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UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date: 24-May-2010

I, Marc F Zorgniotti , hereby submit this original work as part of the requirements for the degree of: Doctor of Musical Arts in Violin It is entitled: Quotations and Constructivism in Twentieth-Century Violin Chaconnes by

John Adams, Hans W. Henze, and Moses Pergament

Student Signature: Marc F Zorgniotti

This work and its defense approved by: Committee Chair: bruce mcclung, PhD bruce mcclung, PhD

6/10/2010 787 Quotations and Constructivism in Twentieth-Century Violin Chaconnes by John Adams, Hans W. Henze, and Moses Pergament

A document submitted to The Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

in the Performance Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of Music

26 May 2010

Marc F. Zorgniotti

M.M., University of Cincinnati, 2003 B.M., Paris Conservatoire XII, 2000

Committee Chair: bruce d. mcclung, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

This study examines three twentieth-century violin chaconnes by John Adams (b. 1947), Moses

Pergament (1893–1977), and Hans Werner Henze (b. 1926). Although each composer devised and manipulated ostinato procedures in a unique manner, this document demonstrates that these three violin chaconnes share the underlying concepts of musical borrowing and constructivism.

The latter stems not only from the continuous variation technique closely associated with the ostinato genre, but also aspects of rhythmic and harmonic mutation. Musical borrowing takes the form of direct quotations or subtle allusions to Baroque masterpieces, virtuosic violin compositions, and other eclectic, yet well-known melodies, such as the emotionally powerful

Jewish prayer Kol Nidrei. The combined utilization of an unceasing basso ostinato with external, pre-existing musical material implies a certain degree of architectural constructivism, at the sub and/or supra level. From this particular perspective, this comparative study of three twentieth- century violin chaconnes contributes to our understanding of modern conceptualizations of the chaconne genre.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest and most sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. bruce mcclung, for his pertinent criticism and kind guidance, as well as Committee members,

Drs. Steven Cahn and Piotr Milewski, for their expertise and encouragement. This project represents the continuation and expansion of a lecture-recital given at the University of

Cincinnati on 8 October 2009, titled “Perspectives on Two Conceptual Approaches: The Violin

Chaconnes of Tommaso A. Vitali and John C. Adams,” which included a performance of Vitali’s

Chaconne in G Minor and Adams’s chaconne, Body through Which the Dream Flows.

For her love and support I would like to thank my wife, violinist Sooyoung Kim.

! iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………... iv

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ……………………………………………………… vi

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES …………………………………………………….. viii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………….. 1

II. MOSES PERGAMENT: CHACONNE FOR SOLO VIOLIN (1941) ………………. 7

1. Musical Borrowing, Thematic Symbiosis, and Constructivism ……………... 7

2. Similarities with Eugène Ysaÿe’s Six Sonatas for Solo Violin, Op. 27 ……... 10

III. HANS W. HENZE: IL VITALINO RADDOPPIATO (1977) ……………………… 31

1. Tommaso A. Vitali: Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor …………… 32

2. Hans W. Henze: Il Vitalino Raddoppiato ……………………………………. 38

IV. JOHN ADAMS: BODY THROUGH WHICH THE DREAM FLOWS (1993) ……. 69

1. John Coolidge Adams ………………………………………………………... 69

2. Body through Which the Dream Flows’s Basso Ostinato ……………………. 70

3. Harmonic and Rhythmic Mutation …………………………………………… 73

4. Structural and Constituent Elements …………………………………………. 75

V. CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………. 83

APPENDIX: Moses Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin (Holograph Reproduction) ... 89

BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………….. 92

! v LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

Ex. 1a. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, central theme, mm. 1–8 …………………………… 8

Ex. 1b. Bruch, Kol Nidrei for Cello and Piano, Op. 47, central theme, mm. 9–12 ………………… 8

Ex. 1c. J. S. Bach, Partita No. 2 in d minor, BWV 1004, V. Ciaccona, central theme, mm. 1–8 …. 8

Ex. 2a. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, central theme, mm. 1–8 …………………………… 9

Ex. 2b. Bach, J. S., Partita No. 2 in d minor, BWV 1004, V. Ciaccona, central theme, mm. 1–8 … 9

Ex. 3a–d. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 2, I. “Obsession”-Prélude …………………………... 13–14

Ex. 4. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 2, II. “Malinconia”-Poco Lento, mm. 22–25, quotation of thirteenth-century Latin hymn Dies Irae (Day of Wrath) ………………………………. 14

Ex. 5a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 4, II. Sarabande, hidden ostinato theme ……………. 15

Ex. 6. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 5, II. “Danse Rustique”-Allegro giocoso molto moderato, mm. 11–19, polyphonic treatment of the violin ……………………………………………. 16

Ex. 7a–b. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, challenging fingering combinations ……………. 17

Ex. 8a–c. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 1, challenging fingering combinations ……………… 17

Ex. 9a–b. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, double-stops with continuous trills …………….. 18

Ex. 10a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonatas for Solo Violin Nos. 1 and 3, double-stops with continuous trills …….. 19

Ex. 11a–b. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, inverted arpeggios …………………………….. 20

