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NBS 99

Automatic Typographic-Quality

Typesetting Techniques:

A State-of-the-Art Review

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ——

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards ' provides measurement and technical information services essential to the efficiency and effectiveness of the work of the Nation's and engineers. The Bureau serves also as a focal in the Federal Government for assuring maximum application of the physical and to the advancement of in industry- and commerce. To accomplish this mission, the Bureau is organized into three institutes covering broad program areas of research and services:

THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS . . . provides the central basis within the for a complete and consistent system of physical measurements, coordinates that system with the measurement systems of other nations, and furnishes essential services to accurate and uniform physical measurements throughout the Nation's scientific community, industry, and commerce. This Institute comprises a series of divisions, each serving a classical subject matter area: —Applied Mathematics—^Electricity—Metrology—Mechanics—-Heat—Atomic Physics Physical Chemistry—Radiation Physics—Laboratory Astrophysics ^—Radio Standards Laboratory,^ which includes Radio Standards Physics and Radio Standards Engineering- of Standard Reference Data.

THE INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH . . . conducts materials research and provides associated materials services including mainly reference materials and data on the properties of materials. Beyond its direct interest to the Nation's scientists and engineers, this Institute yields services which are essential to the advancement of technology in industry and commerce. This Institute is organized primarily by technical fields: —Analytical Chemistry—Metallurgy'—-Reactor Radiations—^Polymers—Inorganic Mate- rials—Cryogenics ^—Materials Evaluation Laboratory—Office of Standard Reference Materials.

THE INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED TECHNOLOGY . . . provides technical services to promote the use of available technolog}' and to facilitate technological in industry and government. The principal elements of this Institute are: —Building Research—Electronic Instrumentation—- and Apparel Technology Center—Technical Analysis—Center for Sciences and Technology—Office of Weights and Measures—^Office of Engineering Standards Services—Office of Invention and Innovation—Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information.^

' Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg, Maryland, unless otherwise noted mailing Washing- ; address ton, D.C. 20234. 2 Located at Boulder, Colorado 80302. 3 Located at 5285 Port Roval Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE • Alexander B. Trowbridge, Jcting Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS • A. V. Astin, Director

Automatic Typographic-Quality Techniques: A State-of-the-Art Review

Mary Elizabeth Stevens and John L. Little

Center for Computer Sciences and Technology Institute for Applied Technology National Bureau of Standards Washington, D.C.

National Bureau of Standards Monograph 99

Issued April 7, 1967

For sale by the Superintendent of , U.S. Government Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 70 cents of Congress Catalog Card No. 66-62198 Foreword

The Research Information Center and Advisory Service on Information Processing, (RICASIP), which has been incorporated in the Technical Information Exchange, Center for Computer Sciences and Technology, National Bureau of Standards, has been engaged in a continuing program to collect information and maintain current awareness about research and development activities in the field of information processing and retrieval. An important responsibihty of RICASIP which has been jointly supported by the National Foundation and NBS, has been the preparation of state-of-the- art reviews on topics of current interest in various areas of this broad field.

This report is one of a series intended as contributions toward improved interchange of information among those engaged in research and development in this field. The report considers new techniques for typographic-quality composition based upon ma- chine generation, manipulation, and processing of textual and other materials to be reproduced in multiple copies for distribution or publication.

It should be noted that names and descriptions of specific proprietary devices and equipment have been included for the convenience of the reader, but completeness in this respect is recognized to be impossible. It is also to be noted that certain important developments have remained proprietary or have not been reported in the open Uterature. Some of the major contributors to key developments in the field may thus have been inadvertently omitted.

The omission of any method or device does not necessarily imply that it is con- sidered unsuitable or unsatisfactory. Conversely, inclusion of descriptive material on any proprietary instrument, product, or process does not constitute endorsement. In general, we shall be concerned with the techniques that offer reproduction of typographic quality, which may be defined in terms of a variety of' factors involving engineering, aesthetic, economic, and productivity considerations.

It is to be noted that this report was prepared on the Linofilm equipment of the United States Government Printing Office.

A. V. ASTIN, Director.

Ill

Contents

Page

Foreword ,. HI

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Purpose and scope of report 1 1.2 Background 2

2. Typographic quality and the compositor functions 9

3. Hardware for typographic composition , H 3.1 Hot casting equipment 11 3.1.1 Line casting equipment 11 3.1.2 Tape-controUed hot metal typesetters 13 3.2 Cold techniques 15 3.2.1 Sequential card camera systems 15 3.2.2 Ribbon impression without tape perforators 17 3.2.3 Perforated tape systems 18 3.2.4 Tape perforators without printers 18 3.2.5 Teletypesetter systems 20 3.2.6 Tape perforators with ribbon impression printers 20 3.3 Photocomposition equipment 21 3.3.1 Techniques of photocomposition 22 3.3.2 Classes of photocomposers 22 3.4 Electronic character generator systems 34 3.4.1 Techniques of electronic character generation 34 3.4.2 Specific character generating equipment 35 3.5 used for 37 3.5.1 Small special-purpose typography computers 37 3.5.2 General purpose computers used for typography 38

4. Automation of the compositor functions 41 4.1 Horizontal justification 42 4.1.1 Equipment and techniques for horizontal justification 43 4.1.2 Semi-automatic and automatic hyphenation 44 4.2 Corrections, updating, and merging 50 4.3 Vertical justification and composition 53 4.4 Two-dimensional composition 54 4.5 Specific photocomposing equipment 56

5. Documentation appUcations 59 5.1 General purpose computer programs : 60 5.1.1 Barnett and others at M.I.T 60 5.1.2 Newcastle program 63 5.1.3 University of Pittsburgh program 63 5.2 Primary pubHcations 64 5.2.1 Computer-compiled and computer-generated primary publications 64 5.2.2 composition 65 5.2.3 composition 66 5.3 Secondary pubhcations, speciahzed bibhographic aids, and integrated systems 67 5.4 Service centers 71

6. Problem areas 72 6.1 Character sets, encoding and alphabetization 72 6.2 Programming 77 6.3 Imphcations for management planning, industry adjustment and systems design 79 6.3.1 Problems of -editor-publisher relationships 79 6.3.2 The possible role of automatic character recognition 80 6.3.3 Keyboard design and related problems 81 6.3.4 Imphcations for systems design 82 6.3.5 Imphcations for industry adjustment 85

7. Summary: The present state-of-the-art and future prospects 96

Bibliography 91

V List of Figures and Tables

Page

Figure 1. Example of computer-typeset tables of physical data 6

Figure 2. Typical page, "Automation and Scientific , Short , Pt, 1" 7

Figure 3. Special notice. Medicos 8 Figure 4a, 4b. Foundry type character matrices and example of cast line 11

Figure 5. Linotype Comet 12

Figure 6. Intertype linecaster 12

Figure 7. Linotype Elektron 13

Figure 8. Monotype keyboard 13

Figure 9. Monotype caster 14

Figure 10. Monotype case 14 Figure 11. Recordak Listomatic 16 Figure 12. Fotolist 16 Figure 13. Compos-o-line 16 Figure 14. Fairchild Graphic Standard Teletypesetter perforator 18

Figure 15. Fairchild Graphic Multiface perforator 19

Figure 16. Mergenthaler Linomatic perforator 19 Figure 17. ATF Typesetter 19 Figure 18. Monotype narrow tape keyboard 19 Figure 19. The Teletypesetter (TTS) code 19 Figure 20. Perforated tapes used in typesetting 21 Figure 21. Sample output, Varityper Series 800 photocomposing machines 23 Figure 22. Sample output, Friden Typro 23 Figure 23. Monophoto optical system 24 Figure 24. Intertype Fotosetter 25 Figure 25. Photon disc 25 Figure 26. Photon Series 540 Tapemaster 25 Figure 27. Photon photographic system 26 Figure 28. Harris-Intertype system 27 Figure 29. Harris-Intertype installation 28 Figure 30. Harris-Intertype equipment 28 Figure 31. Linofilm grid 28 Figure 32. Linofilm grid font turret 29 Figure 33. Linofilm system 29 Figure 34. Alphatype photocomposer 30 Figure 35. K & E engineering symbol disc 30 Figure 36. ZIP optical system 31 Figure 37. ZIP reciprocating lens 31 Figure 38. GRACE installation. National Library of Medicine 32 Figure 39. Linotron video device 32 Figure 41. Digiset characters 34 Figure 41. SC-4020 equipment 35 Figure 42. Benson-Lehner Transdata equipment 36 Figure 43. RCA Newscom system 39

Figure 44. Newscom equipment .^.-s-.V'-i 39 Figure 45. TRW-Fairchild Comp/Set 39 Figure 46. Linofilm mathematical setting examples 55 Figure 47. Output of Technical Text Compiler 57 Figure 48. Barnett program output 61 Figure 49. Sample page, Chemical-Biological Activities 74

Table 1. Speeds of automated photocomposers 23 Table 2. Character widths, TTS Systems 43 Table 3. Companies represented at a photocomposer bidders conference. Government Printing Office, August 12, 1963 87

VI Automatic Typographic-Quality Typesetting Techniques: A State-of-the-Art Review

Mary Elizabeth Stevens and John L. Little

This report describes the current state-of-the-art in automation of composition, start- ing from either of two sources: (1) keyboard entry of material, or (2) mechanized input in the form of available perforated tapes or magnetic tapes. The gamut is covered from one extreme in which a skilled keyboard operator performs all of the compositor functions required to operate a type- setting , to the other extreme in which the input merely provides text whether or not including designation of desired font changes, followed by a high degree of automation through all operations leading to type set for printing. Intermediate automation aids for the compositor functions, including characteristics of special-purpose digital computers and functions performed by typography programs for general-purpose digital computers, are reviewed. Characteristics of automatically operated typesetting mechanisms, including hot metal casting machines and photocomposers, slow, medium and high speed, are outlined. Applications of new tech- niques for typographic-quality automated composition that are of interest in scientific and technical information centers, and other documentation operations include sequential card camera listings, computer-generated KWIC indexes, photocomposition of technical journals, automatic com- position of containing both computer-produced tabular data and natural language texts, and the incorporation of mechanized processes throughout the publication cycle from the author's original manuscript preparation to the final printing. A bibUography of 363 references is included.

Key words: Automated type composition, computerized typesetting, graphic arts, photocomposi- tion, printing and publication.

1. Introduction The practical reahzation of several major tech- nological developments affecting both printing and 1.1. and of Report Purpose Scope data processing operations has so recently been This report is one of a series prepared for the Re- achieved that a state-of-the-art report on this topic search Information Center and Advisory Service on may appear to be premature. Nevertheless, with Information Processing (RICASIP), and intended the initiation of planning for either high-speed as a contribution to improved cooperation in the photocomposition or direct computer output of fields of information selection systems development, typographic quality, or both, these developments information retrieval research and mechanized herald wide-spread adoption in many areas of docu- . In each of these areas, increased use mentation. There is, in addition, considerable of automation has led to increased concern both for advantage to be gained in systems planning and high speed and for high quahty of machine output. inter-system cooperation if users not now contem- Methods range from manual keyboard entry of plating application in their own operations are textual material to computer printouts at high speed nevertheless familiar with such applications as but low quahty (uppercase, fixed spacing and poor those of STAR (Scientific and Technical /Aerospace paper utilization). There is a third class of methods /Reports of the , National Aeronautics and involving machine and computer-generated tapes Administration) and MEDLARS {Medical / to control automatic typesetting to batteries of /Analysis and /?etrieval System of the National low speed composing-printing devices. Finally Library of Medicine) and with the general poten- there is a new class involving computer control via tialities of these new techniques. magnetic tape of high-speed composition systems. Anticipating the probable of these de- At one extreme, a skilled keyboard operator per- velopments upon many organizations active in forms all of the compositor functions required to the handling of scientific and technical informa- operate a typesetting machine; at the other, the tion, RICASIP in 1962 contracted with Information input merely provides text copy, which may or may Dynamics, Inc., for a review of the situation. The not include designations of desired font, style, size, present report is based in part on this earlier study,-^ and format changes, to be processed with a Where appropriate, portions of the text of the ipC high degree of automation through all operations report prepared by Lawrence H. Berul have been necessary to produce type or plates set for printing. incorporated in this report.

1 The Information Dynamics report to RICASIP hcation cycle from the author's original preparation was followed by an updated and condensed version of manuscript to the final printing. prepared for the conference on "Libraries and The will be on devices and techniques Automation" held at Airlie House in May of 1963, which provide typographic quaUty in the output — (Sparks et al., 1964).' Since the later version in- proportional spacing, upper and lower case, large corporates much of the material originally prepared character sets, variety of and type sizes, for RICASIP, it will also be quoted extensively and justification, and the hke. Gen- as appropriate. erally, the definitions of typographic quality are Where exceptionally good reviews about a par- subjective and not objective. That is, while type ticular system or piece of equipment have been designers and typographers have followed precise published earlier, these will be referenced and traditions of craftsmanship through the centuries, only brief mention will be given in this report. In the bases for their specifications have been aesthetic particular, nearly all of the pioneering exponents or artistic rather than scientific findings as to legi- of either photocomposition or computer-driven bility or readability. composition techniques (whether linecasting or film setting or both in combination) have pubhshed at least brief accounts of their efforts and proposals. In alphabetical order, for illustrative example, we 1.2. Background note: Bafour, Barnett, Bozman, Duncan, the two IBM-Mergenthaler teams, Kuney-American Chemi- The use of machines and of mechanizable proces- cal Society, Luhn, the Medlars system, Moyroud, ses to improve the utilization of scientific and the NASA system, and others. technical information has a first and obvious area In a supplement to the November 1964 of application in the preparation of copies of text pubUcation. of Print in Britain, there was set out a check list and tabular data for distribution or of machines, materials, and methods for both film- Mechanized printing began with the invention of setting and cold type methods which was charac- as applied to this purpose since the terized by Robert E. Rossell, Managing Director , the first scientific journal began pub- of the Research and Engineering Council of the lication in 1665,2 jj^g f^j.gj abstract journal appeared Graphic Arts Industry, Inc., in a covering in 1807.3 distribution of reprints to members of the council, Today, the increasing demands for timeliness and as "the most comprehensive checklist of machines, economy of both primary and secondary publica- materials, and methods on the subject that we have tions and the emergence of the computer itself as uncovered to date." the generator of data tabulations, composite test This report attempts to describe the principal report compilations, extracted portions of pre- automation techniques and the ingenious inter- stored text, index and citation listings (and even weaving of these techniques into a multitude of automatically prepared "abstracts" or ) configurations each attempting in its own particu- impose new requirements for speed and cost- lar manner to accomplish the compositor functions effectiveness of production and for customer ac- by mechanized aids to human effort. Because the ceptance of the machine-prepared products. report is one of a series intended as contributions A special problem has been that of currency of toward mproved interchange of information among coverage and prompt dissemination by secondary those engaged in research and development in the publications (catalogues of holdings, announcement fields of information processing, information selec- of acquisition bulletins, index lists or abstract tion, and information retrieval, the applications journals, and cumulative indexes to all of these). stressed are generally in the area of scientific and In particular, the question of revision and updating technical information handling and related docu- of existing catalogs and files, for re-issue, has been mentation operations. an important factor in many of the existing deficien- Apphcations of these techniques that are of cies of both current awareness and retrospective interest in scientific and technical information search systems. centers, abstracting and indexing services, pubUsh- The importance of improved techniques of type- ing houses, libraries, and other documentation setting and composition to the whole area of gen- operations include sequential card camera listings erating, processing, disseminating and using of bibliographic information, computer-generated scientific and technical information manifests itself ^ey fl^ord-in-Context (KWIC) indexes, photo-com- in at least three major ways. First, improved tech- position of technical journals, and announcement niques offer great promise of speed and increased bulletins, automatic composition of books or re- economy in the , preparation for printing, ports containing both computer-produced tabular and of primary pubhcations. Sec- data and natural language text, and the incorpora- ondly, they offer new potentiaUties of economy and tion of mechanized processes throughout the pub- timehness in the preparation of announcement

2 Shilling, 1963. p. 49. ' Note: Bibliographic citations to references are arranged in alphabetical order by ^ G. M. Conrad, statement hearings on "Dissemination of Scientific Information", author or title in the appendix, 91-98. pp. U.S. Congress, House, 1959, p. 99.

2 bulletins, indexes, abstract journals, printed cata- catalogues, thus greatly facilitating the researches

logues, demand , and other vital aids of the student . . . to maintenance of current awareness and to Htera- "There will also ture search. Finally, they offer the prospects of be great saving of the expense of paper and presswork restoring greater legibility and readabiUty to mater- under this system. It is customary now to print off a larger ials compiled or produced by computer, thus - number of copies of every catalogue hancing the utihty of machine output, again offering than are immediately wanted, because it cannot significant proofreading advantages for computed be known how many may be required before the catalogue material such as extensive numerical tables. may be reprinted. On this plan, wlien a edition, The art of printing, originating with the Chinese new with all additions incorporated, can be had at time, it who made for printing on silk, any will not be thought necessary to print has an interesting history^ of development. About more copies than enough to meet the immediate = the 12th century, B.C., the Chinese first introduced demand.'" As Clapp reports, "a sample catalog, printed in wooden blocks of movable t\-pe. The development 1854 for the Library of Congress from these plates, of this technique which led to modern printing is still exists and constitutes one of the generally attributed to , a Ger- handsomest pieces of printing produced in the . man stonemason, who in the decade of 1440 demon- Unfortunately, however, strated the practical use of movable metal type. Jewett was betrayed by the imperfect technology- of the time. The plates Production of printed pages thus dates back at warped in storage: the information was lost and with least 500 years. Gradual mechanization of type- it the success of the venture." ^ Not until nearly setting operations occurred during the following a century later, with both manual and sequential four centuries, including the introduction of key- card camera shinghng techniques, were some of boards for type selection and the development of these advantages reahzed. devices for the automatic sorting of used type slugs. In the late 19th century, a great leap forward An interesting early example of possible mechanical had been made in typographic composition the processing for composition of revised and updated by invention of two ingenious and powerful machines — bibhographic listings was reported by Charles C. the Linotype by Mergenthaler and the Monotype by Jewett to a convention of librarians held in New Lanston. Linotype, first York in 1853. The used by the New York Herald Tribune in the late 1800"s, is a key- "The title of every book and of each distinct edition board-operated machine which casts a hot metal is stereotyped upon a separate plate. The author's for each complete fine of type. The Monotype name also stands by itself. Each plate shows at a equipment involves two separate machines. First, glance the heading to which it belongs. It is ob- a large keyboard is used to operate a paper tape vious that these plates may be placed together in perforator. The 31 channels of this tape store alphabetical order, as may be desired. They are information with respect to designated characters, mounted on blocks, for printing Hke other fonts, type widths, and space widths. This per- plates. It is proposed to preserve the plates or forated paper tape then controls the operation of the blocks in alphabetical order of the titles, so as to be second machine, a hot metal type slug caster, which able readily to insert additional titles, in their proper casts each symbol on a separate type slug and which places, and then to reprint the whole catalogue. uses controlled dimensioning to fill out a complete By these means, the chief cost of republication (that fine by insertion of additional type slugs to provide of composition) together with the trouble of revision the required spacing. and correction of the press, would, except for new ^ Thus, equipment to titles, be avoided."" accomphsh in standing type the full range of functions covered by this report, Jewett went on to claim such advantages as the '". from keyboard, perforated tape and typesetting for following: . . The great ends to be gained are: printing, was already available in the 19th century. 1. To avoid the necessity of preparing, com- However, the complete range of compositor func- posing, and correcting anew the titles once tions was then concentrated in the keyboard printed, when the Libran,- has received acces- operator, who needed to be a highly skilled person sions, or the ahernative of printing the titles with a production capabihty sharply limited by the of these accessions in supplements, which are necessity to keyboard aU composition details, and very inconvenient appendages. who was restricted especially by the require- 2. To prevent the repetition of the work of ments for manual page make-up. preparation of titles, composition and correction During the last few decades, and particularly of press, for copies of the same book in different during the most recent decade, there has been a libraries. The title once prepared and stereo- notable increase in the availability of mechanical typed remains at the Smithsonian Institution, aids in composition operations. Chronologically, to be used by any hbrar>' having the same book. some of the key developments have been as follows: 3. To secure uniformity in the construction of

' Ibid., pp. 26-27.

^ the Librarians' . . "Proceedinas of Convention . 1853". 1915, p. 26. Clapp. 1963, p. 2.

3 The first patent applications for what is now that "in 1953-1954 a study of the Chinese lan- known as the Photon (the Lumitype in France) were guage to determine the feasibility of developing a filed in 1945. Since that time the inventors, machine that would economically and effectively Messrs. Higonnet and Moyroud, have taken out compose Chinese ideographs in the field was over 40 U.S. patents as well as numerous foreign begun." patents on various inventions in the field of photo- The year 1954, however, marks the official date composition. Further impetus was given to this of disclosure of the first comprehensive approach type of photocomposition technology by the Graphic to the use of modern machine techniques to typo- Arts Research Foundation Inc., from about 1948- graphic quality composition generally involving 1949 onward (Higonnet and Moyroud, 19.57, 1960). both computer processing and automatically con- In 1946, Corrado reports, "Mergenthaler was trolled composition devices (Bafour, 1965). experimenting with a cathode ray tube, closed loop, As Duncan reports: "The proposal to apply the television system to produce type on film. The power of modern digital computers to text proces- state-of-the-art of cathode ray tubes was such that sing originated with Bafour, Blanchard, and Ray- the tubes did not have the resolving power or the mond. Their patent application was made in illumination capability to produce the quality of France in March 1954, and must have been preceded ." ^ type that most people wanted . . Instead of by a great deal of work. Their system as originally pursuing this approach further, therefore, work conceived embodied a special-purpose tape-type- was begun on the photocomposer Linofilm, the writer keyboard (at least one prototype was built first prototype production model having been tested by Barriquand and Marre) with additional keys for in the period 1955-1956. function codes, and means for producing correction At about this time, or earlier, the Intertype tapes and merging them before processing in a spe- Corporation also was experimenting on phototype- cial-purpose computer, details of whic'i were also setting techniques in cooperation with the Govern- specified in the patent . . . They clearly envis- ment Printing Office, leading to development of aged that the output would control both automat- the Fotosetter. ically operated hnecasters and other more advanced Eastman Kodak was active in the field of elec- photo-composing machines." " tronic character generation in the middle-to-late The year 1958 saw the first publicly available 1940's, leading to demonstrations of DACOM (Data- production of KWIC {Key fFord-in-Context) indexes, scope Computer Output Microfilmer) equipment in those for the Preprints of the International Con- in the early 1950's. As early as 1948, this company ference on Scientific Information (machine-produced filed patent applications with respect to means for but not of typographic quaUty),'^ the initiation of displaying characters on the face of a cathode ray projects to explore the potentialities of photocom- tube, using monoscope generating techniques simi- position at the American Chemical Society'^ and, lar to the test pattern techniques used in television in France, "experiments . . . carried out using systems. These patents were then cross-licensed a computer of the Societe d'Electronique et d'Auto- to RCA, to IBM and to at least one British organi- matisme. The output tapes were fed into the zation. Intertype casters of the Imprimere Nationale, Reporting in 1959 on then current progress in equipped with Fairchild readers and control photocomposition, Winkler said: "The Fotosetter, units." developed in 1947 by the , Duncan comments with respect to the latter was the first commercially available phototype- experiments as follows: "The tragedy is that after setting machine. The Photon, of Photon, Inc., the brilhant demonstration of November 1958, the was the second phototypesetter placed on the French Syndicate did nothing to exploit the system. market. In succession, the Monophoto of the The latest information from France is that a large Lanston Monotype Company and the Linofilm computer firm (SCF) and the firm of machine of the Mergenthaler Linotype Company Japy together with Barriquand and Marre are about were introduced. The , to carry on the work, having lost a of six to Inc., has recently made the ATF Typesetter ten years." * available." The lead thus lost in France was to be picked up Winkler also describes the Research & Engineer- both in the United States and in Great Britain in ing Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, Inc., the period 1959-1962 with respect to photocomposi- which was started informally in 1948, and formally tion equipment as such and also with respect to incorporated in 1950.^ computer control of various compositor functions. A special case with respect to automatic aids Hoffman, in a 1959 survey of composing room ma- to type composition, relating to problems of two- terials and machines, reported as follows: "Photog- dimensional or graphic material composition, is that of machine composing of Chinese ideographs. The University of Pittsburgh reports, for example. University of Pittsburgh. 1964, p. 1. Duncan, 1964, p. 152. " Citron, Hart, and Ohiman, 1958, Luhn, 1959. ' Corrado, 1964, p. 109. " Kuney, 1963, p. 249; Skolnick, 1962, p. i. " Winkler, 1959, p. 70. " Bafour, 1965, p. 194. " Ibid., pp. 75-76. Duncan, 1964, p. 152.

4 raphy ... is an industrial phenomenon creating indications that the process is at the very least a major upheaval in the graphic arts industry. . . . competitive with hot metal costs." Electronic control of the photographic composing Concurrently, at M.I.T.. Barnett and his associ- process is already here ... hile not at present ates were engaged in work relating to "the photo- available commercially, machines such as Mono- composition of the output of one type of computer photo and ATF Typesetter indicate that photographic (the IBM 709), on one type of photocomposing unit composition in justified Hnes of straight matter (the Photon), which is used essentially as a paper- can be expected soon from several machines." tape driven off-fine printing device."-** Their early From 1959 to 1961, an investigation and study efforts aroused such comments as the following: of "graphic-semantic" composing techniques was "Exciting and promising is the work of Professor conducted by the Syracuse University Research M. P. Barnett at MIT on the use of computers. Institute for the Air Development Center He has successfully programmed a computer to (Buck et al.. 1961). which concluded that suitable punch and correct a tape suitable for operating techniques were available or could be provided Photon equipment. These are the beginnings under short-range development for good quality of what is visuahzed as a computer-photocomposi- page composition combining machine-translated tion set-up for producing a quality product suit- text with original graphic material. IBM. which able for reproduction of scientific papers."-' was developing the concurrent machine translation 'As a by-product of their computerized research efforts, subsequently demonstrated output of text in theoretical chemistry, these two professors [Bar- via computer program and Linofilm. Then, the nett and Kelley. MIT. ] unknowingly Mergenthaler company conducted a further study had ht one of the major fuses that subsequently of the feasibihty of the proposed combined lexical- erupted into this new era in typesetting tech- graphical composition system. nology."-^ By 1961. developments at IBM under Rome Air Development Center sponsorship led to the driving For example, as of late 1961. plans were already of a Linofilm from computer output of translated well under way to use the M.I.T. computer-Photon Russian text.'' Thus, "when a translated magnetic combination "to produce a Union List of Communist tape has been prepared, it is used as input to a 704 Chinese Serials, under the direction of Ryburn M.

digital computer program . . . [that] removes all Moss, Associate Director of Libraries for M.I.T."^^ characters which are meant only for the flexowriter. In a 1963 report, presented at the Spring Joint Com- It computes justification information as well as puter Conference. Barnett et al. provide as Appen- information needed to center a line, or to print a dix Mil a part of this hsting. line on the right hand side of the page. It converts The period 1961-1962 was also marked by Mitra's the flexowriter codes into the code needed by the re-programming of the Bafour-Blanchard-Raymond Linofilm photo unit. It also converts the edit in- hyphenation rules for the to be formation which wiU change the character fonts, processed on Ferranti computers,^^ by the American the point size and the distance between successive Chemical Society's use of the Photon for the Journal lines." of Chemical and Engineering Data and for the pro- Appropriately, a part of the final report on Mer- duction of the Journal of Chemical Documentation genthaler's study for RADC of lexical-graphical beginning with its first issue (Januarv. 1962).-^ and composer- systems design (1963) was itself bv the installation by the Compugraphic Corpora- automatically typeset by computer-Linofilm com- tion of the first Directory Tape Processor at the bination, using the Autoset computer program General Directory Company on May 1, developed by Mitchell Saxon. 1961.26 A two-year program for the investigation of the In 1962, the Joint Committee on Printing of the use of photocomposition techniques in the setting U.S. Congress initiated action which led to the of mathematical text, such as the journal Mathe- establishment of the Federal Electronic Printing matical Reviews, was initiated at the American Committee, to the setting up of the post of Elec- Mathematical Society in January 1962. tronic Printing Officer at the U.S. Government In 1960, as a result of the American Chemical Printing Office and eventually to the ordering of Society's graphic arts research program, production Linotron equipment for the Government Printing of the quarterly yourna/ of Chemical and Engineer- Office. (Mergenthaler had already entered into a ing Data by photocomposition techniques was contractual arrangement with the Columbia Broad- begun, utilizing manually keyboarded Photon equip- casting System Laboratories for cooperation in the ment. In the project summary prepared for Current graphic arts field, resulting in the eventual Linotron Research and Development in Scientific Documen- design.)-'' tation, No. 7 (for November 1960). it is stated that " results with respect to the economics of the process National Science Foundation. 1960. p. 3. ^Barnett et al.. 1962. p. 58. Skolnick. were not conclusive as of that time, but "there are 1962, p. i. "Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 1. " Markus. 1962, p. 18; see Shih and Snyder, 1963. Hoffman. 1959. p. 194. Duncan, 1964, p. 153. " See Blondeau. 1963. p. 84. "Skolnick. 1962, p. i. '* International Business Machines Corp.. "Graphic Composing Techniques", ^ Swanson, 1963, p. 92. 1%2, p. 1. ^Corrado, 1964. p. 110,

5 Wavelength Spectrum Energy Levels gA A K 108/sec

2289.98 Ni I 0 - 43655 5.0 0.39 -0.40

2300.78 Ni I 205 - 43655 2.2 0.18 -0.75

2310.96 Ni I 0 - 43259 7.6 0.60 -0.22

2312.34 Ni I 1332 - 44565 9 5 0 76 -0 12

2313.98 Ni I 2217 - 45419 10. 0.82 -0.09

2317.16 Ni I 1332 - 44475 7.8 0.63 -0.20

2320.03 Ni I 0 - 43090 11. 0.86 -0.07

2321.38 Ni I 2217 - 45281 13. 1.1 0.04

2325.79 Ni I 1332 - 44315 8 9 0 72 —0V/. 114*T'

2329.96 Ni I 2217 - 45122 7.3 0.59 -0.23

Ld J 1 .Hy IN 1 1 u 4Z /Oo 2.0 0.16 -0.79 — 2337 82 INNiJ. iT 1 / X J 44475 1.1 0.088 -1.05

2345.54 Ni I 0 - 42621 5.5 0.46 -0.34

2346.63 Ni I 1332 - 43933 1.2 0.10 -0.99

2347.52 Ni I 0 - 42585 1.9 0.16 -0.80

Figure 1. Examp'le of com[)uter-typeset tables of physical data.

By this time, also, the Russian All-Union Institute automatic methods. An electronic computer could for Scientific Information (VINITI) was evidencing be used for the computation, then the magnetic specific interest in computers and high speed com- tape output from the computer could be used to position techniques. Thus, in 1962, Mikhailov operate an automatic machine reported "development of new highly-productive which would produce film ready for making the printing equipment including photo-setting and printing plates. photo- machines, high-speed mono- and Programs were written for computation of the Uno-types. composing ",-** and the like. table values on the IBM 7090 computer and for He also emphasized that: "A comprehensive ap- preparation of an output tape in proper format for l)roach in the advancement of information services the phototypesetter. "The pages were - presents entirely new objectives to copying and ically typeset with a Mergenthaler Linofilm machine reproduction as compared to those expected of con- onto 8-inch wide film in 50-foot rolls. About 8 min. ventional printing practices. There should be were required to set each page. Printing plates developed rapid printing devices transforming into were made from the film positives which are actual visible characters the pulses received from the page size."^' Figure 1 shows a typical page. It information logical machines."-^ is to be noted, of course, that this first formal book In July 1962, occurred what is probably the first publication employs only a single tabular format finished book of tables involving the combination throughout. of computer processing and automatically controlled Also occurring in 1962 were the initiation of the photocomposition, NBS Monograph 53, Experi- automatic composition program at the University of mental Transition Probabilities for Spectral Lines Newcastle,^^ preliminary demonstrations of type- oj Seventy Elements (Corliss and Bozman, 1962; setting by Computaprint Ltd. for the British Insti- Bozman, 1963). The introduction to these com- tute of Printing and delivery of the prototype puter-generated tables of values states in part: Linasec to the Alden Press.^" The ROCAPPI "At the beginning of the preparation of this (/Research on Computer ^ppUcations in the Printing table it was realized that equipment was available and Publishing Industry) organization initiated a which would permit essentially automatic prepara- program for automatic control of hot metal hne- tion of the finished book. It was therefore decided to attempt to produce this publication by completely

" Corliss and Bozman, 1962, p. xvi. » Ibid. '2 Duncan, 1964, p. 154. ^ Statement of C. T. Ross, Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965. Mikhailuv. 1962. 55. p. 98-99. p. ^ "Ibid. p. 51. Morton. 1963, p. 96.

6 .

casters in October 1962 and went into limited pro- Duncan's article 'Look! No hands!' was itself set duction in January 1963.^^ in accordance with the Newcastle computer In December 1962, ''RCA and the Los Angeles program. Times jointly announced their computerized - In October 1963, the registrants at the annual paper typesetting system. Within the next few meeting of the American Documentation Institute weeks, the Palm Beach Post-Times had thrown received two volumes of short technical articles, their 'tape' into the ring."^^ claimed to be the first of its kind to be typeset by These two newspaper composition applications computer. Figure 2 shows a typical page for a followed an earlier and less successful venture — "the first 'composing room computer' to go on the air was also the first and only to suspend opera- 412 tions."^^ This was the case oi the Arizona Journal A FORMAL INDEXING LANGUAGE FOR are depicted In Fig. 1. Each of these classes is subdivided AUTOMATED RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS into many convenient subclasses. Similar schedules have been which, in November 1961, had announced plans to partially worlted out for the other categories. None the less, By Thomas S. Walton the task of organizing a vocabulary Into such arrays Is by far Applied Mathematics Laboratory use a GE 225 computer for both typesetting opera- the most time-con-sumlng part of the undertaking, even allow- David Taylor Model Basin ing for the help provided by existing dIcUonaries end thesauri, Washington 7, D.C, tions and customer billing of classified ads, to begin and much work remains to be done. ABSTRACT: A tormfil indexing language has been de- Grammar. with the paper's first issue scheduled for February vised to facilitate the mechanization ol literature search' ing. A categorized and hierarchically arranged voca- Many frequently encountered index terms do not pertain 1962. bulary iB employed, with syntacHc relationships being dis- exclusively to Just one of the fundamental categories but, in- played In a simple, stylized notation. An analytlco-synthe- stead. Imply a combination of two or more elemental concepts Sc procedure for gencraUng document descriptions Is pre- Yasaki describes some of the difficulties encoun- (8). Such terms are regarded as complex, and distinctive ana- sented and search strategies are discussed. lytical definitions are sought for them, eg., radiating—emmlt- tered as follows: ''Two weeks before publication Ung radiant energy, ImecUdd^-subat&nce lor UlHng loMcts. The use of mechanical aids in scientific communication The Erst problem Is to Idenbty the relationahips that are can expedite the recording, processing and dissemination of date, the rate structure for classified ads had not essential to the Indication of subject content (9). These have Information. At the same time, however, It accentuates cer- been analyzed and classified as follows: tain fundamental problems connected with Indexing and I. Internal, i.e., between a tiling and some portion of been firmed — much less programmed. . . . There seardilng (^rations d). These are highly complex Intellec- or transformation of Itself: tual tasks which will yield to mechanization only after much (a) whole~part progress has been was cause for concern. A new metropolitan made In UngulsBc analysis, The prospect Is (bl product-material (output -In put) not enhanced by the tendency to express Ideas In abstruse n. External, I.e., between separate entities and Involv- Jargons understood only by specialists. Information cannot be daily . . . was beginning with non-union labor to ing some logical, spatial or behavioral relation or action: useful unless It Is comprehensible. (a) entity' relation-entity There Is. nevertheless, growing recognition that document operate newly-introduced offset presses and a new (b) patient-action-agent retrieval systems can be made more effective by employing III. Attributive, in which some condition (state! or lai analytlco-synlhetic techniques for generating multifaceted property (quality, capability) Is ascribed to something: tape perforator, the ATF typesetter. Both were descriptions of subject content (2) and (b) procedure-oriented la) entity-condition languages which enable such data lo be subjected to formal (b) entity-Inert property the first installations anywhere. Without experi- manipulation by machines (3i. These principles have guided (c) padent-active property -agent the development of an artiflclal language called FROLIC The next question is how to symbolize these relationships ence in the manual processing of advertising copy (Formal, Retrleval-Orlenled Language for Indexing Content) unambiguously. This Is accomplished In FROLIC with a sim- designed for general application In scienBflc and technical do- ple notation liased on the follov^ing principles: cumentation (41. It is built around a categorized and hierar- and billing, the Journal was trying to run a parallel 1- The fact that terms are associated syntactically Is chically arranged vocabulary combined with a simple shown by grouping them within parenthetical boundaries: grammar for indicating certain essential roles or relationships operation with the computer system . . . 2- The type of relationship Is Implied by the categories between index terms. These features are intended to produce to which the terms belong: a high recall factor while maintaining a low noise level. The "The 225 did not justify hnes or hyphenate at 3- The sense or direction of a relationship is Indicated work Is based on the premise that a successful system will re- by the order In which ihe terms are written; quire a synthesis of ideas and techniques which have evolved and 4- The pivotal or focal term of a topic shown ends of hnes, these being coded by tape perforators In library science, Unguindcs, philosophy, symbolic logic and is by en- computer technology. closing qualifying terms and phrases '.vlthin additional sets of parentheses. at the Journal office. The information . . . was The«sii nu-Dlc d onary This procedure allows any term to be associated with as then transmitted by Bell System's Data Speed to many other terms as necessary to give an accurate rendition of subject content, without The key to the proposed system Is a thesaurus-dictionary the risk of false coordination. It ov- ercomes certain objections GE's information processing center. in which word associations and meanings are recorded. This to schemes using roles and links gives users a clear Indication of the significance and scope of raised by Taube (10), who points out that a term may have each term, and helps to bring the vocabularies of searcher quite different roles with reaped to each of the other terms in a "It was here that some of the trouble lay. Ex- and indexer Into coincidence (51, All information about the vo- description Furthermore, the system ol nesting terms and cabulary Is entered into the Alphabetical Index In a formal phrases within parentheses permits qualifiers to be qualified In turn, so that the definition of one perienced ATF typesetter operators were not designed for easy access. Every term is defined either by Its complex concept may in- class affiliations, by analysis Into simpler concepts, or by volve another one. These properties result from adopting a phrase-strncture grammar (11) for FROLIC. available and . . . the punched tapes were not cross-referencing to synonyms. In addition, the basic or elem- ental concepts of the language are displayed In a Oassitied proofread before transmission as had been planned. Schedule, where they have been gathered into a few general Subject Analysli. categories. The primary division Is Into the names of thing* Also, the Typesetter tapes lacked a parity bit. and the various characteristics that can be ascribed to them, Document descriptions composed In this stylized language vi2.. properties, comlltloiu. actions and relattona. are referred to as "captions". They are best developed by re- Within each of the major categories, clusters of terms are ferring to a Check List of the particular Idnds of Information Result: garbage in, garbage out. In the early placed under appropriate generic terms to form hierarchies. needed to characterize content This guide to subject analysis However, the classes so formed are not necessarily mutually comprises three sets of questions. stages, about 50 percent of the input was exclusive. Some terms appear under several headings, so that The first set concerns the Identity of the primary subject. ." the arrangement corresponds lo a lattice rather than a tree This includes (a) the name of the thing described or Im'es- (G, ?). levels of the classification for things unusable. . . The higher devised tlgated. (b) whether, If an object, It has any distinctive parts,

Although this first combination of perforated Auiomailon and Sclinilfic Communlcailon, Topic 4: SymbolliMrlon, Trani/ormailon and Translalion at SeUnllfie Informallon tape, computer, cold-type and photo-offset for news- 21 paper composition was in actual use only briefly, Figure 2. Typical page, ''Automation and Scientific Communi- the following year, 1963, may be said to mark the cation, Short Papers, Ft. 7." major beginnings of automatic composition. As re|)urted in "The Penrose Survey" for 1964: "A number of firms had intalled the Intertype Foto- setter and the Monotype Corporation's Monophoto, special edition of 1. In addition to com- but the more elaborate machines still awaited major puter-controlled setting of the text, computer proc- acceptance. This came in 1963 when a number essing was used to produce author, KWIC of installations of the Linofilm and Photon-Lumitype (Key Word-in-ConXext), and citation indexes, all were made . . . the decline of printing from mov- of these operations having been accomplished able type can definitely be associated with 1963 within three weeks or less from the receipt of . . . 1963 also saw the development and acceptance author's (Luhn, 1963). of setting by computer." In the same Penrose Finally, in August 1964, appeared the first issue Annual volume in which the survey appeared. of the National Library of Medicine's Index Medicus Statement of C. Barber, Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965, to be computer compiled and automatically type- p. 105. ^"Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 2. set at high speed directly from magnetic tape. " Yasaki, 1963, p. 27. Figure 3 reproduces the special notice appearing ^Ibid.. pp. 27-28. "The Penrose Survey." 1964, pp. 290-291. in that issue.

7 SPECIAL NOTICE substantial savings from a reduced work force. . . . At some papers, no printers have lost jobs, not even

through attrition. . . . Publishers are eager to take advantage of increased printer productivity."'*^ This Issue of Index Medlcus was printed on the Photon 900 Computer Photo- Two distinct technical advances in type composi-

typesetter referred to by the Library staff as GRACE (Graphic Arts Composing tion have thus emerged over the past two decades and especially in the past two first, Equipment). years: the sub- stitution of photocomposition and/or cathode ray tube character generation coupled GRACE transfers data received from the NLM computer directly onto posi- with photo- graphic, xerographic, thermographic and other tive photographic film. It operates at a speed of approximately 300 characters per copying processes, and secondly, the use of com- second, and employs three fonts of type including 6-, 10-, and 14- point sizes in puter techniques or devices up to and including

both upper and lower case. The three fonts contain a total of 226 characters, in- general purpose high speed digital computers to control either hot metal casting or film-set printing cluding special characters such as diacritical marks. processes. In addition, both types of technological development be have The Library wishes to thank the users of the Index Medlcus for their patience may and been combined in a single application. with earlier issues printed by standard computer printer. All subsequent issues, A third technological development, that of tie-in including the Cumulated Index Medlcus, will be prepared by GRACE. to communication networks, has come to practical fruition, from 1963 onward, for stock market ex- change quotation and newspaper special edition CHARLES J. AUSTIN Chief, Data Processing Division apphcations at remote locations, such as the Jones system, the Street National Library of Medicine RCA-TTS Dow Wall Bethesda. Maryland 20014 Journal system and that of . August, 1954 Even more intriguing perhaps, were demonstra- tions of transmission via communication satellite Figure 3. Special notice. Index Medicus. of news copy. "On the occasion of the American Newspaper Producers Association conference in June 1963, the eleventh and twelfth successful transmissions via Relay I took place between Meanwhile, ignoring the Arizona failure, Journal Chicago (the ANPA conference) and several news- other publishing organizations had moved news papers in Britain, and a similar transmission from with the installation both of photocom- ahead Rio de Janeiro to Chicago on 10 June. For these posers and of computer control systems to operate transmissions the RCA 301 computer was employed either or hot metal casting photocomposition equip- to justify the setting and to transmit the correct ment.^" Thus, by 1964. it could be reported that TTS operating codes. "^^

. . . revealed "a recently conducted survey more Before leaving this area of chronological back- than installations involving the computing 75 ground we should also note another interesting his- ten different equipment of some manufactur- torical precedent for much later development using ers. . . . During the past few years, we have more recent which was that of the from seen the movement of typesetting technology Thompson patent for an electromagnet typesetting a relatively craft into a rapidly stable mechanical device. As reported in The Inland Printer for changing and expanding science engaging prin- April 1899, a number of magnets would be con- ciples of electronics, optics, photography, data nected in parallel, each corresponding to a specific processing computers."^' and key of a sending station keyboard by virtue of re- the rapidly Additional evidence of emerging quiring successively smaller electric currents for state of the art is that of labor relation reactions. energizing them and successively longer periods union printers strike in In July 1964. went on of time to be energized. Keystrokes would pro- Toronto.'*- recently as July 16, 1965. Time re- As duce in a single electrical circuit currents of dif- ported on the current situation, in part, as follows: ferent strengths which when the appropriate magnet "The major obstacles to the onrush of automation reactivity is reached cause appropriate typesetter all the one hand, news- are almost human. On action either directly (keyboard line casting) or paper management has been slow to grasp the im- indirectly (keyboards producing perforated tape of the other the portance the new technology; on to activate secondary casting equipment). At labor unions fear that automation will cost them the same time, the circuit would be broken so that their jobs. . . . Most papers using computers all of the slower-reacting magnets beyond the one

. . . have generally satisfied the union by guar- to be energized are cut off. anteeing that no one will lose his job except through Several advantages were foreseen, but appar- report attrition. . . . Still, some papers already ently never actually realized. Since a number of machines could be interconnected with a single

'» Hattan. Iy64. p. 46. " ' "Conipulerized Typesetting." 1^64, p. 3. "The Troubled Tide "I Aul..mjli..n. I'X>.>. p. 42. " "Signs of the Future?", 1964. p. 88. " Duncan, 1954, p. 150.

