological improvements in gravure and economic factors affecting the application of gravure in various areas.

"Ink Drying: Electronics Promise Basic Changes."Book Production Industry,April 1969, pp. 48 50.

The use of electron beams and radio wave energy with specially formulated ink may allow faster drying, under safer conditions than is presently possible with heat-drying systems.

Impact of Web (Viet.New York, Lithographers and Photoengravers International Union, 1964.

Description of web-offset operation, statistical data on growth of web-offset, and analysis of web-offset's impact on manpower.

Johnson, Gordon 0. F. "Revolution in the Darkroom: Automatic Film Processors."Inland Printer /American Lithographer,May 1969, pp. 45 47.

Automatic film processing equipment becoming widely used because of such advantages as greater quality control and time and cost savings.

Kelber. Ilarry and Schlesinger, Carl,Union Printers and Controlled Automation.New York, The Free Press, 1967.

A study of composing room automation, with emphasis on computers, and of the response to automation by the International Typographical Union.

"Keyboards: Growing Sophistication in Their Design andUse." Book Production Industry,February 1969, pp. 60 64.

Description of four basic types of keyboards, and three major problem areas of coding structure, human factors, and the value of hard copy.

"Lack of Understanding Slows Computer Typesetting."Book Production Industry,January 1968. pp. 50 52.

Lack of knowledge about each other's problems prevents computer people and printing people from using computers to best advantage in printing industry. Several suggestions offered to printers contemplating computer installations.

New Plate Upholds Power of Letterpress."Business Week,February 8. 1969. pp. 68, 70.

Description of a plastic printing plate made from photocomposition techniques thatis applicable to newspaper production.

Olerich, Richard B. and Anderson, Bruce D., "Web!, Printing Automatic Control Almost Within Reach." Rook Production Industry,October 1%7, pp. 58 61.

Complete automation for web.offset presses should he available within several years. and should offer such advantages as higher press speeds and much less waste.

42 Print* Production. June 1968, pp. 70 121.

Seven articles dealing with technological change and its effect on the printing industry during the 1970's.

Safran, Hyman. "Putting Color Scanners in Perspective." Inland Printer/American Lithographer, September 1968, p. 98.

Summary of advantages and limitations of color scanners. Fast, consistent, less need for handwork.

"Space Age Electronics Fights Traditional Methods in the Pressroom." Inland Printer /American Lithographer, January 1971, pp. 5153.

Description of new developments in drying techniques, ink jet pnnting and xerography.

"Stereotyping of Plastic Plates Achieved by RI." Editor and Publisher, June 5,1971, p. 16. Refinement of plastic plate technology that allows lead stereotype plates to he produced from plastic original.

"Union Carbide, Sta-Ili Announce Hylox Plastic Platemaking System." Book Production Industry, May 1969, P.78. Description of a plastic printing plate applicable to newspaper production.

"Web Press Design Where Is it Going?" Book Production Industry, March 1968, pp. 54 -60.

Summary of recent developments in printing presses. Includes variable cutoff folders, split-plate cylinders, microwave drying, press drives, and web tension control.

B.f.overnment publications U.S. Government U.S. I;epartment of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. Automatic Typographic-Quality Typesetting Techniques: A State of the Art Review. Monograph 99. By Mary E. Stevens and John L. Little. 1967. (18PP. A comprehensive survey of typesetting techniques, including hot metal, cold type. phototypography, computer usage, key punch operations, and graphic arts. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. Electronic Composition in Printing.. Proceedings of a Symposium. Special Publication 295. Edited by Richard W. Lee and Roy W. Worral. February 1968.128 pp.

Twenty-threepapersdescribingseveraladvancedcompositionsystems, and governmentand nongovernment research in and application of such systems.

U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Union Wages and Hours: Printing Industry, July 1. 1971. BLS Bulletin 1744. 1972. 62 pp.

Latest in an annual series providing statistics on union wage rates and hours in,,69

Foreign Australia, Department of Labor and National Service. Technological Change in the Printing Industry Four Case Studies. Employment and Technology, No. 3. Melbourne. 1969.42 pp.

Discusses nature of change in the four firms, effects on skills, preparations for changes, training requirements, extent of job displacement.

43 Great Britain, Department of Employment and Productivity. Manpower Studies No. 9: Printing and Pub !kiting. London, 1970. 115 pp.