Ex. 12a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonatas for Solo Violin Nos. 1 and 4, inverted arpeggios ……………………… 21

Ex. 13a–c. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, double-stop sequences and finger substitution ... 22

Ex. 14a–e. Ysaÿe, Sonatas for Solo Violin Nos. 1, 3, and 6, double-stop sequences and finger substitution ………………………………………………………………………………… 22–23

Ex. 15a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 4, dotted and double-dotted French baroque style … 25

Ex. 16. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, dotted French baroque style, mm. 74–76 …………. 25

Ex. 17a–b. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, timbral colors …………………………………. 26

Ex. 18a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 2, timbral colors …………………………………… 26

Ex. 19a–e. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, non-chord tones and “colorizing” dissonance treatment …………………………………………………………………………………… 27–28

! vi LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES (continued)

Ex. 20a–d. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, diminished chords …………………………….. 28

Ex. 21a–e. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 1, diminished chords ………………………………. 29

Ex. 22. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, theme, mm. 9–17 ……………………. 33

Ex. 23a–c. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, expressive dissonance treatment … 35

Ex. 24a–h. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, bravura variations ……………….. 37

Ex. 25a–b. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, harmonic disruption …………………………………. 41–43

Ex. 25c–e. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, harmonic disruption …………………………………. 45–51

Ex. 26a–c. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, Second Viennese School similitudes ………………... 53–56

Ex. 27a–b. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, contrasting juxtapositions …………………………… 59–63

Ex. 28. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, ending (including cadenza), mm. 511–17 ………………. 65–68

Ex. 29a. Pachelbel, Canon in D Major, basso ostinato …………………………………………….. 71

Ex. 29b. Adams, Body through Which the Dream Flows, basso ostinato ………………………….. 71

Ex. 30a–d. Adams, Body through Which the Dream Flows, rhythmic transformations …………… 74

Ex. 31a–c. Adams, Body through Which the Dream Flows, modernist and post-modernist techniques ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76–81

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Tab. 1. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, Tonal Structure and Modulations ………. 36

Tab. 2. Adams, Body through Which the Dream Flows, Structural Design and Main Features ……… 75

Fig. 1. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, Descending (Phrygian) Tetrachord ……... 34

Fig. 2. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, Instrumentation ……………………………………………… 39

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Il Vitalino Raddoppiato by Hans W. Henze © Copyright 2000 by Schott Music, Mainz, Germany. All rights reserved. Used by permission of European American Music Distributors LLC, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for Schott Music, Mainz, Germany.

Body Through Which The Dream Flows from Violin Concerto by John Adams © Copyright 1993 by Hendon Music, Inc., a Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright for all countries. All rights reserved. Used by permission.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Much speculation surrounds the chaconne, especially in regards to its origins, etymology, and differentiation with other ostinato genres, such the passacaglia, folia, and ruggiero. The chaconne has considerably developed!if not mutated!over the last four centuries, and its definition has depended on each region and musical period. Furthermore, the interchangeability of names associated with ostinato genres has rendered its study often approximate and confusing.1 As a result, multiple definitions and developmental timelines coexist, and virtually any writing about the chaconne will usually feature much speculation and passionate controversy, if not polemical prose. For example, late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century theorists attempted to formally differentiate the chaconne and passacaglia, but they often came to opposite conclusions. In 1915 Percy Goetschius held that the chaconne is usually based on a harmonic sequence with a recurring soprano melody, and the passacaglia was formed over a ground bass pattern,2 whereas Clarence Lucas in 1908 had defined the two forms in precisely the opposite way.3

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Alexander Silbiger presents different theories on the chaconne and passacaglia, however, due to the confusing interchangeability of names associated to ostinato genres, Silbiger is unable to present a generalized, clear-cut definition. Alexander Silbiger, “Chaconne,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd. ed., ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell (London: Macmillan, 2001), 5:410–15.

2 Percy Goetschius, The Larger Forms of Musical Composition: An Exhaustive Explanation of the Variations, Rondos, and Sonata Designs, for the General Student of Musical Analysis, and for the Special Student of Structural Composition (New York: G. Schirmer, 1915), 29, 40.

3 Clarence Lucas, The Story of Musical Form, ed. Frederick J. Crowest (London: The Walter Scott Publishing Company, 1908), 203.

! 1 If providing a universally accepted, clear-cut definition has been proven difficult, if not impossible, nonetheless, here are some of the most recurring characteristics closely associated with the chaconne:

1. a repeating harmonic or melodic pattern often supported by a basso ostinato,

2. a continuous variation formal organization,

3. a predominant utilization of the minor mode, and

4. a very solemn and serious character.

The innumerable names and spellings probably best reflect the confusion surrounding certain ostinato genres. Hence, the chaconne (also ciaccona, ciacona, chacony, chacona, chiacona, chacone, cieccona, chocuna, and ciaconna) and passacaglia (also passacaille, passecaille, passacalia, passacaglio, passagallo, passacagli, passacaglie, pasacalle, and passacalle) surely represent two extraordinary examples of local interpretation and appropriation. Regarding the chaconne’s origins, historians have proposed far-fetched etymological explanations: some claim that it was invented in Italy by a blind musician, whence

“cieccona” (“cieco” means blind in Italian), which would have developed into “ciaccona”; another equally fanciful idea is that it would derive from “ciacco,” a diminutive of the widespread Italian first name Francesco, which could refer to a prolific composer of chaconnes.