8 sending station, it was envisioned that: "Associ- detail design reflects such artistic choices as ated Press dispatches could be set up in type embellishments, relative weights (degree simultaneously in various cities by one man operat- of inking or boldness) and spacing of characters ing a keyboard in Washington or any other and the availability of ligatures (overlapping point. ... If that class of typesetting machines character pairs). The diversity of type faces which assemble the type in a continuous line, the that have been developed over the years is under- justification being subsequently done, were used, hned by the fact that 325 different designs are the matter of differing measures of provided in the Mergenthaler specimen book.- would cut no figure; nor, with that or any other style 2. Point sizes — the relative sizes of the char-

of . typesetting machine, would the fact that the acters, from those too small to read without various newspapers use different fonts in their magnification to those used for newspaper ban- , for with a fat nonpareil a normal minion ner headlines, for display advertising, and for and a lean brevier, for instance, the same matter book jackets. The Mergenthaler specimen book could be set in varying fonts in the same includes in its 325 designs "well over 1500 point

measure. . . . sizes, with a range of 4 to 144 points."^ "By having two or more machines in each office 3. Leading (space between lines). "Variation

equipped with Mr. Thompson's apparatus . . . of interlinear space in type composition is called when a breakdown occurs in the receiving machine 'leading,' from the insertion of thin strips of lead it could be 'shunted' and another thrown into cir- between lines of type in the manual typesetting ." cuit instantly. . . operation."^ Leading with respect to even col- More than 60 years later, can it be that the spirit umn length and placement when two or more of the ingenious John S. Thompson of Chicago, columns are to be set on the same page involves who was himself an "expert hnotype operator- vertical justification or column balancing. machinist," may rest content in latter-day achieve- 4. Line and column widths, in terms of a fixed ments of his dream? number of characters and spaces allowed. 5. Intralinear spacing and horizontal justi- 2. Typographic Quality and the Com- fication. This involves left and right margin positor Functions alignments (whether for pages or columns or both), requiring alterations in the amount of space provided between words and/or that "space is The history of typography since Gutenberg has added before and after inside the line; been marked by the development of a graphic arts space is added before and after ; space is emphasis and by craftsmanship in design between the letters of a word."^ based predominantly upon subjective and aesthetic added 6. Hyphenation. If all procedures for line judgments rather than upon objective determina- justification have failed, it may be required that tions of comparative readabihty-legibihty. the 'overset' word (that word exceeding the Nevertheless, as these arts of typographic com- available fine width adjustments) be hyphenated. position have evolved over the last few centuries, traditional practice dictates that the hy- the necessary compromises between quahty and If so, phenation occur at a 'proper' point, i.e., one printing economy have been centered in the human enabUng the reader to anticipate that successor compositor functions. These reflect, in various part of the word which is carried over to the next balancings, contradictory requirements for aesthetic line. pleasure, legibihty, readabihty, subject content 7. Page formatting. This typically includes differentiation and emphasis on the one hand, and allocations for , positioning and style for ease, speed, and economy of preparation, proc- of title and other captions, footnotes and biblio- essing and publication on the other. In general, graphic citations. "typographic quahty is defined by several consid- special symbols, equations, erations which are a combination of technical and 8. Treatment of chemical structure diagrams, and other inter- psychological factors. Most important of these polations graphic material not adaptable to are the choice of typeface, the point size, the use of composition. (This is often regarded of upper and lower case, the alternation of type line-by-line as a special case of the page or area composition faces, and skilKul use of the ratio of text to white ' function.) space surrounding it." 9. Line positioning or "quadding," defined as: More specifically, those compositor functions "positioning of the line with respect to the al- which enter into the preparation of copy and the located space, e.g., flush left, flush right, centered, setting of type for a printed page of high quality or justified." ^ include some or all of the following considerations: ". 10. Patterning. . . The patterning of type- 1. Type faces. Variations are used for text, face ... is a technique of emphasizing words headings, footnotes, captions and the like, and

2 Mergenthaler, 1964, p. 3. ' Ibid. " Sparks et al., 1964, p. 168. " "Setting Type by Electricity," 1879. p. 1. = Pay, 1963, p. 330.

' Sparks el al.. 1964, p. 161. " Sparks et al., 1964, p. 174.

9 by the use of bold or italic faces so that they are demand of the text to be set with measures of easily visible in text. Patterning could well be readability."'^ used in computer composed text as a means for Type density, however, is also related to produc- emphasizing search points without resorting to tivity on the economic side of the typographic extensive reformatting." ^ quality compromises available. Thus, "obviously, More generally, these factors are summarized the productivity or density of the type setting will in the dictum that: "The absolute and relative di- influenc e the total quantity of the text, considered mensions of symbols, spaces, and blocks of print- in units of output pages, and thus the cost of the ing are of concern in composition."^ printing run. Where large quantities of text are Further, a number of these factors may be com- involved, close attention to type density may result bined in the single criterion of type density. "[It] in savings of many thousands of dollars." is measured in the number of characters per square The question of quality vs. economy is a crucial inch of the printed page and is a function of the one today, especially in terms of the increasingly point size of the type, the characteristics of the vast quantity of machine-compiled or machine- font, and the boldness of the typeface. Other generated output. For example, as Forbes re- factors affecting type density are the intercharacter marked at the 1964 automatic typesetting ". spaces required for right-hand margin justification conference, . . The reason the Government and interlinear spacing or leading. Type density Printing Office got into this business was because is a measure of the efficiency of typesetting in mak- we had a great many millions of dollars of composi- ing use of printing space." ® tion copy, essentially computer listings, which we The single criterion may also be of value with are putting on the camera. They are very bulky respect to the introduction and evaluation of com- and they are wasteful. We had to have some means puter devices and techniques to be used as aids of compressing the information on a tape so we to the composition operation itself, involving the need print only half as many pages." '"^ recognition of necessary difficulties, because of An even more dramatic example than that cur- subjectivity, in obtaining human agreement as to rently afforded by typical documentation activities, what constitutes "high" typographic quality. and yet presaging the future, is the following: As Duncan emphasizes with respect to typesetting "One of the services has a stocklist catalog problem under the control of a general purpose computer: involving about IV2 biUion pages per year of the 19 "The of a programme presupposes a knowl- bilhon pages of total production. You can see that edge of the precise styles that will have to be ac- if we can improve the density by a factor of three, the commodated by it. . . . There is no doubt that IV2 billion pages will be reduced to V2 biUion pages. programmes would be simple if we had a relatively Just in terms of paper and , using a budget of uniform style. It would, however, be sufficient $2.00 per thousand pages, the savings would be '^ if we had a consistency in our different styles. At $2 million per year." present there is none, and I have yet to find any one Thus, with the advent of high speed automatic feature except perhaps close, even spacing which data processing equipment capable of compihng all agree is a desirable component of style."'" numeric tables and listings of alphanumeric ma- Garfield remarks: "the proper selection of ty- terial at rates of thousands of characters per second, prographical style is an important ingredient for the dilemma has become more acute — very high consumer acceptance of printed publications. speed with poor quahty; good quality at speeds Unfortunately there is no quantitative measure of uneconomic unless separate devices can be driven this extremely subjective consideration — the in parallel ofif-hne. esthetic and psychological reasons why we accept Still another factor is the expanding volume of one format and reject the other."" the scientific and technical literature, straining However, although there are no known accurate the composition facilities, adding to the cost of objective measures of the effects of type density technical publications (both books and journals), on either effective design or user acceptance, it is and increasing the time lag between discovery and recognized, from the human factors point of view, disclosure. The problems of the secondary pub- that: "Type density raises psychological considera- lications, particularly abstracting and indexing tions. A text which is printed in densely packed journals, have been especially severe. The solu- type may be difficult to read: on the other hand, tion to a part of the overall problem — the emer- text which is dispersed by too much white space gence of the unpublished report as a major means between characters and by too much leading be- of scientific and technical communication merely tween lines can also be difficult to read. Opti- aggravates the difficulties of the abstracting and mum type density is a matter of balancing the indexing services with respect both to coverage and timeliness of announcement.

Il)i

» '-' Buniell ft al.. 1462. p. 58. Sparks el al.. 1964, p. 16.3. " Sparks ,M al.. l';64. p. 163. 'Mbid., p. 163. C. L. Duncan, remarks. "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings," 1965. 1^^' remarks, "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings." 1965. p. 9. p. 236. " Eugene (iarficltj, panel discussion, Markus. 1962. p. 2.3. ''Corrado, 1964, p. 115.

10 Before considering the machine aids to typo- A complete, sohd line or "slug" of type is then cast graphic-quahty composition now available we will and ejected from the mold. After use, the char- first review briefly the principal characteristics of acter matrices are automatically returned to their hot metal composition and printing, selected cold proper places in the storage magazines so that they type systems, photocomposition, and electronic may be used again. character generation. This operation typically takes less than a minute. High speed hne casting machines are typically 3. Hardware for Typographic capable of casting from 375 to 840 fines an hour, Composition when operated under tape control. Each different face and size of type requires a separate storage container or magazine. However, As noted previously, two different technologies present-day machines are built to hold several are involved in the present-day advances in high magazines at any one time, so that a variety of quahty type composition. The first is with respect type sizes and faces can be available for a given to cold-type and photocomposition methods of application. reproduction; the second is with respect to special- or general-purpose computer apphcations in the compositor processes. The two developments are not necessarily congruent. In this section we shall be concerned primarily with the hardware generally available in the print- ing and reproduction industries, whether manually, semi-automatically or automatically controlled. This includes hot-metal casting equipment, cer- tain "cold-type" devices ranging from the office typewriter and sequential card cameras through photocomposition to computer-driven photocom- positors and high-speed character generators.

3.1. Hot Metal Casting Equipment

The 19th century developments of hot metal casting equipment involved, on the one hand, ma- chines capable of casting a complete fine of type at_ one time and, on the other hand, the Monotype machines that cast a single piece of type at a time and that are operated by a unique 31-channel paper tape. "The hot-lead composing machines devel- oped by Mergenthaler and Lanston in the latter part of the 19th century were the first practical mechanized composing systems."'

3.1.1. Line Casting Equipment

In general, the principles of operation of machines that cast a complete fine of hot metal type slugs are as follows. First, in hne casting equipment, the composing machines are typically equipped with multiple storage units or containers (maga- ) which hold supplies of brass casting molds (matrices) for each individual' character in the type font or type fonts desired. (Examples of matrices and a cast hne are shown in figs. 4a and 4b.) As the appropriate key is struck on the keyboard or is actuated by a sensing mechanism which reads the character code from perforated paper tape, the corresponding character matrix is released from its magazine into an assembler. Whenever a full line is completed in this assembler, molten metal is poured into the assembled hne of matrices.

' Sparks et al.. 1964. p. 170. Figure 4a, 4b. Foundry type character matrices.

231-313 OL-67-2 There are basically two kinds of line casting type Company and the Harris-Intertype Company. machines. They are, respectively, mixer (multi- In the late 1920's and the early 1930's, tape-opera- font) or nonmixer machines. The number of mag- tion of Hne-casting equipment was successfully azines which can be held on a mixer machine is introduced for line-casting equipment. The present typically eight. Thus, there are four main maga- Linotype line has several tape-operated line cast- zines with 90 channels each and four side magazines ers including the Comet (Fig. 5), the Meteor, with 34 characters each. The total number of the 31 Race Horse, the Rangemaster 33 and 35, the channels, therefore, is 496. If dual letter (upper Model 29 Blue Streak, and the Elektron. Intertype and lower rail) matrices are used, the maximum offers five machines (see Fig. 6) for automatic number of characters that can be mixed is typically operation including the Monarch, the Model C, 988. (While this is a considerable number, it is the Model V, the Model F, and the Model G. still small in comparison to the number available Automatically controlled line-casting involves with photocomposition techniques because of the the use of a tape-interpreting unit attached directly availability in the latter systems of variable mag- to the composing machine. As the perforated nification which (;an be used to achieve a variety tape runs through this unit, a sensing mechanism of point sizes for any of 1400-1500 characters.) reads the code perforations which have been Since hot lead line casting machines require a punched for each character and automatically separate matrix for each character in each size translates them into key-release movements per-

and in each font, it is necessary that there be a forming the same functions that would be carried reasonably large quantity of each individual matrix out under manual keyboard operation. The operat- stored so that the supply will not run out before ing interpretation unit is thus basically a paper the matrices are returned and redistributed after tape reader that actuates the keys to release mat- use. The supplies of the various matrices must rices. It also functions to control the upper or eventually be replenished due to normal wear and the lower rail in the assembling elevator (e.g., to breakage. When standing lead must be stored select italic or boldface rather than Roman versions for repetitive use in frequently updated and re- of a character), and to operate an automatic printed publications, the volume and weight in lead "quadder" which computes the space values nec- and in other supplies becomes a considerable essary to center or justify a line. problem. The better known tape-operating units are: Manually controlled hot-metal Hne-casting has Fairchild Graphic Teletypesetter been generally available for over 70 years and tape Star Parts Autosetter operation of linecasting machines has been avail- RCA Electrosetter able since 1927. As a result, a weahh of technical Mergenthaler Linomatic Operating Unit and descriptive material is available that adequately describes this composition technique. There are currently two major manufacturers of line casting equipment: the Mergenthaler Linp-

FlGURE 5. Linotype Comet. Fl(;URE 6. Intertype Linecaster. Figure 7. Linotype Elektron.

The Linotype Elektron (shown in Fig. 7) is the Figure 8. Monotype keyboard. fastest slug casting machine currently made and it is available in mixer models. It operates at a maximum speed of 15 lines of single column news- paper copy per minute. Prior to the introduction tape-controlled accessories for the Linotype^ and of the Elektron in April 1962, the Intertype Mon- Intertype^ line casters. arch, which can deliver up to 14 lines per minute, The most significant feature of the Monotype by was the fastest and most advanced line casting comparison with its linecasting competitors is that machine. The Monarch can carry two, three, or it composes by casting single pieces of type rather four magazines at one time. Converted into char- than entire, solid lines. Characters and spaces acters per second, the tape operating speeds of must be assembled to provide justified lines of hot lead hne casting machines are still a very moder- equal width for the column or page. The single ate 7 to 10 characters per second in contrast to matrix casting principle makes it easier to make the new computer output graphic arts composers simple corrections in type as it is cast (such as which are capable of operating at speeds above 500 reversing the order of accidentally transposed char- characters per second. acters) than is the case with the linecasting proc- Moreover, as Yasaki comments: "Reputedly esses. It is also relatively easy to insert special the fastest typesetter is the Linotype Elektron, characters as required in the hand-setting of difficult which casts 15 Unes per minute from computer composition work involving mathematical equations tapes. This contrasts with seven to eight hnes or other special symbols. from manually-operated machines. But if an hour The Monotype keyboard is a unit that is separate of computer time wiU produce sufficient tape to from the lead caster proper. As shown in Figure 8, keep a battery of linecasters running all day, even it resembles a very large typewriter carrying a the Elektron becomes a weak link." ^ vertical graduated drum and a horizontal scale which progressively indicates the total amount of space left in the line as the characters and spaces 3.1.2. Tape-Controlled Hot Metal Typesetters being set are accumulated. When the full line has been completed, the keyboard operator presses Returning now to the other 19th century hot metal special control buttons in accordance with the indi- casting developments, we note first that the Mono- cation of a rising pointer on the drum, which has type^ is probably the oldest tape-operated compos- rotated in the meantime. The perforated paper ing machine in existence, followed in time by tape ribbon is then punched with the line justifica-

* ^Yasaki, 1963. p. 31, Mergenthaler Linotype Co., "The Linotype Line", n.d. ^ ^"Monotype Composition Caster," 1961. Intertype Co., "Intertype Linecasting Machines", n.d.

13 Figure 9. Monotype caster.

tion signals required by the lead caster (shown in Fig. 9). The Monotype caster must receive these line justification signals before it can commence casting the hne. For this reason, the caster reads the punched paper tape ribbon in a reverse direction. That is, the last operator action made on the key- board for a given line results in the first signal used

to control the operation of the caster as it composes Figure 10. Monotype matrix case. that line. The character matrices for Monotype (as in the case of slug-casting techniques these are small Duncan discusses three possible methods of bronze molds for each character) are mounted in a automating such a plant as follows: matrix case small enough to be held in the palm of "The first is to replace the keyboard by a type- the hand (Fig. 10). For type sizes up to 14 point, writer input, calculator, and thirty-one-hole punch. there is room in this case for 255 individual matrices This is available as a commercial system, 'Mono- which are arranged in 17 rows of 15 matrices each. tron', developed by Walter Bally from Guttinger in A typical piece of final printed text may thus involve Switzerland. It aims at typewriter input speed with a choice of up to 255 different characters consisting, simultaneous hard copy and smoothed continuous for example, of upper and lower case alphabetics, caster output with accurately spaced and justified numerics, marks and selected special Hnes. Word splitting is decided at the input stage symbols, which are available in Roman, bold face, by the typist compositor but a number of time- and italic versions. With the Monotype composi- saving automatic display instructions can be keyed

tion caster, up to seven different are in from the console. . . . The second method is available in one typesetting operation. to convert the eight-hole tape produced by com- The Monotype perforated paper tape which oper- puters into thirty-one-hole 'Monotype' control ates the caster, however, "is incompatible with most tape — this has only been done experimentally so far computing equipment"^ since it uses a 31-bit code at Newcastle. . . . The third method, attempted and a tape width of 4^/i6 inches. Difficulties in so far only by Bafour, is to control the caster or terms of accepting Monotype tape sources of poten- setter directly from five- or eight-hole tape without tially computer-usable text are obvious, even aside the intervention of the unnecessary thirty-one-hole from the more difficult problems of handwritten roll."^ indications to compositors to change fonts and to It is interesting to note that the Photon Corpora- insert corrections where there is a high incidence of tion has introduced a tape-operated Photon photo hand-corrected typographical errors. It is also unit which will operate directly from Monotype obviously difficult to automate, or to provide tapes. This development resulted from the recogni- computer-prepared input for, a Monotype printing tion on the part of the Photon Corporation that a plant. large number of Monotype keyboards are in use

» Sparks el al., 1964. p. 171. ' Duncan. 1964, p. 141.

14 today and represent substantial capital investments. 3.2.1. Sequential Card Camera Systems The new Photon photo units wiU make it possible for for composition houses to replace their Monotype The need updating and recomposition of Hsts, casters without having to dispose of the Monotype catalogs, indexes, directories, and the hke led to the development of keyboard units. Likewise, the Monotype keyboard the sequential card camera tech- operators will not need special training in photo- nique. The manual shinghng technique employed composition techniques. in producing cumulative indexes served to eUmi- nate the for retyping the entire index at the In the case of Une-casting equipment, by contrast need with Monotype, the perforated tape control systems end of each period of cumulation: however, shinghng is notoriously time consuming. are compatible to a greater or lesser extent with 6-. The sequential card camera, in effect, automati- 7- and 8-channel tapes used in other machine proc- cally shingles the cards the essing or in communication systems. In particular, and com- posite listing on a galley film. many of them use. or can be made compatible with, of The use of tabulating cards and punched card the 6-bit Teletypesetter (TTS) system and code equipment provides the added flexibiHty of sorting format. In order to utihze standard perforators and merging by machine. for automatic tape operation of these slug casting machines. Mr. ^ alter Morey. the inventor of the An excellent writeup of the sequential card TTS system, with the cooperation of the Linotype camera method formerly used for producing Index Medicus and Intertype Companies, has developed a unit was pubHshed in the January 1961 issue of counting system similar to that used by Monotype. of the Medical Library Association. That article Each character is assigned a unit value regardless describes the equipment and process- ing, the of its size or face. This is a relative width value, method of punched card preparation, and the and the system usually involves 18 units of width to operational history, and it provides a detailed cost analysis a the quad. An em is usually defined as the area and general appraisal of the system. The occupied by the capital letter M in a given font of sequential card camera systems typically involve three type. Each unit therefore is Vis of an em. The basic steps prior to printing. These Linotype and Intertype Companies have developed are: whole famiUes of unit cut fonts which were designed (1) Composing the copy on camera-ready cards relative width on the 18 unit system. These unit that can be manually interfiled with the cards cut fonts can therefore be composed at a standard stored for previous copy. TTS keyboard because the upper magazine and (2) Page makeup (specification of column lengths lower magazine fonts are compatible. and , and insertion of header and space cards). (3) Automatic assembly onto film (listing the cards on film). 3.2. Cold Type Techniques

Individual fines of copy are composed on cards by From the combining of office typewriter paper ordinary office typewriter, by Varityper equipment, sheet output with relatively inexpensive, office- or even a Linotype and proof press for bold head- operatable reproduction devices (Thermofax, by ings, the Hke. In some systems, several Ultrafax, . Multigraph. Duphmat. and a dozen and multiple fines of information can be composed on or more others) there has been developed a wide and simultaneously copied from the same card. variety of non-hot-metal techniques available for Accurate placement or registration of the copy on multiple copy preparation of material for distribu- the card is a critical factor. Consequently, special tion or pubhcation.* card-holding have been designed for various The first practical alternative to hot metal casting typewriters. The Addressograph-Multigraph Cor- and printing of telephone books, directories, cata- poration's subsidiary, Varityper Corporation, logs, bibhographies. announcement journals, manufactures a special model known as the Line indexes, and similar materials requiring re-assembly Composer for use with its Fotohst system. The and up-dating before re-issue in large editions, was Fotolist has a "pin gripper" method of registration. the coupHng of photographic techniques with either That is, the cards have pre-punched round and manual or semiautomatic "shinghng"" techniques. square holes which are used for accurate afignment For example, in the preparation of the BibUography both by the Line Composer and by the Fotolist of Agriculture, "each of the author shps is pasted camera. Standard punched cards are frequently onto the Master Sheet, one on top of the other so as used because of the increased flexibility which can to expose only the top line of print containing the be achieved by machine sorting and collating when author's name and citation number. This process special sequencing codes are punched into the card is called shinghng".^ in a non-image area. Keypunching makes it possi- ble to produce cumulative lists by automatically merging additions to the file or to produce special " See fi>r example. "Office Copying— A Technology in Flux ', Chemical and Engineer- geographical or other classified lists by sorting out ing News for July 13 and July 20. 1964. ' U.S. Department of Agriculture. "ABLE"". 1965. p. 5. the appropriate cards on punched card equipment.

15 There are, of course, some corresponding disad- The sequential card camera can photographically vantages. Typically, "the actual text printed on the reduce or enlarge the size of the copy on the card. EAM card is not punched on the card, and the use In some applications, special anamorphic lenses are of text on the card eliminates some of the columns employed to reduce the copy horizontally rather for punching of data."'" than proportionally in all directions, thereby pro- The page makeup step involves inserting heading ducing the effect of squeezing the type together. cards and page number cards and, if required, This is particularly useful in reducing the column column spacers to prevent splitting an entry in the width proportionately more than the character front of each deck or column of cards, and then height when photographing punched cards that are counting the appropriate number of lines of copy self-interpreted (printed), with one character per which are to appear on the column or page. This is punched column, so that characters are spaced usually done on a Pitney Bowes Tickometer. Once relatively far apart. the cards have been counted, they are refiled with There are at least three commercially available separator tabs indicating the proper page number, series of cameras. These are the Recordak Listo- ready for automatic listing by the sequential card matic as shown in Figure 11, the Varityper Fotolist camera. as shown in Figure 12, and the Friden Compos-o- At publication time, the cards are removed from hne as shown in Figure 13. Each of these will be their files and placed in the hopper of the sequential described briefly and some of their similarities and card cameras. The camera automatically photo- differences pointed out. graphs the appropriate area of the cards (one, two, or more lines depending on the special device) at rates ranging up to 14,000 cards per hour. The product of the camera operation is an exposed photo- graphic negative which contains the information appearing graphically on the cards in the desired sequence. The negative can then be processed in a darkroom or, more typically, in an automatic film processor. All of the sequential card cameras available can produce a paper positive for proofing as well as a film negative.

Figure 12. Fotolist.

Figure 11. Kecordak Listomatic.

13. Compos-o-line. '"Spark.- I-I al.. VIM. p. 176. Fli.URE

16 The most distinctive feature of the Listomatic With respect to other British and West European camera is its ability to intermix one to three lines of developments Duncan notes several simple 'card- copy per card at a rated speed of up to 13,800 cards shuffling' systems such as the Remington-Flexoprint per hour. This is in response to "an appropri- and the Kalamazoo-Photostrip. He describes ately positioned keypunch". " The FotoHst camera operation and appfication of the Dutch NHM (No- has a system for accurately positioning the text on Hot-Metal) system as follows: "The NHM system the card. This involves a pair of round and square proper was intended for web offset newspaper pro- holes in each card which are engaged by pin grip- duction and originally comprised a special version ping mechanisms in both the keyboard and the of the IBM Executive typewriter with a special camera. The Compos-o-hne's chief virtues are its register to allow the typed camera copy pro- abihty to handle many sizes of cards and to photo- duced to be spliced together accurately for make up, graph a larger area of the card than its competitor a special justifying camera using anamorphic optical devices. "The area of the card to be photographed stretching and headliner device and an editing may be selected for any given run."^^ table with a cathode ray tube display which seemed It should be noted, however, that "with the Foto- to foreshadow the devices reported from America

Hst and Compos-o-Line cameras, the aperture can for newspaper mark-up. . . .

be set for a desired number of hues beforehand but "[The] NHM Cartoprint . . . has been used in cannot be changed automatically during a run."^^ for telephone directories (a similar system

Several automatic film processors are available has also been used in Holland) and part of it in this including an automatic developer for the Fotolist, country to print the Woking Telephone Directory a Recordak Listomatic processor, and a high quahty (December 1961) and the gazetteer to G. B. continuous processor by Oscar Fischer, Inc. Road Atlas of Great Britain (six miles to the inch — AppUcations of Fotohst, Listomatic and Compos- 1962). The cards in this case are typed in a con- o-hst systems have included, in addition to Index tinuous web which is subsequently cut and punched Medicus from 1961 to 1964 (when GRACE high- with registration tags, assembled on metal storage speed photocomposition techniques were intro- boards, and photographed column by column in duced), the Index Handbook of Cardiovascular pre-set page array by a special camera at five Agents, produced by IBM typewriter with modified columns a minute." ^'^ card-holding platen and by Listomatic camera, Many commercial composition houses offer Nuclear Science Abstracts, and International Aero- sequential card camera services on a service bureau space Abstracts. basis. Running charges usually average about 1 to Duncan reports: "In 1961 the British National IV2 cents per card, plus the cost of film. An advan- Bibhography introduced the Fotohst camera using tage of service bureau operation is that it eliminates eighty-column cards with entries typed on Vari- the necessity for hiring specialized personnel to typers (one line to each card) to produce the cumula- operate and maintain the camera and processor. tive annual volumes of the BNB from intercalated The customer suppfies the camera-ready cards and copy from the separate issues. It was so satisfac- receives back either columns of film or completely tory as compared to hot metal, that the unit now stripped up galleys. handles the British Technology Index, the British Humanities Index, the British Index, and 3.2.2. Ribbon Impression Composing Machines the British National Film Catalogue, as well as an (Without Tape Perforators) increasing number of directories and membership Typewriters and other ribbon impression compos- fists of all kinds." ing devices may be divided into two major groups; Coates cites a special advantage from the stand- those that utifize perforated tapes or cards, and point of timefiness of secondary pubfications. those that do not. The standard office electric "The non-conventional method by which the British typewriters are monospacing devices and are there- Technology Index is produced probably varies fore not included in this report. Computer line fittle in cost from the conventional processes with printers are likewise monospacing and are not single keyboarding . . . However, the pecufiar included, with the exception of certain chain printer virtue of this process, to us, is that is saves time. applications which involve simulation of boldface This is all-important in our case because the utifity and more versatile character sets than the upper- of our pubfication is very much bound up with the case-only fimitation found on most high speed shortness of time-lag between the date upon which printers. an article appears in the technical press and the The IBM Executive is distinguished from other date of the B.T.I, issue which records it."'^ electric typewriters in that it is a proportional spac- ing machine. There are a maximum of only five different spacing values, however, whereas in quafity printing there are usually 18 units of width, " Markus. 1%2. p. 17. and sometimes 36 or more. (On the IBM Execu- '^Rogers, 1964. p. 191. '3 Markus, 1962. p. 17. tive, for example, the capital letter "M" would " Ibid., p. 18. Duncan, 1964, p. 148. '« Coales. 196.5, p. 45. " Duncan, 1964, p. 148.

17 occupy the largest of the five relative width values The Alphatype photocomposer employs a special whereas the small "i" would occupy the smallest magnetic tape. It is omitted in this section, but width value.) The significance of this feature for described in the section on photocomposing typescript, however, is two-fold: (1) it improves the machines. appearance of the printed page; and (2) it will pack Perforated paper tape output systems are com- 10-15% more characters onto the page. monly used: The IBM Executive is not equipped for perforat- (a) to drive a hot metal or phototypesetting ing paper tapes. It is, however, suitable for machine. cards for sequential card camera systems, or for (b) as input to a special purpose hyphenation- typing text to be photographed for reproduction, justification computer. offering the obvious advantage of proportional spac- (c) as input to a general purpose digital computer ing over monospacing typewriters or tabulator designed or programmed for some degree of interpretation of keypunched characters. typography computation. Another machine which offers proportional spac-

ing, but not tape perforation, is the Varityper. The 3.2.4. Tape Perforators Without Printers Varityper is perhaps the most versatile of the cold

type machines. Its primary disadvantage is that it Composition tape perforators which do not have cannot be operated by paper tape. It is quite cold type printers include the following: suitable, however, as a partner to the sequential Fairchild Graphic Standard Teletypesetter card camera. The Varityper has easily changeable Perforator type fonts, two of which can be mounted on the Fairchild Graphic Multiface Perforator machine at any one time. This feature makes it Mergenthaler Linomatic Perforator possible to intermix light and bold face with Roman ATF Typesetter Keyboard and italics plus many special symbols, superscripts, Star Parts Perforator subscripts, and the like. Lanston Monotype Narrow Keyboard Compared to an electric typewriter the Varityper keyboard has a rather heavy touch, and the compos- Some of these keyboards are shown in Figures ing speed is somewhat slower because of the need 14-18. to make font changes and the requirements for the The Monotype wide tape keyboard produces a manual insertion of each card individually. Hori- perforated paper tape 4^/i6 inches wide containing contains zontal spacing of characters is variable in four incre- 31 information hole positions. This tape ments up to an escapement of V54 inch. A variety information on 255 selectable characters, and their of condensed type faces are available which can proportional spacing to provide right column jus- produce more characters of copy per page than any tification. These tapes can drive a Monotype hot electric typewriter available. Justification is com- metal type casting machine, or a Photon photo- puted automatically (but a retyping is required to composing machine adapted to read these tapes. justify) and spacing is variable from 0 to 18 points. In England, the Ferranti Pegasus computer has been The Model 100 Varityper has a specially designed equipped to handle these 31 channel Monotype card holder which accepts a tabulating card pre- tapes, and in the United States at least one attempt punched with round and square alignment holes in has been made to use these tapes as computer in- columns 1 and 80 of the card to provide good registration.

3.2.3. Perforated Paper Tape Systems

Turning now to the perforated tape equipment for control of casting machines, it is to be noted that keyboard operated devices producing the per- forated paper tape are sometimes combined with a typewriter to provide proof copy. In other cases, a contrary opinion is advanced that the proof copy is considered to be a distraction to the keyboard operator and no printout mechanism is included. Such nonprinting perforators, however, usually provide right column justification information to aid the operator in the preparation of the copy. Punched card perforators are not included in this report, because until 1965 conventional punched cards had such a restricted repertoire that they could not represent both upper and lower case letters as punching patterns in a single unique FlGURE 14. Fairchild (Graphic Standard Teletypesetter column. perforator.

18 Figure 17. ATF Typesetter.

Figure 15. Fairchild Graphic Multiface perforator.

Figure 19. The Teletypesetter {TTS) code.

19 put. The Monotype narrow tape keyboard shown, Mergenthaler Linomatic is an example. This al- however, is compatible with the standard teletype- lows a hot metal machine, such as Linotype, to setter system. mix two different fonts. Quite complex counting logic is required to keep track of the different character widths in the two fonts, and still provide 3.2.5. Teletypesetter (TTS) Systems justified copy, unless the two fonts are compatible

All of the tape perforators above except the in widths. is in Figure 19. Monotype wide tape unit can generate a 6-hole The complete TTS code shown Teletypesetter tape Vs inch wide, with 64 unique It includes upper and lower case alphabetic char code patterns. The Teletypesetter (TTS) system acters, numerals, punctuation symbols, and all of was introduced in 1932 by the , the control functions necessary for hot metal Une- which later divested its interests to the Fairchild casting machines. Where three symbols are Graphic Equipment Division of the Fairchild shown for a given code, this means that a choice Camera & Instrument Corporation. can be made between two different standard TTS Teletypesetter tapes are widely used to transmit codes in common use. Either fractions Vs to Vs newspaper copy via communication networks, in- are available for printing stock market tables, or cluding news stories and such material as stock the ligatures (ff. fi. fl. ffi. and ffl) are available for market tables. Tapes can be reproduced at dis- printing of text. The question mark and ampersand tant newspaper locations, and these tapes can be are available in both sets, but with different code fed directly into hot metal or phototypesetting ma- patterns. chines that have been adapted for this purpose to It has been claimed that the introduction of tape- produce final copy, fully justified and formatted. operated line-casting has driven the "first sig- Suitable type styles and point sizes can be selected nificant wedge between the mental and mechanical to match the desired column widths, which need functions involved in typesetting."'^ In addition, not be the same for the different newspapers re- this type of equipment offers production advantages in the printing itself. ceiving the same copy. shop Thus, "the impulses Unlike most other perforated paper tapes, Tele- actuating the keyboard are uniformly timed caus- typesetter tapes employ an advanced-feed sprocket ing the mats to be assembled with less chance of piling up, thereby enabling the to hole so that the tapes cannot be read if they are machine be introduced into the reader with the trailing end operated at a faster number of slugs per minute." first. Ironically, however, the tapes are symmet- 3.2.6. Tape Perforators With Ribbon Impression rical, with three code hole positions on either side Printers of the sprocket holes, so that they can be introduced upside down, generating nonsense. Tape perforators without associated printing de- The Teletypesetter code is an adaptation of the vices for producing hard copy, and intended pri- 5-level Baudot code, which has been used through- marily for the mechanical control of hot-metal out the world in automatic telegraph and tele- casting machines, have been noted. However, printer (e.g., Teletype) equipment for many decades. keyboarding devices for the simultaneous produc- Before 1970 the Baudot code is expected to give tion of both readily legible copy and machine-usable way to an international standard 7-bit code, repre- paper tape serve several major purposes: These sented in a standard 1-inch 8-level perforated tape, include: as recommended by the Research and Engineering Since the tape is machine-usable, it is also Council of the Graphic Arts Industry. (1) machine-re-usable, e.g., for the merging of Of the 64 unique codes in Teletypesetter tape, variable address information with common four codes are generally used as "precedence message or text corpus and especially for the codes" to affect the operational meaning of codes insertion of editing instructions and correc- that succeed them, as follows: tions to previously composed text. Shift (for upper case) (2) Humanly-legible copy is desired for on-line Unshift (for lower case) error-correction control and for proofreading Upper Rail (boldface or italic) generally: "The original 'Monotype' system, Lower Rail (Roman) and teletypesetter systems, all placed rehance There are 19 other spacing, printing, format and on the operator being able to 'read' the codes machine control codes which are unaffected by the on the tape, i.e., to examine and understand precedence codes, so that the available set of char- them, but as codes become more complex and systems of alteration and merging faster and acters which can be set in type is 166. Some systems, used in local service, or by pre- more automatic it is better to provide a 'plain' arranged agreement between the sender and the language output."^" Furthermore, in photo- recipient of transmitted tapes, sacrifice the use of composition systems, problems of page revi- two available codes (paper feed and quad right) in

"* order to gain two additional precedence codes, "(^tmputfrizcd Typesetlinj:," 1964. p. 1. '' Hoffman. 1959, p. 192. •" called Upper Magazine and Lower Magazine. The Duncan. 1964. p. 129.

20 sion and insertion of corrections are severe,

therefore. . . hard copy is becoming more essential in order to produce clean tape to

put into a phototypesetting unit. . . • • •• (3) A single keyboarding operation provides both control information and material for multi- purpose use. Examples involving paper-tape production of library catalog card information and of even more comprehensive systems en- visioning the complete cycle from original ••• • ••

manuscript preparation through pubhcation • ••••••••• • • • ••••• to automatic derivation of related biblio- •• • •• • • • • • k

graphic data will be discussed in a later sec- • • • ••• ••• ••••• • • • • tion of this report. ••• • • • • • •

I I I Ribbon impression typewriters that can operate I I • I i • I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I tape perforators include the following: Friden LCC-S Justowriter Friden Justowriter Remington Rand Synchro-Tape Typetronic Mergenthaler Linofilm Keyboard IBM 870 Document writing system IBM 1050 Data Communication Terminal Dura Mach-10 Invac TMP 200 Invac TMP 100 Greene Data Tape Letteriter Soroban Tape Key Punch Crosfield Roboset 18 Figure 20. Perforated tapes used in typesetting. Photon Keyboard

The machines hsted above are basically electric Figure 20 illustrates some of the perforated paper office typewriters combined with paper tape per- tapes currently used for typesetting, taken from pro- forators. In some cases the tape perforator is duction samples, including an example of at least built into the frame of and is driven one keystroking error. by the same motor. In other cases, the tape per- forator is external to the typewriter. Communication tape perforators are 3.3. Photocomposition Equipment not included here because these machines have historically been monocase, printing upper case The introduction of photocomposition techniques in the United States and England, and lower case has been described as the third major development, in Germany and other parts of Europe. In a year following movable type and hot metal casting, to or two communication should be avail- change the structure of the printing industry .'^"^ able in dual case versions with internationally "The classical method of 'setting type' as a pre- standardized 7-bit codes and 8-level perforated liminary to actual printing operations has been tapes, the extra level allowing a parity bit to be supplemented during the last two decades by 'photo- included for each tape character. composition.' In this latter process, images of The printer-tape perforators listed above can the successive characters that are to appear on a generally perforate the Vs inch 6-level teletype- printed page are projected by an optical system setter (TTS) code. They are also used with onto successive portions of a sheet of photosensi- inch 7-level tape or 1 inch 8-level tape, but the tape tive material. This is developed and used as the codes are far from standardized, being computer basis of offset or letterpress reproduction."-^ codes or unique codes. The Letteriter is a pneu- As we have seen, in the chronological outline matically operated machine having a code not used given earlier, from the Photon (Lumitype) work of in any other equipment. The Linofilm perforates about 1945 onward and the introduction of com- a 15-level tape, for typesetting purposes only, with puter programs to drive photocomposers (IBM- each tape character containing information on the Mergenthaler and Bozman for the Linofilm, Barnett character and its font, size and width, or a machine for Photon), a number of techniques and devices control function.

H. P, Whillaker. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings. 1965, ' "Phototypesetling Picks Up the Pace." Business Week, Dec. 14. 1%3. p. 158. p. 171. ' Barnett et al., 1962, p. 59.

21 have occurred up to the more recent developments grid from which the symbols are selected, sized involving the use of electronic character generators and positioned onto the photographic emulsion in photocomposition systems. Deferring discus- by purely optical-mechanical means. An ex- sion of the latter developments, we will first con- ample of this is the Mergenthaler Linofilm System. sider briefly the principles underlying photocom- b. Those which have the symbols on a spinning position techniques and then discuss classes of master glass grid and a single stroboscopic flash available and proposed photocomposer devices tube that can be flashed at the proper instant to and systems. select any desired character, with size control, imaging and positioning optical-mechanical .3.3.1. Techniques of Photocomposition by means. Examples of this are the Photon 200, Photocomposition involves the transfer of optical 500, and 700 series machines and the Harris- characters from a negative master onto a photo- Intertype spinning disc photocomposer. graphic emulsion, with provision for proper illumi- c. Those which have the symbols on a sta- nation, formation, magnification or image reduction, tionary master glass grid, with a separate flash and positioning of each image. Many techniques tube for each symbol, a reciprocating lens which configurations and of mechanical, optical and elec- positions all symbols across a complete line tronic equipment have been devised to accom- through an optical tunnel, with the various flash phsh photocomposition. tubes being fired as each symbol is imaged in each These are "machines, which, typically, photo- of its desired positions in the hne, permitting a letters graph and numbers and produce pictures complete hne to be composed in one pass of the of columns of type. These pictures can then be lens. The only machine of this type is the pasted into a , which is photographed Photon 900 (Zip or GRACE) machine, the first of again. The resulting negative is used to make a which was dehvered to the National Library photoengraving of the page that is used in the of Medicine in 1964. printing."'^'' actual d. Those which have the symbols on a sta- Typographic quality output is achieved in photo- tionary master glass grid, steadily illuminated composition by automatic selection of the right one and optically projected onto a light-sensitive of relatively large sets of characters, by point size cathode of an image-dissecting tube, which si- adjustments including those necessary for sub- multaneously produces scanned video electron scripts and superscripts, by controlled positioning, beams from all symbols, one of which is allowed and by insertion of special symbols and characters. to pass through an electrostatic wire grid selection for as described by Barnett, Thus, example, matrix to produce a video brightening signal for

photocomposition . . . suc- Kelly, and Bailey: "In a high-resolution cathode ray display tube, with cessive characters along a line are displayed with positioning and size on the display tube being collinear lines, regardless of their magnifica- base controlled electronically. The only such ma- tion (i.e.) point size. . . . The same character is chine of this type is the Mergenthaler-CBS Lino- displayed in different point sizes, in photocompo- tron system being developed for delivery to the sition, the use of different lenses. . . . Special by Government Printing Office and the Air Force in in a text, and can characters can appear anywhere 1967, employing the CBS "Reconotron" image be magnified and spaced in the same ways as dissector-scanner, and the CBS "Microspot" ordinary alphabetic characters." high-resolution cathode-ray display tube. The generation, accurate placement, and per- e. A special cathode-ray tube employing a storage of hundreds or thousands of high- manent beam-shaping metal plate perforated with the quahty that optical- symbols per second demand symbol shapes, with means to cause the electron photographic techniques be employed, since the beam to impinge on any symbol area, emerging speeds are too great to permit mechanical symbol as a shaped electron beam, which can be deflected selection. Photography on film or paper seems to to display the symbol at any position on the offer the preferred recording method, although face of the cathode-ray tube. An example is other graphic storage techniques, such as electro- the Charactron tube, employed in photocomposers static, thermographic, thermoplastic, photochromic built by the Stromberg Carlson Division of the or video signals on magnetic tape offer alternate General Dynamics Corp., such as the S-C 4020. recording possibilities. However, since all photo- The repertoire of symbols is usually severely composers existing or under development appear hmited to less than 100. to use photographic recording, we can start at the f. Methods employing a conventional or high- light-sensitive emulsion, and explore the various resolution cathode-ray tube to display the sym- methods used to form and position the optical bols as they are generated by some means which images. will produce suitable beam deflections and video High-speed photocomposers may be classed brightening to form the symbols. broadly into six principal categories: 3.3.2. Classes of Photocomposers a. Those which have a stationary master glass There are many simple keyboard or manual dial liluinl.-ll. \')M. p. 2K.