A study of the effects of technological change on production and manpower in the littitish printing and publishing industry.

44 Other BLS Publications on TechnologicalChange

Rai lro td Technology and Manpower ut the 19'0 's (Bulletin1717.1972). 90 pp.. S1.00. Describes changes in technology in the railroad industry and projectstheir impact on productivity, employment. occupational iequirements. and methods of adjustment . eutIof)k jOr Computer Phicess Ctuttrol (Bulletin 165r. 1970). 70 pp..70 cents. Describes the impact of compute' process count)l on employment,occupations, skills, training, production and productivity, and labor-management relations. leclutf)h)gy and Manpower in the Textile Industry of the 7r) 's (Bullet in I 578.1968). 79 pp.. 60 cents. Describes changes in technology and their impact on'productivity. employment, occupational requirements, and labor-management relations.

Manpower Planning Fn. Technological Change: CI's(' Studies (tteTelephone Operators (Bulletin 1574.1968), 34 pp. Out of print. Policies and experiences of lour offices in adjusting to technologicalchange.

Job Redesign Jiir Older Workers: Ten Caw Studies (Bulletin1523,1966).63 pp. Out of print. Examples of redesign of jobs to retain older workers inemployment.

ntc'k'gieal Trends in Mafin. .4 moiety, Industries ( Bulletin 1474.1%().269 pp..S1.50. Appraises technological developments in 40 industriesand the effects on output. productivity. and employment.

Impact 11 Office Automation in the Insurance Industry (Bulletin1468, 1%5). 71 pp. Out of print. Survey of extent and future directions of electronic dataprocessing (EDP), manpower impact, and implications.

Manpower Planning to Adapt to ,Vety Technology at anIllec.trie and Gas Utility (Report 293.1%5). 25 pp. Outof print. Describes personnel procedures and practices used to minimizehardships on employees.

Outlook .14 Numerical Control of Machine Tools (Bulletin1437. 1 %5 ). 63 pp. Out of print. Outlook for this key technological innovation in themetalworking industry and implications for productivity. occupational :equirements, training programs. employment,and industrial relations.

Publications for sale may be purchased from the Superintendentof Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402, orfrom regional offices of the Bureau of Labor Statistics at theaddresses shown on the inside back cover. Out of printpubli- cations are available at many public and school librariesand at Government depository libraries.

45 Monthly Labor Illovlow, the authoritative research journal in economics and the social Periodicals sciences, publishes analytical articles and current data on prices, wages, and productivity; employment and unemployment; and hours and earnings. Each month, from the the Review also reports on important developments in industrial relations, significant court decisions, union conventions, labor developments abroad, and includes an Bureau of extensive section of book reviews and listings. Subscription price:$9 per year (add $2.25 if mailed to a foreign address). Labor Single copy price: 75 cents. Statistics Iffenployinant and Earnings, For current, a monthly report presenting charts and detailed tables on the labor force, employment, unemployment, hours, earnings. Job vacancies, and labor turnover. It is compiled from data based on household interviews, nonagricultural establishment records. and oriministrative records of unemployment authoritative insurance systems. Subscription price:$10 per year data on the (add $2.50 if mailed to a foreign address). economy

For sale by regional offices of the Occupational Outlook Ouartorly Bureau of Labor Statistics. is today's guide to tomorrow's jobs. Illustrated in color and U.S. Department of Labor. or by the written in nontechnical language, the Quarterly reports on Superintendent of Documents. emerging jobs, educational and training opportunities, salary Government Printing Office. trends, and the effects of changing technology on jobs. Washington. D. C. 20402. Make all Sources of free orioexpensive career and manpower checks payable to: Superintendent of publications are also listed. Documents. Prices are subject to change by the Government Printing Subscription price:$1.50 per year Office. (add 500 it mailed to a foreign address).

0080mslarr Currant Wag* Dovolopnionts reports in detail on major collect* bargaining agreements, presents statistical tables on compensation changes, and features special reports on wage and salary trends in both the private and public sectors. Published monthly. Subscription price: $4.50 (add $1.25 if mailed to a foreign address) 'vas% U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR THIRD CLASS MAIL 1 BUF.EAU OF LABOR STATISTICS WASHINGTON, D. C. 20212 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMEI!T OF LABOR U.S.MAIL

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