1St and De in Eval

■1 1ST AND DE IN EVAL Joseph F. O’Callaghan THE MIDDLE AGES SERIES Ruth Mazo Karras, Series Editor Edward Peters, Founding Editor A complete list of books in the series is available from the publisher. j ; I > > Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain Joseph F. O'Callaghan PENN University of Pennsylvania Press Philadelphia Production of this volume was assisted by a grant from the Program for Cultural Cooperation between Spain's Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports and United States Universities Copyright © 2003 University of Pennsylvania Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper First paperback edition 2004 to 9876543 Published by University of Pennsylvania Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-4011 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data O'Callaghan, Joseph F. Reconquest and crusade in medieval Spain / Joseph F. O'Callaghan. p. cm. — (The Middle Ages series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8122-3696-3 (cloth : alk. paper) —ISBN 0-8122-1889-2 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Spain—History—711-1516. 2. Spain—History, Military. 3. Migration, Internal—Spain— History. 4. Land settlement—Spain—History. 5. Crusade bulls. I. Title. II. Series. DP99.033 2002 946'.02—den 2002028952 For Anne Her children rise up and call her blessed... Give her the fruit of her hands, and let her work praise her in the gates —Proverbs 31:28,31 ' ; ■ 1 ■ K Contents List of Illustrations ix Preface xi Genealogical Tables xv 1 Reconquest, Holy War, and Crusade 1 2 From Barbastro to Almeria, 1063-1157 23 3 From Almeria to Las Navas de Tolosa, 1157-1212 50 4 From Las Navas de Tolosa to Cdrdoba, 1212-1236 78 5 From Cdrdoba to Seville, 1236-1248 99 Warfare in the Crusading Era 124 7 Financing Reconquest and Crusade 152 8 The Liturgy of Reconquest and Crusade 177 9 Epilogue 209 Abbreviations 217 Notes 221 Bibliography 277 Index 309 . 1 Illustrations Illustrations 1. Calatrava la Vieja 53 2. Pend6n of Las Navas de Tolosa 73 3. Alfonso Tellez and Military Orders besiege a castle 86 4. Entrance to Real Alcazar of Seville 115 5. Count Garda of Castile fights al-Man$ur 131 6. King of Granada attempts to capture Chincoya Castle 136-37 7. Christian Knights defeat the Marlnids 145 8. Pendbn of Baeza 192 Maps 1. Muslim Spain, 711-1031 2 2. Spain at the death of Fernando I 28 3. Spain at the death of Alfonso VIII 77 4. Spain at the death of Fernando III 121 1 Preface The epic battle between Islam and Christianity for dominance in the Mediterranean, extending over many centuries, occupies a principal place in the history of medieval Europe. Historians of the Middle Ages, how ever, have tended to take a narrow view of that conflict by focusing primarily on the crusades directed to the Holy Land in the twelfth and thirteenth cen turies. This book attempts to redress the balance in part by emphasizing that the clash of arms between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian peninsula from the early eighth century onward, commonly labeled the reconquest, was transformed into a crusade by the papacy during the twelfth and thir teenth centuries. Successive popes accorded to Christian warriors willing to participate in the peninsular wars against Islam the same crusading benefits offered to those going to the Holy Land. Thus if one wishes to study the his tory of the crusades one has to take a broader view of the entire Mediter ranean to include medieval Spain. The beginnings of crusading historiography help to explain the limited vision of the crusades that prevailed until recent years. Because generations of French nobles and kings participated in expeditions to liberate Jerusalem, crusading was seen as an integral part of French national history. English and American medievalists, concentrating their attention initially on France and England, were inevitably drawn to the crusades to the Holy Land, but ei ther ignored or mentioned only cursorily the war against Islam in Spain. Spanish historians were themselves responsible for this neglect in that, while they wrote much about the reconquest, they gave scant heed to the fact that the popes were granting remission of sins, the hallmark of crusading bulls, to those exposing their lives in combat against Islam. Jos£ Goni Gaztambide’s history of the bull of crusade in Spain, published in 1958, changed the focus entirely through his detailed study of papal documents according crusading indulgences and other privileges to those engaged in the reconquest. My interest in this project was first awakened when I reviewed Goni Gaztambide’s book. In 1987, while directing a National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Institute on Medieval Spain: Land of Three Religions, I xii Preface explored the topic further. 