" Barnett ct al.. 1962. p. Wl-M. operated photocomposers for making heading and

22 SCRIPTS f4L

19 Typography for 30 typoQRaph 50 Typography CALLIGRAPHIC STYLES Aa TXu.Aa

CONTEMPORARY CASUALS Aa 11 Typog 20 Typography f 31 Jypagwp 51 Typography f Ha Md na FREE STYLES & NOVELTIES Aa /in 13B III' Ell 3 21 Typography fo 33 Tqpograp 52 Typography ROMANS Aa iXci Aa

13 TyPOGRAP 23 Typography f 34 Typography 53 lypogtapWi SANS SERIFS f MA nO

SQUARE SERIFS 16 Typograph 24 '^(/fd^vifi^ jmu t 36 Typography 54 Typograp h Aa Aa Aa EXTENDS DS Aa Aa AO. 17 Typography 25 Typography for 37 Zypogmpkyf 55 Typog 18 Point ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ., 18 Typography f 2S Typography fo 38 ^((p(X}naftit^ ( abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & I? Demibold 1234567890 i23456789o $$<%/.,:;'""-()...

27 TNlfXgxSBAPKl 45 Pea$....6 ~ 60 Typography for

28 tiffe^Mfk^ ic 40 Typography forms 61 Jypogfaphyf scy,/ • s6f>^t 1234567890 '^3^678qo -.()

29 Typography f 49 Typography fo 62 Typograp hi son TSFI IDOFt Smill Hid Ri| mi lifii Eilnl Ripi Roll Rfilli Roll Roll Rgll Roll Sock Slchi S*l Slio SIIO Silo Silo SIto Slio Ilni Oi Pi Pit Plot

Ub Hod Lit UOl Plol Roi. eoi. 10 Oi. Lb Ub 01 Till Bit Boi Bolt Boil Bolt Btit Btl Btl. Btl. Boi BoDCb Cihot Com Coo Coo Con Con Con Coo Lb IIHIT of

300 JOO WSo), Qt 80i 10 01 WOi 2 Lb Glint Con Cto. Count Ctn. Oop Osion Co Font) Flltb Fiooh Gil Gigu Hoodl Joi lor Pit Plit Pbi Pbi Pl| Pt| Pis

Fk.URE 21. Samfile Output, Varityper Series 800 Fftotocom- posing machines. Figure 22. Sample Output, Friden Typro.

title strips. Examples of such machines are the Table 1. Speeds of Automated Photocomposers Filmotype, Headliner, Typro, Hadego, Foto-Riter, Protype, Photo Typositor, and Strip Printer. These Theoretical Text Composing Speed, are machines which "use the principle of exposing Characters/Second individual characters one at a time from a master Photocomposer pattern on a strip of photosensitive paper which can then be simply developed." For example, Lanston Monophoto 3 the Dutch phototypesetting machine, Hadego, in- ATF Typesetter 5-6 volves manual assembly of character matrices Harris-Intertype Fotosetter and Fotomatic 6-8 (white on a black material) into a special Photon Spinning Disc Series 200 composing and setting of the desired enlarge- and 500 8-10 ment factor with a range of sizes from 4 through Filmotype Alphatype 10-18 82 point.'^^ Samples of some of the character set, Mergenthaler Linofilm Harris-Intertype Spinning Disc 20 type size, makeup and display advantages of such Photon Spinning Disc Series 700 22 devices are illustrated in Figures 21 and 22. Photon Series 900 (ZIP or GRACE) 300-500 Traditional hot metal typecasting machines have Mergenthaler Linotron*...' 1,000-10.000 12,500-17.400*=^ also been modified into photocomposing machines. General Dynamics S-C 4020 Benson Lehner Transdata 62,500 Examples are the Fotosetter, Fotomatic and Mono-

photo. Concurrently with these evolutionary mod- *First delivery to the GPO in late 1967. to 64 or 88 symbols. ifications of hot metal machines into photocom- **Repertoire limited posers, there has been a steady development of freshly-designed photocomposing machines, per- in mitting greater flexibihty and a breakthrough channel paper tape which is used to drive the barrier imposed by the the composing speed photo unit. mechanical symbol selection necessary in type- The photo unit is similar in physical design and casting. in operating characteristics to the Monotype lead- Table 1 shows the range in speed attainable from caster. The film negatives are mounted in in- American-built photocomposers. various dividual single character matrices and are stored In 1964, the Lanston Monotype Company intro- in a matrix case with room for 255 individual mat- duced the "Monophoto," an adaptation of the Mono- rices (characters) as in standard Monotype systems. type hot metal typecaster. Monophoto utilizes a The optical system (diagramed in Fig. 23) utiHzes separate punched paper tape keyboard, which is a 40-watt hght source which is directed through a slightly modified version of the Monotype key- a condensing lens, through the die case (particular board. The output from the keyboard is a 31 character), through two right-angle prisms, through a magnification lens and then onto a single piece » Hoffinan, 1959, p. 196. of sheet film which has been taped onto a drum. " "Filmsetting and Cold Type Methods," 1964, p. 8.

23 Prism

Ftxecl tof 6 ' 1 2 potnt. adjustable for 1 4 - 24 pomi

Lens

Position (Of 1 4-24 point

Poiitton for 6 - 1 2 point

Fk.URE 23. Monophoto Optical System.

Changes in point size are accomplished by chang- sizes are obtained by using different discs, but this ing the position of the lens. Corresponding requires manual changing of discs. The disc is changes in spacings between letters and set sizes held stationary for each exposure, and is controlled are accomplished by moving a gear shift lever. by an 8-level perforated tape from a computer or Leading (vertical spacing between lines) is variable from the keyboard unit, or it can be controlled by within a hmited range. The effective speed of the keyboard on the photo unit without the use of the tape operated photo unit is three characters perforated tape. per second. The speed of the basic model is about 5-6 char- Although this machine is apparently the slowest acters per second. Duncan notes that the ATF of the available photocomposers, it has been typesetter (Model B) uses a disc with 3 sets of 168 pointed out that "the chief virtue of the 'Monophoto' characters and that these models retain "the justo- has been that it has acted as a bridge between hot writer's ability to edit on the job by stopping com- metal casting and photocomposition and has given position at any time and overriding the tape with

works managers sufficient experience of film cor- a manual keyboarding . . . [and] to read the rection techniques to know that they are better justification and instruction codes before setting avoided.'"-^ the Une even though these codes occur later in The ATF Typesetter (Figure 17). made by the the tape than the character codes being set." American Type Founders, Inc., consists of two In 1949, a modification of the Intertype line- units, a keyboard unit and a photo unit. Both casting machine was made commercially available. units have a keyboard and perforated tape reader. The modification was such that each matrix had its The keyboard unit is basically a Flexowriter which casting mold replaced by a window surrounding has been modified by the inclusion of width card an optical master of the symbol represented by circuits for indication of justification range plus that matrix. The matrices are selected one-by-one the addition of special functions. The keyboard and assembled into a Une, as in line-casting, but does not punch the width information for each char- instead of casting a fine, the line of symbols is acter into the tape. The photographic unit has photographed. Then the matrices are automat- identical width cards from which the width infor- ically returned to their storage magazines, as in mation is obtained. The photo unit has an optical line-casting, and a new line is composed. This matrix disc that holds 168 characters, hmiting the machine is known as the "Fotosetter" (Figure 24). type mixing ability to two fonts. Different point The Fotosetter fonts are contained in individual

" Duncan. 1964, p. 140. »Ibid., pp. 146-147. 24 Figure 25. Photon disc.

Figure 24. Intertyi>e Fotosetter.

single-character matrices in the form of the trans- parent images and are stored in four magazines SKEiEBS 540 TAPEMASTKR having 117 channels each. It is necessary to maintain a supply of each character. The Foto- setter does have a lens system, however, which eliminates the need for matrices in different point sizes. That is, "by exposure to a turret-type camera the images are photographed in a number of possible sizes: the result is a film that is ex- tremely sharp." The Fotosetter is widely used in book pubhshing and operates at 6-8 characters per second. In 1964 Intertype introduced the "Fotomatic"

machine which can use upper and lower rail dual- JUST A FEW ADVANTAGES OF THE PHOTON 540 TAPEMASTER letter matrices, or the single-letter matrices of the PHOTON 540 FEATURES

Here for the first lime is a typesclling lechnique that Fotosetter. • 10 characiers-a-second output enables you to produce galley after galley of leiicr-pcrfect from tape Photon, Inc., of Wilmington, Massachusetts, t>pography—with little more efTon than it takes to type a page of copy! • Unlimrted mixing of style and size originated a new class of photocomposer (following in the same line Here is a type composing technique that permits you to • 16 the inventions of Moyroud and Higgonet), having mix type sizes and faces instantaneously ... to correct — 12 sizes— 5 point errors without "killing" lines ... to turn out razor sharp to 72 point the master matrix of characters on a spinning disc, area composition. • Fingertip access to at least 192 as shown in Figure 25, with an intense strobe Ught Here is a completely self-contained "composing room" type fonts ... a compact task force of typesetting equipment that accurately timed to flash as the desired character • Length of all line setting in ofTers and delivers . unlimited versatility . . unparalleled measures economies. comes into position. A mechanically-operated • Line lengths up to 42 picas The 540 Tapemaster— for peak efficiency—consists of a • Corrections v/ithout "killing" whole lens and prism system controls the size and place- number of upe- perforating keyboards, a single photo- lines ment of each character onto a roll of photographic graphic unit and a control unit with tape reader. This system allows full capacity operation and permits the • Automatic line justification of mixed film. printer 10 double or even triple his output with a mini- type mum outlay of capital. The matrix discs of Photon machines provide • Automatic quaddtng. leaders, centering for sets of 1440 characters which are etched onto eight concentric annuh on a disc of opaque material CONSOLIDATION OF THE COMPOSING ROOM OPERATION and standard size. Many different Photon discs have been designed and, in addition, as in use by PHOTON newsmaker in phototypesetting

the American Mathematical Society, Pi-mat attach- Wilmington. Massachusetts

» Hoffman. 1959. p. 196. Figure 26. Photon Series 540 Tapemaster.

25 Figure 27. l^hoton photofiraphic system.

ments can be provided, consisting of an auxiliary newer 500 series such as the 540, shown in Figure 26, disc whicli contains up to 8 interchangeable char- were designed specifically for tape operation and acters. The optics arrangement is such that any therefore separate the keyboard from the photo one of these Pi-mat positions can be reached by unit. keyboarding. The Photon can mix 16 different type styles of "When the machine is in operation, the disc 90 characters each in 12 different point sizes rotates at a high speed about a fixed axis. During ranging from 5 point to 92 point for a total of 17,280 each revolution of the disc, a Hght beam may be characters available at the keyboard without chang- projected along a fixed path, through one of the ing magazines or fonts. When a character to be annuU on the disc that is etched with characters. photographed is selected, a stroboscopic flash of The illumination persists for a time interval that light (four milhonths of a second) optically floods is very short compared with the period of rotation the corresponding character at the proper instant of the disc. An almost static image of any single and exposes its image through appropriate lenses character on the disc thus can be produced for a onto photographic film or paper. One character very short time interval during each rotation. The can be exfposed at each revolution of the disc. The timing of the burst of illumination and the choice speed of the disc which is 8 to 10 revolutions per of annulus determine which character is displayed second is therefore a determining factor in the during any rotation."^' Switching between an- composing speed of these Photon models. nul!, as required, is accomplished by mechanical The variable escapement unit carries the prism displacement of the disc axis. shown in Figure 27 which directs the beam of light The Photon Model 200 is operable either by key- onto the film. This is a mechanical movement board or from paper tape. The members of the which could not be too effectively speeded up with- to ^' Bamelt el al., 1962. p. 59. out creating mechanical problems due mass

26 and vibration. The leading unit drives the film 560 (as used by Barnett, for example) operates take-up magazine thus providing the vertical spac- with 8-channel tape. The character code for 560 ing between hues. It can provide spacing from operation has two components: the character .1 point to 49.9 points for each leading code and will identification code itself and the precise escape- operate in the forward or reverse direction. ment code which is the relative width value for The perforated tape that drives Photon models the character. Operating speed for actual type- constructed prior to the magnetic tape machines setting in 560 systems is at 8 characters per second. (GRACE and ZIP) contains in coded form the The total number of bits required is 16, however specifications for the appropriate track (half an the Photon accepts this as two successive 8 bit annulus) on which the desired character is located, codes. The keyboard unit produces the char-, the sequence number of the position of the desired acter identification in standard 8-level paper tape. character along the track, the lens setting which (Photon will provide a special tape reader and trans- determines the magnification or point size factor lator for any of the various codes which employ and, in most models, a precise width or escapement 8-level tape.) The relative width identification is code which sets the distance required between the added by the photo unit by the use of printed circuit leftmost edge of the desired character and that of width cards for each type font. It should be noted the character to follow. that Photon is now offering photo units which will An exception to the latter case is the Photon accept standard Monotype tapes (31 channel) and 513 (as used, for example, with the RCA 301 com- standard TTS tapes (6 channel). puter at Perry pubhcations). The 513 uses only a In 1964 the Harris-Intertype Corporation intro- single code for each character together with infor- duced a spinning disc photocomposer, similar in mation as to fine space deficit and hence the word principle to the Photon spinning disc machines, spaces required for justification. "The 513 ac- having a strobe flash of one microsecond, and a cepts a 6-level code without information as to widths disc speed capable of yielding 20 characters per of the characters. Therefore, the width has to second (Figures 28-30). be re-generated in the machine and justification has At the "Westprint 1964" exposition held in Los to be re-calculated." Angeles June 7-13, 1964, this equipment was The Photon 500 series, in general, provides first publicly demonstrated in operation along with various tape-driven units which operate from 6-, the Intertype Monarch typesetting machine. The 7-, or 8-bit (channel) perforated tape. The model Intertype disc is of glass inscribed with 480 differ- ent characters. Nineteen different point sizes, R. A. Higgonet. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings," 1965, p. 223. from 5 to 72, can be accommodated. Output is to either film or photographic paper.

HARRIS-INTERTYPE ELECTRONIC PHOTOGRAPHIC TYPESETTING SYSTEM

KEYBOARD

The Photographic Print-out Unit is the heart of the System. With an exposure

rate of up to 20 type characters per second it is capable of processing

the output of four or more Keyboard Consoles. It automatically produces type on film or photographic paper In 19 sizes from 5 pt. through 72 pt.

Figure 28. Harris-Intertype system.

27

231-313 OL-67-3 Fl(;URE 29. H(irris-lntertyi>e inslallaiion. J i(,L iit 30. Harris-Intertype equipment.

The system is composed of two basic units — one, character font, and a shutter system consisting of a keyboard used to prepare copy in the form of per- a series of eight shutters masks out all but the one forated tape (6-, 7-, and 8-channels) to activate either character called for. A series of 88 "lenslets" hot-metal or photocomposition machines, and the carry the light to a collimator which projects the other, a relatively high-speed photocompositor unit. character in the proper plane. At this point, the Built-in justification-hyphenation techniques in- image is magnified by a pair of lenses mounted on volve the use of various combinations of manual a sliding bar which provides the variable magni- monitoring (Series 100), logical rules (Series 200) fication. From here the image is redirected by a and logical rules plus an exception dictionary of front surfaced mirror to the film plane. The mirror up to 10,000 words. is mounted on a sliding bar which moves across the Six-channel tape inputs enable use of four fonts page as the line is being exposed. intermixed, and the 7-bit code keyboard allows up The Linofilm system consists basically of a key- to eight fonts to be processed and mixed. It is board unit and a photo unit. Its keyboard unit also possible to accept wire service copy and to re- justify and rehyphenate as necessary. Prior to the 1964 Westprint demonstration, prototype in- stallations were field tested at Graphic Services, Inc., for book composition applications and at the South Bend Tribune. In quick competition, the Linofilm system was introduced by Mergenthaler Linotype Co., after the appearance of the Photon spinning disc ma- chines. In Linofilm, the master characters are stored on glass grids, one of which is shown in Figure 31. There are 88 symbols on a grid, cor- responding to the 88 symbols on an electric type- writer. Eighteen of these grids are stored in a turret, as shown in Figure 32. Choice between these 18 grid fonts is under tape-code control. Thus 1,584 characters are available under tape control, and additional grids can be substituted manually if needed. For each type style, there are usually three dif- ferent grid fonts of 88 characters to give proper proportionality to the characters. The font series are designated A. B. and C. for small, medium, and large point sizes. It therefore uses three different size fonts, each covering a separate portion of the total range of point sizes. In the Linofilm system, a selected grid font is stationary at the time the character is being photo- graphed. A flash tube exposes the entire 88- Figure 31. Linofilm ^rid font.

28 Figure 32. Linofilm inid font turret.

produces a 15-channeI tape which includes charac- Figure 33. Linofilm system. ter identification and width values. The photo unit operates from the 15-channel one size to another. (A complete Linofilm System paper tape and automatically changes font and is illustrated in Figure 33.) type size and composes onto film at a maximum The composer operator works from a layout on speed of from 10 to 18 characters per second. Ad- tracing paper which is placed over the screen of ditional time is used up by font changes, lens the composer. He loads the exposed and processed changes, and the interlock between hnes. The film from the photo unit into the composer, and by output from the Linofilm photo unit is positive film manipulating four simple controls, he can take or paper which is processed in a darkroom by any type up to 36 point from the photo unit, reduce photographic processing methods. it two-thirds, or enlarge it to six timc^- its original Mergenthaler has introduced a Linofilm con- size — a range of from 4 to 216 points. He can set verter which will convert magnetic tape produced lines at any angle up to 90°. on a computer into 15-channel Linofilm paper tape. Duncan reports that "the keyboard has recently Mergenthaler has also introduced the Linofilm been modified to include mixing facilities ('Lina- "Quick," a photo unit that operates directly from mix') and editing simplified by a tape merging and 6-channel Teletypesetter perforated tape. reproofing device ('Tape Combiner')." A pioneering example of the use of a Linofilm As in the case of the Photon spinning disc ma- photo unit in conjunction with a large general chines and other disc-type photocomposers,.'speed purpose computer was that of the Russian transla- is essentially hmited by the mechanical system. tion project at the IBM Thomas Watson Research "In Linofilm, the shutter, magnification system, and Center at Yorktown Heights, New York. Here it escapement system all have mechanically moving was necessary to provide buffering to step down parts with considerable mass to overcome. "^^ the high speed of magnetic tape (200 microseconds Nevertheless, "the Linofilm is built hke a battleship per character as computer output) to that acceptable and produces a fine quahty product. "^^ to the photocomposer (20 milliseconds per char- The Alphatype, made by the Filmotype Corpora- acter). A set of relays replaced the normal paper tion, is comprised of three units. The keyboard tape input action.^^ This was also the equipment unit is an electric typewriter. The recorder unit used in Bozman's first work. records characters and controls on a special 10- The Linofilm system includes the Linofilm Com- channel magnetic tape, employing mixed frequen- poser which is used for positioning, and for enlarg- cies on the continuously moving tape, which is ing or reducing any fine to exactly the size required started and stopped by means of a foot pedal. This with no reference at all to conventional point sizes. tape is not compatible with any computer. A width This simplifies the work of the make-up man as all card for each font provides 15 widths, from 4 to 18 he need indicate to the keyboard operator is the units, for the different symbols. The character type face and size that falls within the extremes of width and hne justification information are gen- the finished job. The keyboard operator has a erated by the recorder unit and recorded on the simphfied job as well since he need not shift from magnetic tape.

» Duncan, 1964, p. 144. •^ ^ International Business Machines Corp., '"Graphic Composing Techniques," 1962, Sparks et al., 1964, p. 178. p. 18-19. ^ Duncan, 1964, p. 144.

29 Prim Carrier Companrrwnt Slot lor Insortmg Font

Fl(;URE 35. K & E enixineerin^ sy mbol disc.

from an engineer's sketch on graph paper fined for synchronization with the keyboard unit to produce tape to control the photocomposer and prepare a finished schematic. Up to 168 symbols are available, as shown in Figure 35. Photon's development of the GRACE (Graphic Arts Composing Equipment) for the National Figure 34. Alphatype photocomposer. Library of Medicine provided the basis for the com- mercially available equivalent, the ZIP. The Photon "ZIP" or 900 series photocomposers, intro- That is, "justification operations are calculated in represent a substantial operational on the recorder and inserted when the carriage duced 1964, breakthrough in the speed barrier, permitting com- return-line-feed button is pressed."''^ This tape is position at speeds of 300 to 500 characters per read into the photo unit at a speed 30 percent faster second, fully justified fines up to 8 inches in length, than the recording speed. Maximum recording with a choice of 264 different characters while speed is about 8.5 characters per second, and the operating on a single pass. corresponding playback speed is about 11 charac- Operating principles of Zip are illustrated in ters per second. Figures 36 and 37. The only moving parts in ZIP Keyboarding speeds are reported as up to 60 are a travelfing lens that traverses the page hori- words per minute, and typeset copy "is composed (1) zontally composing a line with each sweep; and at speeds up to thirteen characters a second on (2) the film advance mechanism. The mass of the the exposure unit in reverse order onto film or is Stationary matrix photopaper."^^ lens intentionally kept small. plates contain the character images. By means of The optical characters are contained in a manu- an optical device comprising two parallel mirrors, ally-changeable grid of 84 characters. The grid all the images in the same vertical column are has two positions, automatically selected, and there directed to the same point of the film. Instead of are 3 shutters, 5 flash tubes, and 21 lenslets to a single light source, ZIP uses a separate flash tube provide selection and optical gathering. for each character. flash tubes flash at the A Japanese spinning disc photocomposer, the The precise time that the travelling lens is in the proper Sapton, is reported to have speeds of about 6-7 position with respect to the character matrix. The characters per second.''^ A special case of a spin- electronic timing system takes into account the ning disc photocomposing device is the PHOTO- proper escapement for each character, the value of DRAFT system of the Keuffel and Esser [K & E] word spaces, the location of each character on the Company which allows an operator to transcribe matrix plate, and the position of the travelling lens.

^' Duncan, 1964. p. 147. The film advances to the position for the next fine "Ibid. ™ "Filmselting and Cold Type Methods", 1964, p. 7. during the lens return stroke.

30 Figure 36. ZIP optical system.

,^1-

1

1 Aj

1

I

1

21 LAMPS

Figure 37. ZIP reciprocatinf: lens.

The type matrixes are manually interchangeable, machines as it is 20 times faster than any existing permitting a wide choice of fonts and symbols. machine on the market."^" He also stressed The first machine of the ZIP class, known as another feature of interest to designers of informa- GRACE, was dehvered in 1964 to the' National tion storage, selection and retrieval systems: "By

Library of Medicine, at Bethesda, Maryland, where turning . . . knobs [of the control console], you it is currently composing the massive monthly /nc?ejc can select a given page from the roll of input mag- Medicus. (Figure 38.) netic tape, and cause this particular page to be On the day of installation at NLM (May 20, 1964) composed. You can extract a page or special one of the co-inventors of the Photon machines said article. The National Library of Medicine will that the new equipment represented "the first

radical departure from all conventional typesetting ' Moyroud, 1964, p. 105.

31 Figure 38. GRACE instailation. National Library of Medicine.

Utilize this feature to supply a print of an ."^^ article . . The Mergenthaler Linotype Company has under development, in cooperation with CBS Laboratories, an all optical-electronic page composing photocom- poser to be known as the Linotron. The first Lino- trons are scheduled for delivery to the U.S. Government Printing Office and the U.S. Air Force in early 1967. The Linotron has glass matrix grids of characters, similar to Linofilm grids except that there are 256 characters on a grid, and the grids may be selected and changed under automatic control. The entire grid is steadily iUuminated and optically projected onto the light-sensitive cathode of an image- dissecting tube. This image dissector tube is similar in principle to the earliest television camera tubes. It produces scanned video electron beams from aD 256 symbols, but only one of these beams is allowed to pass through an electrostatic wire grid selection matrix. This selected beam then passes through an electron multiplier, where it is amplified to become a video brightening signal for a high-resolution cathode ray display tube. The images of the symbols thus formed on this display tube are accurately controlled for size and position by electronic means, are optically imaged and photo- graphed onto film. An entire page is composed while the film is held stationary. Film advance between pages, and grid changes to accommodate additional fonts are thus the only mechanically moving parts in the Linotron system. A grid change takes about V2 second. For this reason, the Linotron is programmed to compose all of the symbols from one grid onto the entire page. Then the grid is changed and the symbols from it are added to the page whenever required, etc. A grid change can occur during film advance to save time. During composition of a page in the " mode" the Linotron can compose at a speed of about 10,000 characters per second. "If you can content yourself with lower output quality, the machine can do 10,000 characters per second at 6, 8, and 10

•" Moyroud, 1964, p. 109.

32 points, or about 5,000 characters per second in all Character patterns to be displayed via the CRT point sizes. What we do here is to cut out the generator are encoded with a digitized coding alignment servo. The output is not perfectly scheme which minimizes the total information aligned, but it is adequate for most proofing pur- needed to be stored so that the equivalent of 63,000 poses. "^^ When operating in its normal composing different characters can be stored on a single reel mode, with electronic servo systems operating to of high density magnetic tape. It is further claimed provide accurate placement of each symbol, then that "the handhng of characters in this manner the speed of the Linotron is about 1,000 characters aUows the user the capability of designing, coding, per second. storing, copying, and generating type fount charac- The Linotrons being built for the Air Force will ters of any design or size without dependence upon also provide for the generation of graphical material, the manufacturer."^^ such as line art illustrations, continuous tone illus- A sUghtly higher speed, and a more restricted trations and screened halftone illustrations in a character set is provided in the British Rank-Xerox separate video display system, with optical mixing Xeronic equipment, "which currently produces a of the lexical and graphical material. 26 inch Hne of ten or eleven characters per inch at Because of its high speed, the Linotron will be a rate of 2,880 lines per minute. The standard driven by computer-generated magnetic tape, repertoire is fifty-six or 112 characters, and charac- rather than by perforated tape, since the fastest ter generator designs have been produced for a available perforated tape optical readers do not number of relatively exotic languages. The output read much above 1,000 characters per second. is produced by . . . and pre-prepared As Duncan reported in 1964, "in addition to ZIP material may be superimposed at the output from a several other electronic composers are under devel- store of thirty-two drawings held on a movable film 46 opment: One in England (with a specification similar band." to ZIP, but using a rather more highly developed Several other phototypesetting machines in the ." keyboard for input. . . speed range of several hundred characters per At the July 1964, Computer Typesetting Confer- second are in various stages of design, prototype ence, Schwartz described the proposed Alphanu- development and field installation and test. The meric Photocomposer system to be operationally CIS [Composition Information Services] Newsletter coupled with a computer sometime about mid-1965. for August 1, 1965 reports on equipment demon- While not intended to be made commercially avail- strated at an exhibition in Paris, including CAE's able, the system as planned represents an interesting computerized typesetting system, a new tape merg- compromise between high speed (4,000 characters ing device for Roboset, the prototype of a Monotype per second) and a less restricted character set (270 Computer Input Keyboard capable of handHng at any one time, comprising any 3 of up to 700 90- 6-, 7-, or 8-channel tape, as weU as the high speed character fonts available on magnetic tape) than CRT photocomposers of Dr. Rudolf HeU (Digiset) most of the high speed character generators. and the K. S. Paul (P & M) Filmsetter. Some details of the Alphanumeric specifications "Using optical matrix CRT techniques, the K. S. are as follows: "The maximum the system Paul (P & M) Filmsetter was designed primarily for can accommodate is eight inches of 48 pica. text filmsetting at speeds from 150 to 400 Hnes per Printed type can vary in size from six to fourteen minute. This device is now ready for field-testing, points. The only movable element in the entire and marketing should begin in England next year. system is the film transport which moves the film A relatively low-cost keyboard, based on the P & M at constant speed past the character generator. Hnecasting tape keyboard, although somewhat more When film is in the proper position for printing, an elaborate, has been designed for use with the entire hne of information is scanned across the Filmsetter"."*^ cathode ray tube and is directed to the film via The Digiset developed by Dr. Rudolf Hell of Kiel an appropriate lens. ... utiHzes an 8-bit character selection code and it "Type fount characters to be printed are previ- sets justified and hyphenated Hnes of 11, 18, or 28 ously coded and stored on magnetic tape which picas at rates up to 400 characters per second. acts as a slow access bulk storage medium . . . Dr. HeU claims that higher speeds are possible: The computer itself can hold in rapid access storage "By means of indirect or direct control input over three founts of 90 characters each. Any of over magnetic tapes the setting speed can be in- these 270 characters can be intermixed on a Hne . . . creased up to the limit of 2,000 characters per sec- When composing with six point characters, the ond. With modern electronic stores with 10 times output speed will be approximately 4,000 characters higher working speed than the stores now in use, per second. It will be reduced to approximately even higher setting speeds seem possible if film 850 characters per second when printing fourteen material and Hght emission of the picture tube would point type."^^ not ultimately set a Hmit.""*^

"Corrado. 1964, p. lU. « Ibid, p. 189. « Duncan, 1964, p. 136. "= Duncan, 1964, p. 133. Conference "Proceedmgs ', 1965, pp. " Schwartz remarks. Computer Typesetting " CIS Newsletter, Aug. 1, 1965, p. 3. 188-191. "Digiset", n.d., p. 4.

33 styles. However, only one font can be used at any given time. A photographic plate, containing 60 characters (the image source of the character gen- erator employed by DACOM) is conveniently

inserted into the side of the apparatus . . . "[However] future DACOM apparatus is proposed to include the following features: 1) complete sets of fonts, as specified, to be displayed inter-change- ably with true upper and lower case within each font, italics within each font as required, and a total number of characters ranging to 2000 or more; 2) proportional spacing; and 3) right hand justifica- tion."'*'* The DACOM (Datascope Computer Output Microfilmer) equipment was apparently operated only for a year or two at the Washington Service

Figure 40. Digiset characters. Bureau of the Recordak Corporation, where it was shortly to be replaced by the General Dynamics Stromberg Carlson S-C 4020, despite earlier claims Character-dot resolution in the Digiset equipment that, although "the unit first produced was geared ranges from 48 x 10 to 48 x 46 in 6 point type. to the associated IBM 727 tape drive, around 15,000

Figure 40 illustrates enlarged characters as they characters per second . . . with only slight modi- are generated and viewed on a projection screen. fications it could handle speeds up to 90,000 char- In a telephone directory apphcation, the character acters per second. "^'^ set consisted of 180 alphanumeric and other sym- Before considering the S-C 4020, however, let us bols. Character patterns are stored in a core briefly outline the principal techniques used for memory of 180,000-190,000 bit capacity. A char- electronic character generation to date, whether acter set may be replaced with an alternate set of as yet used for photocomposition or computer- 180 characters by transfer from auxihary store in composed systems or not. Typically, the electronic approximately one-half second. character generators are computer driven and were developed to meet computer output requirements. 3.4. Electronic Character Generator Systems Thus, the typical device operates upon the basis of digital codes generated by a computer. For the most part, electronic character generators developed to date have such limited repertoires of 3.4.1. Techniques of Electronic Character Generation character sets that they do not as yet offer the typo- In outline, the principal techniques used for graphic quality and versatility required in most electronic character generation are as follows: scientific and technical documentation applications. "Essentially, there are five distinct electronic An obvious exception is the Linotron development. and optical methods of forming or generating char- Their great virtue, of course, is their extremely acters from digital codes. high speed which may extend up to and even beyond 1. The character can be formed by passing an 60,000-70,000 characters per second. Improve- electron beam through a stencil-like cut-out in the ments in size of character repertoire and for rapid shape of a character located between an electron switching under automatic control are under active gun and the face of a cathode ray tube (CRT). development. In addition, some systems incorpo- 2. The monoscope method of character genera- rate interesting potentialities for program-controlled, tion utilizes an electron beam that hits a metaUized light-pen inserted, or reproduced-from-storage inter- target within a CRT, with characters printed there- polations of graphic material with text, ranging on, causing a video signal corresponding to the from formatting grids and lines to separate or to desired character, which signal is amphfied and emphasize tabular or columnar matter to the incor- displayed on a separate CRT face. poration of reproduced photographs with half-tone 3. A digitized matrix is generated wherein the fidelity. character selected represents a series of intersec- A number of these developments were foreseen tion points with the raster fines of the matrix dis- by potential commercial suppliers, at least four or played on the face of a CRT. five years ago. In the Syracuse study for the Rome 4. A CRT scans a character mask, which is Air Development Center on "Lexical-Graphical larger than the face of the scanning CRT and out- Composing Techniques", Buck and his associates side of its , by using an optical tunnel, and report, for example, that: "At the present time, the Recordak DACOM System displays up to 60 dif-

ferent alphabetic, special or numeric characters . . . The 14-line raster scan employed in the present " Buck et al.. 1961, p. VI-27-28. DACOM system permits a wide variety of type '° Webster, 1963, p. 27.

34 the resulting video signal is displayed on the face of a separate CRT. 5. The characters are generated optically by flashing a light behind a rectangular matrix and

directing it onto film by means of a pair of parallel mirrors, a travehng lens, and appropriate electronic timing circuitry."^'

3.4.2. Specific Character Generator Equipment

First and foremost among the character generator techniques embodied in equipment of direct use in composition-publication systems is the S-C 4020 (Figure 41). The Stromberg-Carlson Division^ of General Dynamics Corporation has produced several dozen S-C 4020 systems during the past few years. These systems are photocomposers that operate from magnetic tape at speeds up to 17,400 characters per second. The repertoire of characters is obtained Figure 41. SC-4020 equipment. from a stencil matrix inside of a special cathode ray tube, known as a Charactron tube, which serves specifically designed to print out alphanumerics as the display tube. The repertoire is limited to from digital computer code. It is possible to pro- 64 or 88 symbols, and those symbols which have ject information previously recorded on film isolated centers, such as "O" and "A", appear to (graphics in this case) superimposing same on the be broken characters from the point of view of alphanumeric display. The final output of the graphic arts quahty, because of the visible tiny wires system is a 35 mm film."^^ which hold in place the centers of these symbols "The S-C 3000 High-Speed Communication in the beam-shaping stencil used to shape the elec- Printer ... is designed to accept binary coded tron beam into the shape of the symbol to be dis- alphanumeric data from remote sources over tele- played. Serifs can be readily generated if they phone, telegraph, radio or other communication are included in the beam-shaping stencil. systems. It prints at rates up to 10,000 words per Burger (1964) has described a means whereby a minute. "^^ Charactron tube is used in the vector mode, in "The S-C 5000 High-Speed Electronic Printer . . . which the symbol "period" is selected continu- (utihzes) the CHARACTRON Shaped Beam Tube ously or intermittently, and deflected in accordance in conjunction with the Xerox printer . . . 100,000 with a computer program to generate a variety of words lines) per minute. "'^^ symbols. (5,000 "The S-C 6000 Facsimile Printer . . . receives Duncan comments: "As it is built at present the incoming video signals, created by the [S-C 6400 General Dynamics machine produces either 35 mm Facsimile] scanner or other equipment and trans- film or a paper copy (or a paper offset plate) and the mitted to the printer, which reproduces the original character repertoire needs enlarging, but it is also material on the face of a cathode ray tube. Print capable of handhng fine diagrams, and adjustments out onto hard copy is achieved by the Xerox proc- of scale are possible either direct or from the film ess ... 16 pages (8V2 X per minute. Resolu- intermediate, which can be reproduced on a high- 11) tion is equivalent to 100 TV lines per inch."" speed dry diazo microfilm enlarger . . Early disadvantages of the Charactron tube As an example of S-C 4020 graphic composition approaches led, for example, to developments at capabilities, the equipment has been used for gen- involving fiber optics or optical tunnel eration of system and program flow chart diagrams, RCA techniques. such as the automatic drawing of PERT charts, "The Charaqtron tube has a limitation in the demonstrated by North American Aviation in 1963.^^ matrix which contains in the order of 42 characters, Possible use of S-C 4020 and other General and every time you change a font, you just don't Dynamics equipment for the "lexical-graphical change that matrix, you have to change the whole composer" (a proposed system to be capable of big Charactron tube." ^® imposing illustrations and the like in proper page position with text or translated text) were noted by Thus it was desired to provide a design in which different fonts or character sets could be inter- Buck et al., as follows: "The proposed Composer in resolution would be of rela- Printer is an adaptation of General Dynamics/Elec- changed and which tronics S-C 4020 High Speed Microfilm Recorder tively high quahty. "The fiber optics tube is with an F-50 (Tape Adaptor) option. This unit is "Buck et al.. 1961, .p. VI-29. ^ Ibid., p. VI-60. Sparks el al.. 1964, p. 178. »«Ibid., p. VI-60, VI-59. '- Duncan. 1964. p. 1.34. "Buck el al., 1961, p. VI-61. "Dalamalidn 9, no. 6. 80 (June 196.3). s» Flint, 1963, p. 126.

35 designed with 1,000 fibers to the inch in each direc- tion. We don't actually get a resolution of 1,000 lines per inch, but we can come pretty close . . . and this resolution is beginning to approach the kind of quality that a printer requires for his work."^^

Moreover, "the fiber optics tube . . . can make use of an external matrix which can be inserted at will, so that you can change type faces, and have control over your end product, as you do in a fine casting machine . . As of a year or two ago, it could be stated: "The RCA developments have been described by Haynes who gives the design speed of 500 char- acters per second or fifteen lines a second, with a resolution of 400 lines to the inch (sixteen lines/ mm.), and a repertoire of 275 up to 500 characters 'on-line.' It makes use of the 'optical tunnel' to improve the resolution of the system."**' Developments at CBS Laboratories, particularly Figure 42, Benson-Lehner TramddUi equipment. the cooperation with Mergenthaler from 1962 on- been noted in the discussion on the ward, have "The Electrada Typoscope is a compact, non- Linotron system. A related approach has been flickering display system . . . currently capable as follows: "The Vidiac 389-10 described CBS of performing the display operation at rates of up generator with a standard fount of sixty-four char- to 15,000 characters per second. . . . per acters and the rather low resolution of ten lines "Expensive and complex electronic storage and will at a speed of 50,000 char- Vs in. character work character forming systems are avoided by utilizing for acters a second. The modifications proposed a unique shaped beam, direct-view storage tube. at a resolution of Graphic Arts quality will aim Upon receipt of the code for a particular character, line pairs per mm. and speeds between 1100 twenty the electron beam is passed through a stenciled for 6 pt. 200 characters a characters a second and matrix, deflected to the desired screen location, second for 18 pt., with positional accuracies to and stored within the tube by means of a suitable repertoire will be 256 0.001-in. Basic character dielectric mesh. A total of sixty-four characters characters, with alternative blocks of this size ."^^ are available in this matrix. . . simple switching in and out."^' readily available for "A Simpix electron gun can also be incorporated Another example is the Videograph Printer which in the Printapix system . . . designed to provide is produced by the A. B. Dick Co. This is a "high extreme ease of character selection by accepting is available in speed electronic page printer which six channel binary data from a computer and auto- two types. One produces hard copy print out of matically selecting the proper alphanumeric char- digital information at speeds of up fully edited six bit acters. This can be done at rates of up to one other type to 20,000 characters per second. The million characters per second. The size of the graphic material reproduces facsimile copies of character printed can be varied by means of one to three 8V2" x 11" from video signals at rates of up voltage thus permitting the generation of subscripts, pages per second. An electrostatic printing tube is capitals, and italics (by a shght rotation of the elec- used in both types of printers." tron beam), etc., utilizing a single character matrix. consists mainly of a "The Alphanumeric Printer Extremely high resolution of up to some 150 to 250 generator, an electrostatic printing tube, character printing lines per inch is possible. ... By the use transport mecha- image-fixing device, and the paper of several tubes or several passes of the paper over which provides nism. The character generator, one tube, color can also be incorporated in this video signals to the electrostatic printing tube is print out system. "^^ essentially a tube having a matrix of cathode-ray The Benson-Lehner Transdata (Figure 42) is also wires fused in and through its face small diameter included here because of its claimed high speed of plate. electron beam, whose strength The CRT 62,500 characters per second and its optional line varies according to the video signal voltage received drawing and format superimposition features. The the character generator, sweeps over the inner from usable character set, however, is limited to 63 char- wires. Electron charges are ends of the tube face acters at one time, each defined by a 15 x 16 dot the wires onto the dielectric deposited through matrix in CRT character generation. Three varia- coated paper thus forming latent electrostatic tions of character sizes and four different character ."^'^ images. . . orientations may be program-selected. The 944

™ Flint. l';53. p. 126. model is claimed to be compatible with various "Ibid., p. 126. «' tape transports to accept binary- Duncan, 1964, p. 136. magnetic and « Ibid., p. 136. " el al.. 1961, p. Vl-39. Buck et al., 1961. pages VI-51. Buck « VI-58. •"Ibid., pp. VI-.51. Ibid., pp.

36 coded-decimal data. An earlier model, the 943, d. Harris-Intertype-Cognitronics Editape Com- accepted binary coded data only. Output is to puters either 35 mm film or hard copy. e. RCA 30 Newscom Computer A special advantage offered by this equipment for These computers permit faster keyboarding of book composition is cited by Duncan as follows: tape by less skillful operators using simpler ma- "The task of producing scrambled and upside down chines which are not encumbered by justification composition that may be required for book produc- counters. Format controls, such as carriage tion, and may even be necessary for some news- return, inserted by the keyboard operator are either paper operation, seems already to have been solved omitted in the tape or ignored by the computer, satisfactorily on one computer output printer — the which inserts new format controls for the justified- Transdata. The processed pages can be stored hyphenated output tape. These computers can be~ on magnetic tape in any order required, or in random readily modified for font, point size and format order, and called out in any order desired."^' changes. In the Directorv^ Tape Processor. Linasec and small Editape machines, words requiring hy- 3.5. Computers Used for Typography phenation are displayed to an operator, along with From the slowest photocomposers operating at the allowable hyphenation range that will permit less than ten characters per second through the justification. The operator must then decide where intermediate range of several hundred cps to the the is to go, and press a button correspond- ing to that position. fastest electronic generation systems it is to be noted that, in general, size of character set must be traded In more complex computers, hyphenation is off against speed. In almost aU cases, however, achieved automatically by table look-up or by the other aspects of at least partial automation of the apphcation of logical rules to the letter structure of compositor functions can be achieved by built-in the word. Neither type of system is completely computer-hke calculations in special keyboards, rehable because of ambiguities, dual meanings, and by the use of smaE special purpose computers and different hyphenations for identically spelled words, by programs in large general purpose computers and other quirks of natural languages. Some sys- producing as output both text and control codes to tems use a combination of logical rules plus table operate printing equipment. look-up for anticipated exceptions. Use of the less complex devices in practical opera- 3.5.1. Small Special-Purpose Typography Computers tion is exemphfied by the Linasec installation at Alden Press and the use of Compugraphic Directory If some of the compositor functions are performed Tape Processor for telephone directory hstings. in an intermediate computer, there are usually At Alden, the system involves 4 tape punches and two tapes involved. Both tapes may be perforated 4 tape-operated hnecasting machines to produce or magnetic, or one may be perforated and one mag- output of an estimated 2,560 hues per man-day by netic. A code conversion is not always necessary, comparison with 1.472 such Unes in the manual but if a reasonably complex computer is available system even with the relatively slow (45 characters as a composition aid. then code conversion generally per second) first model Linasec reader. A console does not pose a great penalty. In some systems is provided which continuously indicates to the employing a general-purpose computer, the input operator the point on hard copy corresponding to tape is the one most conveniently generated by the the punch position on the output tape. perforation keyboard. Its code may be converted Morton describes some further details of opera- by the computer to the internal code of the com- tion as follows: "If 65 percent of the available space puter. After typographic processing, this code may band extension will not expand the hne . . . signal again be converted by the computer to the code and lights on the console, over the characters on the tape employed by the typesetting machine. In hard copy, will indicate the letters following the computers designed for typography processing, fiUed hne. The operator will count back the num- these conversions can be avoided. ber of spaces from the last hne to a proper point The simplest class of special-purpose computers for hyphenation, and he will punch a button num- perform the repetitious and arduous tasks of hne bered on the corresponding responses to the number justification, including variable spacing control and of responses so counted. The computer wiU then automatic insertion of hne formatting controls, as insert a hyphen and an elevator code and continue well as automatic or semi-automatic hyphenation to operate line after line until the next operator control. Computers which accept unjustified decision is called for. ... A change in font is tapes and generate justified, hyphenated and for- handled by removing the 3-by-5-inch plug . . . and matted tape include the following: replacing it with one designed for the particular a. Compugraphic Directory Tape Processor font to be used. This operation of taking out a plug b. Mergenthaler-Compugraphic Linasec and putting another in place takes from 5 to 10 c. Fairchild Graphic-Thompson Ramo Wool- seconds. "^^ dridge Comp/Set Computer

Duncan. 1964. pp. 133-134. " .Morton. 1963. pp. 98-100.

37 Swanson reports use of the Directory Tape With respect to the TRW (Thompson Ramo- Processor for telephone directory listings in part Wooldridge) — Fairchild equipment (Figure 45) it

as follows: "After the name and address of a line is reported that it will "run 9,000 newspaper lines have been set, one special key stroke signals the per hour with standard equipment. With special Processor to do at least three things: equipment this can go up to as high as 27,000 news-

a. Calculate and insert the leaders required. paper Hnes per hour." b. In a telephone number composed of letters and 3.5.2. General Purpose Computers Used for Typography digits, make the letters in caps and the digits in bold face. In a special sense, the large, high speed, general c. If there are no letters in the telephone number, | purpose computer plays several different roles in I set the seven digits in bold face."^^ modern developments in automatic or semi-auto- Among the advantages and operational gains matic typographic quality composition. claimed are the following: "Our teletypesetter pro- In particular, "There are two entirely different duction of 15 pica lines has increased from 100 to uses of the computer, one is to produce something 125 lines per hour to 250 to 300. Eight-hour aver- which has gone through the computer because the ages of 310 to 315 lines per hour have been made computer is serving a function in compiling the by some operators using Friden Flexowriters. . . . output and has been an essential part of the mecha- By using the Directory Tape Processor we have nism. The other is to use the computer to save reduced our operators' and linecasting machine some of the operations which are now done by the errors from 10 percent to 4 percent of all hnes skilled keyboard operator."^^ cast. ... In an average telephone listing line of Certainly, the advent of the electronic computer 40 characters, including leaders, we save approxi- has focused new attention on the problems of auto- mately 20 key strokes. The strokes eliminated are mated typographic composition. Automatic data the control and functional ones that are usually processing has not only made it possible to organize, difficult for operators to master and, therefore, take assemble, and produce many existing types of publi- more time than the regular alphabetic or numeric cations quickly, automatically, and sometimes at keys."^" lower cost, but it has also created a proliferation of Compugraphic also produces the Tabular Tape new types of reports, indexes, and publications. Processor which uses plugboard wiring to set The basic content of many new types of reports column widths for multi-column tables. "Replacing including for example, key-word-in- (KWIC) the time-consuming, arithmetical process of figuring indexes, mathematical tables, accounting and finan-

the 'cast' of a table, the TTP requires . . . coded cial reports, and U.S. Census Bureau reports, is

j instructions on the tapes to tell the TTP where to produced by the computer. I fiU a column with blank space (without regard to how To date, the natural tendency has been to utilize many spaces are required), where to fill with the high speed computer printout as camera-ready leaders, when the end of a column has been reached, copy without regard to the readabiUty of the output and the end of a line." or to the size of the printing run. This creates A recent development for directory composition certain disadvantages including poor typographic outside the United States and the United Kingdom quality and higher printing costs resulting from the is to be noted as follows: "It is reported from Milan lower type density of computer printout, and ineffi- that SEAT are just about to change over to magnetic cient utilization of white space unless carefully tape storage of Italian telephone directories with planned. computer controlled updating and output ready On the other hand, a manually composed, high for composing machines." quahty pubhcation using the computer printout for The RCA 30 Newscom is essentially a cut-down working copy defeats one advantage of the computer version of the company's 301 computer, having a system — its rapid response time. For this reason, 20k core memory, and capable of carrying out line several companies are developing high speed com- justification and automatic hyphenation following posing machines that will operate directly from the the Los Angeles Times program. When fitted with perforated tape or magnetic tape produced by a a 100 character per second reader and punch it computer. produces some 5,400 column lines per hour with We have already witnessed the wide usage of higher speed options up to 17,400 hnes per hour also mechanical computer output printers for pubhca- available.^^ Typical Newscom installations are tion of stock market tables, census reports, book- diagrammed in Figure 43, and equipment is shown form indexes, and the like. During the next in Figure 44. decade, we will undoubtedly witness an expansion of these apphcations to include machine translation, automatic indexing and abstracting, dictionary com-

Swanson. 1963. pp. 93-94. ™Ibid, pp. 92-94. " Yasaki, 1963, p. 31. F. S. Angell, remarks, Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965, '2 Duncan, 1964, p. 149. p. 180. " Duncan. 1964, p. 146; Datamation, >). No. 12. 67 (1963); Data Processing, 6, 38, A. H. Phillips, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965, 39 (1964). p. 78.

38 Figure 43. RCA Xeicscom system.

Figure 44. Newscom equipment.

pilation. display advertising, scientific composition, and many more, through the medium of high speed, graphic arts quaUty composing ma- chines operable from computer readable codes. Typical adverse comments on the practice of using high-speed computer printout are as follows: "A major disadvantage of computer print-out is its poor legibihty and its low information density. . . . The U.S. Air Force prints something like a billion and a half pages from computer print-out just in the one area of its stock hst catalogues. ... We have found that we can pack three times as much infor- mation a page if we use Linotron typography, which Figure 45. TRW-Fairchild ComplSet.

39 gives quite a saving— more than the cost of the These paper tapes are read into an IBM 1401 machine"/*' computer. After processing, the computer pro- The principal benefits to be derived from employ- duces a y2-inch magnetic tape with the com- ing electronic data processing equipment in a posed data. The data is in the format of the typographic composition system are a reduction in Mergenlhaler Linofilm photocomposer, except that manual clerical effort, a reduction in response time, the data for one Linofilm character (15 bits) is and an opportunity to use each record for multiple distributed over three consecutive magnetic tape purposes. The reduction in manual clerical effort characters, each containing up to 6 information can be realized through reducing the amount of bits. These magnetic tapes are then read into a keyboarding required for input. Textual matter magnetic-tape-to-Linofilm-perforated-tape converter, that is to appear more than once in any publication which can punch 300 Linofilm characters per second or that is to appear in more than one publication by means of a specially adapted Soroban high speed need be keyboarded only once. The keyboard tape perforator. These Linofilm tapes are then operator need not be concerned with justification. ready to drive the Linofilm photo unit, at its char- The data processing equipment can duplicate the acteristic speed of about 12 characters per second. record as many times as is required. Response It has been the experience at the Government time is reduced by the speed with which electronic Printing Office, using the above system, that about equipment can retrieve information from tape, half of the programming effort and half of the com- it into pubhcation sequences, and produce an puter time is devoted to control of the format of edited output. Thus the cut-off time for entering the printed page. Many formats are now available new information into the master record file need for production use. A system has been devised not be more than a few hours prior to the time that for detailed control of the line-by-hne formats, in- the edited tape is required. cluding indentations, font changes, point size With the file of textual information stored on mag- changes, quadding, carry-over of headings, and the netic tape, the data processing system can use the hke, using a "punched card image" of the desired same information over again for different pubhca- format. There is a straight forward correspondence tions, for new editions of a previously published between hole positions punched in the image card document, or as a source of information for respond- and indentations and line spacings for various cate- ing to Hterature search requests. Thus, once a gories of the printed material. record is stored in the file, it may be used for The list of general purpose digital computers many purposes without requiring further manual used for some phases of typographic composition operations. is growing steadily. The following is a list of Amer- In addition to its normal function in the typo- ican-made general-purpose computers known to graphic composition system, the master record file have been programmed and used for typography: used as a source of information for answering can be RCA 301 IBM 7094 inquiries. This adds a literature search specific IBM 1620 IBM 360 capabihty wherein the allowed complexity of the IBM 1401 Honeywell 800 inquiries and the content of the answers depend on IBM 701 NCR 315 and organization of the master record the extent IBM 704 GE 225 file. Responses to search requests can be in the IBM 709 Control Data 8080 form of fists of references to pertinent documents IBM 7090 or in the form of references and abstracts, if the elsewhere than in texts of abstracts are included in the master record Examples of computers used United States for similar purposes include the file. In extreme cases, the entire text of selected the Pegasus, and items may be printed out. British Ferranti computers Argus 104, installed at the Assuming that keyboarded tapes can be read into Orion, the English Electric KDF 9 Tyne in mid-1964, a general purpose digital computer, then the subse- University of Newcastle upon quent processing for typography (or any other and also in Great Britain, the Elliott 803 B. As ". it is reported that, . . The purpose) is a function of the ingenuity of the pro- another example, d'Automatisme Electronique grammer, the investment in his time, and the Compagnie Europeen is ready to supply a computer hmitations in memory size, processing speed, and (CAE) ... now based on the CAE 510 output capabihty of the computer. typesetting equipment, At the U.S. Government Printing Office, a system computer." has been evolved using Friden LCC (Line Casting A special case involves the use of the SDS-910 an automatic Control) Justowriters equipped to punch Teletype- computer as programmed controller of the Electronic setter code in a 1-inch paper tape of the usual character recognition device, Equip- variety, with sprocket hole centers in line with code Retina Character Reader of Recognition hyphenation hole centers, rather than advanced-feed sprocket ment Inc., to accomplish justification, typesetting from holes as in conventional TTS tape. and editing for both automatic

195. ' Pniceedings". 1965. p. • V. M. Corrado, 1965, p. 221. G. Bafciur remarks. "Ciimpuler Typesetlins: Conference

40 typewritten copy and the input of original text to wiU necessarily remain somewhat disorganized, machine translation systems.'** since the various techniques, systems and avail- Examples of development of general purpose able hardware do not fall clearly into distinctly computer programs and appUcations to problems separable categories. Rather, they overlap in of documentation will be discussed in a later section varying degrees as was evident in the present sec- of this report. Perhaps unusual in any area of tion describing typesetting equipment. emerging technologies is the fact that, in general, Turning now to semi-automatic and automatic "the cobbler's children" have been shod. Bozman, techniques and devices to accomplish many of the Barnett. and Duncan provide well-known examples. compositor functions, we will consider the questions The report on Graphic Composing Techniques is of horizontal line justification and hyphenation, another. More recent illustrations are also to vertical justification and page make-up; the inser- be noted: tion of corrections, editing and merging: the type- "AU the text has been typeset by computer setting of two-dimensional graphic material, and the methods: part of 4 by the Rocappi general intermixing of typeset text with facsimile rephcas purpose computer system, and the rest by the of graphic material such as drawings and photo- Linasec special purpose computer method."'^ graphs. "A data sample of two journal article manuscripts, 20 first pages of journal articles, and journal vol- ume index (for one year) of titles and have 4. Automation of the Compositor been processed."*" Functions "All of the copy in this appendix was typeset automatically, on a tape driven Model 200 Photon, Perforated tape itself is an intermediate automa- from original journal machine record with the tion aid, since it can, when fed into a tape reader following exceptions. connected to an "operating unit," operate a type- setting machine, hot metal or phototypesetter, at a (1) Figures and multiple line equations were consistent speed limited by the typesetting machine exposed from the original copy and stripped in. rather than by the speed of keyboarding. Thus, (2) The index machine records were sorted maximum utilization is obtained from the compos- manually, because sort programs were not avail- ing machine, which may absorb the output from sev- able at the time the data was processed."*' eral keyboard tape perforators. IBM has issued a program called Text-90 to If the perforated tape is the only automation aid accomphsh computerized typography, using employed, then most or aU of the compositor func- punched card input of mixed text and controls, tions must be concentrated in the keyboard oper- for processing on a 7090 computer, including justi- ator. In such case, it is essential that the same tape fication, hyphenation and formatting into one or and tape code required by the operating unit be two columns per page. Three magnetic tapes are generated by the keyboard perforator. Other- produced, called a print tape, an exception tape and wise a code conversion and generation of a new tape a master tape. The exception tape is used by the is required, which is unnecessarily costly and time program to produce automatically tables of contents, consuming, nullifying some of the advantages of indexes and lists of misspelled words. After Ust- perforated tape. Thus, where perforated tape is ing, editing and correction, the exception tape is the only automation aid employed, the tape and code reprocessed by the program to produce the final used by the operating unit should be generated by print tape, which is fed into an IBM 1401 computer the keyboard perforator. where a special utility program hsts the tape on a Magnetic tape systems are being developed em- 1403 chain printer. If a special 120 character ploying "stepping motors" to give an incremental chain is employed, then the document is printed in advance for each character. These incremental both upper and lower case. If only a standard tape systems can perform all of the functions per- chain is available, then the document is printed in formed by perforated tape, but they do not offer aU upper case. The master tape contains text the same ease of visual editing and correction. and controls, and is retained for use in producing They can, however, be read into and out of a com- revisions (updating) of the document. puter at much higher rates than perforated tapes. The remainder of this report will be devoted to Perforators can punch 300 characters per second, a review of known attempts to automate various and the fastest optical tape readers read less than portions of the compositor functions, and to some 2000 characters per second, whereas magnetic the documentation applications, problems and tapes are typically "read" and "written" at rates prospects that can be foreseen. The material to of 10,000 to 100,000 or more characters per second. be covered will be arranged somewhat in order of Since the principal methods for achieving a de- increasing complexity, somewhat in order of chro- sired type density obviously relate to the proljlems nology-, and somewhat in order of function, but it of close and even spacing, both horizontally with respect to the line vertically with respect to " Le Brun. 1963, and p. 150; Data Processing Magazine 7, 47 (February 1965). Allen. 1963. p. viii. the column or page, we shall consider here the "» Bur-kland. 1965. p. 2. " Ibid., Foreword to appendix. problems of horizontal and vertical justification

41 and the concomittant difficulties of word-hyphena- In manual control of hot metal casting equipment, tion or the avoidance of "widows," together with horizontal line justification is typically accomplished both the difficuhies and advantages promised by as lollows: semi-automatic and automatic aids to the accom- "By establishing the cut-oH point |of the line], the phshment of these compositor functions. operator is satisfied that the available width expan- sion of the space bands, which are adjustable slid ing wedges, is sufficient to expand the width of the 4.1. Horizontal Justification and line to the width of the mold at which the line is Hyphenation cast. Thereafter the assembled Hne containing the matrices and space bands is positioned at the For high typographic quahty pubhcations, the mold face and the space bands in the hne are ex- typographic composition system must perform panded by ram action ... so that the assembled both horizontal and vertical justifications. If line expands as required to the full width of the these functions are Jo be performed automatically, mold." * the equipment used in the system must be able to In [fhototypesetter techniques, generally, the determine what combination of line structures will space-width considerations required in hot-metal minimize the number of hyphenated words, to ad- justification processes are replaced by escapement just the spacing between characters so that margins values (i.e., "an escapement can be regarded as are aligned, to adjust spacing between Unes so the distance between the left edges of the fields that subheads are not placed at the bottom of a of two consecutive characters" ) and the physical column, to change margins, to indent lines, and to displacements required in the optical system are center lines. Each of these operations can be controlled by escapement codes in the input tape. performed by available data processing systems if "The Photon machine can be driven by tajje that the appropriate specifications are included in the contains a track specification (a track is half an computer program, or in the input records, or can annulus of characters), a lens specification (in ef- be entered via punched cards or punched tape as fect a scaling factor), and then, for each of the char- an input to the cycle. acters to be printed, the sequence number (i.e.. Barnett, Kelley, and Bailey have summarized position around the disc) of that character, and the the operations required to effect horizontal justi- escapement (i.e., distance to be allowed between fication in these terms: the left edge of that character and the next). Codes "Justification can be regarded as the expansion to change track number and lens size and to effect of a hne of type to some specified length by an in- carriage returns are interspersed with the sequence crease in the spaces between appropriate pairs of number escapement codes where necessary."'' adjacent characters. In describing a justification Some differences between various available procedure, it is necessary to specify (i) the mini- photocomposing systems are to be noted, however. mum space to be left between different pairs of If a Linofilm unit is to be used under computer characters, (ii) the spaces which may be expanded, driven control, complete horizontal justification and (iii) the hmits that will be placed on the allowed information must be developed by the data process- expansion. In general, justification will be ef- ing unit and it must be recorded in such a way as fected by increasing the distance between succes- to provide a paper tape that will control the Linofilm sive words for which some minimum non-zero spac- photocomposing equipment. This means that in- ing has been specified. In the simplest case, each formation with respect to exact character width such space along a line is increased by the same values must be available to the computer so that amount. At times it is necessary to stipulate that character spacing and line length can be com- only certain of the spaces in a line of type may be puted accurately. expanded. A further method of justification that If a Photon 200 unit with its built-in computer will be used quite often involves the expansion of element is used, the adjustment of spacing be- non-zero spaces to some preset Umit, with the dis- tween characters would be done by the Photon tribution of any further spacing that may be neces- equipment; only the end-of-line signal need be sary between characters whose fields otherwise included in the paper tape from the data processing would touch." ' unit. In this case the adjustment of character ". It is to be noted, however, that . . Some fixed spacing to align left and right margins is a fairly hmit must be placed on the justification range simple operation even with large alphabets having otherwise the word spaces in the justified line might considerable variation in type widths. become too large. This would result in a waste of The character width information can be deter- page space and in unacceptable typography that mined from a table during the character code is characterized by 'rivers' of space which pervade conversion operation. In this way the detailed in- the text column and make it relatively difficult for formation required in a Linofilm system could be the eye to read."-

Koniiisbersi. 1963. p. 3. J Barnell iM al.. 1962. p. 60. ' Barnctl el al.. 1%2. p. 60.

• - Mergenlhaler. 1963, p. 4. ll>kl. p. .W-60.

42 developed by the data processing system in rela- If additional space or blank areas are needed, then tively little more time than that required to produce "", "en space", or "em space" can be the lesser information required in a Photon system. selected. Em space is the width of letter "m", In both the case of hot metal casting and photo- en space is half an em, and thin space is one third composition where tapes are used to operate the of em. Note that in TTS code space band is coded equipment, it is obvious that keyboards and tape with a single hole in track 3, and thin space is a codes must provide for the insertion of controls single hole in track 0. to indicate length of lines, relative spacing, quad- The function "add thin space" is 0 and 3, and it ding, and the like, specifically including an approxi- causes selection of a space band and a thin space mate line-width-count for justification purposes. at the same time. Thus if it is discovered that the The latter usually requires a complex keyboard space bands are not adequate to fill out a line, with built-in calculators to count the widths of the then the perforator operator can go back and punch characters, compute the space remaining in the "thin space" over each space band code in the fine and the number of interword spaces used, tape. thus keeping track of the accumulative line deficit. "Em leader" and "en leader" are dots used to It is to be noted further that "since different fill out lines in tables where blank space is not typefaces all have different set, or width values, it desired. is necessary to look up the width value of each "Return" resets the the justification or character in the selected font and subtract that printers on the tape perforator. "Elevate" de- width value from the total remaining space in the livers the line of type for casting and also feeds a line being set. Individual width cards or maga- line of paper if a printer is used with the tape zines which are inserted in the keyboard device perforator. are suppHed for each type font. The keyboard The widths of the various characters used in device also keeps track of the number of interword TTS systems are shown in Table 2. Note that all spaces which have been inserted in the line. These figures (numeric digits) are 9 units wide. This word spaces may be expanded from a minimum to facilitates the composing of aligned columns of a maximum value thereby providing a justification numbers. range of some latitude for the keyboard operator."^ In addition to the pioneering Friden LCC-S Justowriter, a number of keyboard-tape punching Table 2. Character grouping of unit system matrices systems having calculators for brass matrix widths iUNIVERS). are commercially available, including Robotype, Perfoset, Linomatic, Lino Quick, and others.^ Unit A recent device of this type is the DI/AN Controls Size Inc., punched tape keyboard for high speed type- 6 Period, Comma, , Hyphen, Vertical Rule, Quote, Thin Space, Lower case i setting. It is reported to produce "justified, cor- 7 Lower case j f t rected copy on punched paper tape, controls which 8 Capital I automatic typesetting machines at rates up to 700 9 All figures. Dollar mark. Pound sterling. Semicolon, Colon, fines of 11-pica newspaper type per hour and 400 Exclamation, EN leader. Asterisk, Left and right hand brackets. All reference marks. Figure spaces. Lower characters per minute in book production".^

case r s z. En , ( typically ) Control functions encoded into perfo- 10 Lower case ceo rated tape are exemplified by reference back to 11 Lower case abdghnpquvxykfifl. Capital J S ? Figure 19,^ showing the teletypesetter code format. 12 Capital Z 13 Capital C T L ff Thus, for example, the quad functions are for use 14 Lower case a;. Capital ABFOPQV& on linecasting machines which have automatic 15 Lower case w oe. Capital DEGRUXYHKN space fill to the margins. The "quad center" code 18 EM space, EM leader, EM dash, EM fractions, % lb Capital wiU cause the centering of a short line of text, as in M W OE AE, Lower case ni, ffi, ffl, @ a heading, and will automatically generate equal amounts of blank space to the left and right margins. Source: TTS Perforator Operator's Manual. "Quad left" positions the fine to the left and puts all of the blank space to the right, and "quad right" puts all of the blank space to the left. "Space band" is the normal space used between words. Each one is an adjustable wedge. After 4.1.1. Equipment and Techniques for Horizontal Justification the line of matrices (casting molds) and space bands are assembled, the space bands are driven The simplest solutions to problem of right-hand in tightly to fill out the available space, and to margin justification are (1) to ignore it completely, equafize the spaces between words in that line. as in most ordinary typescript, or with respect to arbitrary line lengths in KWIC and other indexes

' Sparks el al.. 1964. p. 166. produced by computer printers, (2) to limit justifi- ' See Duncan. 1964. p. 141. cation to that which can be achieved by purely ^ Data Processing Magazine 7. 5 (February 1965). ^ See page 19 of this report. automatic means, such as the use of anamorphic

43

231-313 OL-67-4 lens stretching and compression of lines to be re- the requirement for many decisions and many key- produced and (3) reliance on strictly manual deci- strokes that will not be used. sion-making. Operation of the Linasec I at Clay, Ltd., has One technique to improve page space utilization been described by Boyd: "If no word space falls is that of the use of the principle of the anamorphic in this (justification) area, the word by which the lens: "use of optical stretching or compression to line is overset is displayed on the cathode ray alter the horizontal dimensions of a line of type tube. . . . When this happens there are three without affecting the vertical dimensions . . . possibihties: firstly, hyphenation by any of the left

[Examples are] the Optype . . . the Cape Grapha- hand group of buttons at the appropriate point; tron . . . the NHM Cartoprint automatic camera secondly, if the word is unsplittable it can be system".'" This technique has also been claimed removed completely to the next line, in which case to achieve justification by purely mechanical the interword button is pressed; thirdly, if both means, in the case of the French-built Optype, as hyphenation and interword have been tried and the follows: "This, by a system of distorting photog- word still remains on the screen, it indicates that raphy, will stretch or compress individual hues of the remaining 40 percent of band expansion is not ."" unjustified material until it justifies . . sufficient to fill out the line. The monitor then The methods employed for semi-automatic and presses the bell button followed by the interword automatic justification and word-hyphenation (as button. This puts a caster stop code in the output required) range from machine calculation of space tape and add-thin space codes can be punched in usage within the line and display of the word in- by hand or the thin spaces manually inserted on volved in oversetting for operator decision to fully the casting machine." ''^ automatic modes of operation in general purpose Of the Linasec II device, Duncan remarks: "In computers used to drive copy reproduction devices the case of the Linasec II. two functions are para- on either an on-line or off-line basis. mount. The output tape is coded correctly for the From the manual decision case to the fully auto- character widths so that no tight or loose lines matic systems, several different categories of in- result, and no redundant codes, and, more impor- creasing machine sophistication are available. In tant, hyphenation is performed by manual selection computer-driven, automatic systems, the principal on a monitor tube face. Compugraphic, the mak- methods used to date involve dictionary look-ups, ers of Linasec, are convinced that this is a more application of pre-supphed 'logical' rules for hypen- economic solution at present than computer hy- tion, look-up of pre-stored probability values for phenating routines, at least in apphcations where hyphenation between various letter pairs or tri- time is not the consideration it is in newspaper grams, and combinations of these methods. Typ- plants." '^ The newer Linasec is abo reported ically, each method within the available range offers to have an increased speed (from 45 to 100 charac- advantages and suffers disadvantages. ters per second) and to provide improved scope The least sophisticated methods, of course, are display and correction features.'^ those of machine "deference"! to operator decision whenever a given line cannot be justified by ap- 4.1.2. Semi-Automatic and Automatic Hyphenation propriate automatic adjustments of interword and intraword spacing. Two quite different approaches If a requirement for right-margin-justified lines textual bib- to the man-machine interaction solution are ex- in the printing or reproduction of and emplified by the so-called discietionary-hyphen hographic material has in fact been established, system and by the Linasec devices developed by then the problem of hyphenation will almost in- the Compugraphic Corporation. evitably arise. The sole practical exception to date index with arbi- "A manual technique for hyphenation, either with is the computer-compiled KWIC trary line-length truncation and 'wrap-around' or without a computer system . . . was first tried principles so that such horrors occur as: by Louis Moyroud. . . . This technique requires the keyboard operator to insert a discretionary "HEROIDAL WAVE EQUATION PROGRAMMING FOR hyphen in every long word. The computer or out- FINDING CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF SP" put printer can then utilize or disregard the dis- "EAN FUNCTIONS OF N VARIABLES USING A SINGLE cretionary hyphen during the actual process of MAGNETIC CIRCUIT/STRAIGHTFORWARD WAY OF justification. Although the completing horizontal GENERATING ALL BOOL" use of discretionary hyphens is estimated to in- "IGNMENT METHOD FOR ASYNCHRONOUS SEQUEN- crease keyboard operation time by 2 to 5 percent and storage requirements by 2 percent the sim- TIAL SWITCHING CIRCUITS A STATE VARIABLE ASS" plicity of the technique is somewhat attractive, "CHNIQUES IN THE LOGICAL DESIGN OF SWITCH- especially for noncomputer output printing sys- ING CIRCUITS RELAY CIRCUIT DESIGN TE" tems."'- The obvious disadvantage, of course, is Note that these examples were taken from just a few pages of Youden's Computer Literature Bib-

'' Duncan, \')M. p. U8, Boyd. 1%5. p. 26. "O'Donnell. 1961, p. 151. " Duncan. 1964. p. 143. 1= Sparks <-l al.. VIM. p. 184. " Morton. 196.3, p. 99.

44 liography, for which the 120-character hne format probability tables, and combinations of these should give rather better resuhs than the two- principles. column formats often used. On page 119, the fol- Automatic hyphenation techniques were first lowing word breaks occurred at the right end of explored by Bafour, Blanchard, and Raymond in the title line: France beginning in 1954,'^ with emphasis on the programmin"[g] application of logical rules to words of the French language, but with some consideration also given to cohe""[rence] English. Bafour discusses how it is possible for "MANL FA"[CTURING] a computer to determine the hyphenation at the "arb""[itrary] end of a hne: "c"[haracter] "The information previously supplied to the "componen""[ts] computer enables it to recognize and distinguish "OPE""[RATIi\G] the different letters of the , the justification "cla"'[mped].'^ spaces, punctuation signs, numbers, etc. The The generally poor typographic quality of such internal circuits are also able to add up the size computer print-out indexes in all respects of typo- of the letters and spaces, as they are coded, and graphic composition is probably a major factor in to compare the total with the fixed point reached deterrents to their use, even when their prompt would require expansion of the spaces between the availabihty has been hailed as a major new bib- words (or between letters) beyond a tolerance fixed Uographic breakthrough. in advance (and always capable of being modified). The lack of any regard for 'proper' hyphenation It is able, at the same time, to recognize if a divi- is thus an extreme in the case of the KWIC index. sion between two words is possible or not. If it

Even for newspaper column composition, where is not, it is necessary to search within a word for reader tolerance for numerous typographical errors a possible cut. The empirical rules for the French both intra- and inter-line is self-evidently high, language have been established and effectively concern with respect to improper and misleading proved. It is not possible to enumerate them within hyphenation is obviously important. Such ex- the outhne of the present description and we will amples of least-tolerable 'goofs' in machine hyphen- give only the following incomplete summary of ation include: " 'han-gover', 'fig-hting'. and 'Goo- them: dyear",'^ or " 'lam-plight', 'ons-laught' and 'ho- Not to cut after less than two letters. wever' What might happen with words hke Not to cut so as to leave less than three letters. "therapist'" is all too obvious. Not to cut after a consonant followed by a vowel. As we have noted, syllables (hence, proper hy- Not to separate certain vowel couples forming an phenation) depend on sound rather than letter inseparable doublet. combinations. It is not possible to develop a set Not to cut after a vowel if it is followed by two of rules based on small sequences of letters that consonants which do not form an inseparable will invariably result in proper hyphenation [Bafour, doublet. 1961]. Ledley and Wilson, in a study of the po- Not to cut before the letter y. tential use of computers for the publication of Not to cut before a punctuation sign. Index Medicus included a subroutine for auto- Not to separate two numbers, etc." matic hyphenation, using one of the possible com- puter techinques. The resulting program, although One computer technique that could be used for fairly lengthy, would make many incorrect hyphe- hyphen minimization would consist of a repetitive nations, even on commonly used words. Ledley application of a hne justification routine. Each and Wilson could have reduced the number of repetition seeks a better solution for the para- incorrect hyphenations by enlarging their program, graph as a whole. The iteration would stop when but the technique could never be made infallible. a solution was found that required no hyphens, As many as 35 different approaches to this prob- when the approximation goal has been reached, lem have been taken by suppliers of computer- or when all possible solutions had been tested. driven typesetting systems.'*^ In general, however, After each iteration, the best solution obtained up the various approaches may be grouped with respect to that point would be retained for comparison with to reliance on logical rules, dictionary look-up. future iterations. The adjustment of character spacing would be accomplished simultaneously with the minimization of hyphenation. A computer dictionary look-up operation would W . ^ . Yuuden, "Computer Literature Bibliography 1946 to 1963". National Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 266, U.S. Government Printing provide correct hyphenation for a high percentage Office. Washington. D.C.. 1965. 463 p. Experience with IBM 1620 at the San Francisco Chronicle as reported in "Signs of the words in the dictionary. Some Enghsh words of the Future?". 1964. p. 88. are hyphenated differently in different usages so "* Mitra routine for computer hyphenation of English, reported by Duncan. 1964. p. 156. even with a dictionary some errors would be '»^Cf. "The lR)evolution in Book Composition ... 11. 1964. p. 46: "International Business Machines alone has worked on more than 35 approaches to word division. expected. Radio Corporation of .\merica has at least two very different systems in operation." and Blondeau, 1963. p. 84: "In one of our laboratories we have written and developed over .35 approaches to the simple problem of grammatii-al word division and hyphena- tion." Bafour. 1965, p. 194: Sparks et al., 1964, p. 184; Duncan. 1964, p. 152.

45 A typical computer-controlled justification-hy- to Store 500 eight-letter words averaging two phenation process proceeds as follows: hyphens per word." "As characters are received as input, a subtrac- Success, in terms of agreement with first-prefer- tive process begins, each character, symbol, and ence Webster word-divisions, has been variously space being assigned a unit count. When the estimated as within the range of 85-95 percent number of units exceeds the capacity of a line, the accuracy.-'' Toothman points to the occurrence last word is dropped and three questions are of input spelling errors: "Obviously you are going asked: to have some words that are in the dictionary and are not detected because there is a misspelling 1. Will the expansion of space bands (from a and so forth. These will be arbitrarily hyphenated. normal 10 units to a maximum 40) fill the line? In most cases it will be wrong, and in that case 2. If not, will the addition of thin spaces suffice? it will be picked up by the proofreader."^^ The 3. If not, will an en space fill it? computer programs are owned by but If the answer to all three questions is 'No', the 301 are available from RCA for use with the 301 goes to the hyphenation routine . . . computer.^" "After selecting the maximum number of syl- At Perry Publications in Florida, where an RCA lables to fill the line, the computer returns to the 301 computer is also used, a dictionary look-up space-band routine — in rare instances, resorting approach is the principal basis for automatic hy- to letterspacing with the longest word, then to the phenation. One of the reasons for this is the addition of another space between words." commitment to photo-composition techniques, Operational examples of semi-automatic or auto- where the relatively higher costs of page correc- matic justification and hyphenation have been de- tions (by comparison with hot-metal line-casting scribed in detail in the literature, for example, with methods) dictate a better than 90 percent accuracy respect to the Los Angeles Times, Perry Publica- as a minimum performance requirement. Hence, tions, and the Oklahoma Pubhshing Company. the use of a dictionary involving approximately At the Los Angeles Times, an RCA 301 computer- 40,000 root words of 5 or more characters each based system uses the dictionary look-up approach. has been established.-'' Requirements involve not only the initial calcula- Some of the operational details that have been tions for reporters' news copy, but also for re-justi- reported in the literature are as follows: "The fication (and, obviously, re-hyphenation as neces- justification process begins with the read-in of sary) of copy received via wire service tape since, approximately IK characters. The input block even though the latter may contain justification is . . . [this] length, of some 25 lines control data, it is typically for point sizes other than being considered the longest received at any one 9-point the type used by the TimesP time. . . . While the is being read in, "The Times began with plans to store a dictionary the unit count of each character begins on a simul- of some 60-70 K words. When possible inadequa- taneous mode. Following the space band after cies and the high cost of this approach became ob- each word, a check is made to see if the line is vious, the decision was made to switch to a logic justified. These checks continue until a line is ."-'^ system . . . filled, the 301 then branching to subroutines (if The system developed is based, so far as practical, necessary) for the insertion of additional spacers on grammatical rules for word division used in and to the dictionary if hyphenation is called for."^^ Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. More specif- For greater access speed and efficiency, the ically, "the logic is based on the following principles. stored dictionary is divided between 4 tape units. First, vowel and consonant patterns in a word are "Since the RCA 301 computer can search tape in classified into one of four basic types. The com- both directions, the tapes are always maintained puter then scans key letter sequences to see if at a given 'homing' position and the most fre- they foUow the rules governing this type. If so, quently occurring words, based on their first letter, an immediate solution is reached. For example, are located closest to the homing position on each prefixes and suffixes which are commonly used can of the 4 tape drives. An index to the positions of automatically determine hyphenation. Where the dictionary on . . . [these] units is maintained exceptions are indicated, they are defined and in core memory using the first 2 letters of the word analyzed by following special subroutines such as a key."-*" as testing against letter sequence tables."-^ Thus, "the search begins with a determination It is to be noted that the rules required to apply of the first two letters in a word; this isolates the this hyphenation logic "occupy only 5,000 positions word to a particular block. ... To save time, the of the 20,000 positions of the computer's magnetic- most frequently used blocks are grouped around core memory, less space than would be required

Pay. Vm. p. .331.

-T.iollinian. \')bA. p. 103: Sparks el al.. I%4. p. 184: "The iRlevolulion in Book Comiiosilion." |y64, p. 47. Toolhman. 1%3. p. 10.5. •" Yasaki, 1%3. 28. p. Pay. 1963. p. 330. D. Ellis, remarks. "Computer Typesetlins Conference Proceedings". 1965, p. 128. -'""The ." lR)evolulion in Book Composition . . I%4, p. 47-48. " Yasaki, 1%3, p. 28. =" Yasaki, 1963. i>. .30. Sparks el al. 1964. p. 184. Sparks el al. 1964. p. 183.

46 a middle, homing position. About 98 percent of dictionary store. The corresponding disadvantage the word, as a resuh. are accessible within one is, of course, the size and cost of memory storage second." space required. Moreover, "if the word being searched is not in Two relatively recent developments envisage the block, it is automatically hyphenated after the the use of large-capacity random access storage

third, fifth, or seventh letter. . . . Thus, all words devices for this purpose. Announced in 1965 was w^hich correctly break at these points have been "a low-cost computer for automatic hyphenation purged from the dictionary."'^- Accuracies of up and justification in the pubhshing field by Automatic to 99 percent are claimed.^^ Media Systems, Inc., , Mass. It features two cases represent, respectively, a logic- These a 2 milhsecond memory storage of 3.3-miIhon bits, a dictionary look-up approach. rule approach and enough for all the 325,000 Enghsh word entries in third method, that of pre-storing statistical A Webster's dictionary. The machine is pre-pro- probabihties for correct hyphenation depending grammed, and comes with two paper tape readers observed letter sequences is involved in the upon and punches. Accuracy is reported to be better operation, together Oklahoma Pubhshing Company than 99 percent of all hues hyphenated." aspects" of the logical with some of the "better Also, at National Cash Register, it is claimed that and dictionary approaches.^* This system "uti- "we can, if we are pushed, store the whole of the hzes two IB^^ 1620 computers with 20,000 char- big Webster in one CRAM deck with the hyphena- acters of core memory, IBM tape readers operating tion points, in practice one would use two."^^ at 500 characters per second, and tape punches However, it is by no means clear that even such operating at 50 characters per second . . . large dictionaries are fully adequate. Special "The hyphenation program begins with an edit requirements are imposed by high incidences of of the word to determine the number of syllables, proper names in newspaper work, by highly spe- and in some cases determines the hyphen point, or cialized practices in scientific nomenclature,"*" and the inabihty to hyphenate at a point. It next de- by the emergence of new words and word-combina- termines the probabihty of hyphens between any tions both in English and in other languages. two letters in the word and hyphenates at the most Some representative opinions with respect to probable point. . . . Accuracy of 94 percent is these considerations are as foUows: ."^^ reported for this program . . (1) "If a dictionary look-up is resorted to then it More specifically, "an analysis was made of must be continuously updated and arranged 40,000 different w^ords with their frequency in order, so that the most quickly available items are and the probabihty of a hyphen occurring before, those most used."*^ between, and after every possible letter pair was ". (2) . . A dictionary of some 600,000 words figured. Then these probabihties were stored in might ultimately be needed. It is possible the computer. When a word was to be hyphenated, to compile a hyphenation dictionary of these it was scanned letter pair at a time, thus develop- words for insertion into a random access de- ing the probabihties of a hyphen occurring at the vice. However, the number of words in- various points. The most probable points are volved and the constant appearance of new selected as hyphenation points." words makes this an expensive procedure if The Oklahoma example may perhaps represent it is to be sufficiently comprehensive to be a trend, at least in the United States, to the com- effective."*^ bining of various techniques in a single system. ". . . The problem as regards the Dutch lan- Thus, "the various approaches being taken today (3) guage is not finite, because we make any seem to be converging toward a combination sys- compound word we want; we string words to- tem—a basic logic program supplemented by a gether without spaces, as is the case in cer- of that small exception dictionary words cannot be ." tain other languages such as German. . . broken properly by the rules . . . Opinions dif- fer, however, on how large the exception dictionary The last of the above quotations reflects the ex- wiU have to be to achieve this goal. One manu- perience of the Mathematical Center in Amster- facturer beheves it can be reached with 2,000 dam. Corstius reports further: "We have to . . .

words, while another maintains it requires 12,000 [use] a logical process. . . . We tried our solution words." on 50,000 running W'Ords in normal Dutch text.

The principal advantage of dictionary look-up We achieved 99.5 percent accuracy. . . . Most approaches is that accuracy can arbitrarily be im- mistakes were made in words which were not Dutch proved, although short of 100 percent perfection, but English or French. They often occur in Dutch by the inclusion of more and more words in the text. The machine cannot see which language it is."«

^Data Processing Magazine 7, no. 5, 12 (19651.

" asaki. 196:1. p. 30. A. H. Beaven. Comp. I yp. Conl. Pn.o. 196.i. p. 193. Ibid. See. for example. Kuney. 1963. p. 249.