1 am indebted to the participants in the Institute, my good friends Manuel Gonzalez Jimenez, Angus MacKay, Teofilo Ruiz, and Robert I. Burns, whose perspective on medieval Spain is always helpful. Father Burns also provided me with transcripts of several papal bulls. My students Theresa Earenfight, Donald Kagay, Nina Melechen, James Todesca, and Theresa Vann have always been a source of inspiration for me. Paul Chevedden has also been most helpful. In writing this book 1 have attempted to utilize all the sources known to me, although, in comparison to other European countries, the number of Christian and Muslim chronicles is limited. The principal Latin narra tive source for the twelfth century is the Chronicle of Alfonso the Emperor, a contemporary account of the reign of Alfonso VII of Le6n-Castile by an anonymous cleric. For the thirteenth century there are three major narra tives for the history of Castile and Leon, namely, The Latin Chronicle of the Kings of Castile, probably written by the royal chancellor, Bishop Juan of Osma (d. 1246); the History of the Affairs of Spain by Rodrigo Jimenez de Rada, archbishop of Toledo (d. 1247); and the uncritical Chronicle of the World by Lucas, bishop of Tuy (d. 1249). All three works, concluding with the fall of Cordoba in 1236, were written by contemporaries who participated in many of the events they described and who were favorable to the monar chy. For the subsequent years to the fall of Seville in 1248 the vernacular His tory of Spain undertaken at the direction of Alfonso X provides a detailed narrative. For the Crown of Aragdn the chief narrative sources are the Deeds of the Counts of Barcelona, written by the monks of Ripoll between 1162 and 1276 in its first redaction, and the Chronicle of San Juan de la Pena, composed at the direction of Pedro IV (1336-87). A unique thirteenth-century source is the Chronicle of Jaime I of Aragon, written in Catalan; though some scholars have questioned its authorship, there is general agreement that it was written or dictated by the king himself and thus reflects his point of view. The Cata lan Chronicle of Bernat Desclot dating from the later thirteenth century is generally exact in its relation of earlier events. Annals from all the Christian kingdoms provide specific dates for many events mentioned in the chronicles. Official documentation for the Christian kingdoms is ample, especially from the second half of the twelfth century. Besides numerous papal bulls conceding crusading privileges, hundreds of charters of the kings of Castile, Leon, Portugal, and Aragon are extant. These documents are particularly Preface xiii helpful because they often were dated during sieges, recorded the capture of castles or towns, or rewarded those assisting in the conquest. Muslim chronicles include the memoir of cAbd Allah, the last Zlrid king of Granada (1073-90), written in exile in Morocco. Ibn Sahib al-Sala, secre tary to the Almohad caliph, wrote an official account of conquests in Spain between 1159 and 1184. In the early thirteenth century al-Marrakushl, while residing in Baghdad, wrote a history of the Almohads, drawing upon his memory of his years in Spain. Al-HimyarT’s description in alphabetical order of the cities and towns of Islamic Spain frequently includes pertinent histori cal data. The late thirteenth- or early fourteenth-century account of the Al- moravids and the Almohads by the Moroccan historian Ibn ‘AbT Zarc tends at times to hyperbole and is not always trustworthy. Especially valuable is the history of Ibn ‘Idhari, completed in 1306. Drawing on earlier accounts, he provides an abundance of detail and seems quite judicious in his assessment of events. Dating from the late fourteenth century is the work of the great philosopher of history, Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), whose history of the Berbers includes many references to the peninsula. Finally, one should mention al- Maqqarl (d. 1631) whose historical compendium includes many extracts from earlier writers. There is a scarcity of documentary material for Islamic Spain, though at times documents were included in Muslim chronicles. Moreover, Levi- Proven<;al has published some documents relative to the Almohad empire. Literary sources such as the Poem of the Cid and the Poem of Ferndn Gonzalez, both written in the thirteenth century, mirror the attitudes and customs of that epoch. Several troubadours enjoying the patronage of peninsular rulers also commented on specific crusades. The legal codes compiled by Alfonso X reflect military and naval customs developed by the middle of the thirteenth century and his Cantigas de Santa Maria provides anecdotal and illustrative material. Citations of all these sources and others will be found in the endnotes and the bibliography. With respect to language I have tried to be consistent in using Castilian, Portuguese, or Catalan forms when speaking of people and places in those kingdoms. For Arabic transliteration I have generally followed the guidelines of the International Journal of Middle East Studies.

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