"The iRjevululion in Bouk Composition . . 1964. p. -W. Duncan, 1964. p. 156. " Blondeau. 1963. p. 87. « Pay. 1963. p. 331. »^ Sparks el al. 1964. p. 1&4. H. Brand Corstius. remarks. Computer Tvpeseltini; C

47 Results reported for other automatic hyphenation quirement is more complex than a first glance would

programs include successful experiments by Mitra indicate . . . [for example, after a hyphenation de- using Ferranti computers"*'' and trials of the TRW- cision 'of-ficial', it may be necessary to] re-analyze Fairchild system: "Right now, we are running at the second / and the i to recombine them into a

95 percent accuracy. . . Other programs are different hgature".^^ the technique developed at the Mathematical Cen- One service center organization, ROCAPPI, has ter in Amsterdam, used for example, in the prepara- proposed a working solution to this problem as tion of an anniversary publication of the Dutch follows: "What you have to do ... is to perforate Computer Society;"*^ IBM experimental programs 'ffi' normally, forget that ligatures exist altogether, for French, German, and Dutch,^^ and continuing and let the computer programme in its final stage work at CAE (Compaginie Europeane d'Auto- determine, (a) whether or not that 'ffi' is in the lower matisme Electronique) in applications of the case, (b) whether or not this line involves any letter Bafour-type logical system to French, English, spacing, and (c) whether it is in a font where you German, and Italian."*^ have a Ugature available. This is in the [Rocappi] "Programme de justification de textes" in the system now." November-December 1964 issue of Electro Calcul The difficulties associated with semi-automatic provides a current account of the CAE logical sys- and automatic hyphenation are manifold. The tem for hyphenation of French language texts, as first of these is that natural languages typically re- tested with Flexowriter input, giving only three quire word sphtting at points of phonetic stress errors in over a thousand word divisions. which do not always agree with usual syllable An unusual and interesting application of the boundaries.^^ Moreover, the syntactic usage of Dutch justification-hyphenation routine is the auto- word forms that are orthographically identical may matic typesetting of Braille. "We are going to dictate different hyphenation points, as in the case use the same programme for a TTS machine. For of "pre5-ent" and "pre-sent".^^ Some breaks are a Braille printer, which is being installed in Delft, to be preferred to others largely because of pro- Braille characters are rather large, there are only viding greater context expectancy to the reader for about 30 on a line, so you have to hyphenate fre- the remainder of the word to follow: thus "confer- quently, the same programme will be used."^" encing", "conflag-ration", "conduct-ance" and "At M.I.T., Assistant Professor Dwight Baumann "conversa-tion" are certainly to be preferred to the has developed a high speed Braille printer using a rigorously correct splitting after a prefix. There computer as an integral part of the system." are also, regardless of the authority used, many ex- In view of the obvious difficulties of achieving ceptions to the usual rules of syllabification. proper justification by any set of fixed and invariant The existence of variations in both rules and con- rules, it is not surprising that a number of different ventions of preferred practice raise the even more approaches to semi-automatic and automatic justi- fundamental question of what criteria are to be fication and hyphenation have been taken: for ex- used in judging "proper" hyphenation, as Duncan ample, as previously noted, in a single organization remarks: "Our first difficulty was to find an authority as many as 35 different methods have been tried. on what was right and what was wrong, and we Nevertheless, "at the moment, the clash between found those in English texts confusing and, in some the strict logic of computers and the largely illogical cases, contradictory . . basis for word division in the English language Other corroborative testimony on this difficulty present programmers with one of their most press- includes the following: ing challenges. In a very real sense, it is hy- the ". (1) . . First dictionary preference hyphena- phenation problem that continues to exert a re- tion. The only problem that you get into there straining influence on the more rapid spread of is which first dictionary, because dictionaries general-purpose computers beyond the newspaper don't agree, either." industry." (2) "One of the first problems to be faced in One special problem with respect to techniques developing hyphenation programs is what stand- for automatic hyphenation involves the question ards to use — word division differs from one dic- of ligatures (spatially overlapping character pairs tionary to another. However, a consensus seems or triples) in a given composition style or type face to be developing for use of Webster's Unabridged design. "Provision for hyphenating between char- dictionary." acters forming hgatures is not included in many (3) "It must be emphasized that there is no programs currently in use. Programming this re- error-free technique for hyphenating a word.

« Duncan. 1964, p. 154. Proceedings," !%5, y.i 11." F. S. Angell, remarks. "Computer Typesetting Conference "Xhe (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . 1964. p. 48. p. 180. C. Barber Comtyp Conf Proc 1965 p. 164. " "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceeding," 1965, p. 183. See Duncan. 1964, p. 156. Duncan, 1964. p. 157. Statement of C. Barber, Computer Typesetting Conference Pn)ceedings, 1965, " Bafour, 1965. p. 107. Corslius, remarks. "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings," 1965, C. J. Duncan, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1961. p. 184. p. 13.5. Kehl, 1965, p. 25. Tootbman, 1963. p. 103. " 1964, 5. "The (R)evolution in ." "Computerized Typesetting," p. Book Composition . . 1964. p. 46. 48 either automatically or manually. Human key- word breaks by iteratively resetting a number of board operators do not have perfect recall for lines. This solution has been advocated by Duncan, the content of Webster nor do they always refer on the basis of the University of Newcastle experi- to a dictionary when in doubt." ence, as follows: "The first programs were used in processing texts to procure some information, until The last point, namely, the incidence of at least then totally lacking, on the percentage incidence some human error in manual hyphenation raises of word splits in various widths of lines when set two further questions for system design: whether, within certain spacing limits, and an early decision on the one hand, errors introduced provide either was taken to try to avoid word breaks as often as quantitatively or qualitatively a serious enough situa- possible, i.e., to minimize the difficult part of the tion to warrant expensive equipment and costly problem — hyphenation. proofreading and whether, on the other hand, "Within certain limits it appears that word breaks hyphenation problems might be avoided entirely. and wider word spacing are interchangeable, and A practical question is the number of lines in by the processes programmed at Newcastle it is running text that must be hyphenated in order to possible to avoid word breaks completely in the achieve effective horizontal justification.

wider line lengths common in quality bookwork . . . Operating experiences reported in the literature "There is already evidence that a computer can include the following data: do what the better compositor-typographer desires — (1) "The [Los Angeles Times] system generally going back over several, perhaps many, lines and involves one hyphenation per 7 lines of text."^' adjusting spacing to improve evenness and close- Moreover, in view of the 85 percent average ac- ness and avoid awkward splits." curacy expected, "lines incorrectly broken are It is further reported that "In Britain, experi- then reset manually after the type has been cast. ments in computer justification at the University If the computer hyphenates one line in eight, an of Newcastle upon Tyne have attempted to limit accuracy of 85 percent will mean resetting 30 the spUtting of words to an absolute minimum. Unes in 800 (two lines must be reset for every The computer is programmed to hold an entire word division error), or 3.75 percent of all Unes paragraph in its memory until the last line is set. 62 cast." If a Une must be hyphenated to justify it, the com- (2) "The magazine Printing Technology, pub- puter will first try to reset the previous lines in the Ushed by Britain's Institute of Printing, Ltd., paragraph to eliminate the word split. If it can't

recently pubhshed an article set via the New- eliminate the spUt, it will then set the paragraph castle installation, in which about 4 percent of with the fewest possible splits." ^'^ the Unes set were hyphenated." Further evidence of the probable merits of the (3) "We have found that decisions on 8-point no-hyphenation solution is offered by the following: on 12 pica will run about one for every five lines. "One newspaper recently tried an experiment in We have also found that when running 8-point which an entire page was set without hyphenation. on 15 pica, the decisions drop tremendously — Loose Unes were justified by adding all required a decision every twelve lines." ^ space between words. Printed samples were dis- It is to be noted that the situation changes favor- tributed to a number of editors and executives on ably and rapidly the greater the column width and several papers, and their comments were re- hence the more opportunity for variation in both quested. The experimenters were surprised to inter- and intraword spacing. For text page compo- discover that no one seemed to miss the hyphens, sition without column breaks it is reported that: and that added space between words aroused almost "On long-measure book work, in the area of 25 no comment." picas, manual operators may hyphenate one Une On the other hand, while "some doubt has been in 10, while initial computer experience has pro- cast upon the value of horizontal justification by duced a record ranging from one Une in 100 to one psychological studies designed to test its effect 65 in 1,000." on efficiency,' it has a psychological value Quantitatively, then, the problem may not be too rooted in long tradition." severe. From a quaUtative standpoint, however, In addition to such psychological or aesthetic the ludicrous cases will of course leap to the eye factors, the gains from introduction of semiauto- and be well remembered to the detriment of recol- matic and automatic justification and hyphenation lection of the proportion of lines requiring no spUt- techniques include increased productivity in the ting or ending in correct hyphenations. keyboarding of copy, gains in the efficiency of hot- A final solution to the problems of automatic metal casting equipment, and type density improve- hyphenation is therefore that of returning to the ments with less waste space and thus less page and "ignore" solution of avoiding or at least minimizing paper cost. These gains, combined, can produce

« Sparks et al.. 1964. p. 185. " Ibid., p. 184. "The (R)evoluiion in B(»ok « 1964. p. I.S4-16(I. Composition . . . 11." 1964. p. 47, Duncan. " ." "Computer . . ®^ ", Hyphenation 1964. p. 45 "Computer Hyphenation . . 1964, p, 45, " Morton. 196.3. p. 100. 6» Ibid. .". "Computer Hyphenation . . 1964. p. 45. Sparks et al.. 1964, p. 166.

49 both "significant cost reductions and faster publi- A second gain, in some cases, that of increased '"^ cation schedules." efficiency of the finecasting equipment itself, has With respect to the first of these factors, it ap- been hailed as unexpected: "An unexpected ad- pears that the keyboard operator works faster and vantage has been less down time on the hnecasting makes fewer errors when stroking unjustified and machines. Since the computer is not apt to set unhyphenated output copy, than when producing lines either too loosely or tightly, the hnecasting justified tape and making manual hyphenation machines can operate at steady high speeds without decisions. Representative operational data re- jamming or undue wear."''''* ported in the literature include the following: Boyd comments to much the same effect as "Although figures published as to the economics follows: of unjustified tape perforation have varied widely, "Another saving that computer justification . . . it is generally conceded that a net productivity brings is on the hnecasting machine itself. Tape increase of 30 to 40 percent can be reasonably an- processed by Linasec [I] is almost entirely free ticipated. With keyboarding a major focal point from either slack or tight lines and also the lines in typesetting costs, this saving can be significant." where the keyboard operator has forgotten to press ." "We have developed statistics at Perry Publica- any end-of-line key at all. . . tions that indicate they get about 45 percent faster "A tight line in a caster causes a stoppage and loss production by having a typist type unjustified paper of production out of all proportion to the fact it is ."^'^ tape as against typing with the justified." just one tight line. . . "A 30-40 percent increase in the production of Finally, to the extent that computer justified punched tape is claimed by the [Los Angeles] input tapes minimize machine stops, they also Times using a 301."^'^ "reduce accordingly the need for monitors and "The most difficult saving to estimate accurately machinists on line casting machines."**" is also the most important: that is, increased key- board efficiency. Before we committed ourselves 4.2. Corrections, Updating, and Merging to Linasec we made some initial trials with one particular operator, and this showed that an in- Still another advantage of the introduction of crease from 10,000 ens an hour on justified work to semiautomatic and automatic methods to the compo- 15,000 ens an hour on unjustified work was possible. sition operations is the provision for making cor- In practice, what we hope to achieve is somewhere rections, updating, and merging with greater around 20 percent to 30 percent average increase efficiency, less cost, and higher speed. The prob- over a roomful of perforators."^'^ lem of the high costs and difficulties of making Results of Oklahoma Publishing Company's use corrections to standing type, as a result of author of 1620: changes in proofreading has long been recognized as a special problem in scientific and technical "1. A computer copy tape requires about 80 primary publications. It has become so severe percent of the strokes that are necessary for that, as Duncan claims, "A number of scientific normal teletypesetting operation. periodicals, particularly American ones, and a 2. The operator perforates about 30 percent number of book pubhshers, can only continue in faster since he isn't concerned with justifica- business by refusing all corrections subsequent tion and hyphenation decisions." to acceptance of final typescript."^'

"Rocappi, Inc., has estimated that a TTS per- In the pioneering Bafour system it was anticipated: forator operator who theoretically could produce "Further it is possible to obtain at the same time 15,000 characters . . . per hour of justified tape as the coded tape, a typed copy which is an exact would be able to set 25,000 characters ... of indication of the contents, including the regis- unjustified computer input tape."^^ tered signals. It is also possible to produce, "The studies revealed that a skilled tape punch after this initial operation, a second tape of the operator may be expected to meet production of modifications or additions which one wishes to 2,560 Unes per eight-hour day, based on 80 percent incorporate in the initial setting, by recording productivity of an operator punching and justifying them with respect to the initial signals. at a working rate of 400 lines per hour. It was "At the input of the computer we only have a estimated that a relatively skilled typist producing reader for two tapes of which the second, much copy at 80 words per minute, 6 words per Une, shorter, serves to control modifications of the might be expected to net approximately 5,120 lines signals of the first in the desired places." per eight-hour day, based on an 80 percent pro- In particular, even the deletion of a single word, ductivity."" the substitution of a longer word for a shorter and vice versa, or the addition of one or more words

Kunc). 1%.J. p. 2 W. " "Computerized Typesetling," 1964. p. 4. "Toolhman, 1963. p. 106. " Yasaki. 1963, p. 28. " Boyd. 1965, p. 31. Goodwin. 1964. p. 34. " Blondeau. 1963, p. 86. ™R. Boyd, remarks, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings. 1%5, p. 37. »" "The (K)evolution in Book Composition ... 11, 1964, p. 50. Yasaki, 1963. p. 29. " Morton, 1963, p. 96. »' Duncan. 1964, p. 124.

50 to a single line typically affects far more than the or a function. At the end of each line the pro- resetting of that one line. 'Even if the problem is gramme puts that total out on the tape. At the only that of correcting an improper hyphenation- end of a page, the programme tells the operator it decision, at least two hnes must be reset. has finished the page, and the operator takes this The introduction of photocomposing techniques piece of paper tape and immediately puts it straight not only did not help the text revision correction back into the computer again . . . When this problems — it made them worse. tape is right we take it to our typesetting device,

"In the composition of newspaper text, photo- which has ... an output punch . . . [that] composition has never been widely employed be- punches a second tape. At the end of the page cause of the page revision problem. Part of this we compare the two tapes . . . If there is an error, problem results from the fact that it takes so long the computer prints out a little note saying 'line 4, to phototypeset corrections and get them into new 7th character might be an error' ".**'' plates for printing." It is to be noted, therefore, that: "Merging op- Systems involving punched paper tape output erations offer an obvious and immediate area in as well as hard copy have also been notoriously which computers can automate the composition awkward to use for the insertion of corrections process. Merging is involved in many composition and changes unless tape merging devices have been jobs — everything from inserting corrections in provided. Otherwise, the operator must reproduce new type to revising and updating previously printed the original tape with careful watch for indicated material." positions for change and, upon reaching such posi- Working with either source manuscripts or re- tions, manually step the tape through character by vised editions of previously printed material, ex- character until those requiring change occur, then tensive insertions and deletions may be necessary. punch their replacements into the new tape and The new advanced techniques offer such capabili- resume machine reproduction until the next cor- ties as the following: rection indication is reached. "This article reports a new approach to the The two such systems usually credited with paper tape updating problem, which involves the pioneering introduction of calculators for hne space use of a high-speed electronic digital computer. counting were also innovators with respect to tape A computer program that is called the ESI system merging and editing functions. Thus, "the Friden has been written to enable the 709 computer to re-

Justowriter . . . pioneered built-in calculation of vise paper tapes for a Friden Flexowriter . . . the justification-spacing parameters and of tape- The facihty to update Flexowriter tapes with a com-

editing procedures,"**^ and "Robotype is the first puter . . . implies the facility to produce updated

automatic merging system specifically designed Photon tapes . , . for printing. The keyboard in this case is a modi- "The style of the editing instructions used with fied IBM typewriter. It produces a justified tape the ESI system is illustrated by the following and also the hard copy on prenumbered paper." examples .... Duncan reports further that: "Semiautomatic "Delete and close from the fifth paragraph methods of keying-in corrections were demon- through the second occurrence of a paragraph be- strated quite conclusively by Bafour in his 1958 ginning with the name 'Alice' . . . examples and have been further developed in the "Start a new line with the last sentence in the Robotype auto correction system in which the input seventeenth paragraph. is in coded blocks with tagged lines." "Start a new paragraph with the last two words and ."^^ Today, "Linofilm, Robotype, Justowriter in the fourth line of the seventh paragraph . . for Photon among others aU provide facihty merg- Similarly, at Rocappi, it is claimed that "we have ing tapes used in their typesetting systems." the abihty to accept input from any known conven- The Intertype computer is another example, offer- tional paper tape perforator. We can justify and ing both readers and punches which can be con- hyphenate. We have correction procedures to trolled in various merging operations at rates up insert and/or delete material at will. In other to 100 characters per second. words, we can kill from the third word on hne 90 A special feature of such automatic tape merging to the eighth word on line 737 and insert one word, systems may be the provision of means for auto- two lines or the Encyclopedia Britannica."^" matic detection of at least some errors which might Still other prospects are for automatic asseribly be introduced by the keyboarding-punching-proc- by computer of completed galleys, plus editorial essing operations. For example, "The computer changes, deletions and insertions into appropriate produces paper tape and, as it is punching, it adds page make-up for the completed article or book. up the values of each code, just the binary values This would also involve the merging-in of footnotes, of every single character, whether it is a character titles, section headings and the like.^^ Looking

\', M. Corrado. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, C. r. Koss. remarks, 'Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings". 1965. p. 221. p. 99. 56. Duncan. 1964. p. 146. " "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IH", 1964, p. 8» " Boyd. 196.5. p. .32. Barnett and Kelley, 1963, pp. 99-101. Duncan. 1964. p. 164. C. Barber, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 108. " Ohringer, 313. """The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV", 1964, p. 70. See 1964, p.

51 ahead to the muhiple processing capabiUties of graphical composer-printer system is a complicated general purpose computers Barnett and Kelley and formidable task." suggest further: Similarly, with respect to a specific job under- "This approach could be generahzed to deal with taken for , Freiman reports that source material on several input tapes. The ma- "on the Linofilm, using the normal set-up with terial would be selected, organized, and edited in conventional ready-made grids, we discovered that accordance with an edited text description that we would have to average about 10 grid changes the computer read from another tape. The descrip- per line. This made the Linofilm absolutely out of tion of the material to be copied could use several the question because of the slowness thus en- different addressing systems. These could involve gendered."^'' The same commentator also sug- page numbers, chapter and section numbers, docu- gested, however, that the Linotron with its very ment date or author, chapter and section names, high speeds and multiple-pass capabilities would and combinations of these and other forms of ref- provide an adequate solution to such problems. erence. The ordered selection of material could Merging in of corrections, insertions and dele- be augmented by further computer operations, tions has already advanced so far in newspaper such as sorting, in the production of the final composition work that in the Los Angeles instal- "^^ output. lation, for example, it is claimed that: "Much of the As of today, however, while automatic aids to savings generated by computerized typesetting at horizontal justification and hyphenation have been the [Los Angeles] Times is based on computer in- extensively tried, with varying degrees of success, sertion of editing changes.""'' the problems of vertical justification and page Still another advantage of new facilities for auto- composition have been attacked sparingly and, matic or semiautomatic insertion of editorial usually, on a strictly experimental basis. Thus changes and corrections lies in the area of variously the conclusions reached in a relatively early study styled editions, revisions, and re-issues of material are still highly pertinent today. From "Report on ranging from training manuals to and the Study and Investigation for the Design of a even to the automatic combination of several Lexical-Graphical Composer-Printer System," texts.*"* in the words of reports of the Mergenthaler Lino- Some typical claims with respect to primary type Co., we find the following (page 7): publications or secondary publications, or both, "The page composition and page make-up func- are as follows: tions involve the ordering of alpha-numeric char- "One application is the conversion of source acters into lines of type, the arrangement on make- documents into any kind of a composition system, up of these lines into the text columns of a page, either directly from authors' manuscripts or from and the allocation of space on the page for related previously printed documents into a new format — illustrations, all in accordance with specified page such as hard-cover books into .""^ formats." "There is a useful by-product for the book printer In that study, an examination was made of the in a continuous tape system: that is, that a book most flexible conventional techniques, methods, once set can be produced in a variety of type faces and equipment for page composition and page from the original or corrected tape.""^ make-up, employing hot metal casting of either "If a new edition is required, then the original individual characters or complete lines. Hot tape, with a correction tape, and the new style in- metal methods were selected because their extreme structions can be re-submitted to the computer. flexibihty offers a "worst case" from the point of This provides a substantially new product, but one view of duphcating the functions in an automated in which the cost of keyboarding is probably only system. The results of that investigation of hot 10% of the full cost.""" metal procedures is summarized, in the list of func- "A second type of re-issue involving only altera- tions given above, which omits manuscript prepara- tions in style arises from the use of the computer tion, galley proofs, art work, dummy make-up, generated tape with compatible but relatively minor proof reading, preparation of table of contents and changes in the photo-composing machine. Just indexes, and operations leading to printing. exactly what is possible will depend on the output Quoting again from that report (page 7): "To machine used, but a simple example would be com- those unfamiliar with the graphic arts processes position in 8 pt. on 9 pt. body to some suitable that lead to the printed page, these results serve reduced page width and depth in place of the origi- as an eye-opening revelation of the complexity of nal which was 10 pt. on 11 pt. body composition."' the tasks involved in producing a product that is Finally, there is the prospect stressed by Corrado so casually accepted and taken for granted. To the that material available in computer-usable form but initiated, these results serve as explicit confirma- tion of the fact that the incorporation of page compo- R. A. Freiman. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, pp. 230-231. sition and page make-up capabihties in a lexical- "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . Ill"*, 1964, p. 56. ™ Barnett and Kelley, 1963, p. 106. " Merz, 1964. p. 85. "" Boyd, 1965, p. ^^5. »» Barnelt & Kelley, 1963. p. 108 Duncan, 1964, p. 162. Mergenthaler Linotype Corporation, 1963, p. 7. ' Ibid.

52 not presently reproducible with typographic quality letter-spacing, removal of widows, short lines, and may in the future be re-processed: multiple hyphenations occurring sequentially."^ "We are preparing a master typography program Page composition operations at ROCAPPi (which for a general purpose computer. . . . Input to this had, in collaboration with RCA, produced over 50 master typography program can be existing mag- samples of book pages as early as 1963) involve netic tape. For example, there may be a tape such operations as the following: "The function of standing today that was meant to be run on a 1403 Phase III is to make up the matter from the gaUey hne printer. With a minimum number of editorial output into pages, putting in running heads, insertions for what we caU an insertion program, and chapter headings, picking out footnotes and the information on that tape can be made sophisti- references, putting in captions, and so on, and at cated enough to permit the master typography the same time eliminating widows, short lines at program to provide all the information for the the top of a page, hyphenations breaking over a page Linotron."- and other typographical horrors." ^ Barnett and KeUey point out, further, that: "In Another aspect of the page composition problem general, the production of a revised publication involves the question of requirements for switching requires typesetting and proofreading processes between character sets, beyond the single-run that repeat the expense and time delays of the origi- capabihty of the specific equipment. nal production, even though the changes may affect With respect to relatively early Linofilm experi- only a small fraction of the characters in the text. ence, for example, it is reported that: ". Changing a few words here and there may cause . . Since point size may be changed only at quite considerable changes in hne and page breaks, the beginning of a line, it is not possible to switch and 'stripping in' can be very awkward and time from an A grid, which can produce point sizes from consuming."'^ six to twelve, to a B grid, which has point sizes from twelve to twenty-four. If it is desired to vary point

size within a line, it would be necessary to make two 4.3. Vertical Justification and Page passes, changing point size and film advance to Composition accomplish the desired result." ^ In the case of scientific and technical text in- close, even spacing desiderata are achieved Just as volving frequent insertion of mathematical and other by line-by-hne horizontal justification, so also are special symbols, the problem is particularly severe. vertical justification and page make-up considera- For example, Croucher remarked on some of these tions important in terms of the page as a whole. difficulties, involving several different systems at the "The advent of computer actuated type-setting London computer-typesetting conference as follows: and photosetting devices makes it all the more "We found that we averaged 200 grid changes per important and advantageous to focus attention on page, on Maths, on the old 88 matrix grid", and, the problem of finding the most effective formats "we found the Linofilm difficult because of the fact for the composition of the printed page."^ that we had to bring in practically all the 18 grids possible computer solution to the problems One even on one page of mathematics." ^ of horizontal justification and minimized hyphena- The multiple-pass solution to the problem of tion requirements has already been reported: that changing fonts and hence enlarging the total char- of holding the contents of a set of hues in memory acter set repertoire is also suggested for more recent iteratively re-trying line justifications to im- and developments such as Linotron which, to an extent, prove the entire paragraph or page. This solution trades character set size during a run for extremely is related to problems of vertical composi- closely high speed character generation. Thus, "in area tion, whether of column or page, especially avoid- composition . . . you can do all of your Century, ance of "widows" (i.e., left over at the bottom of a say, first. At the end of that pass you go back, and paragraph or page, or carried over to the beginning while you are going back, you can change the char- of the next page). acter grid to your Spartan, and then fill in all the In this connection, idea of the difficulties some holes with your Spartan. Consequently, the num- of providing broadly applicable machine rules in ber of font changes is only as large as the number the automation of compositor functions is provided of different type faces on a page."'" by the example of the programmer who "told the Prospects for progress include recognition that: computer that a widow of three characters was "The computer can assign page numbers, allow possible — whereupon the computer produced a line predesignated spaces for inserting drawings, photo- containing only a period and two closing quote graphs or other graphic information, and can insert marks. subject headings and column headings automati- In book composition planning at the Westerham Press, for example, Maclntyre reports: "The items interested we were in controUing were word-spacing. * Maclntyre, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 1965, p. 34. ' T. H. v. Archer, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965, p. 120. ^Corrado, 1964, p. 116. ^ "Graphic Composing Techniques", 1962, p. 22. ' Barnelt and Kelley, 1963. p. 99. ' G. Croucher, remarks, "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings", 1965, * Eugene Garfield, panel discussion, Markus, 1962, p. p. 230. 19ft4, "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . II," p. 47. "Corrado, 1964, p. 114.

53 cally. By minute variation in the leading between down to ^3 and enlargements up to 6X. The key lines, the computer can easily accomplish vertical board has recently been modified to include mixing justification so that the bottom and top hues of all facilities ('Linomix') and editing simphfied by a tape columns on the same page will be flush."'' merging and reproofing device ('Tape Combiner').""^ Barnett and his colleagues also point out that: "The primary advantage of the rapid display "The problem of linearizing formulae is really a response time of a cathode ray tube is in the editing special case of the more general problem of linear- of texts where several sequential editing steps are izing two dimensional topologies. A scheme is required and where the editor cannot proceed with being developed by the authors, that gives names a particular step until he has seen the results of a

to objects, and then compounds these names in former step. . . . This rapid response capability expressions in which connective symbols and is useful in page makeup where rewriting and re- operators are used to indicate topological associa- justifying of text are required to fit text items in tion, scahng and ahgnment."'^ their allotted spaces." "The aim to produce close even spacing through- out is not a mathematical ruling — in fact due to 4.4. Two-Dimensional Composition optical variations it calls for slight variations in spacing according to the shape of the encompassing Over and above requirements for a large, versatile letters, just as do the beginning and ends of lines character set, pre-prepared and available either with some characters or sorts, and some founts. directly or indirectly, many applications have need This information can be fed into the computer's of a capability to insert within a printed page sym- memory and used repetitively."'^ bols and other material extending in both dimen- Other prospects promised in current computer sions beyond the confines of a single line. In scien- programming developments include: "A further tific and technical information processing, the most refinement of spacing concerns rivers of white. obvious examples are mathematical equations and It should be possible to define them by a string of chemical structure diagrams. The two professional numbers or place labels. They can then be societies most obviously concerned have therefore searched for, before they occur in the computer been studying these problems over the past several output, and possibly avoided. . . . years. "Fully automatic editing can be achieved using At the American Mathematical Society use has the type of special language created by Barnett for been made of specially designed Photon discs and 'calling' the changes and for finding the correct a pi-mat attachment for the setting of Critical Re- place to make them using the text itself to indicate views of Mathematics. Subscripting and super- the 'address'." '"* scripting operations are readily available. At the Finally, the problems of vertical justification and American Chemical Society, Kuney and his asso- page composition are related to the problems of ciates have been exploring various approaches to area composition as in display advertising, composi- the setting of chemical symbols, as well as other tion of book jackets, and the interpolation of two aspects of high-speed, higher-quality machine-aided dimensional graphic material. Barnett considers composition, since 1958. the latter to be far more difficult as such than those One obvious alternative in both the mathematical of page makeup: and chemical cases is to abandon the traditional "Page composition provides a descriptive prob- symbols and to use alphanumeric names for them lem that is less serious, as the subdivision of pages instead. "With the limited keyboard available on into rectangles of material that can be set as units the present Flexowriter, most mathematical symbols usually is simpler than the corresponding subdivi- and Greek characters must be essentially spelled sion of formulae. A simple notation can be used out in abbreviated form. . . . This not only reduces to describe a page by an expression which uses the speed at which the input text can be transcribed names for items of text, and a nested algebraic but also results in tedious typing for the operators, '^ notation for the distribution of these, in adjacent thus increasing the possibihty of errors." rectangles of different sizes."''' The typesetting of such special symbols is claimed In terms of hardware developments applicable to to be "one of the most difficult tasks in the modern many cases of page and area composition, one composing room . . . the setting of mathematical example is Linofilm. equations, chemical structural formulas, and other items that, although part text, "The Linofilm system . . . embodies one im- of the differ from ." '^ portant 'first' — the Composer, which is essentially ordinary text. . . It is also reported that, a selective rephotographing device completely quantitatively, the number of two-dimensional in- under the control of the layout operator. With sertions, from tabular data to diagrams and illustra- this editing and re-arranging device the operator tions in scientific and technical text, ranges from can do compHcated display work with reductions 40% to 70% of the total text.^" Moreover, require-

" Sparks et al., 1964. p. 185. '» Duncan, 1964, p. 144. " Barneti el al.. 1953, p. 270. " Buckland, 1963, p. 179. " Duncan, 1964, p. 160. "Graphic Composing Techniques", 1962, p. 33. " Ibid., p. 164. I '» Kraft, 1963, p. 8. '= Barncit el al., 196,3. p. 270. 2" Buck et al., 1951, pp. 1-3.

54 ments for manual setting of complex mathematical . Can formulas be set flush left, flush right or centered? A Yes. Quadding of the component lines in formula composition is chemical formulas are such that conventional the and same as for normal text, so long as the start of each hne is at the typesetting facihties tend to become saturated.^! same reading (ems and units) on the Keyboard Unit indicator tubes. Likewise "The process of preparing chemical structures each line must end on the same indicator reading. These are determined by the cast-off hne. The following examples for printing purposes is complex, slow, and expen- show all three types of quadding: sive. While much has been done using the charac- ters available in cast metal type, such structures jdxFix) [-»£6U)] = jdx(x^ + F'js{x)=F{Oj are subject to spillage and breaking of characters, particularly subscripts." ^"^ jdxFlx) ^-x£b(x}j = Photocomposition techniques have offered some jdx(^x^ + F'^&{x)=Fm new possibilities. Thus, Barnett reports of Photon developments:

". . . Letters, digits, and other symbols to be used as subscripts and superscripts are available on many discs. . . . The base hnes of such charac- ters are displayed with respect to the normal charac- ter base line, so that they are displayed automatically Q. Can the formula be centered and the reference number set at the right? in the appropriate position with respect to the A. Yes, as shown in the following example: characters which they append".^^ An example of Linofilm capabilities is provided jdxF(x) \^-x£&{x)'^ = jdx{^x^ + F'^Six)=F{0) in Figure 46. (32.0-27) As Feldman notes, "The recently introduced 'cold-type' typesetting machines [such as Photon and Linofilm] appeared to offer promise for the com- position of chemical structures, because these machines do have the ability to go from one hne to Q. Can one character be superimposed over another? another before either line is finished. However, A. The examples here show superimposition achieved by the same technique in text certain computations still have to be made in this lines and in a display formula. process; there is also a backlash which becomes It can be done readily this in this noticeable when a hne is approached once from as S justified line and also as shown in the formula below. above and then from below." As previously noted, work on typographic-quality composition by semi-automatic and automatic means began at the American Chemical Society at least as early as 1958. A first approach was the Fk.URE 46. Linofilm mathematical setting examples. development of a Photon test disc providing 50 lines and angles with which to construct the characters proposed at American Cynamid for the typing of Stylized two-dimensional graphic material, such as structural formulas. Using this approach, for line drawings. example, benzene rings can be constructed which Pertinent findings and observations include the range from V4 to 3 inches in height.^^ Then, following: ". . . to develop compatibility with the input of the "The input writer is a modified 'Flexowriter' Army chemical typewriter, the proposed character with a keyboard containing the strokes needed design was extended to include: to form Chinese ideographs, and keys controlling 1. Full-length single and double bonds. the operational functions which place the fully 2. Combinations of half-length straight and formed ideographs in the filmstrip text. The angle bonds for corners and inserting of alpha- keyboard also furnishes information to a code betic and numeric characters within the ring. generator and to the logic system within the 3. Offset single bond hnes to be used to form machine. double bond effects within the inner structure. "The keyboard contains 21 basic strokes, 20 4. A complement of miscellaneous charac- ideographic entities, and 11 punctuation marks. ters." Each stroke has been assigned a letter of the A report by the University of Pittsburgh research alphabet. Special English alphabet key caps group working oft the Chinese ideograph project have been fitted so that non-Chinese operators exemplifies some of the difficulties but also points can compose on the machine by using Chinese to some of the potentiahties for other types of language copy that has been English-language coded in advance by Chinese-English linguists. "Each stroke generates a 5-bit code which is " U.S. Senate. 1960, p. 117. fed into shift registers and then into a coincidence Kuney and Lazorchak. 1964. p. 303. Barnett et al.. 1962. p. 63. detector. The magnetic drum . . . has a capac- Feldman. 1964. p. 20.S. " Kuney and Lazorchak, 1964, p. .304. ity for storing codes for 10,000 ideographic char- ^Mbid., pp. 304-305. acters. These characters are made of as many

55 as 20 strokes. . . . When coincidence occurs "On 8 June 1955 a contract, supported jointly by between the stroked character and the same the Army and the Air Force, was awarded for the

character stored on the drum, a signal is development of a prototype machine . . . dehvered generated. in December 1959. The Sinotype had a basic "Employed in the optical system are an optical vocabulary of 2,333 ideographs and was of an elec- tunnel, a vidicon imaging lens and faceplate, and tric-pneumatic-mechanical design. It proved to be a photographic memory plate (called a character quite slow in operation, too sensitive to the shocks matrix) with a matrix illuminator, containing 160 of field use, and difficult to maintain."-^ groups of 16 ideographs each. This system Radio Corporation of America has developed a transfers a replica of the character, selected by Chinese ideographic photocomposer for the U.S. the operator and located by the logic system, from Army Natick Research Laboratories. A modified the character matrix to the input of the video Flexowriter provides keyboard input for 20 complete system. The video system electronically scans symbols, 21 strokes, and 11 punctuation marks. that group of 16 characters on the character Codes generated by the keyboard address a mem- matrix which contains the one demanded by the ory drum, which in turn directs the illumination of operator. It then selects the one required and portions of an optical character matrix. The char- presents it to the operator, on a display kine- acter is viewed by a vidicon camera tube and

scope . . . for verification. displayed on a verification oscilloscope before photo- "A character, generated on the exposure kine- graphing. Special characters can be inserted by

scope . . . is transferred by means of the 'photo- means of an insertion vidicon. The machine vocab- graph' key on the keyboard to the optical system ulary is 2500 characters, expandable to 10,000 and is imaged by means of the lens system onto characters. photographic film. Characters are photographed on film in 10, 12, "When the operator strokes a sequence that 18, or 24 point size, in a page format of vertical defines more than one ideographic character, columns set from right to left, or horizontal rows set the first character recognized at the coincidence from left to right. detector will have associated with it a special Methods for reproducing chemical structure pulse indicating ambiguity. In this case, a maxi- information by special typewriter and keyboard or

mum of four characters can be displayed. . . . by high speed computer printout have been explored The operator can select the desired character by Jacobs and Feldman at Walter Reed, by workers by stroking keys on the keyboard that are espe- at American Cyanamid, by Crane and associates cially marked to indicate the quadrant of the at Eastman Kodak, and by Waldo at Monsanto. display kinescope where the desired character is In the Army chemical typewriter developments shown. of Jacobus and Feldman, for example, a set of char- "An insertion vidicon camera is built into the acter and conventions of usage are first developed. machine to allow the insertion of characters not "Then, as the structure is typed, a tape is perforated contained in the machine vocabulary. with the codes of the characters typed, and the "If a required character is not present in the codes of the coordinates of the position of the char- machine vocabulary, the operator can place his acters on the typewritten page. ... A computer

copy, or a document containing the desired char- program, rearranging the output of the . . . type- acter, on an insertion tray. When the 'insert' writer so that chemical structures can be typed out key is depressed, the insertion vidicon is acti- line-by-line, was written by Harold L. Manceaux.

vated and will scan the document or other . . . Grouping according to the y-coordinates material, and the vidicon system will reflect what brings together all characters that appear on the it sees on the display kinescope. The operator same line; these characters are then spaced propor- can relocate the document until he has the display tionately to their x-coordinates. By ordering the he desires. The zoom lens of the vidicon is then y-coordinates sequentially, a tape containing a line- adjusted to display the character in the desired by-hne output is obtained. Such computer-pro- "97 Size. duced tapes are suitable for driving tape-controlled typesetting machines." ^® 4.5. Specific Photocomposing Equipment It is planned that encoding and typing of struc- tures in accordance with the Army chemical type- The possible development of keyboards specifi- writer scheme can be computer-processed to obtain cally designed to feed photocomposition systems a tape to drive the Photon for setting of chemical has been under consideration for a decade or more. structures.^** Holm points out, also, that: A special case of two dimensional symbol com- position is that required for typing or printing "Mechanical input is possible through the Chinese ideographs. The Lin Yutang typewriter Walter Reed Army Institute of Research type- is an example.

" U. Pitt., 1964. pp. 1-2. ^FeMmin, 1964. 206-207. M pp. "U. Pitt.. 1964, pp. 7-11. kiinev and Lazi.rchak. 1964. p. 305.

5^ )

TecHnlcal Text Co»»

Cio-'o9rN40fS 5-Bromo-?-metanI lamidopyrimidlno

M C e a •42 : / \ a = 1 d'= 1 •50 ^b = 113° Br—C C —NH

b = 1 •75 d'= 1 •SO (ass. ^bc =: 100°

> c = 1 •80 p = 1 •90 = 13?"

0 0 (Brrors uncertain)

C.S. 1 (O P = 0-?4 (Structure dominated by heavy atoms)

Cjr'-'33!0; Lanostenyl lodoacetate

C

0

The crystal I ograp'^ic observations are consistent with thg chemical representation of the skeleton tHo«n above. NOTE - The numbers refer to bonds not to atoms.

1 7 = 1 •5? = •64 = 1 = •55 •M 13 19 1 ?5 = 1 47 31 = 1 •44 a = 1 = 1 •59 = •67 = •M 8 14 1 ?0 1 39 ?6 = 1 39 3? = 1 •51 b = = 1 •41 = 1 •66 = •38 9 15 1 ?: = 1 •50 27 = 1 •53 33 = 1 •55 c - 1 •40 = •66 = •61 =^ --- = 10 1 16 1 ?? 1 54 ?8 = 1 •5? 34 = 1 •5? d 56 11 = 1 •56 17 = 1 •69 ?3 ^= 1 54 ?9 = •5? •6? = •56 •51 ;a 1 18 = 1 ?4 = 1 39 30 = 1 •57 Mean C - C = 1 ^54 i 0^09

C.S. : ;c,)

Fl(,URE 47. Outimt of Technical Text Compiler.

writer or through optical scanning. However, and Y coordinate information (Burger, 1964). Sam- the capabiHty exists today to take any of these ple output, as of December 1964, is shown in input forms and transform them within computer Figure 47. memory ... if the input generates a unique and Kraft, in 1963, described the Mergenthaler "Dia- ." unambiguous form. . . grammer" as follows: "Mergenthaler's Diagrammer is a prototype device by means of which an operator Lnder U.S. Army sponsorship, also. General can project any one of 400 symbols onto a viewing Electric investigators and personnel of the Redstone screen, move the projection across the screen to any Scientific Information Center have developed an one of a series of positions, and expose the symbol experimental Technical Text Compiler System, uti- onto the corresponding position of a D-size (or hzing an IBM 7094 computer and the S-C 4020 dis- smaller) photographic film or paper. ... In the play capabilities. Input can be accepted from either prototype Diagrammer, the entire symbol comple- hne-at-a-time devices such as the Flexowriter or ment is composed of electronic symbols and their from the Army Chemical providing Typewriter X ." associated nomenclature. . .

^' Holm. 1965. p. 162. Kraft. 1963. p. 13.

57 In a Diagrammer model demonstrated in July material have to do with a potential mix of character 1965 a basic character set of 256 symbols is available recognition techniques for text and the identification to the operator at any one time. These are stored and location of graphic material to be copied or on glass slides for optical projection onto a viewing stored for later interpolation in proper page make- screen. The operator is free to move a selected up. First, it was noted that: symbol about and to change its size as required. ". . . The microfilm containing text and graph- Two other examples of computer output capabili- ics can be used in an optical projection system. ties are the generation of printout of annotated The shutter of the projection system may be flowcharts and weather maps, as follows: controlled by signals established by the text "The present approach was to define an algo- reader to indicate the presence and extent of ." rithm capable of one-pass operation a small (IBM- graphics. . . 1620) computer, using a Calcomp digital incre- Secondly, with respect to the proposed FMA "Text mental plotter online to the produce annotated Discriminator and Reader Programmer", it was re- flowchart. The use of a digital plotter capable ported that: of operation under program control seems largely "This equipment, as proposed, would be an elec- to have been overlooked in past considerations

tronic read-in device incorporating . . . techniques of automated flow charting. Two advantages are

to distinguish text from graphics. . . . Some of the immediately apparent: (1) solid-hne unrestricted more promising techniques are: definition of chart symbols; and (2) an essentially ." unlimited character set. . . "1. Frequency response differentiation between "Another approach to handling computer out- text and graphics. Text is characterized by put is to scan and transmit microfilms generated sharp edge and maximum contrast while by devices hke the General Dynamics S-C 4020, graphics contain slow changes and all shades the Data Display dd-80, or the scanning converter of gray. built by Burroughs Michigan Laboratory to re- "2. Recognition of special marks associated with place the 30 by 30 inch printer plotters now used graphics and equations. Generally minus with the Weather Bureau's 7094 computer to pro- and plus signs will be present in equations, duce weather maps for facsimile distribution." thus providing unique symbols which can be Another surprisingly early direction of experimen- recognized easily. Also the density of marks tal investigations, stemming in large part from the and equations is not uniform as in the text." Air Center, has interests of the Rome Development IBM Report, 1962. This report concerns the been the question of intermixing textual and graphi- exploratory work undertaken to tie together the material, in high typographic quahty output, cal AN/GSQ-16 (photoscopic disc) machine translation from mechanical especially for such areas as output system with the special IBM 704-Mergenthaler translation programs where it is desirable to inter- Linofilm system also used by Barnett. More specif- equations, charts, drawings, figures and other polate ically, the project objectives were to process graphic illustrations including half-tone representations of data through the translator in order to reproduce in the appropriate positions with re- photographs such data in the printed output, and to improve the series of spect to the machine-translated text. A typographical quality of the translated-text output. highlight projects at three reports Syracuse Univer- Some specific details are as follows: "The sity (Buck et al., 1961): IBM ("Graphic Composing composing rate is only about 60 words per min- Techniques," 1962), and Mergenthaler (Mergen- ute. . . . There are usually quite a few font changes thaler, 1963). per page, and each font change requires several Some of the aspects that are of general and con- seconds. . . . Most articles have a number of un- tinuing interest include the following: translatable items, such as charts and pictures. Syracuse Report, 1961. This survey outlined var-- It is necessary to leave blank film in the output, so ious system proposals and extensively reviewed the that the items may later be pasted in their proper then available technology and equipment, including positions. A page or text with no font changes or proposed developments and modifications. Perti- pictures can be printed at about 110 words per nent details, such as planned modification to provide minute. better typographic quality of the S-C 4020 and the "The translated information would contain a quad CBS character generator, early versions of the space, or tabulate, character between the two sec- Alphanumeric and Videograph systems, and de- tions of the information [i.e., text, and graphics scriptions of equipment not now available (DACOM, to be interpolated]. This causes the program to Electrada), have been cited as appropriate else- quad left the information which is in the output where in this report. Two further examples, of area at the time of the quad space character. Then peripheral interest to the main topic of this report a character is placed in the output area which sets but reflecting future prospects for two dimensional a zero film advance, and the remaining information composition and interpolation of graphic with textual is assembled and written out with a quad right end

^"Anderson. 1965. p. 38. el al., " Alden. 1964. p. 13. "Buck 1961, pp. lV-12.

58 of line command. This causes the second section quired to code a complex formula would probably of the information to be written on the same line as be greater, or at least no easier or less expensive, the first part. hen the line has been written, the than direct setting without the intervention of a normal film advance is restored, and the program computer." continues. Secondly, optimistic, including the incorporation is two "If the information to be centered on or of color: "The practical application of such displays more fines, the total width of the information to be as chromatron photo chromic dyes, coupled with centered has been accumulated in the 704 memory. such reproduction means as thermoplastic recording This value is divided by the number of lines on or smoke printing will usher in an era of true elec- is to get which the information to be centered, an tronic printing in all the flexibifity we have come to approximate width for each line. expect in printed communication." "If graphical material interrupts a sentence, the Thirdly, some specific difficulties: "If the original sentence must be completed to the nearest punctua- is screened halftone or a combination cut. however, for the necessary tion mark (except a comma) before it is essential that the enlarged output have the same for Par. and Tab. instructions can be given the space size as the original: inasmuch as it is impossible to allotment. Control or edit instructions must not change the size of the picture without changing interrupt a sentence or idea. If edit information the size of the screen, w-hich will damage the ap- is inserted in the midst of a sentence, an improper pearance of the halftones. . . . translation may occur. "Because it is a highly skilled operation, consider- "If the information is to be centered on two or able difficulty can be anticipated in incorporating more lines, the total w-idth of the information to be automatic screening into the Lexical-Graphical centered has been accumulated in the 704 memory. Composer-Printer. However, such recent develop- the number of fines on This value is divided by ments as the Logelectronics projector may make it which the information is to be centered, to get an feasible." ^° approximate width for each fine. . . . Fourthly, impfications for man-machine collabora- "Most of the work done to prepare the translated tion: "The paste-and-cut method for transferring information for the Linofilm unit is done by an IBM equations, graphs, etc.. could now be replaced by 704 computer. ... A number of instructions have the post-editor indicating w^hich figure from the been added to the 704 which, although not neces- source text should be placed where in the output sar\-. simpfify the working program. For this rea- if optical printing techniques are used."^^ Again. is used is ". son, the particular 704 program which . . Special mathematical symbols which do not 704." not directly compatible with another appear in the tape as it comes from the printer are added on the character display tube Mergenthaler Report, 1963. This report, and its ... by use of the light pen which we have attached to our PDP appendices. carr>- forward still further the question 4 computer." of present and future prospects for "Lexical-Graphi- Fifthly, the prospects for drastically reduced cal Composing-Printing" (LGCP) systems. Specific image-storage requirements, with a reasonable consideration is given to machine-controUed com- facsimile reproducible upon demand. "Much work position, reproduction and/or material ranging from is under way to store pictorial representation, such fine art iUustrations, tabular matter and mathemat- as the chemical structure in packed coded or binary ical equations to screened halftone iUustrations. form, with the reproduction of the original pictorial Thus: "'The tonal scale of the is simulated form upon request either as a display on film, or in the printing process by making the dot pattern printed." structure on the plate a function of Finally, with respect to both present and rea- the tonal gradations of the original illustration. sonably predictable future technological develop- Thus the dark areas of the original illustration are ments, we may agree with Duncan's conclusion that: represented by a dot pattern in which the dots are "There appears to be no real technical barrier to relatively large and with fittle white space between the simultaneous or practically simultaneous com- the individual large dot areas. . . . position-imposition of both text and graphics." ^ "The output graphic must be a dot pattern struc- ture in which the distribution of the dots over the image area represents a faithful reproduction of the 5. Documentation Applications continuous tone input image. It should be noted that since the dot pattern structure does not appear In the broad field of documentation, generally, and in the input graphic, it must be created within the the introduction of high speed semi-automatic will undoubtedly LGCP system."'^' automatic composition techniques Other pertinent comments in the fiterature on have its first and greatest impact in the field of present and future prospects for two-dimensional composition and interpolation of graphic material ^ "Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 5. in text include the following: machine-processed ^ Herbert. Ohlman. Panel discussion. Markus. 1962. p. 25. First, a negative reaction: "The keyboarding re- Kraft. 1963. pp. 7-8. " Reitz, 1964. p. 278. -•-Ohringer. 1964. p. 313. « * "Graphic Composing Techniques". 1962. pp. 7, 14, 17, 18, 29. Holm. 196.5. p. 166. "MeiKenthaler, 1963, pp. 13-14. Duncan. 1964. p. 135.

59

231-313 OL-67-5 primary publication especially that new genus, 5.1.1. Barnett and Others at M.I.T. the publication of computer-compiled and computer- generated materials. This new genus ranges from The pioneering work of Barnett and his associates numeric tables through directories and revised at M.I.T. runs a gamut from proper presentation of editions of training manuals to text and tables of computer-compiled and computer-generated pri- reports automatically generated by machine ref- mary pubhcations and to secondary pubhcation in erence to and selection from stored data. many forms precisely because its intent is general Applications to computer output also include the purpose. Generality is achieved in allowing Flex- complementary operations of conversion of text owriter, punched card, and other forms of input and of computer-usable records for storage and subse- in program 'packaging', while output versatility quent search and selection, on the one hand, and (709-driven Photon processing and later, 7090) is use of computer-usable text for multiple purposes, as is illustrated in Figure 48. on the other. Apphcations in the area of the more conventional This was produced from the input record, in part primary publications range from typesetting of text as follows: for articles, books and newspapers through the is- suance of revised or different editions to the merging [indn77dl21s24stl, , 36cnxsl] in of editing changes at early manuscript or proofing EXCERPT FROM ALICE IN WONDERLAND stages and the merging of "core" material with [nllslS] special local variations. December 6, 1961 In the area of secondary publications, indexes [sp4st2, 10, 36st3, 11, 36st4, 12, 36st5, 13, 36st6, whether automatically, semi-automatically or man- 14, 36st7, 15, 36st8, 16, 36st9, 17, 36stl0 18 ually prepared, announcement journals, com- 361sl4dllxs2rl] puterized book and card catalogs, accession lists, [scl9scl9]Fury said to bibliographies generally and demand bibliographies [xs3]a mouse, That resulting from machine-searches, abstract journals, [nlxs6]he met automatically prepared abstracts, shelf lists, [xs7]in the accession lists and output of translations of material [xs8] house from one language to another (whether by man [xs9] [scl9]Let us or machine) are all technically promising candidates. [xs7]both go A new impetus might be given to the "current con- [xs61sl2]to law: tents" concept if cooperating journals could trans- [xs5dl9]I[dll] will mit text of their table-of-contents pages by wire to [xs3] prosecute a center which would assemble and reproduce [xs2dl9]you. them preserving the original typography if desired. [nlxs3dll] Come, I'll Special-purpose or more sophisticated applica- [nlxs4]take no tions will probably extend from today's experi- [nlxs5] denial: ments on composition of relatively stylized two- [nlxs7]We must dimensional materials such as chemical structures, [nlxs81sll]have a mathematical equations and drawings to the page [nlxs9] trial [sc47] composition of both text and graphics, and per- [nlxslO] For haps eventually to the results of man-machine [xs7]really interaction via display consoles and light pen [xs6]this insertions. [nl] morning In the remainder of this section we will consider [nlxs81sl0] I've examples of some of these applications which are [xs6] nothing either in practical production, have been demon- [xs5]to do.' strated experimentally, or have been extensively [xs4]Said the investigated. Before discussing applications to [xs2] mouse to primary and secondary publications, newspaper and [] the cur, book composition, specialized bibliographic aids [nlxs3] [scl9]Such a and relationships to mechanized storage, selection [nlxs41s9] trial, and retrieval systems and service center opera- [xs3]dear sir, tions, however, we will consider prototype general [xs2] With no purpose programs for computerized typesetting. [xs2]jury or [xslls8]judge, 5.1. General Purpose Computer Programs [nlxs2] would be [xs2] wasting The first of the general purpose computer pro- [xs2] our breath.' grams developed for a variety of possible docu- [xs31s7] [scl9]ril be mentation operations is that of Barnett and his [xs2] judge, associates at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- [xs2] I'll be nology. [xs2]jury,'

60 :

[xsl] Said Photocomposit ion [xslls6] cunning [xsl] old Furv: [xs2] [scl9]rUtry [xs2]the whole [nLxs31s5] cause, [nlxs4]and "Fury said to [xs3] condemn a mouse, That [xs3]you [xs3]to he met [xs3] death."' in the [en] house, Note should be taken first of the intermix of "program" (i.e., input, processing, and output in- 'Let us structions) and textual data and secondly of the extent of the total input occupied by precedence both go and special coding. This may involve a high initial to law: keystroking penalty, as mentioned elsewhere. /will The anticipatory control subroutine may be of particular significance in integrated publication prosecute processes since, as Buckland points out: "Page, you. volume, and issue numbers are needed for journal Come, I'll citations in an index. This data is not known until the typesetting and page and journal layouts are take no complete and would therefore, have to be derived denial from the composition information, whether or not must ^ We a computer is used to prepare the type." A specific appUcation example is the production have a of the Union listing of Chinese Communist sci- trial; entific periodicals prepared by the M.I.T. Libraries. For Barnett reports: "The source material has been really punched on a Flexowriter, with special symbols representing diacritical marks in an arbitrary cor- this respondence. Certain types of input item are de- morning limited by carriage returns, tabulations, slashes, I've periods, and combinations of these and a few other nothing simple criteria. The relevant control codes are to do.' inserted for new lines, indentations, columnar Said the alignments, changes of type and diacritical marks, ^ mou.se to by a program that is specific to this apphcation." ". the cur, In general, in the M.I.T. program, . . The computer is used to set material, organize and to 'Such a impose elaborate formats mechanically onto mate- trial, rial that is keyboarded in a convenient and casual dear sir,' manner, thus avoiding the extensive clerical work With no and precise typesetting that would otherwise be jury or ."^ necessary . . and, "It has been our objective judge. to develop a general purpose program which could would be deal with a considerable variety of photocomposing wa.stinp our breath. problems that were defined in a suitable input •nibe language. A language and the corresponding pro- gram have been developed that take care of fea- riibt- tures which are common to many typesetting jury,' situations."* S:ii(l <'ii|)nlii^' Some specific details of the computer-composer old I'lirv: programs, at various stages of development, serve 1 11 Irv t lie whdU- to illustrate both programming challenges and di- iillil verse application potentiahties. First, an initial ititiilcniii

' Buckland. 1965. p. 8. = Bamell el al,. 1963. p. 269. 48. Barnett program output. 1 Luce and Barnell. 1963. p. 293. Figure ' Bamelt el al.. 1963. p. 264.

61 control code sets certain composing parameters margin, the first word of the 'run-on' paragraph such as page width and page length, sets the type would be brought back to the left margin and the

style by table lookup, and selects the type size blank line between paragraphs closed out . . (usually, the smallest lens size available).^ This and "If page breaks are not specified, a text of initial code also controls the setting of body lead arbitrary extent is split into pages of the appropriate (distance between the base lines of two successive length by the photocomposing program."'^ lines) and specifies vertical spacing.*" Programming complexities and attempts to main- The input code, for example, for Flexowriter tain adaptability to future, more sophisticated material contains both the style codes which by requirements are further exemphfied as follows: suitable will control the conversions selection of "The evolution of the programs that effect the . . . the appropriate disc track number of the Photon (input code to composition code) conversion has and other control codes, specify justified or unjusti- consisted largely of the provision for an ever in- fied hnes, flush left, centering, or flush right, and, creasing variety of format requirements."'^ for justification, specification of the criteria to ex- "... A further subroutine that deals with con- or pand compress interword spacesJ Essentially, trol codes is then called. . . . This is switched by such Flexowriter input "is treated as a continuous the control code to a subroutine that deals with stream of information which is split into lines in the particular code that has been encountered. the output by reference (i) to line width and justi- This segregation of the effects of individual control fication considerations, (ii) to control codes in the codes facilitates continued expansion of the set input that specify the beginning of new lines ex- of codes with a minimum of recompilation."'^ * plicitly or implicitly, and (iii) to paragraph breaks." "It can be seen that in some types of apphcations, Next, the input codes are converted by computer certain combinations of control codes would occur program (with the various control codes in the ma- repeatedly in the input, if interspersed coding were terial automatically calling up the appropriate pro- employed. For this reason, it is convenient to gram sub-routines) to a composition-controlUng code. define macros, for an individual job, by suitable "The disc level, lens size, sequence number, statements that precede a text in the input medium, escapement, and vertical space and then to use the names of the macros, between codes constitute the fl^-code, that is produced by square brackets in the text, whenever necessary. the photocomposing programs and is written on At present 25 macros may be defined for concurrent magentic tape, from which punched paper tape is use . . . (incorporating) up to 12 individual control produced off line, using an improvised magnetic to codes." "The nested structure of the program paper tape converter."^ can be extended to include further layers, and this In terms of the internal computer processing, will be done to deal with problems of page composi- "The status of the setting process at any instant is tion." "Expansion of the program to deal with recorded by some 70 parameters. These are stored larger units of text in a coordinated manner (e.g. in a 'status' array. . . . Whenever a parameter is providing page justification, arranging 'run arounds' changed, a record is kept in a 'backtrack' array of to leave space for diagrams that will be visible when in the status array of the the position parameter the relevant portion of the text is read) will require that has been changed, and of the superseded value. increased provision in the program for retrospective before an interword is If overset occurs space modification of the w string that has been formed."'^ encountered, the contents of the backtrack array "Delayed action codes will make it possible to speci- restore the status of the setting may be used to fy elaborate formats in which changes in style and process to that which was current when the previous so forth occur at points, such as line endings, which word-end was encountered." cannot be anticipated until the spacing consid- It is to be noted further that, in the Flexowriter erations have been determined by the p to w Flexowriter input case, "The input subroutines for conversion."'^ material deal with backspacing and error correc- The work of Barnett and his M.I.T. colleagues has tion codes in the tape, both in the representation obvious applicability, because of its generality, to of the text and within interspersed control infor- ."" service bureau or service center operations where mation. . . many different customers may send their work for With respect to vertical justification and page processing. Duncan says: "The practical result composition it is noted that: "The 'run-on' instruc- of the M.I.T. team's work to date are best exempli- tion ... is used to remove a paragraph break, by fied by the Typrint and Tabprint manuals which bringing the first word of a paragraph in the unedited editorial staff use to order up their work from the text into a position two blanks beyond the period computer." ending the previous paragraph. If the end of the previous paragraph was too close to the right

'- Barnett ari Kclley, 1963, p. 104. "Barnett el al., 1962, p. 65. Barnell el al., 1962, p. 61. " Barnett el al., 1963, p. 264. Mbid. p. 64. 'Mbid, p. 268. ' Ibid, p. 62; 1963, p. 266. Barnell el al., 1963, pp. 268-269. " Ibid, 1962, p. 61. " Ibid, p. 268. • Barnett et al.. 1%3, p. 265. Ibid, p. 268.

'"Ibid, p. 268. '» Ibid. p. 269. " Ibid, p. 267. Duncan, 1964, p. 153.

62 5.1.2. INewcastle Program especially Prof. John Horty and other members of the Health Law Center. In addition to over six At the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in miUion words of computer-readable text of various England, consideration of the possible uses of com- statutes, the Pitt Center has a cooperative arrange- puter techniques in automatic or semi-automatic ment with the Lancaster Press whereby, for t}-pesetting apparently began at least as early as example, computer-readable copy of the text of 1957-1958.21 However, it was not until 1961 that The Physical Review is available even before it Duncan and his associates at Newcastle received is printed and distributed. grant from DSIR (Department of Scientific and a ^ ith the acquisition, under a National Science Research) for the experimental investiga- Industrial Foundation arrangement, of the former M.I.T. of computer programs for this purpose. tion computer-Photon equipment used by Barnett and Using first a Ferranti Pegasus computer, the out- his associates, the University of Pittsburgh teams put of Newcastle programs could be "reproduced are able to explore both aspects of high-speed proportionally spaced Executive either on a IBM composition and computer combination poten- Typewriter for "economy* work or put through a tiahties: . . This system wiU supply information eight-) to thirty-one-hole tape converter five- (or to the information speciaHst which he previously did producing the thirty-one-hole tape to operate a not have available. . . . This includes type font, 'Monotype' caster or 'Monophoto' setter." type size, and page layout in addition to the text. Duncan and his associates have offered proof of This will be important in identifying words or their "pudding", "first a report to the Institute of phrases in italic or bold face, thus providing re- Printing at the 1963 including composition IPEX searchers with an additional tool to enable true for in Ferranti Computer orld, a double spread ^ information retrieval instead of simply word or Printing the communication to Technolog>- being document retrieval." programme. This was followed set by Newcastle More specifically, in the developing Pitt program, setting of in the Penrose by the 'Look No Hands!' many typical difficulties have been encountered ." annual for 1964. . . and certain anticipatory solutions sought. Ohringer 9 Then, in May 1964, the Enghsh Electric KDF describes some of these as follows: "Problems installed 8-channel input and out- computer was and which we have had to solve to be able to implement put paper tapes were adopted. Present program our plan included: (1) There did not exist a paper objectives include the further development of prac- tape reader capable of reading these [typesetting] tical programs for use in industry, especially for tapes into a computer. Nor could we locate a exploration of general book make-up work, then the company which was interested in designing or purpose programmes for table and display composi- building one for us. (2) The codes in these tapes tion including the interpolation of mathematical, are not directly computer compatible. (3) The chemical, and other special symbols, the continua- meaning of the codes in the tapes vary from printer tion of development activities, especially in the area to printer and often a single printing plant will of keyboard design, and the making available of the use several different codes. (4) A complete article experimental facihties to other laboratories and is not punched onto a single tape but is generally to users in the printing industry. divided onto several rolls. (5) The editing changes Duncan reports further: "Once the existing pro- and corrections are not incorporated into the paper have with an effective grammes been augmented tapes. (6) Some special mathematical symbols editing routine they can form the basis of a series are omitted from the tape completely. And (7), of tests of real work, with an attempt to specify in the character set used by the printing industry con- accurate terms the precise economies of the proc- tains several thousand characters, compared to essing employed. This may very well reveal that less than 50 characters readily accessible to our a different system is needed before (and perhaps computer." after) computer processing to make sensible econo- Planned solutions include provision in the com- mies, and it will then be necessary to try and set up puter system for input from any of the different at least a demonstration 'new' system for evaluation perforated tapes now used in the publishing and purposes." printing industries. "These include tapes which are 5, 6, 8, 15, and 31 channels wide. Although of Pittsburgh Program 5.1.3. University the codes used on these different tapes are not directly computer compatible we have written the At the University of Pittsburgh there has been necessary decoding programs which allow the for some time considerable interest and experi- computer to accept and make sense of these mentation in machine processing and machine different codes."-" search of natural language text. These interests have combined the endeavors of the Computer The Pitt system also envisages on-hne man- machine interaction using techniques of display Center staff with those of subject matter speciahsts.

Duncan. 1965 (b), p. 1. " Ohringer, 1964, p. 312. ^ Duncan. 1964. p. 154. -i Duncan. 1965 Ibl. p. 1. 2«Ibid., p. 312. «Ibid. p. 2. 2- Ibid., p. 312.

63 console and light-pen intervention, especially for conversion from the BCD tape to the binary tape in the insertion of mathematical and other special Linofilm format took thirteen minutes. It would symbols. have taken about 300 hours to set the table by ". . . Special mathematical symbols which do conventional methods." not appear in the tape as it comes from the printer Bozman notes the following observed advantages: are added and any necessary corrections are made. "The proofreading and correcting of typographical This is done on the character display tube by use errors would also have taken considerably more of the Hght pen which we have attached to our time, especially since the table produced was PDP 4 computer." "^'* not completely proofread (after proofreading the first few pages without finding an error, a decision 5.2. Primary Publications was made to check only the first and last fine of each page)." In addition, "computer and com- As the pioneering example of a formal scientific puter-processed data can now be prepared for publication typeset by computer-photocomposer pubhcation by an automatic method that retains combination, Bozmah's work with the cooperation the high typographic quality of conventional type- of the IBM Mergenthaler team will be considered setting. Better page formats with less waste first. It is noteworthy, also, in demonstrating how space result in less cost for paper, with the added effectively proofreading requirements may be benefit of a smaller size which is easier to handle." ". reduced or eliminated by the adoption of such . . Automatic setting of a large amount of techniques. tabular data processed by computer for commerce,

finance, scientific and governmental purposes . . . 3.2.1. Computer-Compiled and Computer-Generated [involves copy which is] relatively unsophisticated, Primary Publications typographically speaking, but for reasons mostly associated with the precision required and the At the National Bureau of Standards, William R. variety needed within the framework, this has been Bozman has programmed an IBM 7090 computer, fairly expensive by composition methods apart using FORTRAN programming language and FAP '^' from the inherent error rate." symboUc coding subroutines, to generate magnetic Errors reside not only in the re-keystroking to tapes in Linofilm code, for the preparation of provide reproduction copy and/or perforated tapes scientific tabular data. These magnetic tapes are to control casting equipment but also in the casting converted to Linofilm 15-channel perforated tapes, equipment itself, and, in addition, human proof- which are in turn used to control a Linofilm photo reading of copy before final printing is by no means unit. infallible. Some of the details of the first publication are Primary publications in the sense both of tech- as foUows: first, the values for the transition proba- nical reports and articles in journals that deal with bilities for the spectral lines of 70 chemical elements the subject of automatic composition itself have were computed by an IBM 7090 and the results been noted elsewhere in this report. An example were read out onto magnetic tape in binary coded- of space saving and other advantages to be achieved decimal (BCD) form. Next, using a program coded by the introduction of these techniques to the re- in the FORTRAN language, the BCD tape was production of reports and technical papers was converted to binary coding for the characters provided by 1963 Mergenthaler experiments, as making up the numerical values to be included in follows: the tables, for the control codes, and for the for- ". . . Two experiments at Mergenthaler Linotype matting instructions (e.g., 10 quad-left codes were Company. In the first, a 43-page article (standard used at the end of each page in order to give blank single-column, typewritten format from an ASTIA hnes between pages so that they could subsequently listing) was reset and automatically, made up with be cut apart. the assistance of a specially programmed electronic This binary coding, output to another magnetic computer. The phototypeset article occupied only tape, provided the precise bit (punched hole) 22 pages — only one-half as much as the original patterns necessary to operate the experimental typewritten article. In the second, a paragraph- magnetic-tape controlled Linofilm installation at style parts list, produced directly from computer IBM's Watson Research Center, thus, "The binary print-out as eight and one-half by eleven inch, magnetic tape for input to the paper tape converter double-column, all capital, 7-point copy, was reset was recorded in 'records' of 2.50 computer 'words' in a 6-point sanserif type in a 3-column format on of 36 bits each. . . . Each computer word contained the same size sheets. This page carried 180 two characters to be typeset, corresponding to percent more material than the original."''"^ two rows of holes on the 15-channel paper tape. . . . "Starting with a typewritten, unjustified "The computation of the data and preparation manu- , with illustrations, and with simple editing of the BCD tape to the binary tape in Linofilm format took twenty minutes on a 7090 computer: the

Bozman. 1963. p. 1.

" Ibid. p. 4. '" Duncan, remarks, Compulcr Typeseller Conference "Proceedings", 1965. p. 6. » Ohrincer, 1964. p. 313. Krafl, 1963, p. 275.

64 rules, the contents of the article were fed to an IBM production of the large number of copies de- ."^^ 1401 computer programmed to operate on the input manded. . . information in accordance with predetermined As of 1964, it could be reported that "more than format rules. The output of the computer was a two dozen daily papers now own, lease, or have magnetic tape that carried (in coded form) justified, ordered computers. "^^ More specifically, "The double-column text that had been properly made use of computers in printing has made greatest up into pages, space having been assigned for the headway in newspaper pubhshing. The first com- insertion of the illustrations at the most appropriate puters used in production were RCA 301 models points in the text. This tape was then fed into a installed at the Los Angeles Times and Mirror and Linofilm Converter to produce a tape that controlled the West Palm Beach, Fla., Post-Times almost two a Linofilm Photographic Unit to produce fully com- years ago. Since then, 22 other computers have- posed pages, phototypeset in an attractive combina- gone into operation or are on order by the nation's tion of type faces." daihes, according to a recent study by the American In a more general sense, potential apphcations Newspaper Pubhshers Association."^^ in the area of primary pubhcations are demonstrated In the same year, 1964, opinions of newspaper by the experience to date in both newspaper and pubhshers with respect to the introduction of the book composition developments. new techniques, despite possible labor-relation difficulties, could be reported as follows: "The 5.2.2. Newspaper Composition Toronto Telegram had 49 linecasting machines. PubHsher John Bassett has been able to scrap seven, With the minor exception of science news re- immobihze eight others, and put another 25 on porting, the problems of newspaper text, classified part-time production. Nearly aU the type for his ad display advertising, and stock market table type- 60- to 70-page, 200,000-circulation afternoon daily setting have Uttle direct appHcabihty to the problems is now produced by just nine automatic, computer- of processing, and using recorded scien- handHng, fed Hnecasters, which require only four monitors tific and technical information. However, it is in a shift to keep them running. The 200-man compos- this area of apphcation that the greatest progress ing room is now about 120, and wage savings alone has been made, to date, in the use of automatic are estimated at $10,000 a week."'*'* and computer-controlled typesetting techniques. " 'If newspapers are to operate efficiently', says Text typesetting using unjustified tape has pro- pubhsher John S. Knight, 'they must automate'. gains not in lower duced only keyboarding cost and Knight's Miami Herald houses an IBM 1620 and an increased efficiency but also in column space IBM 1460 that set type, bill advertisers, and — in density, hence lower page and total issue cost. the absence of a strong union — can be harnessed for Yasaki cites Los Angeles Times experience as ""^^ other labor-saving tasks. follows: "Any newspaper with circulation or 50 K The "notable installations" remarked on by about 20 typesetters can justify the rental of hard- Goodwin, as of 1964, included "the Los Angeles ware for typesetting purposes alone at per $3.5 K Times, Palm Beach Post-Times, and Washington month. Booth (L. A. Times operations director) Post with RCA 301 systems, and the Daily Okla- says. ($3.5 K is the average rental for a 301 con- homan Times, Washington Star, and South Bend figuration with out the high-speed reader and Tribune with IBM 1620 systems." ^2 More recent punch.)" ^ Similarly, "The 301 can output RCA examples include the use of the NCR 315 in Florida, in excess of 30,000 hues per hour producing justified where "the people at Orlando Sentinel Star claim tape for a 21 in. column in seventeen seconds." to be setting more editorial copy by computer, as Furthermore, "Major benefits of computer con- distinct from classified ads, than any other news- trolled typesetting systems are speed and efficiency. ". paper"; and the British plans for . . The Evening Fast breaking stories can be covered in earher Post — the new evening newspaper to be launched editions and normal typesetting loads can be by The Thomson Organisation Limited in Septem- handled by fewer people. Computer justified ber . . . wiU be printed by the Web-offset process lines usually contain more type thus the and news typesetting system and "^^ using a new computerised to space ratio is improved. photofilm composition. The photographic com- ". It has been claimed that: . . The greatest posing technique wiU be initiated by twelve key- number of automatic systems to date are in news- boards coupled directly to a general purpose digital paper composing rooms, where raised type is gen- computer — the Elhott 803B."'*3 erally used. In these systems, the typesetting is Newspaper composition applications also illus- performed by tape-controlled Linotypes, which are trate some of the additional advantages promised controlled by electronic computers to arrange the by automatic composition: direct tie-ins to com- type properly in the page make-up. Such systems munication Unks, merging of "core" with peripheral permit the use of high-speed rotary presses, and thus lend themselves to the rapid, economical 3' Krafl, 1963, p. 276. M "Signs of the Future?", 1964, p. 88. s'BlundeU, 1964, p. 28. " Krafi, 1963, p. 276. « "Signs of the Future?'", 1964, p. 88. " Yasaki, 1963, p. 29. "Ibid. ^ Duncan, 1964, p. 146. « A. H. Beaven, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 1965, pp. 191, 193. Goodwin, 1964, p. 34. «The Computer BuUetin 9, 19 (1965).

65 or locally revised material, and semi-automatic or to set copy properly on the page. It would be better automatic aids to two-dimensional composition, if we could set copy in block form, as can be done especially for display advertising. First, internally: with an area composition device like the Linotron."^'' "The New York Times columns are compiled on hot However, IBM, RCA. Photon, and other sup- metal linecasters from tape produced from a Friden pliers of equipment have been working with poten- Add-Punch which adds the current price to the pre- tial customers in this area. For example: "The perforated tape carrying the main invariant body of applications of the Perry Publications and the the table." Los Angeles Times center around text-matter com-

Next, with respect to wire association services or position. . . . We (RCA) are getting involved in to the various members of a particular newspaper other areas, particularly with Perry Publications, chain where it is desired to merge national with where they are now setting the Palm Beach Life local interest copy. Thus, the same basic copy and parts of the AU-Florida Magazine by computer, may be processed many times "to produce columns and where they are now in the advanced stages of for editions sold in ten different geographical zones. developing of procedures for composing display (These zone editions may differ in their local news ads on the Photon machine. They are also in content, but contain common state, national, and experimental stages in the composition of pocket ."^'' ". international news.)" books. . . . . IBM is currently developing Another example is the Associated Press: "AP a system for setting hot metal display advertising in New York have recently installed an IBM 1620 type by computer."^' system which puts out six-hole TTS tape direct over Looking toward future progress, Yasaki quotes the wire news network so that it is punched out at H. C. Durbin of the American Newspaper Pubhshers the newspaper plants ready for the Une-casters. . . . Research Institute, Inc. as prophecying, in 1963, "Local alterations to wire tape services can be that: "When properly programmed, stories and added by a simple tape merging system while the pictures contained in a computer memory auto- material is held in a magnetic tape or disc file." matically will be justified, composed, capitalized, Yasaki notes, with respect to the Los Angeles and positioned in the desired form at extreme

Times installation that: "Unlike other computerized speeds. . . . Pictures are displayed as halftones typesetting systems, the Times' 301 can accom- in the proper position and size, ready for production modate teletypesetter tapes of wire services of an engraving for , a litho- (Associated Press, United Press International). graphic plate, or any other system of printing. These tapes already contain justification codes, but Tear sheets, including halftone photographs, can for a type size at variance from that used at the be produced on Electrofax paper or by Xerography Times, and only for one column width. (AP stock directly from the face of a cathode ray tube."^^ market tapes, however, are compatible and being Moreover, as Spencer comments: "Today we are used.) The 301 has been programmed to eradicate in the throes of another technical revolution in justification codes on news story tapes, to re-justify printing. Metal is gradually being eliminated from and, if necessary, to hyphenate lines." composition. Released from its discipline the Although under active investigation and in some designer is free to place his lines of type at angles, cases experimental trial in several different organi- and he can curve, cut, or display lines and juxtapose zations, the potentiahties of semi-automatic and one line of type closely against another or he can, automatic aids to typographic composition have if he wishes, superimpose one word upon another."^^ been less apphed to display advertising than to textual copy. One of the reasons for this has 5.2.3. Book Composition apparently been the hne-by-hne rather than area or page composition approach so far practically While newspaper composition has held the lime- available. fight in terms of practical production operations For example, Corrado has reported on different involving high speed, high quality, automatic com- occasions as foUows: "Several major computer position to date, book composition advantages are manufacturers are trying to do computerized display at least on the horizon. One of the major gains from advertising with the conventional phototypesetting semi-automatic and automatic composition tech- machines. They are finding it very hard to justify niques is, as we have seen, the relative ease of re- the use of the computer with their existing, line-by- issue with or without corrections and updating or hne machines. An area-composition machine in different sizes and type-styles. These possibiU- like the Linotron is much more suitable." ties may offer significant advantages for scientific "The basic problem in doing display advertising and technical texts. As a representative of the on a phototypesetter is that existing phototype- British pubhshers. Hazel Sun Ltd., has pointed out: setters set type line-by-line. This makes it hard "It is our very firm opinion that a prima facie case

" Duncan, 1964, p. 149. V. M. Corrado, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 196.5, p. 221. " Pay, 1963, p. 330. "Toothman. 1963, p. 101. ,S8. Duncan, 1964, p. 149. "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . Ill", 1964, p. " Yasaki, 1963, p. 28. '-Yasaki, 1963, p. 31. Corrado, 1964, p. 115. '^Spencer, 1964, p. 21.

66 has already been made out for computer typesetting journals, the dilemma between the high speed of "^^ as applied to general printing. computer compilation and the desire for high In 1963 it could be reported by representatives typographic quahty of the product has been par- of Alden Press that "as innovators we are moving ticularly acute. slowly into volume typesetting. We have completed On the one hand, a trend toward computer proc- many small commercial jobs and several complete essing is developing because of such consideration books, including textbooks. We look forward to as the following: "As the bulk of the text increases, high-volume production of quality type at reduced it becomes increasingly necessary to seek high- "^^ costs on a faster production schedule. speed composition and printing techniques in order In the same year, 1963, Westerham Press Ltd., to reduce the time between the editorial closing in England, began a research program for com- date and the actual press work. ... puterized typesetting. At ROCAPPI (/?esearch "Response times for large cumulations will be On Computer /ipplications in the Printing and significantly shortened through the mechanization Pubhshing /ndustries) book composition develop- of the prepublication manipulation activities neces- ments are under way on a service bureau basis. sary for preparation of the text. . . . Here, "one of the first problems encountered was "Although publications are now being produced avoiding widows at the tops of pages. This report- by conventional techniques, the problems of up- edly has been solved by retaining two pages in dating and cumulation have made many of them too memory storage until the first hne of the third page expensive to produce as frequently as required. "^^ is checked. If this line is a widow, the machine Another gain in the area of secondary publica- can then remake the preceding pages to eliminate tions, particularly abstract journals, announcement it. . . . Effort has since been concentrated on pro- journals, and indexes stems from tape or computer grams for handling footnotes, captions and double merging capabilities. This "lies in the fact that column makeup. "^^ setting takes place during the month concurrently Where the newspaper organization has control with indexing, whereas with every other method over both the format and media of input (and, as in setting commences after the month's issue has been the case of the Los Angeles Times, can impose re- closed and sorted." quirements that reporters write the original version On the other hand, a number of considerations of their copy on special typing equipment), the book with respect to secondary publications and other pubhsher typically does not. At Westerham Press bibliographic tools point toward continuing require- for example, the use of a general purpose computer ments for good typography. First are questions in automatic composition was decided upon: of space utilization and hence of cost. In the case "We decided on a general-purpose computer for of many large indexes, for example, both the size the following reasons. We ascertained that we of the printing run and the number of pages per could accept varying types of imput; by that I mean volume dictate maximum page space utilization. that we would not be hmited to one specific perfora- Other reasons have generally to do with questions tor. The tape had to contain certain function codes, of user acceptance, such as the following: and provided the perforators produced these func- "The typographical quality of bibliographical tion codes and produced either a five or six-channel tools is an important factor, since they are intended tape we could accept them into the computer and for continual visual lookup and as such are subject translate them into a computer code by means of to the same rigorous demands for quality and a translate table. This would enable us to accept legibility as are the publications intended for a perforated tape from a printer or a publisher or, retrospective search."^' if necessary, from an author."" "Technical information bibliographical guides, Blundell claims: "A special advantage of com- in Great Britain at least, are themselves struggling puters for book printers is that type only has to be for a wider acceptance, and I do not think that our set once. . . ! A copy of the book is produced by newly converted consumers will accept standards a print-out device at the same time the computer of visual clarity lower than those we obtain with is performing its justification and hyphenation func- Varityper."^'^ tions. Corrections in this copy are fed into the Attempts to provide the timehness and speed of computer, which then produces the tape used by compilation and reproduction offered by KWIC the printer."^^ (and other computer-compiled indexes such as WADEX^^) with improvements in the typographic quality of the product range from the use of a modi- 5.3. Secondary Publications, Specialized fied 1403 chain printer to provide upper and lower Bibliographic Aids, and Integrated Systems case or to simulate bold face effects to full-scale In the area of the preparation and reproduction of computerized high speed photocomposition. secondary pubMcations, especially announcement •« Sparks et al., 1964, p. 188. ™Coates, 1965, p. 46. " Fullick, 1965, p. 23. 8' Sparks et al., 1964, p. 157. Morton, 196.3. p. 99. Coates, 1965, p. 47. ^ "The (R)evolutinn in Book Composition . . . Ill," 1964, page 59. »'WADEX ((ford and /iuthor Index) is a machine-prepared index to Applied Me- "^ Maclnlyre, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc., 1965, p. 34. chanics Reviews, sponsored by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and pro- Blundell, 1964, p. 28, duced by the computational facilities at the University of Texas.

67 "The result's of this study indicated that the use sideration given to varied possibihties for the mecha- of a chain-type mechanical computer printer would nization of bibliographic tools for the processing require the printing of 100 percent more pages for and use of the medical literature. In 1949, "a an issue of Index Medicus than would a specially Committee of Consultants for the Study of Indexes designed photographic typesetter.''''^ to Medical Literature Published by the Army

We shall consider here as examples the Index Medical Library . . . was appointed. ... As a Medicus of the National Library of Medicine, the result of the committee's activities, certain decisions STAR (Scientific and Technical /ierospace /Reports) were made in 1950 that radically affected the of the National Aeronautics and Space Administra- Library's publications program. The venerable tion and the proposals for more complete computeri- Index-Catalogue, which had been published for zation at the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific three quarters of a century by the traditional letter- and Technical Information and at the National press method, was suspended. In its place were Library of Agriculture. issued two separate publications, the annual Printed The most complex and the most successful large- Catalog and the monthly Current List of Medical scale computer-photocomposing installation to go Literature, both prepared by the then method into production to date is the MEDLARS (Medical of shingling individual 3" x 5" slips or cards into Literature /inalysis and /Retrieval System) at the columnar or page formats." National Library of Medicine. Production of the Roughly concurrently (that is, in the period 1949- Index Medicus by means of the fastest computer- 1953), a special project at the Welch Medical Li- driven photocomposer yet in operation began in brary, Johns Hopkins University, began the explora- August 1964. This first issue (see also Figure 3) tion of machine methods potentially useful for was comprised of some 600 pages, containing over bibliographic work. 9,000,000 characters, and was processed in approxi- "... a research contract was granted to Johns mately 16 hours, including set-up, computer run, Hopkins University in October, 1948, by the Medical and correction time. It is not surprising that some Research and Development Board, Office of the have hailed this achievement as "the great biblio- Surgeon General".^^ This Army Medical Library graphic break-through of our generation".^'^ Research Project had among its contract objectives It is especially to be noted that, because of the that of exploring "existing and projected methods, multi-purpose usage aspects of the overaD system emphasizing machine methods, apphcable to such design, the question of how much depth-indexing pilot projects as may be necessary."^" The work information was to be included in each of several at the Welch Library continued for several years, outputs was solved by a "compromise between the the final report being issued in 1955. Beginning conflicting requirements of the publication and in 1951, the project maintained in punched card

retrieval systems . . . (Previously) the Index form the Current List of Medical Literature. Gar- Medicus subject section included an average of field has stated that this work "clearly demonstrated about two entries per article. For the retrieval the ease of converting alphabetic subject heading ^' system, this level appears to be entirely inadequate lists to categorized or classified lists of terms." and the goal has been raised to an average of eight Ingenious use was made of a modified IBM 101 for to ten subject tags per item. . . . The publication punched card machine the preparation of printed

average was upped 50 per cent . . . and the re- subject indexes. to mainder of the selected headings . . . are retained Then, from about 1950 1959, "the Current List "^^ in the computer system for search purposes. of Medical Literature . . . was typed on individual The Library of the Office of the Surgeon General, 3x5 cards which were laid out in shingle form by U.S. Army (later, the Army Medical Library, and hand for photo-offset publication. In January now, the National Library of Medicine) has been 1960, . . . Index Medicus was launched as the for approximately a hundred years an innovator successor. . . . The entries . . . were typed with and advocate of machinable techniques. First, the paper tape-typewriter onto Hollerith cards it was John Shaw Bilhngs, appointed as a consultant . . . and fed through the Listomatic camera, to this Library in 1865, who collaborated with . . . for photo-offset publication . . . (they) have Herman Hollerith in the original ideas for mechani- now established the requirement ... to publish ."^^ cal processing of information punched into perfo- Index Medicus with the aid of a computer. . . rated, machine-processable cards and to whom Next, the Council on Library Resources made a "will always belong credit for having created the grant to the NLM for an "index mechanization proj- most monumental medical bibUography the world ect" between July 1958 and June 1960. As a result has known. "^^ of this project, the production of the Index Medicus Developments since Billings' day have exempli- since January 1960 used the Listomatic Camera, fied considerable continuing receptivity to new and IBM card punching and handling equipment, and improved techniques, specifically including con- the Friden Justowriter (tape-typewriter with a justi-

«Taine, 1964, p. 110. "The Medlars Slory," 1963, p. 54. " Rogers and Adams, 1950. p. 283. "Taine. 1964, p. 125, remarks of R. T. Esterquest. Larkey, 1949, and 1956, p. 243. ^Taine, 1964. pp. 123-124. " Garfield, 1959. p. 471. "Rogers and Adams, 1950, p. 271. " Gull, 1962, p. 62.

68 fied right hand margin). Bibhographic citations, and recurring bibhographies will be processed in author entries, and subject headings were punched one or two days." onto paper tape by Justowriters and proofread, the The format of the Index Medicus is based on the

tape permitting automatic duplication of entries on unit citation. . . . "A typical unit entry consists IBM cards in different formats. Collating and sort- of the following elements: the names of all authors ing equipment produced a mechanically sequenced cited in the original publication, the title of the deck of cards. Proofreading was from a positive article either in the original English or in English paper print produced by the camera. Following translation, the abbreviated journal title, the volume correction the film was processed, and columns number, inclusive pagination, date of issue, and a stripped up for page makeup. The monthly pub- symbol indicating the language of the article if lications were produced by photo-offset. The 12 other than Enghsh." ''^ monthly decks of cards were interfiled by IBM The MEDLARS experience is important to those equipment to produce the annual Cumulated Index concerned with improved handling of scientific and Medicus of the American Medical Association. technical information in several ways over and In August 1961 the NLM undertook its MEDLARS above the high-speed, high-quality secondary pub- project (Medical Literature /inalysis and Re- lication aspects. First, it is a system involving trieval System) by contract with the Information multiple computer processing and outputs and Systems Operation Division of the General Electric multiple types of usage of the output material. Rec- Co.'s Defense Systems Department. The monthly ord tapes generated in computer processing and Index Medicus, the annual Cumulated Index Medi- containing not only the unit citation data but cus, the annual of Medical Subject Head- search-selection tags with respect to subject con- ings, the Bibliography of Medical Reviews, and tent, geographical location, type of document, and recurring bibhographies all continued. Under sub- other tags as weU are retained in the master file contract let to Photon, the Graphic Arts Composing while copies are also circulated to cooperating orga- Equipment (GRACE) was to be designed to compose nizations elsewhere in the country. finished copy on film suitable for . Secondly, the MEDLARS system plan involves Most demand (nonrecurring) bibhographies and aU consideration of more than one type of usage and statistical information to be prepared by the system more than one type of user requirements. For would be printed by a standard computer printer, example, "two basic output techniques [are] avail- in single font copy on continuous paper or on 3 x 5" able in MEDLARS. For routine man-machine com- card forms. munication, some of the recurring bibliographies The equipment now used in MEDLARS is the and most of the demand searches, a high-speed developmental prototype of what is now commer- computer printer will provide single font copy in cially offered, for dehvery in the near future, as the continuous paper, or on 3" x 5" card forms. The Photon ZIP. It is noted that: "GRACE accepts Index Medicus, Cumulated Index Medicus, Bibliog- electrical signals from a magnetic-tape transport raphy of Medical Reviews, most of the recur- operating fuUy under her control. These signals ring bibhographies and a small number of demand ." " arrive in bursts of coded characters which represent searches . . . {wiU be produced by] GRACE. . . a full line of legible type across the multi-columnar Finally, the MEDLARS experience has a bearing page. This type is made up of a combination of 226 on size of character repertoires required and mini- different alphanumeric symbols which are set on mization of page costs for massive secondary pub- film or paper at a rate in excess of 440 characters hcations of this type. "We need enough fonts to per second." distinguish the subject headings from the citations Operations since August 1964, when GRACE pro- and to distinguish, within the citations, the begin- duced its first Index Medicus issue are typically as ning of the journal title abbreviation from the follows: Abstracts are punched on Flexowriter per- author and title. We have a 6-point font, which is forated tape, and these are read via a high speed a quite small size, probably the limit of what you photoelectric tape reader into a Honeywell 800 com- would want, for the citation itself. We are trying puter having 65,000 words of magnetic core memory. to pack 10,000 characters on a page. Our present The 10,000 to 15,000 citations per issue are arranged load is 5 to 6 milhon characters a month and will for multiple entry and cross indexing and stored on soon be 10 milhon characters. It costs a lot of magnetic tape. Then the computer generates an money to print that many characters; therefore, we output tape used to drive a Photon 900-type photo- have adopted the smallest type size that we think composer, which composes at a speed of 300 to is at all reasonable." 500 characters per second, setting the entire Index Another example of a secondary publication based of nearly 2,000,000 words in about 16 hours. on photocomposing techniques is the National It is estimated that with this new system "the Aeronautics and Space Administration's STAR monthly issue of Index Medicus wiU require but Scientific and Technical Aerospace J'?eports). In five days for completion of the film 'manuscript'. the early 1960's, Information Dynamics Corporation

" Ibid..'p. 123. '«lbid.. p. 112. " National Library of Medicine. 1963 (311), pp. 4-5; Taine, 1964. pp. 119-124. "'Ibid., p. 122. Taine, 1964, p. 122. ™ F. B. Rogers, discussion. Sparks et al., 1964, p. 194.

69 developed for the Scientific and Technical Informa- "Further computer processing would compose tion Facility (operated by Documentation, Inc., for the columns for a page and the entire page would be NASA) a tape-operated system for photocomposing printed at one time, producing camera copy with STAR. Although eventually more comprehensive no stripping or other hand processing" .^^ computerization of these operations is planned, In each of these applications, systems planning time pressures for system installation in advance of calls for an integrated operation where the informa- some of the more recent technological developments tion required for announcement or indexing can both in computer programs and in photocomposer be automatically merged with files permitting equipment dictated the use of a modified Friden mechanized search, selection, and retrieval. Addi- LCC—S keyboard to produce a paper tape to drive tional comments on this point include the following: a Photon machine. "Since citations for all announced documents Price reports: "Due to time limitations, it was would be composed on Justowriters, the tape used decided to begin operation from the Photon key- for input to the Photon could also be used as input board (on-line) and then at a later date, increase to the computer search and retrieval system, thereby production capacity by driving the Photon with eliminating repetitive keyboarding of information."**^ punched tape generated from four off-line key- "It seems clear from our preliminary analysis boards. . . . The Photon was delivered in April, that the tapes generated in the program we are 1962, and within the month, journal copy was being proposing may prove to have an importance equal produced".'''* to or greater than their use in the graphic reproduc- An illustration of some of the difficulties involved tion of scientific documents. Once original papers in incompatibihty between machine languages is are available in some form of punched or magnetic also afforded the by NASA example. The Photon tape, then all of the potential of computers is opened equipment to special be used then required a code to development and use".^"* and tape format, incompatible with IBM 1401 com- ". . . We are looking ahead to the use of com- puter requirements necessary to process the infor- puters, both to speed the process of setting struc- in for storage retrieval mation used STAR and tures and to investigate further the usefulness of the purposes elsewhere in the system. decision The output of such a system in the searching and was: "to stay with this unique code rather than use retrieval of chemical structures. "^^ standard eight-channel coding which would have An approach combining the ideas of using com- required the design of a special translator for the puter-usable material for multiple purposes and of Photon. For computer input, commercially avail- converting text into machine language form at the able equipment would be used to translate the earliest possible stages of preparation for publica- Photon code to IBM 1401 language as an integral tion has been advocated by research workers at part of the tape-to-card conversion."^" ITEK Corporation and more recently at Inforonics. "Searching capability should be derived as an First, the ITEK Crossfiler is a special purpose intrinsic by-product of the primary system complex device which was developed for the Air Force Cam- which, in the case of the NASA system, is heavily bridge Research Laboratories. It has been de- oriented to scheduled publications. It is necessary signed "to manipulate a machine-interpretable to achieve this capability at the lowest possible paper-tape record of a Library of Congress catalog cost in terms of additional operating dollars and card and to produce sets of diversely headed cata- design effort over the basic needs of the system".^' log cards automatically".^^ Lipetz describes tech- The Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and niques and equipment for simultaneous production Technical Information (an outgrowth of the former of manual and machine-usable book cataloging Office of Technical Services) is, like NASA, pres- records as a first step in introducing a machine ently using an interim approach whereby its U.S. record system for the book catalog at the Research Government Research and Development Reports is Library of the Air Force Cambridge Research Lab- paper tape produced and transmitted to the U.S. oratories, Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. Punched Government Printing Office for composition on paper tape was created in the course of continued Linofilm. System planning for a computer system production of 3 x 5 inch index cards as similar as is, however, well under way. possible to those in the existing catalog. The input Similarly, at the Department of Agriculture a typing format, designed for a special-purpose com- comprehensive proposed system, ABLE (.Agricul- puting machine, the Crossfiler, produced sets of tural and fiiological Literature ^Exploitation) would catalog cards at less cost than the utilization of a involve computerization of the preparation of the general-purpose computer. Sets of catalog cards Bibliography of Agriculture. "In our proposed were obtained with identical text in the body of system, the B of A would be composed and printed card but different tracings (entries at the top of from a magnetic tape using either a printer with card for title, abridged title, subject, etc.) derived upper and lower case letters or a photocomposition machine. . . .

Deparlmenl of Agricullure, "Reporl of Task Force ABLE," 1965, p. 4. "•'Price. 1963, p. 261. "Price, 1963, p. 261. Kuney. 1963, p. 249. ""Ibid., p. 261. "^Kunev and Lazorchak. 1964, p. 305. "'Swid, 1964, p. 322. "« .Sparks el al.. 1964, p. 170.

70 automatically from the text contained in the primary title index entries, and perhaps an abbreviated punched tape.*^ announcement publication."*^ Next, a grant from the Council on Library Re- Buckland concludes: "The accomplishments so

sources enabled Inforonics to explore, in coopera- far have demonstrated that it is possible to satisfy tion with the Library of Congress, the possibihties both the primary journal publication process and for multi-purpose recording of bibhographic infor- the requirement of data recording for certain sec- mation in computer-usable form. "The firm [In- ondary uses with a single publishing system."^" foronics] . . . has undertaken to demonstrate that bibliographic information, when suitably punched 5.4. Service Centers into a perforated paper tape record by a tape- producing typewriter, can be reproduced in any Closely related to the newly emerging applica- form, whether complete or abridged, typewritten tions of book composition is the notion of the service or printed in any one of a variety of type faces, as bureau or center which will do automatic typo- may be required for the various records used in graphic quality composition on input from a variety library operations."*^ of sources. Already, "service center develop- Pertinent illustrative details of more recent mental activities are fermenting and materializing Inforonics developments excerpted from a recent in many sections of the country".^' Examples Buckland report are as follows: include ROCAPPI (/Research On Computer y4pplica- tions in the Printing and Publishing /ndustries) both "The approach used in this project is to develop in cooperation with other Philadelphia firms (W. B. a system which identifies the text item content in Saunders and Computer Composition, Inc.) in enough detail to carry out any functional use of that and England (Hazell Sun Ltd.), Keydata Corporation item. The identification does not need to represent (Boston), and others. the typographic form of the end use, because most Developments involving linkages with communi- aspects of the output form, such as the typeset cation networks will probably encourage the growth journal itself, can be machine derived if the identity of these and other centers. Duncan reported at the of the item is known. . . . ". 1964 Computer Typesetting Conference that . . "The typographic control word specifies the data relay equipment over wired networks ... is output form of an information item. The specifica- at last available ... of adequate performance and tions contained are: at a reasonably economic cost. We can now expect Font to see the expansion of service bureaux activities Point size and they may eventually be able to provide com- Column width puter typesetting programmes for their customers Quadding (flush left, flush right, center, justify, and an off-peak service at acceptable rates." center justify) As early as 1963 Morton reported that, at Alden Leading Press, various publishers were exploring the feasi- Set size bility of "furnishing punched tape for us to process

Special commands. . . . through the computer. This possibility is recog- "A record from a relatively simple input typing nized, as is the possibility of Data-Phone transmis- sion from publisher to typesetter where volume or operation can be processed to form a multiplicity service so indicate." of high typographic quality, complex output prod- demands Still another potential advantage of computerized ucts. Since the scheme developed was output systems is that: "Output printing of auxiliary data independent, any typesetting machine can be con- stores using high-speed typesetting techniques will trolled from the input record and the keyboard be possible and, in the case of national libraries, operator's training is not difficult. . . . highly desirable. The attractive feature of this is, "This recording procedure is different from other of course, the assurance of frequently up dated text recording approaches, because it mcntSfies the editions of the class schedules and subject heading journal text item content rather than its typographic 94 form. This procedure allows the primary record list." In this connection, it is of interest to note that to be processed into a variety of secondary products, proposals for using computer printouts to produce regardless of their typographic forms. A computer updated and revised UDC (Universal Decimal processing system has been developed to produce Classification) schedules have already been made by the primary journal typesetting tape, an author the United States National Committee for the Inter- index typesetting tape, and an abstract journal entry national Federation of Documentation. typesetting tape. All of these programs operate The most extensive service bureau experience from a single input manuscript record. . . . to date is undoubtedly that of ROCAPPI. They "The processing of the primary record could be extended to create citation index entries, subject index entries, permuted title index entries, ordinary "Buckland, 1965, pp. 2-20. "Ibid., p. 3. ^ "Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 6. "^Duncan, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 1965, p. 5. »^ Morton, 1963, p. 100. Lipelz. 1963, pp. 1 19-124. "Sparks et al., 1964, p. 158. Council on Library Resources, 1964, p. 1. »^ Mills, 1964, p. 71.

71 accept from various customers manuscript copy problem area is that of programming and program- prepared on Justowriter, Dura, Fairchild TTS and ming languages. otiier input tapes and formats. This is processed Questions of new impacts on management and through an RCA 301 computer to prepare justified, systems planning include problems of changes in merged, and corrected copy for use in typesetting job production concepts, in planning for multiple operations. With respect to output they report: off-fine processing, in resolving the problems of "There is a separate programme for each output requirements for proof copy, and in adjusting to the device, but they all produce the standard RCA 7- differences to be faced as automation tends to level paper tape. Obviously, it is necessary to replace traditional industry practices. Closely convert for Linofilm, Lumitype, Monophoto and related are the questions of human factors and sys- the new ATF B8 machine. We have at present out- tem design, including such specific questions as put programmes for the Linofilm, for the ATF, both the re-design of keyboards and the possible roles of B and B8 models, and for TTS linecasting equip- automatic character recognition techniques and ment. We are working as well on output pro- communication networks in new, integrated systems. grammes for the Monotype and Monophoto and for the range of Photon-Lumitype equipment. . . . 6.1. Character Sets, Encoding, and "Output is of course coded according to the con- Alphabetization verter concerned. Thus for the Linofilm our output is coded for a converter produced by the Navigation One of the first and most obvious problems in Computer Corporation in the States. Since the high-speed photocomposition and/or computer- Linofilm tape has 15 channels, we have to produce controlled pubhcation, is that of adequate character three rows of five channels per character. The sets, especially for scientific and technical informa- sixth channel is a synchronization hole perforated tion texts. For example, "a large number of sym- on the first row at every three-row character, and bols is needed to set mathematical equations — used by the converter to synchronize the input tape more than is available on many composing ma- with the output tape. The seventh channel is chines." ' Another obvious requirement is for parity, which is ignored by the converter." diversified character sets, especially in the sense of A recent example of ROCAPPI efforts is the providing the same characters in boldface, itaUc, computerized typesetting of Nuclear Applications, and other styles. a bimonthly periodical published by the American With respect to the latter requirement, some rep- Nuclear Society. resentative comments to be found in the literature A special case of service center operation in- are as follows: volving dissemination of news and current trade "Special attention must be given to the library development information to its subscribers is Com- practice of using changes in type faces or of type position Information Services, Los Angeles, which fonts to convey certain meanings. . . . Mechaniza- issues at regular intervals the CIS Newsletter. In tion of typesetting for such publications must take the August 1965 issue, for example, coverage was these semantic uses of typography into considera- provided to the impact of potential automation and tion. . . . Careful attention must be paid to pro- implied re-education as viewed by the 46th Inter- viding those visual cues which can assist this national Association of Printing House Craftsmen, searching activity. Appropriate use of type size, news of a grant for continuation of Newcastle proj- position, boldface, italics, underscoring, and white ects for computerized typesetting, and reporting of space can achieve this result."^ phototypesetting equipment at an international exhi- "The very complexity of concepts in a technical bition in Paris, including Hell, K. S. Paul (P&M) index makes the use of bold type essential for Filmsetter, CAE, Monotype, Photon, Mergenthaler, marking a clearway through the apparent maze of and others. indexed material."'' ". . . When you mass bibhographical citations on a page and reduce their size, you place demands 6. Problem Areas on the human eye which must be taken care of by providing a variety of type sizes and a flexibihty Notwithstanding the rapid progress that has been in placing the images of the characters in the proper made, in the past two years in particular, toward place." * the use of high speed composition techniques that Traditionally, of course, these requirements preserve relatively high typographic quality in the have been met by relatively unhmited repertoires printed output, a number of problem areas remain. in conventional printing equipment. Moreover, The first of these is that of adequate character sets, type faces were often designed to reflect niceties especially since the new high speed composition of both pleasing appearance and space utilization. techniques (whether linked to computers or not) With the introduction of phototypesetters com- have in many cases restricted available character repertoires and have in addition raised new prob- lems of encoding and alphabetizing. Another ' Krafl, 1%3. p. 8. -Sparks et al.. 1964. p. 161. ^Coates. 1965. p. 47.

T. H. V. Arrhc-r. Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 1965. pp. 120-121. ' D. E. Sparks, discussion. Sparks el al, 1964, p. 195.

72 promises at least as to aesthetic quality of individual Duncan comments on the last point as follows:

characters have often been required. . . The "Computer users, who have devoted considerable concession which printers and their customers had, effort and money to produce relatively error-free

in effect, made in accepting photosetting . . . results, are not likely to tolerate gratuitous errors meant that they had accepted that the type charac- introduced by other operators using unrelated ter would have the same proportions whatever technologies." ^

size it was reduced to or enlarged to by optical In most cases, the common complaint is that . . . means, rather than each size having its own pro- "[The upper-case limitation] reduces readability portions based entirely on aesthetic considerations. so much that the page layout must be extremely This was a step on the path to the quantitative open if the material is to be usable at all. With analysis of typographical work."^ typeset matter, a much more compact page layout While both the Linofilm and Photon machines can be prescribed, in fact, the readabihty of typeset have quite satisfactorily large character sets (1,400- copy can be maintained even if smaller type is 1,500), and considerable coverage can be built used, which produces an even higher degree of up with specially designed grids or discs, grid and compactness." ** disc changes substantially reduce effective rate of The so-called "upper-case limitation" in the pro- throughput and/or require multiple passes. duction of bibhographic tools has apparently been Problems of intra-system compatibihty may also a major deterrent to more widespread adoption of arise. For example, with respect to NASA's Pho- automatic data processing capabilities. Clapp, ton installation for the production of STAR, for example, comments as follows: "Until there is a decent font available, it doesn't . . Specifications were prepared for Photon type fonts to be used in conjunction with LCC-S (Line pay anyone to put a great deal of bibliographical Casting Control-Special) Justowriters. Each font or material into machine-readable form. Until there face had to be compatible in relative width value are large quantities of bibliographical material not only with Justowriter type but with each of the available in machine-readable form, it doesn't pay ^ other fonts used on the Photon disc. This latter many libraries to engage in machine processing." limitation arose from the fact that although font The same commentator has remarked elsewhere: selection on the disc can be controlled automatically "As long as Mr. Watson would only give us a charac- from tape, selection of the corresponding style ter font in capital letters there could not be any great cards, which provide the escapement or width value fervor to load [machines with bibliographical in- for characters in each face cannot be controlled formation records]. If I may say so, the whole automatically. Therefore, several faces had to be picture of automation in libraries from the thirties based on a single but common set of escapement right down to the present date has been controlled by that uppercase limitation." values. . . . "The family of type was In a certain found to provide the compatibility sought. Me- sense, a modest degree of typo- graphic quality directly dium, bold, and Italic Univers faces could be com- can be achieved from high speed computer-driven line posed using the single set of escapement values for printers, but with nec- essary compromises in the bold face characters. The Greek alphabet in upper output speed to improve the appearance of the product. and lower case as well as special mathematical, For example, reports: in fact chemical, and logic symbols were arranged on the "We do get a reproduction of bold typeface. The place disc so that they could be composed and set on the names are over- printed four times, using what is called a same Univers Bold escapement values." ^ space suppression feature on the machine." The introduction of electronic character genera- The IBM 1403 chain printer involves use of a tion techniques as integral parts of high speed com- continuously moving chain consisting of 240 char- position systems again seriously restricts the size acter positions usually divided into 5 sets of 48 of character sets available on any one pass or run characters each, so as to minimize access time to and aggravates the character sub-set switching the appropriate characters to be selected. How- problems. ever, by redividing, a character set of 120 can be The use of computers for output of material to accommodated, although at significant loss (up to be reproduced and distributed, however, has until 50 percent-60 percent) of printer speed. This very recently imposed either a radical departure technique is used, for example, by the Chemical from previous standards of acceptability (restric- Abstracts Service to provide upper and lower case tion to a limited, upper- or lower-case only set of for the KWIC index. Chemical Biological Activities no more than 64 characters and symbols) or the (Figure 49). In addition, the cover of the Proceed- painful, costly, and time-consuming alternative ings of the Literary Data Processing Conference of resetting the computer-printer output in accord- [Bessinger et al., 1964] illustrates an experimental ance with traditional methods and with the all too concordance of the Gothic Bible which "employs probable likehhood of introducing an unacceptable incidence of errors. 'C. J. Duncan, remarks, "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings," 1965, p. 3. » Kraft, 1963, p. 275 *V. W. Clapp, discussion. Sparks et a!., 1964, p. 194. Fullick. 1965. p. 24. "Clapp, 1964, p. 54-55. « Price. 1963, p. 261. "Johnston, 1965, p. 51.

73 • f

94 corbox amtdc and 5— exo— ethy 1—2— nor borne n e — 5— endo— carbox amid* viodcratelv >^«v« 94 carbox amtde and S— endo— ethvl-~2— nor boraene — 5— exo carbox anide* more effective th 138 FROM 3- ETHYL-4- METHYL- AND 4-ETHYL-3- METHYL- PYRIDINES- 138 6.7- BEN20 MORPHANS FROM 3- ETHYL-4- METHYL- AND 4-ETHYL-3- METHYL- PYRIDINES. 9X N«N— dl e t h V I— 5— e n do— methyl- 2— nor b o r ne n e— 5— e x o— carbox amide has 137 one and 176— N»N— dl methyl- 17— ethynyt andro st— 5— en— 3— ol do not have androgenic action 166 Inhibit growth of green color In EugLcna gracilis 167 Inhibit growth of green color In Euglcna gracilis 168 formation of green colonies of Euglena gracilis [effect remains after removal of agents] 168 CHLOROPLASTS OF EUGLENA GRACILIS AFFECTED BY FURADANTIN, 168 moderately Inhibit growth of of Euglena gracilis and Inhibit formation of green colonics o 166 AS BLEACHING FACTORS FOR EUGLEN A-GRAC IL I S« 63 ntc gonadotropin Increases excretion of estrone estradiol estrlol and total ncutra 165 dl acetate strongly Increases excretion of trl methyl amine and urea in perch [Pcrca— 165 STIMULATING HORMONE ON THE EXCRETION OF TRI METHYL AMINE AND UREA IN THE PERCH (PERCA 4^ tetracycline antibiotic increase excretion of urea and sodium In urine of human with renal 2 ALLOXAN ON THE ADRENAL CORTICAL EXCRETION, A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN MALE, FEMALE AND PBEGNAN 48 action of 7— cells; blocks excretory action of 7— cells of anterior pituitary of male 66 EXOPHTHALMOS-PROOUC I NG ACTIVITY IN THE SERUM AND IN THE PI 40 CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PHARMACOLOGY OF PARENTERAL SPIRAMYCIN. 147 nicotine response was restored by exposure of tissues to noradrenaline [thyroidectomy reduce 161 BY DE OXY RIQO NUCLEIC ACID EXTRACTS OF THE GROWTH INHIBITORY EFFECTS OF 8- AZA GUANIN

47 CHLORPROMAZ INE FACILATION OF HEPATOCARC I NOGENES I S IN THE FEMALE MISTAR RA

166 ANTIBIOTICS AS BLEACHING FACTORS FOR EUGLEN A- GR AC I L I S 157 NIL NOCERE. RENAL FAILURE AFTER GENERAL ANESTHESIA WITH ESTIL. 156 and amplitude of contraction In failure of Isolated heart [perfused] caused by pcntobarbl 4 STRESS IN THE BIPHASIC CHANGES IN FASCICULAR NUCLEOLAR SIZE IN THE RAT ADRENAL; 4 Increases size of nucleoli In fascicular 2one of adrenal glands of r a t« hypertrophy Is b

78 of nictating membrane and causes f a sc I c u I a t I on [These results show that the nicotinic and m 41 vomiting* vertigo* vasospasm* feeling of coolness and strange taste and does not alter b 2 A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN MALE, FEMALE AND PREGNANT RATS. 157 and causes proteinuria In female human during gynecological surgery given Intravenou 2 sterone In blood of male and female non— pregnant rat but does not Increase content of 3 sterone In blood of male and female non— pregnant rat but moderately decreases content o 2 has hyperglycemic action on female pregnant and non— pregnant and on male ratSactl'on of 2 of cortico sterone In blood of female pregnant rat 3 of cortIco sterone In blood of female pregnant rat 58 saluretic action on sa I I ne— I oa ded female rat 47 carcinogenic action on Liver of female rat* action Increased by chlorpromazlne 47 OF HEPATOCARC INOGENESI S IN THE FEMALE WISTAR RAT BY 2-ACET AMINO FLUORENE. 165 so that before spawning fish Is driven towards fresher water by need for osmotic b 152 fludro cortisone acetate hormone strongly Inhibits growth 47 2— acct amino fluorene weakly has carcinogenic action on liver of female 47 FEMALE WISTAR RAT BY 2-ACET AMINO FLUORENE. 1 blocked by pretreatment with 9oi— fluoro Cortisol 3 9oi— fluoro Cortisol hormone strongly decreases content of cor 141 alkyl fluoro phenyl carblnols tested for choleretic action [Low* 141 ALKYL FLUORO PHENYL CARBINOLS WITH CHOLERETIC ACTIVITY. 32 5— fluoro uracil has toxic action on Escherichia coll while o 32 INDUCED IN E. COLI K- 1 2 BY 5- FLUORO URACIL. 34 [as HCl] and pyrldoxal »and folic acid 34 L— lysine leucine hlstldlne folic acid pyrldoxinc [as HCl] and pyrldoxal Sand folic 165 THE ACTION OF FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE ON THE EXCRETION OF TRI METHY 164 ACTION OF CHLOR TETRACYCLINE AS A FOODSTUFF ADDITIVE ON GLYCOLYSIS IN PIG MUSCLE. 54 thyroxine moderately Inhibits formation of caudal part of Mueller's duct of chicken embr 55 formation of strongly Inhibit formation of caudal part of Mueller's duct of chicken embr 65 hormone does not Inhibit formation of cortico steroids In human with non endocrine 31 testo sterone hormone Increases formation of fructose In accessory organs of castrated bu 168 of Euglena gracilis and Inhibit formation of green colonies of Euglena gracilis [effect re 53 estradiol Inhibits formation of Mueller's duct of chicken embryo 32 pressure of medium; stimulates formation of osmotlcally sensitive spheroplasts during eel 55 with thyroxine strongly Inhibit formation of strongly Inhibit formation of caudal part of 29 growth of and cause atypical cell forms In Bacillus megaterlum

78 with the c I so I d and transold forms of the molecule]

32 p I me I I c acid In acid— soluble fraction of Escherichia coll 30 In Isolated mitochondrial fraction of liver of rat and In Isolated liver of rat 165 spawning fish Is driven towards fresher water by need for osmotic balance 156 sodium In rabbit and frog 31 hormone Increases formation of fructose In accessory organs of castrated bull* ram, boar* 31 AND RELATION TO SEMINAL FRUCTOSE. 41 and does not alter electrical function of heart In human with advanced neoplastic dlseas 166 OF EUGLENA GRACILIS AFFECTED BY FURADANTIN.

168 n I t r of ur an t o I n[ f ur a dan t I n ] and n I t r o f u r az o n c antibiotic moderately Inhl 119 OF NITRO FURANS. I. AMINO FURANS

119 2— sub s t I t u t ed 5— nitro furans do not Inhibit growth of Staphylococcus aureus. Esc 119 REDUCTION OF NiTRO FURANS. I. AMINO FURANS 6 drugs, action not altered by ganglionic blocking agents, mono amine oxidase Inhibitors 157 NIL NOCERE- RENAL FAILURE AFTER GENERAL ANESTHESIA WITH ESTIL. IS7 estll general anesthetic decreases urinary output and Increases 135 not cause Involution of thymus gland In male rat 134 and cause Involution of thymus gland In male rat given subcutaneously 75 Increases pressure In mammary gland of rabbit; weakly has hypertensive action on rat; 11 of catechol amines In adrenal glands

Figure 49. Sample pa^e, Chemical-Biolo

74 the upper- and lower-case print chain, and ... a codes such as ASCII or the British Standards new technique of printing boldface by overstriking Institute/International Standards Organization 6- the headword in each citation. The Gothic char- and 7-bit codes to local variations and substitutions acter "thorn' was synthesized by striking 'p' over such that larger character repertoires may be •b'." 12 accommodated. Chadwick comments: The question of available character sets affects "This 'Escape' is a vital and very interesting also the initial keyboarding operations for input to character in this set. . . . You use the normal further machine processing. The on an code up to the point where you really require to ordinary typewriter provides a total character set introduce your own special characters — you encode availability that is actually double (or nearly so) "Escape' and from then on you can use your private the number of keys actually operated by the typist. characters. It is a character which allows you to Where perforated tape is mechanically produced say you are using the standard code when in fact as a by-product of such keystroking, it is usually (maybe only temporarily) you really are not." the case that a non-printing symbol or "precedence A few illustrative examples expressed in the code" is punched into the tape as a result of the literature with respect to this question have been depression of the shift key. Extensions of this cited in an earlier section dealing with two-dimen- principle (e.g., red- to black-ribbon shifts) multiply sional composition capabilities of some of the new the available character set size even though the techniques. More generally, such estimates as differentiations may not appear on the hard copy. the following have been made: ". Similar considerations apply to the keypunching . . Publication of the generally disseminated of standard punched cards by the reservation of library products and of the frequently cumulated certain punch combinations as control and prece- publications can probably be accomphshed with a dence codes. Examples of elaborate code conven- character set of 300 elements. . . . Larger, more tions adopted for keypunching of text include comprehensive, and more carefully edited pubhca- reports by Nugent (1959) and by Ray (1962), both tions whose content requires representation of a of which point out some of the requirements and wider range of language and composition elements some of the difficulties encountered with respect will probably require character sets of 500 charac- to providing a manual for the keypunching of nat- ters or more." ural language texts. An even more sophisticated "To get an indication of the number of different encoding-transliteration scheme is detailed by alphabetical characters that may be used in a single Newman, Knowlton and Swanson (1960) as neces- scholarly book, I asked Mr. Theodore Besterman sar>' for the keypunching of patent disclosures in to count the different pieces of type used in his which a very wide variety of boldface, normal, World Bibliography ofBibliographies. This he did, italic faces and of special symbol insertions must and as shown in the preface to the third edition be provided for. of this work, he used approximately 1950 different Flexible selection from amongst a large variety pieces of monotype .... There are a number of of available characters and symbols may thus be alphabets that are not included in Besterman, as provided for, but at the high expense of multiple well as mathematical symbols, etc." initial keystroking, multiple code-sequence process- Added to the number of different symbols, in ing and redundant storage requirements for each bibliographic aids generally the use of type style "actual" character eventually to be reproduced. and weight changes are specifically used to "cue" For example, with respect to the early Barnett ex- the scanner or searcher to particular types of in- periments using Photon, it is claimed that the pro- formation presented. For catalog cards alone, portion of control and precedence coding to actual there are severe problems, in terms of machine character-selection identifications could run as processing, of mixed font, mixed weight and point high as 75 percent of the total input. While possi- size, mixed alphabets and formats. In addition, bilities for re-design of keyboards and for multiple- varying conventions of abbreviation, punctuation, output from a single key depression may alleviate and other types of specialized representation have this problem somewhat,'* the difficulties of pre- been adopted by different libraries to distinguish cedence coding to achieve larger and more versatile the various types of selection, locator or reference character sets remain a major problem area. clues most convenient to their users in either scan- In this problem area of character sets required, ning or filing. For these reasons, it is quite clear as in most others, a critical difficulty of course is that, with respect to already printed cards, "the that of defining the problem itself. What are the automatic conversion of files, such as the National requirements, both as to coverage and available set Union Catalog, which contain considerable hetero- size, for various applications, especially including geneous symboUsm, is not Ukely in the near fu- primary and secondary publications involving sci- ture",*^ and that, with respect to future preparation, entific and technical information? "typeface changes normally used in library output A special case of precedence coding is the escape character suggested for use in adapting standard '^G. Chadwick. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 207. " Bessinger el al., 1964, Title page. " Sparks el al, 1964, p. 161-163. " "'The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV, 1964, p. 68. Shaw, 1962, p. 268. '» " See also p. of this report. King, 1963, p. 20.

75

231-313 OL-67-6 printing of, say, the Library of Congress, would set. The character set is extremely important in require the extensive multiphcation of character file definition since the character set defines the sets." order of a file once it is sorted." The question remains of selecting the basic Sequencing records in a typographic composition character sets for input, computer processing, and system requires the application of complex alpha- output which may differ in respect to size, nature, betizing rules to portions of the text. These rules and coded structure, but which must be made com- should be executed by the computer to provide patible with each other or convertible from one set flexibility for response to changing demands. to another. Indicated changes of type font, type An examination of the textual content of records face, point size may need to be provided for on as they would appear in a typographic composition input, ignored in computer processing, and used as system reveals several features that would present control cues on output. Such changes "put added major difficulties if the sort keys were taken un- burdens on the system and make it more difficult altered from the text. Three examples are given: to estabhsh a basic character set." 1. All characters must have unique codes for Sparks, Berul, and Waite point out further that: proper identification during the output print- "Typographic composition will however present ing process, but some subsets of such distinct problems of encoding to handle lexical information characters must be indistinguishable when containing character sets in multiple fonts. . . . used in the sort key for alphabetizing and file "The final selection of input codes involves ordering many complex factors including computer word processes. For example, in printing the following list of town and city names, the length, file organization, and ease of manipulabil- distinction between "a" and "a" must be main- ity. tained; however, in sorting these names this "When processing text requiring character distinction should be ignored: sets beyond those of the standard 47-character Cabot set of the IBM 024 or 026 keypunch, the difficuhies Caceres of alphabetizing are greatly increased. ... It is Cadillac also necessary to eliminate from the text functional Cadiz codes which have no bearing on the alphabetizing Calais sequence.^' If the sort processing did not treat "a" and "The method utihzed for alphabetizing will "a" as equivalent, one must be lower valued have a direct effect on the interface between output than the other. This would give one or the printing requirements and the console display. other of these two sequences: The reason for this is that some of the possible ." Cabot Caceres alphabetizing subroutines are non reversible . . Cadillac Cadiz These difficulties will be aggravated in many docu- Calais Cabot mentation applications by the use of non-Roman Caceres Cadillac alphabets, diacritical marks, foreign proper names, Cadiz Calais and foreign abbreviations (which may involve the Neither of these sequences is in accord with use of diphthongs in authors' ), to say nothing the usual alphabetizing rules. There are, of of mathematical and other special symbols and the course, many other possible examples of this. interpolation of other two-dimensional graphic 2. Some characters in the text must be ignored material. For example, Barnett points out with when sequencing is performed. This is par- respect to mathematical and chemical structures ticularly true if precedence coding is used. that "the construction of a convenient intel- and A precedence code defining a change in type ligible linear representation of formulae, that such size must have no bearing on the alphabetiz- could be punched on a keyboard machine such as ing sequence. Similarly, a discretionary a Flexowriter, with a limited set, is not character hyphen should not be given a value in alpha- trivial." betizing; otherwise, the results of alphabetiz- Regardless of the size and contents of the input ing would depend on characters that might and output character sets, however, in those cases never appear in the printer output. involving computer processing, there are additional 3. As a converse to the ignoring of various con- special problems of the internal character set which trol codes, some characters must be added will affect sorting, ordering, filing, and interfihng. when part of the text is used directly as a "Even though we have not yet agreed on a standard sort key. The most obvious example of this character set for our data processing computers, is in the alphabetizing of proper names such as each computer has a single set built into it. This St. Andre or St. Claire. Such names are set is the 'natural' set of that computer, and all other normally alphabetized as if the word Saint sets are defined in relation to this built-in character were fully spelled out.

Rules can of course be developed to provide the '»S|>arks ct al, 1964, p. 163. Ibid. alphabetic sequences desired with at most only -' Ibid.. |i. 182. -- Ibid., p. 183. 'I Barncll i-l al. 1963, p. 270. Patrick and Black. p. .)1.

76 minor exceptions. These rules can be written into netic tape photocomposition, program and soft- the computer program and executed whenever the ware stipulations illustrate some of the difficulties. questions of proper sequencing arise. Aherna- First, the equipment to be proposed should be tively, the rules can be executed during the process- capable of operating on the function and data codes ing of input data and the results appended to the available from a variety of computers in use and record. on the ASCII (American Standard Code for /nfor- The program required to implement the alpha- mation /nterchange). betizing rules essentially requires another code Next, provisions should be included for the in- conversion. The full intermediate code would be sertion or imposition of at least 20 different graphic converted to a subset of that code. It would be formats or overlays or for the generation of hori- neither necessary nor possible to reverse the process zontal and vertical lines to format the output data. since there would not be a one-to-one correspond- Third, the proposals should cover the software ence between the intermediate code and the subset support needed for system integration between the code. computers originating data and the high speed That part of the conversion to an alphabetizing composition processes and equipment proposed, subset code related to converting one character to including the provision -of manuals specifying all another (i.e., "A" to "a", "a" to "a" or "a" to "a") the detailed information needed for each specific can be essentially a table look-up operation even computer to be accommodated. In particular, when precedence codes have been employed. The requirements for the preparation of magnetic tape elimination characters, as the of null-valued such using the format and code which wil) utilize all discretionary hyphen, would require that one ad- functional capabilities of the proposed composing ditional test be performed on each character. equipment, and for core memory requirements in However, the mechanization of rules of the third each computer accommodated, must be specified type described above (i.e., equating St. to Saint) in detail. would require several extra program steps to deter- The problems of compatibility in receiving tapes mine when each rule applied. from a variety of computers and of telling program- illustration of the of As an type program involved mers how to prepare tapes for the composition in the third type of alphabetizing rule, the conver- equipment were considered critical and the GPO sion of St. to Saint might proceed as follows: request specified that they must be competently A specification that the information field being solved. processed contains proper names, some of which Still other problems of compatibility exist when may start with such abbreviations, is included in the input may also include punched cards and a

the computer program when it is compiled. The variety of types of punched paper tape. Barnett program converts each character to its subset points out for example that: "The programs that

code in the left to right sequence. Each time produce . . . [the internal processing code] from an (S) is detected an abbreviation test counter Flexowriter, punched card and other sources have

is set to the value one. Each time a (t) is de- been concerned with a variety of specialized prob- tected the counter is multiplied by two. Each lems—special input routines for binary card images time a period is detected the value of the counter of Flexowriter and other paper tapes, accommoda- is tested. If the counter value is two, the pre- tion of different Flexowriter codes, translation of ceding two characters are replaced by the word mnemonic format requirements (macros), separa- Saint in its coded form, followed by a space; tion of case in Hollerith texts, and cyclic insertion otherwise the counter is reset to zero. Any of format changes in tabular and itemized material. other character also resets the counter to zero. These matters give rise to numerous scanning prob- lems some of which are quite difficult, particularly This solution is illustrative only and undoubtedly for the last two of the topics just mentioned." not an optimum solution. It is sufficient to show, Programming difficulties also relate to the nec- however, that converting from a full character code essity for accommodating a wide variety of formats. to an alphabetized will subset code require as com- "The complexity of the control code combinations plex time and consuming computer routines as that are encountered in applications of the present will the input and output code conversion functions. program has already created a need for a higher This simple illustration would develop into a sub- level of input language to be converted into existing stantial computer routine when a full set of alpha- control codes by a suitable processor." betizing rules were included. A programming difficulty somewhat in conflict with the typical complexity requirements is that a 6.2. Programming language is needed which will encourage good communication between programmers, originators Another major problem area is that of program- of the data to be printed, editors, publishers, and ming. Except in a few special cases with limited printers. To date, this has remained a considera- requirements for versatility, programs tend to be tion with respect to further progress rather than both complex and large in the sense of demands on direct access memory. In the Government Print- '5 Barnett et al., 1963, p. 264. ing Office's request for proposals for off-line mag- « Ibid., p. 269.

77 of current concern. In fact, both the Bozman and This latter point raises on the one hand questions Barnett programs have made use of the FORTRAN of management imphcations and human factors language (Formula Translation) originally developed and on the other a continuing challenge to pro- primarily for mathematical and statistical process- grammers and those who design programming ing applications. languages. The two foremost exponents and dem- Duncan at Newcastle, however, at least in terms onstrators of general purpose computer programs of recent plans, intends to use ALGOL 60,^^ also for automatic typesetting of a variety of material, a language originally designed for arithmetic and Barnett and Duncan, respectively, conclude: algebraic operations rather than for large-scale (1) "The definition of convenient languages for symbol manipulation such as is involved in text the specification of such problems to general pur- and bibliographic processing. pose programs that could be used for mechanized A final difficulty in the area of programming lies documentation requires further consideration."^^ of programming efforts in the possible prematurity (2) "The conclusion that can be drawn now is in the light of the speed with which the compositor that computer-controlled photocomposition is of technology has developed and is still developing. practical utihty, and that its further progress de- At the 1964 London Computer Typesetting Con- pends on increased communication between the ference, for example, the question was raised from writers and the potential users of the relevant the floor: "It strikes me that a lot of people will be programs."''^ it to enter into wondering whether is worthwhile (3) "For the future, page composition, built-up the computer typesetting field with existing forms formulae, elaborate editing, and human-computer of hot metal or film setting equipment when, in fact, interaction to allow human judgment and aesthetics they now know there are other forms of filmsetting to override blind application of routine procedures coming along within the next two or three years will present programming challenges for many years which will tend to change the picture considerably to come."^^ or . . . Will . . . programmes be adaptable ... "The aim must be, having once satisfied the re- ?" are people going to have to mark time . . . quirements of a reasonable number of standardized Several of the London participants were quite formats and styles, to keep the program compila- optimistic in response to this question, however, tion system so simple that the instruction for a very and their remarks are generally corroborated by wide variety of styles can rapidly be assembled the opinions of Barnett and Duncan, among others, from a Ubrary of sub-routines, which are simply in favor of proceeding promptly even in an ad hoc called up as required from a store. Calling them way. Thus, for example, "... I would say that up for sample pages will then be easy and 80 percent of the programming which is being done economic."''^ for current photocomposition will be most useful "As the structure is being analyzed, further check- .'"-^ in for Linotron. . the programming ing by the machine is made to determine the ac- "I agree with Mr. Corrado that a great would curacy of the input data. The rules for rewriting deal of the programming which we do for computers structures are integrated in the program so that the will be very useful, irrespective of what output now computer is able to take a sophisticated look at unit we use." the chemist's rewritten structure and the keypunch "It seems that hazarding an approximation to a operator's work. It will not allow any atom to useful language, encoding it and trying it on real have too few or too many bonds, nor is a 7-bond is the most effective way to proceed." applications permissible with atoms for which ionic bonds are

". . . improve programmes for The best way to not iegal'. Improper atom and bond symbols and is write them and use them. computer typesetting to misplaced characters are recognized by the So far there have been so few written and used computer." sure we know exactly the best that we cannot be (Perhaps the programs of the future will specifi- ^'^ way to do the job." cally take account of variant British-American Duncan also makes the further significant point spellings, as for instance of "program" and "pro- ". . . that used that The programmes have been gramme" which are obtrusive in many of the perti- for actual printing jobs have not been subjected nent quotations cited in this report.) to sufficient public scrutiny and measurement, nor "The computer can also be asked to carry out a styles printing they have for that matter have the of number of original but useful checks. It can be been designed to replace!"^'' set to recognize American and British modes of spelling and to correct one into the other. To this can be added editorial functions — such as recogni- tion of person and tense to ensure consistency." "Duncan, 1965(b), p. 1. F. Simmons, remarks. Computer Typesetting; Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 232. V. M. Corrado, remarlis. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965.

p. 232. '•' Barnett et al., 1963, p. 271. "' C. T. Ross, remarks, (^imputer Typesetting Conference Proceedings. 1965, Barnett el al., 1964, p. 120. 232. p. Ibid, p. 119. "Harnett et a!., 1963, jj. 264. Duncan. 1964. p. 161. Duncan, remarks, (-ompuler 9. Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965. p. ™ Waldo. 1962, p. 2. " Duncan. (Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 9. i» Duncan, 1964. page 160.

78 6.3. Implications for Management Planning, It is of interest to note that the first system con- Industry Adjustment, and Systems Design cept involving programmable computing devices may have been directed at least in part to this As in many other areas of application of auto- problem: matic data processing techniques and related new "Some works cannot tolerate errors . . . and technological developments, a primary managerial Babbage is stated to have invented the first com- responsibility is recognition of the need to make puter, his 'differential engine,' to print navigational an overall systems planning ." approach, looking tables free of them. . . toward the integration of many now distinct proc- As first demonstrated by Bozman, the advan- esses, taking maximum advantage of any multi- tages are multiple. The Corliss-Bozman Mono- purpose processing possibihties offered and, in graph consisted of 559 pages of numeric data. general, undertaking a drastic re-thinking of the The first few pages were carefully proofread, but possible balancings of objectives with resources when not a single error was found, it was decided now available. to check only the first and last lines of each page, The state of the art of automatic typographic- with significant gains in time and cost of such ". quality composition is well enough advanced to checking. Moreover, since . . the ordinary underhne the importance of sound system design individual is incapable of detecting errors in large throughout the cycle from initial recording of in- tables of figures, or in nongrammatical symbols, formation to its reproduction and distribution. the advantages of automation for such work is Because of the prospects for new system through- obvious." "^^ put capabilities, attention should be paid to the In the case of text, however, problems of user least efficient processes: multiple re-typings of acceptance and human factors go hand in hand manuscript copy, keyboarding operations in gen- with prospects for new methods and media of eral, which are widely acknowledged to be the communication-publication, new management and limiting factor in the economics of typesetting,'*" editorial policies and new user attitudes. proofreading and corrections to copy after proofing. If, as has been claimed, changes suggested by an author after submission of his original script- 6.3.1. Problems of Author-Editor-Publisher copy are to be heavily penalized or refused (e.g., Relationships "we make the charge for corrections in the type- written text very low but we make it very high for Just as the introduction of truly high speed repro- ." the final page make-up proofs . . ^^), then eco- duction processes coupled with various degrees of nomic factors alone may reduce requirements for automation of the compositor functions has an ob- proof copy in the future. On the other hand, as vious present or potential impact upon managerial was remarked at the London Typesetting Con- planning and traditional practice in the publica- ". ference, . . The printed message, often in a dif- tion-printing industries, so also does it have im- ferent format, reads differently to authors. I have portant implications for the traditional author- found that an author is quite happy with a typescript, editor-publisher relationships. ." *^ but seeing this in type he will want to alter it . . For example, an important aspect of the NSF ". . . to try and train every author in the country grant to the American Chemical Society for the to accept something which probably looks to their investigation of automatic typesetting advantage uneducated eyes a great deal worse than the clean was: "A study of changes in the compositor-editor- typescript they sent to the pubhshers in the first author relations that will be required as increased ." place is asking too much. . . use is made of machines." Kuney adds: "If the traditional galley proof is A first and obvious question is that of author- to be replaced, editors and authors will need a long editor-compositor responsibilities in the area of process of education and testing to evolve a work- editorial changes and corrections after submission able basis for handling any new form of gaUey of an original manuscript, author revisions to proof- copy, the problem of proofreading generally, the proof." is also a special case involving continuing requirements for proof copy, and the relative ease There proof at least at the near to last with which suggested editorial corrections may be need for copy, automatic typesetting accommodated easily and economically into the stages, namely, where casting equip- final printed text. methods are used to drive hot metal "If output Obviation or minimization of the need for proof- ment. As noted by Markus: computer to repro- reading is one of the major gains expected from tapes could be converted automatically machine, there increased use of computer-driven typesetting sys- copy by an errorless composing Lino- tems, especially for computer-produced or com- would be no need for further proofreading. A piled numeric and statistical data. type or other hot-metal typesetting machine does

"•^ Duncan. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 8: "The (R)evo- J. J. Dilckers, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

lution in Boole Composition . . . IV," 1964, p. 67. p. 41. •^ " Kuney, 1963, p. 249. E. Houghton, remarks, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, « Duncan, 1964, p. 128. p. 41. "Ibid., p. 128. R. Bennett, remarks, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 40. « *^ Duncan. 1964. p. 124. also p. .50 of this report. Kuney, 1963, p. 249.

79 not meet these accuracy requirements, even though tape before starting the high-speed casting or

it can be controlled by punched paper Teletype- filmsetting operation." setting tape. The reason for this is an inherent Another consideration, at least in terms of pos- residual mechanical error of about 2 percent even sible future progress, is the question of the extent in the best hot-metal slug-casting machines. to which proofreading operations can be mech- These machine malfunctions mean that copy must anized, perhaps through the further development be proofread, because an average of one slug in of automatic character recognition techniques. fifty will have errors that require resetting.""*^ "Another possible appHcation ... of a page Assuming that proof copy will continue to be reader would be the ability to reduce proofreading. required in at least some stages of the text prepa- To take the original manuscript, read it into a type- ration cycle, some of the policy questions yet to be composition system, through a page reader, set decided include the question of when and how much the type, make galley proofs, and compare these proof copy will be required and whether it can be in through a page reader with the original manuscript a form other than that of the ultimate finished which was stored on discs or tape, eliminates a product. percentage of the proofreading time." "Will computer read-out matter in typed form be satisfactory as intermediate proofs, or will com- 6.3.2. The Possible Role of Automatic Character posing rooms be required to submit proofs in the Recognition type faces to be used in the book? This wiU bear Still another systems planning and management heavily on the type of automatic equipment to be implication is therefore the question of the possible used and the new order in which operations are role that automatic character recognition equipment performed." ^'^ may play in the ongoing development of publication Among the solutions that have been suggested and re-pubhcation processes. or actively tried for provision of intermediate copy It is quite probable that the reported gains in in less than final typographic quahty are the use keyboarding speed, when the operator produces of a 120 or 240 character chain on the IBM 1403 unjustified tape versus justified and word hyphen- printer and the uncoupling of the Linotron servo ated tape may be substantially incremented if the to achieve an output rate of 5,000 to 10,000 char- operator merely types hard copy, in a pre-selected, acters per second, where the character quaUty character-reader-designed font, which would then will be the same as the final product but spacing be read automatically at rates of 300-500 charac- and alignment will be irregular.^^ ters per second, or rather faster than most available Dikkers reports practical experience at the Royal perforated tape readers today. Exceptions exist Printing in HoUand, as foUows: House (among them, Digitronics, Omnitronics, and Rheem produce a magazine which we compose on "We Electronics) but even in photoelectric punched the photocomposer. use the hard copy ATF We hole readers operable at up to 1,000-2,000 char- which gives Roman of the Flexowriter tape punch acters per second, problems of handling the paper

Itahcs in red as the proof. . . . We are trans- and tape and preventing its kinking or tearing point to so that mitting these proofs in a facsimile the desirability of page readers capable of automatic the red does not appear red. We do not have any recognition of characters typed on hard copy.

. . . just want to difficulty at aU with that, as they A unique feature of the proposed ABLE system should there see that all the characters which be as recently recommended to the National Agricul- are there." tural Library is the plan to incorporate automatic One of the reasons for selecting a general pur- character recognition techniques in the preparation Ltd., was pose computer at Westerham Press, of the Bibliography of Agriculture. precisely for the purpose of providing such inter- Thus, "the bibhographic citation would be com- galley-proof in the mediate stages as a simulated posed as at present except that it would be typed form of a computer print-out to which necessary on special paper, formatted for input to an optical corrections would be make, and, at a later stage, scanner." page proofs also in the form of computer print-out.^"* For full text, however, both the need for insertions Boyd suggests further that: of editorial changes and corrections and the in- ". next . . As far as the future is concerned, the herent complexities of all the information contained objective in a computerized typesetting system in a page defy the present capabihties of automatic must be the application of a satisfactory and eco- character reading equipment. With regard to the give a proof for ". nomic print-out device which wiU first point, it is noted that: . . In most book of final corrected correction and re-perforation a composition . . . the machine would have to handle editing changes as well as typed matter to make the system economical. If the original manu- « Markus, 1952. p. 28. " "The (R)evolution in Book Compoaition," 1964, 56. script must be retyped to produce a perfect copy " C. J. Duncan, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 149. ^' V. M. Corrado, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings. 1965, p. 219. " J. J. Dikkers, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, « Boyd, 1955, p. .32. p. 40. '"Merz, 1964, p. 85. ^ Maclntyre, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 34. " "ABLE", 1965, p. 4.

80 for the scanner, the typist might as well create a keyboard design is to get a large selection of codes perfect tape and avoid the scanner completely". from a limited, properly spaced, simple-to-operate Mcintosh comments even more forcefully: arrangement of keys." "By the time you have produced a typescript Despite the familiar arrangement of the most sufficiently clear to be read by one of these devices- frequently used letters in English, the "ETAOIN" let alone Mr. FuUick's point about the codes you and "SHRDLU" of the hnecasting keyboard, sur- have to put in — you have already reached the stage prisingly httle attention has been paid to this prob- when either you can photograph that straight away lem and techniques of motion study and human or you can use the tape which you could have pro- engineering have been little used to take into duced in the meantime. I can see no use what- account not only the number of keys but also travel ever for reading devices in the field of printing for distances, size and shape of keystroking surfaces, a long time." finger pressure required, and the like. The second point relates to even so obvious a It has been suggested that "one possible result question as the rules which would enable the of this type of analysis could be a bowl-shaped machine reader to distinguish between the variant keyboard, with keys on the sides and rear banked

usages of punctuation symbols — a period used to up from the horizontal. . . . This would enable end a sentence, as a decimal point or as an indica- the fingers to reach outlying keys by moving in a tion of an abbreviation. More complex is the prob- straight line, rather than in an arc or in two moves, lem that the present typographical forms of "a over and down. Another feature would be larger typeset pubhcation are inadequate to represent keys on the outskirts, to reduce the need for accu- content which might be required by a secondary racy in moving fingers long distance." system. For example, if one wishes to identify, With the time required for human fingers to select in the manuscript, a referenced pubhcation by the and strike keys a limiting economic factor in the use of itahcs, the identification will be ambiguous preparation of material for publication, various because many other types of text items will also proposed techniques involve either simplifying the be represented by italics."^** time-pressure requirements or multiplying the "Programming such a device will require the number of output operations accomplished by a resolution of fantastic syntactic problems even if single keystroke. With respect to the first of these the machine has a universal multifont reading proposed improvements, Boyd reports: "A new type of is capability. For example, in the citation, J. Chem. keyboard one in which the operator starts Soc. 1964, 1963, which number is the year and the depression of the key manually and it is then which the page number? These are not trivial pulled the rest of the way by a . . . . This problems." has the effect of pulling the key away from the operator's finger it spurs to the next A third difficulty is, as in the case of output and him on printing, the very large character repertoire required one!"«6 It is also reported that: experimental proto- for adequate representation of scientific and tech- "An nical text. Ohringer comments: "There wiD be type keyboard has already been developed by Mer- many formulas and special mathematical symbols genthaler Linotype Company, in cooperation with the United States typewriter-style interspersed with the text. The type fonts used Army. The unit, as the Typewriter, tend to vary greatly, including many Greek letters known Army Chemical a triple-shift Flexowriter, produces a punched tape in addition to many styles and sizes of Roman containing three for character struck alphabet. The page arrangement also contains codes each on the keyboard. One code represents the charac- too much variation for present-day optical char- ''^ ter selected and the other j record the location acter readers." two of the character on the page . . . punched into "To the extent tape cannot be produced as a by- the tape automatically. . . . The codes vary with product of copy preparation, optical character changes in position of the carriage and roller platen recognition techniques will probably find typesetting in the typewriter. application as their versatiUty improves and their "The resulting tape is then fed into a computer, cost reduces." which stores the character codes according to lo- cation on the page. When type is set photograph- 6.3.3. Keyboard Design and Related Problems ically, the characters are read out of the computer ." Solutions to problems of character set that in- in fine sequence. . . volve the use of a larger number of both character As noted in an earlier section of this report, the and shift keys for the human operator to manipu- use of either built-in spacing, justification, and late aggravate another problem: that of the design automatic hyphenation processes or computer pro- of the keyboard itself. "The central problem of grams operating on unjustified tape not only in- creases keyboarding speed and accuracy but

"The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV", 1964. p. 70. A, C. Mcintosh. Computer Typesettmg Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 82.

" . . . 68. •» Buckland. 1963, p. 309. "The (R)evolution in Book Composition IV," 1964, p. Garfield, 196.5. '•Ibid., p. 69. 157. Ohringer, 1964, p. 311. R. Boyd, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 69. ^ "Computerized Typesetting," 1964, p. 8. " "The (Revolution in Book Composition . . . IV," 1964, p.

81 reduces the skill level required to that equivalent with operator control to change rapidly from one to those of a competent typist. Nevertheless, for to another.^^ many purposes involvin<2; lar^ie character sets, inter- One of the important aspects of the overall sys- mixed text and graphics, man-machine interaction tem design program being explored at the Uni- in page display or composition, and the like, more versity of Newcastle, for instance, is the analysis training and new methods of operator training may of keyboarding requirements, where it is hoped that be indicated. Duncan, for example, recommends: psychologists will contribute to the elucidation and "We need to improve keyboarding techniques, by investigation of the "fundamental measurements a reconsideration of the problems and the appli- . . . needed before there is any real understanding cation of new methods of training, such as adaptive of these activities." teaching machines."*^** Boyd further suggests: It has been suggested, for example, that "another "Cybernetic or teaching machines exist for Army valuable keyboard capability would be the ability Telex operatop, and a keyboard training machine to set multi-column work using a single set of in- would be a natural development from them." structions for each column, yet producing a com- Duncan concludes: "Certain it is that we need to pletely aligned and made up product from the type- be able to measure, assess and improve our key- setting machine." boarding skills and to develop error reduction and correction routines which will improve the eco- 6.3.4. Implications for Systems Design nomics of subsequent processing." '"^ ". . . The greatest promise for future develop- The system throughput difficulty has been evi- ment seems to be in increasing input flexibility of denced to date in various currently expedient ap- user terminals . . . We are beginning to see the proaches to the problems of speed versus quality, use of parallel-key devices, based on the in pressures to achieve both higher speed and higher ." principle . . quality, and in increased recognition of implicitly In the case of the Barnett computer-photocom- required changes in management philosophy, sys- poser programs, the use of program "macros" (i.e., tems design, and customer attitude. Present and the use of a few special codes which automatically prospective progress, however, is indicated by the call up control subroutines) has been noted as a portion of multiple-purpose, integrated data proc- means to minimize the required number of control essing concepts; by system designs involving code keystrokes. However, if in addition the key- multiple off-line production, and by at least some board itself could be designed so that a pre-deter- evidences of willingness to re-examine input, serv- mined set of codes would be punched from a single ice and output requirements of many documenta- master key, it is estimated that the mix of instruc- tion activities. tion code strokes in the M.I.T. input could be re- One important management and systems planning duced from 75 percent to 36 percent, a significant implication is that in spite of rapid technological gain.^^ innovation and apphcation, today's possibilities Another example of multiple-output-from single- encompass a wide range of balanced systems. In ". keystroke is provided by experimental Chinese particular, . . The equation becomes one of ideograph composition techniques. large in-plant computers for composition alone, "There are a number of groups of strokes which versus large in-plant computers for combined op- do not necessarily have meanings in themselves erations, versus large computer centers, versus but which occur often in the stroking of ideographic smaller specialized computers combined with characters. The keyboard provides for 20 of the manual operations." most frequently used of these stroke groups, which Nevertheless, as Duncan points out: "The sig- have been designated entities. If such an entity nificant fact at this stage is that the newer systems is present during the stroking of a character, the are more flexible and so will allow a wider variety operator can introduce it by depressing the proper of machines to be brought into operation. The entity key. This action introduces the complete industry will then be able to buy and use the right stroking sequence contained in the entity just as machine for the right job, and to seek the right types though individual keys had been struck to build it of work for that particular installation, instead of up." equipping itself throughout with relatively inefficient Other instances of desired changes in keyboard general purpose machinery." design that have been discussed in the literature This means, on the one hand, that sound prin- include the provision for simultaneously printing ciples of integrated systems engineering must be characters along the edge of paper tape as their employed: "To begin to understand the impact bit patterns are being punched and a capability of computers on composition, it must be realized to print in many different languages or alphabets that computerized composition represents far more

"Duncan, 1964. p. 166. R. Boyd, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1%5, p. 162. F. C. Holland, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, '» Ibid, p. 9. p. 167. " Ohlman. 1963, p. 194. ™ Duncan, 1%5 (b), p. 2. 68. «Tlle lR)evoluli..n in Book Composition ... IV, 1964, p. "'"The (R)evolulion in Book Composition . . . IV." 1964, p. 69. "Pitt, 1964, p. 11-12. "Tile (R)evolution in Book Composition," 1964, p. 57. 161. " K. Boyd, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. Duncan, 1964, p. 123.

82 than an improvement in the setting of type. Com- to change from Linotype to Monotype puters are bringing on a. fundamental revolution Baskerville, it is possible to recalculate and come in composition. Studies and applications work out with a tape which after subsequent conversion already have shown that the real economies He goes on to a Monotype unit. This may be of only in reorganizing the composition process — not in academic interest but we are particularly interested merely trying to superimpose computers on present in this for controlling production in a large printing systems." group, where we may have an urgent job which, On the other hand, it also needs to be recognized originally scheduled for one piece of equipment, that: . . whatever the technological possibihties could be switched to another unit." may be their exploitation involves re-orientation of Other claimed advantages of allotment to a num- management pohcy to a drastic degree." ber of different machines are that it enables an The problem of re-thinking the processing-print- operator to control machine loadings independently ing complex arises in terms both of balancing input of the rate of tape output and that down-time and with high speed in intermediate or final operations changeover-time on the typesetting equipment itself and of balancing output with rates of high computer can be reduced. processing. Another important aspect of planning and sys- With respect to the balancing of final output tems design for multiple off-line production is that capabilities with high speed computer output rates, of providing for such production at remote locations an obvious solution is the adoption of multiple off- by tie-in to communication networks. This is hne production systems. Thus, "the terrific speed already evident in a number of news service applica- at which computers produce tape raises some tions, where, for example, the Associated Press is problems. The RCA 301, for example, turns out using the Data-Phone to transmit justified stock enough TTS tape to fill a whole newspaper column market copy to its customers throughout the coun- in 17 seconds, so fast that conventional typesetting try. As Blondeau notes, "this is on the wire min- equipment can't begin to keep up and batteries of nutes after the markets close in New York." machines must be used." With respect to prospects for future progress Such batteries may be operated either on-fine or for multiple printing at remote locations, Duncan off-hne through the use of buffers and allocation suggests: "As the onset of film composition, of devices. At The South Bend Tribune plant, for punched tape, or of thin presensitized litho plates example, "Under guidance of the IBM 1620 com- reduces the bulk and weight of the work content puter the buffer selects from the six Harris Inter- of printing it becomes a simple matter to convey it type Monarch linecasting machines one which is rapidly all over the world by jet aircraft, or to trans- set up for the proper type font and size and column mit it practically instantaneously by communica- width for the story. These specifications are tions satellite, or coaxial telegraph cable." marked by the editor on the original copy and Still another advantage of the communication punched into the first tape along with the copy." network tie-in is likely to be a quick and reliable Similarly, at J'he Kansas City Star, an IBM 1620 depository system for scientific and technical ma- installation is hnked to an allocating capabiHty terial (both bibliographic data and full text) in which feeds twelve finecasting machines. reproducible form at many locations. For safety With respect to multiple on-line production capa- and security reasons also, "simultaneous replication biUties Duncan reports, "In 'on-Une' operation the of the printing surfaces at several locations will be processing computer is connected directly to a bat- an attractive variation on present-day practice." tery of tape-operated hne-casters which are setting Multiple inputs to a single high speed processor copy as it comes through. By the use of allocators are also a part of the system design equation. The each machine can be kept loaded with work appro- French CAE system provides for both a double priate to it, and in case of difficulties automatic input and a double output which not only increases re-routing to another machine or to a high density the throughput speed but also allows the computer, magnetic tape storage is possible." when required, "to accomplish simultaneously two This advantage is claimed to be especially valu- different tasks on independent texts." able when typesetting equipment can be set up so Another example is the plan for the Thomson that diff"erent machines need handle only a few fonts Computer Setting System in Great Britain. "Un- at a time. A further advantage is the capabihty like existing computer type setting methods which of switching from one type of equipment to another are being developed in the United States, the new to meet production schedule demands. Thus, at British system allows for direct communication Westerham Press it is claimed that: "Within our between the operator and the computer. system we can output to a standard line-caster, or "The twelve keyboard operators will share the to a photosetter. If the job being computed has one computer and use it as their slave to justify

Maclntyre, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 35,

"The (K)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV". 1964. p. 70. "The (R)evf>Iution in Book Composition," 1964. p. 56, Duncan, 1964, p. 162. *" Duncan, 1964, p. 166. "> Blondeau. 1963, p. 89. '^BlundeU, 1964, p. 28. " Duncan, 1964, p. 121. »" « Goodwin, 1964. p. 34. Ibid, p. 163. Proceedings, 1965, 195. " Duncan, 1964, p. 146. " G. Bafour, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference p.

83 lines, to remember type faces and sizes, to store lem for hot metal is notoriously severe and the copy for corrections, to construct tables, to identify re-arrangement procedures are slow, costly, and paper tape and to hyphenate words. Each opera- cumbersome. With the use of photocomposition tor will fiive his own instructions independently techniques, storage is much more compact and to the computer. The computer will immediately manageable, but the page revision problems are tell if ". the operator he makes a mistake or gives an even more critical. As Duncan remarks: . . Un- impossible instruction. If a mistake has been made til recently there was no alternative to storing metal the operator can remove it with a touch on the and updating it by substitutions, or, if alterations keys." above say 10 percent were involved, by resetting. Some of the practical problems in sound systems The use of film or flat photo copy instead of metal planning for the introduction of semi-automatic did not in general make things easier, as it was or automatic techniques in the composing room or less durable and just as difficult to match in as printing plant include such minor but significant a mixture of new and used hot metal type."^* details as the following: "One of the unexpected The updating and reissue problems constitute one problems which has occurred is that of winding of the principal reasons for high speed requirements and unwinding tapes. The photo-electric readers in semiautomatic and automatic type composition are very sensitive to tight or kinked tape, and if systems. For example, in typical directory com- either fault develops the output tape can soon be- ". position apphcations, . . you have several hun- come nonsense. This is the sort of thing that one dred hstings on a page. If you want to re-set that tends to ignore when one thinks about computers page and add three names and take one out, the but it can very quickly make a loss out of a profit." keyboarding which has to be done involves only Even in relatively slow, relatively unsophisticated three lines, but the new machine has to be fast ". equipment systems, such as Linasec I, . . The enough to set the other 300 or 400 lines which are standard clockwork tape winder available in this ."^^ on the page. . . 5" 6" country is about or in diameter, and you have At least two special factors may also require to change these in a remarkably short space on recognition in managerial re-thinking of the prepara- Linasec [I] when you are processing at 100 a tion-processing-publication cycle as the result of second." the introduction of new techniques. One of these Another managerial question in terms of an in- is the question of special considerations, tegrated systems approach is that of multiple use, and the other is the related one of ownership of in the same organization, of the capabilities of products eventually to be sold, especially where automatic data processing. First, it is to be noted processing and packaging has been shared among that "most organizations that are of a size and several different organizations. Duncan asks: structure that warrant a large computer are also "One complex matter will arise when tape is pre- of a size and structure that could benefit from an pared in one place for processing to saleable copies 'in-house' facility for the rapid production of varied at another. To whom will it by law belong, and by

' typography." whom by trade custom can it be used?" Secondly, despite the early failure at the Arizona Copyright considerations may relate first to the Journal, there are definite prospects that computers substance of material reproduced, specifically available for typesetting purposes may also be used including the use by abstracting services, whose for other productive operations in the same organiza- output is copyrighted, of an author abstract which tion. Thus, in one of the on-going newspaper may also be replicated by another organization applications, "in addition to using this equipment either as part of its own accession announcements, for composition, Perry also uses it for accounting as part of a storage, search and retrieval system operations of some 26 or 28 different units of the or as part of a demand bibhography. organization." Next, there is the question of on ma- An important change that is promised is in the terial essentially generated, not merely compiled, area of storage requirements for material that is by machine systems. This is complicated by the to be revised, corrected and/or cumulated, and re- general question of copyrights in translations, issued. especially if the translation is the output of a "One trip through the mountains of metal stored machine translation program. Further compHca- in the plants of most large commerical and book tions arise from the fact that computer programs as printers drives home the extremely uncommon such may now be copyrightable under certain utility of compact data storage on tape."^^ conditions. In such applications as revised and updated "There is one final problem that may retard and directories, gazeteers, cumulative indexes, recur- damage this whole new expansion — that is the rent bibliographies and the hke, the storage prob- problem of copyright and of regulations governing the use of text in computer form." ^

" The Computer Bulletin 9. 19 (1965). " Boyd. 1965, p. 28. R. Boyd, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 38. »" Duncan, 1964, p. 147. " l.uce and Barnelt, 1%3, p. 293. V. M. Corrado, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965. pp. 235-236. "Toothman. 1953. p. 105. ' Duncan, 1964, p. 161. "Computerized Typesetting." 1964, p. 5. » Kehl, 1965, p. 26.

84 Another highly speciaHzed, but potentially to affect our traditional modes of communication. troublesome question, is that of copyrights in the The traditional forms of the book, journal, and re- typography itself (covered, for example, in the Brit- print may eventually give way to the machine stor- ish Copyright Act of 1956^). If the original ty- age of graphical and digital information and ma- pography of all or part of copyrighted material is chine-generated copy."^ accidentally or otherwise exactly reproduced in Material not now usually typeset — the technical subsequent reprocessing and resetting is there a report and the wide variety of computer-compiled potential infringement? If the typography of a or computer-generated products — is likely to be first printing, whether of primary or secondary increasingly fed to typesetting equipment in the publication, is computer-produced, what copy- near future. As Kraft remarks: "Today, the newer rights if any, can be lodged with author, publisher, developments in typographic composition and re- computer programmer, composition service bureau production—particularly the development of high- or printer? performance phototypesetters and tape-controlled It has also been demonstrated that facsimile linotypes — have increased the speed and reduced transmission may be used for sending copy and the cost of typesetting to such an extent that typeset proofs to and from various locations. For ex- copy can compete with other methods of document ample, the Portland Printing Company has used reproduction in speed and cost." * Western Union's Broadband Exchange Service High typographic quality of the bibliographic for transmission between New York and Boston at information may make more feasible the suggestion rates of one page in four minutes, thereby becom- of Markus that there should be explored "the ing able to "move copy immediately to our plant, economic aspects of printing indexes in much set in type and return out of town proofs within a smaller type and furnishing a magnifying glass ^ single working day." * with each volume." Demand publication (whether of original text, 6.3.5. Implications for Industry Adjustment supplemental data and appendixes, or special- purpose bibhographies and index-document list- some of In the preceding section, we considered ings) imposes additional requirements — often of the imphcations to be found in the hterature of small production or replication runs and often re- automatic type composition with respect, primarily, quiring highly specialized selection-extraction and to the design of a single system or to the adoption re-assembly operations. In this area, a suggestion of the new techniques by a single organization. of Duncan's indicates some of the new technolog- There are, in addition, some imphcations hkely to ical possibilities: "When the number of offprints affecting the printing and pubhshing industries as required is small then some cheap system of short- such and thus to point toward requirements for in- run production is more appropriate than full-scale dustry-wide adjustments. printing. In these circumstances the photo- First is the question of new publication, repro- composer, or an attachment to it, can compose duction and distribution possibilities. These imply reprints directly on to a photosensitive short-run the desirabihty of looking toward radical re-orienta- plate, or some intermediate suitable for inexpensive tion of publication and dissemination policies and conversion." toward the introduction of new types or means of With respect to the printing industry, the clearly reproduction and distribution. implied requirements for industry-wide readjust- First, "As printing becomes increasingly involved ments range from re-thinking of criteria for accept- in data processing techniques, so is publishing ing jobs and for determining an economic size for involved in the tremendous developments taking a printing run, through the problems of labor place in information retrieval and dissemina- relations to the question of education and training

tion . . . The operation of powerful information of those now engaged in printing operations and of retrieval systems may (as in the case of MEDLARS) those who will enter the industry in the future. produce more or different printed matter replacing Underlying all these considerations is the recog- some of the books and pamphlets already in nition that: "There is ever increasing demand for production."^ cheap printed matter of good quality. These de- " In a study of desired improvements in the com- mands cannot be met by old craft methods." munication network for biomedical information, Turning to the mechanics of production of both ". of publication; pilot trials have been recommended for: . . using the traditional and newer forms advanced techniques in the publication of estab- Duncan as one of the principal exponents and Hshed biomedical journals, e.g., computer composi- students of the impact of the new techniques ."^ points out that: "The concentration of enormous tion, 'phototypesetting', microform editions . . As the Weinberg Panel report suggests, "the productive power in a small unit, such as a digital invention of the new retrieval methods is beginning computer or an ultra fast photocomposing machine.

' President's Scientific Advisory Committee, 1963, p. 32. ' Reed, 1960. p. 152. « Kraft, 1963, p. 275. •CIS Newsleller, Aug 1. 1965, p. 4. 'Markus, 1962, p. 21. ''Duncan. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 11. '"Duncan, 1964, p. 162. ""Communication Pn)blems in Biomedical Research", 1963, p. 21. " Harrison, 1964, p. 1.

85 inevitably changes the balance of the machines reservation of codes for control functions and for- that feed it and those that it feeds. This poses mat and geometry of the paper or magnetic tapes." ". <:reat problems of production while completely Further, . . large amounts of machinery in changing the method of operation and the balance use today will either have to be altered or replaced, of the plant in use. I believe it also implies, at or we shall have to go on using converters and trans- least to start with, a change in the variety and style lators for a considerable time, and at considerable ^"^ of the operations to be performed." expense. The printing industry, particularly the Elsewhere, Duncan provides a comprehensive newspaper industry, is the worst off of all from this coverage of the problems of printing industry ad- point of view because practically all the tape oper- justments as follows: "The pressures operating in ated plant it uses has its own private code, and its the printing industry and the deficiencies in means own 'tape' format."'^ to combat them . . . may be summarized as The fact that presently proposed standardized follows: codes such as ASCII or the even more restricted British-International 6- and 7-bit codes cannot ade- 1. Increase in the total quantity of printed mat- quately cover the character repertoire required ter required. . . . for scientific and technical material, except with 2. Increase in the speed at which material is extensive use of "escape" characters or precedence required and in its complexity both of con- coding has been mentioned previously. Finally, tent and design. it ". is to be noted that . . even if a common lan- 3. Increase in the speed with which copy is guage tape could be agreed upon in printing, con- being fed to composing machines (from wire verters would still needed to and business tape and from computers). be connect computer- ized composition systems with outside sources of 4. Increase in production associated with material." modern high speed rotary presses. Recognizing the need for code standardization 5. Drive for greater productivity . . . for newspapers, the American Newspaper Pub- 6. Competition from newer media, and non-tra- lishers Association in the summer of 1965 nominated ditional methods. Mr. Harold R. Hoots of the Lindsay-Schaub News- 7. Introduction into the industry of work papers, Decatur, Illinois, to serve as a member of study . . . the American Standards Association's Subcommit- 8. Low per capita expenditure on research in tee X3.2, Codes and Input-Output, and Task Group the industry as compared with newer growth X3.2.4, Code Development. The Mergenthaler industries. Linotype Co., has had representation on both of 9. Low percentage of technologists (as distinct those groups for two years, in the persons of O. R. from arts graduates) employed in the industry. Arne, now with the New York Daily News, and R. J. 10. Meagre facilities available for advanced in- ."'^ Donahue. struction and research. . . The need for standardization in this field is evi- A more specific, but exemplary, problem of in- dent, and a substantial development effort is indi- dustry-wide concern is that of lack of compatibility cated, in order that the 96 graphic symbols and between systems and hence the need for conversion half dozen format effectors of ASCII can be ex- capabilities for some years to come. tended, in a standard manner, to encompass all of "A considerable number of code translating the typographic symbols and controls required in machines will be necessary to handle the multi- the composition of newspapers. fariously coded systems at present in use, and TTS tape, with its unfortunate non-standard sprocket 7. Summary: The Present State-of- hole position, will have to be converted for process- the-Art and Future Prospects ing on general purpose systems." One obvious question is that of possible standard- The state-of-the-art is well indicated in summary ization of perforated tape codes, formats, and proc- by the following. In June 1963 the U.S. Government essing characteristics. Printing Office issued a "Request for Proposal for Duncan suggests that: "We need a moderately Off-line Magnetic Tape High Speed Photocom- increasing degree of standardization, first over the poser," which required: machine processing methods and codes, then over the variety of printing formats and styles."'^ a. typography and formatting by computer proc- ". essing. It is also to be noted that . . it is likely that we will have to cope with a wide variety of inputs b. computer programs to accomplish this. c. the use of computer-generated magnetic tape, and formats for some time to come. . . . The use of code converters, however, requires very in several existing tape formats, as off-line careful attention to code combinations and to the control and information input to the photocom- poser.

'^C. J. Duncan, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 3.

Duncan, 1964, p. 126. '".Sparlis el al, 1954, p. 182. " Ibid., p. 130. Duncan, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965. p. 10. '••Ibid, p. 166-167. "*"The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . 1964, p. 70.

86 '

d. the production of photographic image pages Several other companies are known to be engaged (8 X 10.5 inches) of graphic arts quahty. in research in photocomposing. The companies e. composing in full image width (8 inches) or marked with an asterisk (*) submitted formal pro- in two columns, one column at a time. posals in October 1963, and the final award of a f. a minimum output speed of 600 characters per contract was made a few months later to the Mer- second of six point type (lower for larger type). genthaler Linotype Co., for a photocomposing sys- g. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10. 12, 14, and 18 point size values. tem based upon its "Linotron" all optical-electronic h. proportional character spacing, computed. equipment developed in collaboration with CBS i. justified lines, computed, Laboratories. j. variable hne spacing. In terms of technical developments as of August k. horizontal type width condensation under 1965, certain conclusions as to the current state of code control to 85% and 70% of true width, the art and the prospects for further progress can without reduction in Une length (optional). be drawn. It should be noted, however, that the 1. multiple type faces, mixed without restriction. available and developing technology is such that m. electronically controlled inclination of the several different approaches may, as appropriate, of simu- vertical axis of characters as a means proceed concurrently but independently. lating itahcs (optional). First, it should be recognized that the computer, n. electronically controlled "stroke width" of per se, is not necessarily linked to a single high characters as a means of simulating bold face speed composition technique. characters (optional). It can be claimed that, "automated techniques are resolution of line pairs inch at a den- o. 250 per applicable to all typesetting methods, although the sity ratio suitable for platemaking. speed and flexibility of photographic composition p. reduction to one-fourth and one-eighteenth provides the most fertile avenue for fully exploiting size image areas (optional). computer capabilities." q. at least 20 different graphic overlay formats to Nevertheless, "many people believe that comput- be inserted on code command in random erized composition will greatly accelerate the devel- order, or means of generating horizontal and opment of photocomposition methods and the vertical lines, to closely specified tolerances, replacement of hot metal. Others, however, argue in response to code command. that hot metal has a great deal to offer in comput- r. operation in various existing magnetic tape erized composing rooms, and it will continue to codes with transition to the American Stand- find a major role in the future."^ ard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). On the other hand, it has been recognized that, only one facet of the total picture, the Sufficient interest in the above "Request for Pro- "although computer has the if not posal" was evidenced, despite the severe require- somehow become symbol, the synonym, for automation."^ ment, that a Bidders Conference held at the There are several good reasons. The most spec- Government Printing Office in August 1963 was tacular of the semi-automatic and automatic aids attended by representatives of the potential sup- to composition and typesetting is certainly the pliers shown in Table 3. general purpose digital computer, which has worked its way into nearly all aspects of human activity: Table 3. Companies represented at a Photocomposer Bidders business, industry, commerce, science, technology, Conference at Government Printing Office on August 12, 1963. government, education and the professions. *1. Alphanumeric, Inc. The computer, then, in one of its many roles, has 2. Founders Co., Inc. American Type been gradually and painstakingly assuming an in- 3. Aries Corp. creasingly important position as skilled compositor, 4. Arnoux Corp. 5. Auerbach Corp. to which it is rather ideally suited, since this task 6. Burroughs Corp. involves an enormous repetition of well-defined 7. Data Display, Inc. decision processes. The computer has already 8. Di/An Controls, Inc. demonstrated its ability to eliminate the need for *9. A. B. Dick Co. the skills the 10. General Dynamics Electronics complex compositor from keyboard 11. General Electric Co. operator, to provide an enormous increase in the 12. General Precision, Inc. speed of the compositor functions, and to keep pace 13. Harris Intertype Corp. with developments in electronic photocomposers 14. Houston Fearless Corp. which promise typesetting of graphic arts quality 15. Information Dynamics Corp. 16. Inforonics, Inc. at speeds of thousands of characters per second, *17. International Business Machines Corp. intermixed with electronically photocomposed line 18. Itek Corp. art, screened halftones and continuous tone 19. Lanston Monotype Co. illustrations. 20. Litton Systems, Inc. *21. Mergenthaler Linotype Co. There is, in addition to high speed typographic 22. Philco Corp. quality in black and white, some promise of color *23. Photon, Inc. 24. Radio Corp. of America ' "Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 4. ^ 2.5. Shaza Industries "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . Ill", 1964, p. 61. ^"Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 2.

87 as well. While, as of 1963, a Mergenthaler team ing of material produced as a result of computer was pessimistic ("with respect to color capability, processing. Thus Forbes remarks: the investigations show that there are no practical "Reduction in the book bulk is achieved by getting means, methods or mediums available now or in two pages of information on to one page. Higher the near future that will simplify or circumvent the readability will generate sufficient savings to pay complicated conventional techniques and mediums for the major portion of the initial programming." currently employed for high quality color imaging The future potential in this area is emphasized by and reproduction." a practical demonstration of the recognition that in the United States alone, "500 at least limited application of color has already million pages a month are produced by high speed been achieved: "Art and electronics were interest- line printers." ^ ingly combined to produce the cover on the July Significant gains in the bottleneck areas of key- [1965] issue of Fortune magazine. The designer's stroking and proofreading have been discussed specifications were converted to a computer pro- earlier. gram, punched into 8-channel paper tape and Related research potentialities to be explored generated on an oscilloscope via a PDP-1 computer. include the further development of automatic char- Multiple photographic exposures through two filters acter reading techniques suitable for use in inte-

added color to the electron tube images. . . grated text processing systems and in further Thus the present prospects for automatic, high investigations of "the possibility of eliminating quality typographic composition at high speed show writing or typing as a means of originating material progress toward such specifications as outhned by is now available in crude form, in the voice-writer, Ohlman at the 1961 Annual Meeting of the American the IBM 'shoebox,' and a similar machine by RCA." ^ Documentation Institute: "What we require is a As is to be observed with respect to labor rela- device that can create a visually attractive page for tions problems that have already occurred, the a competitive price at reasonable speed. It should implications of the current state of the art of auto- provide a full variety of type fonts, the gamut of matic typographic composition are already affecting colors, and automatic control of placement and the question of training and skills required in the shape, as well as the ability to compose analog composing room and the printing plant. On the matter, such as graphs and pictures, from digital one hand, there is the fact that skilled typists pro- inputs."® ducing unjustified tape for subsequent machine As we have seen, there are two complementary processing can replace the skilled compositor in aspects of the current state-of-the-art in automatic many applications. On the other hand, there are typographic quality composition. They are not new challenges to the industry to become familiar necessarily interdependent. Computerized type- with and learn to take advantage of the new tech- setting can be applied as well to hot metal equip- nological advances.

ment control as to photocorpposers and, by suitable "As typesetting . . . moves from mechanics to planning for multiple off-line production, to relatively electronics and a host of sophisticated, alien disci- slow speed composers and printers and still achieve plines, the changes in the approach toward related significant throughput advantages. Conversely, education and training must be no less radical."'" high speed photocomposers may or may not be Current progress has been hailed as a "move- computer-driven and yet portend significant gains in ment from sweat to sophistication [and] more economy of printing and in timeliness of publication. efficient systems of printed communication are Where computers are already involved in the evolving from the cooperative assault on the prob- preparation-to-publication cycle, it is reasonably lems of typesetting by experts in both printing and certain that they can also be effectively used to electronics." " assure high typographic quality of finished products. Finally, as several of the pioneering users of the However, it is with the combination of high speed photocomposition-computer combined capabilities photocomposition and computer typesetting control have summarized: that the most significant gains are beginning to be "Considered as a typographic quality output realized. Some of these are already claimed to be device, the tape driven Photon bypasses several worth as much as the cost of the equipment itself. cycles of manual keyboard action, proofreading These include, first, space savings resulting from and correction, when the results of a computation fewer pages at lower cost, estimated at to up 7.5% are to be published. It provides a means for in- space saved for the same text in newspaper composi- creasing the readabihty of results when manual tion (for example, "significant savings, reported to typesetting would not be cheap or fast enough." be up to 5% in the case of the Oklahoman, which "Probably the most important improvement, will go a long way towards paying for the com- however, is in readability. The printing is not only ." puter . . ^, far higher savings in the case of print- clear and distinct, but the availability of a choice

O. Schwartz, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 76. ' Mcrgenlhaler. 1963. p. 17. -'Duncan. 1964. p. 131. 'CIS Newslcticr. August 1, 1965, p. 4. '""Automation and Education." 1965. p. 1. * Herbert Ohlman, panel discussion of Markus, 1962, p. 25. " "Computerized Typesetting." 1964, p. 3. ' Duncan, 1964, p. 155. '•'Luce and Barnett, 1963. p. 293.

88 of type styles, mathematical symbols, special sym- practical solutions adopted by working compositors, bols, and Greek and italic characters to fit each and apparently disregarded or unobserved by particular job contributes toward the publication readers and designers !"^^ of data which is easier to understand and a pleasure How do the problems of improper hyphenation of to read and use."^^ such and such a percentage of the number of hy- Duncan warns, however, that: phenated lines compare as between the usual "The most that can be said for our efforts so far readers of the newspaper, the typewriter-copy- is that they have shown the great extent of the reproduced technical report, the computer-compiled ground work that needs to be done before their KWIC index, the periodical article, the full text of successful use can be assured." a book on scientific and technical topics? Many questions of operational analysis, human Again, how serious is an occasional ragged-right- factors, and user acceptance have not yet been in- margin line? Is it better or worse with respect to vestigated to any significant extent. In the first overall customer acceptance than an occasional place, many aspects of these questions involve (more frequent?, less frequent?) improper or subjective or quahtative or even aesthetic judgment, ludicrous hyphenation? for which no quantitative measures have yet been This is but one example of many such questions devised. In the second place, even where quanti- yet to be explored, and demanding early attention. tative measurements are feasible, they have seldom Mcintosh, for example, makes the following perti- been developed and applied. Duncan (1964) re- nent comments: ports, for example, on critical reactions to machine- "... I wonder whether a very small sum of controlled interword spacing in the range of 4 to 12 money by comparison with the hundreds and thou- "M" units. He notes that: "All typographers so sands of pounds which are going into this technology far consulted consider closer spacing down to 3 at the moment might be devoted to some funda- M.U. minimum preferable to occasional lines with mental study of readability, typefaces, sizes, hy- wider spacing and would prefer an upper limit of phenation, justification and supposed standards of about 9 M.U. . . . We must report an actual count typography. If that study were undertaken on a of the interword spacing used on 958 lines by a most national basis or an international basis — which, as respectable publishers' printer. 9.4% of the lines far as I know, has never been attempted — it might had spacing over 9 M.U.; 4.5% over 10 M.U., and ehminate a lot of the problems into which a tremen- there were two fines over 13 M.U. So much for the dous amount of effort is going."

'^Bnzman. 1963. p. 4. '5 Duncan, 1964, p. 155. " C. J. Duncan, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 2. A. C. Mcintosh, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, pp. 149- 150.

89

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