However, two additional hypotheses seem somewhat more plausible: around the turn of the sixteenth century, performers often accompanied the chaconne with guitars, tambourines, and castanets; thus, the etymology of chaconne could be a derivation from “chac,” the sound of castanets. A second theory concerns the refrains of early chaconnes, which commonly began with some variant of “Vida, vida, vida bona!/Vida, vámonos á Chacona!” (“Let’s live the good

! 2 life!/Let’s go to Chacona!”); in this scenario, the chaconne could have been named after an as yet unidentified location, perhaps near Tampico, Mexico, as referenced in some texts.4

The chaconne seems to have originated in Spanish popular culture, most probably in the

New World, around the turn of the sixteenth century. Despite the absence of surviving examples from this period, numerous references by Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Quevedo, and other writers indicate that it was a dance-song associated with servants, slaves, and Amerindians.5 Clergy and other moral institutions strongly condemned the chaconne due not only to its satirical and mocking texts but also to its suggestive movements and erotic allusions—quite an ironic comment considering that later chaconnes frequently feature a solemn-sounding character and were often intended for church performance (e.g., Buxtehude’s organ chaconnes in E minor,

BuxWV 160 and C major, BuxWV 137; Vitali’s Chaconne in G minor for Violin and Organ) and/or linked to liturgical references (e.g., Biber’s violin chaconne and passacaglia from his

“Mystery” or “Rosary” Sonatas portray “The Presentation of the Infant Jesus in the Temple” and

“The Guardian Angel,” respectively; J. S. Bach’s monumental violin Ciaccona is also often described as depicting particular events of the Passion of Christ6).

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 Silbiger, “Chaconne,” 5:410–15.

5 Ibid.

6 A recent project of the Hilliard Ensemble and baroque violinist Christopher Poppen has persuasively linked Bach’s Ciaccona to Lutheran Church Chorales. In fact, all of Bach’s Six Sonatas and Partitas have links and references to particular Chorales, which in turn identify elements of Christ’s life. For instance, the first Sonata and Partita, coupled together, refer to the incarnation of Christ, the second set to His death and resurrection, and the third to the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. It is important to also note the numerological, cryptological references. For example, the first four measures of the Ciaccona contain thirty-seven notes. Christ’s Chi-Rho monogram, XP, adds to 37 (X=22, P=15, in the order of the Latin alphabet). This is coupled with the Easter Chorale “Christ lag in Todesbanden” (Christ Lay in Death’s Bonds) in the cantus firmus or bass line of the chords.

! 3 But no opposition from the Church seems to have succeeded in marginalizing the chaconne. On the contrary, it was danced in numerous circles and its practice reportedly permeated different social classes and milieus. In short time, the chaconne became increasingly popular and eventually came to overshadow the zarabanda, its older and equally “immoral” rival.

If the chaconne originated in Spain, however, one must turn to Italy to find the earliest musical notations of chaconnes, precisely to Montesardo’s Nuova inventione d’intavolatura

(1606), some of the earliest alfabeto (chord) tablatures for the newly popular five-course or

“Spanish” guitar. These chaconnes consist of simple chord-strumming fragments or formulae, which were no doubt intended as pedagogical examples and exercises. Although these tablatures do not feature dance tunes, they offer at least some indication of harmony and rhythm. The most common harmonic progression was I–V–vi–V, with a metric pattern of four groups of three beats.

The chaconne’s popular origins eventually led to its incorporation into seventeenth- century popular theatrical presentations, especially in Spain, Italy, and France. At this time, popular theatrical genres, mocking comédie-ballets, and théâtre de rue flourished, in particular under the leadership of French playwright Jean-Baptiste Poquelin better known by his stage name “Molière” (still considered today as one of the great masters of Western European comedy) and influenced by the Italian commedia dell’arte, which knew an unprecedented fame. Being so closely associated to commedia dell’arte characters!such as Harlequin singing mocking dance- songs while accompanying himself with a Spanish guitar!the chaconne became widely diffused throughout Europe, “carried along” by such popular mediums. For some time, however, its close association with libertine anti-court’s texts resulted in its being banned from the main stage in

Spain and Italy.

! 4 With few isolated exceptions, the fully notated chaconnes from the first half of the seventeenth century are almost exclusively from Italy: by Domenico Visconti (1616) for violin

(as a ritornello to an aria); by Falconieri (1616) for two voices with guitar continuo (alfabeto tablature); by Piccinini (1623) for chitarrone; and by Frescobaldi (1627) for harpsichord. A remarkable exception is Nicolas Vallet who published a chacona in 1618, which reinforces the idea that by the second decade of the century, the chaconne had already traveled to different countries and was favored in various cultures and regions. Whereas the earliest examples of alfabeto tablatures generally present only a single statement of a harmonic formula, later examples!including Vallet’s chacona!are almost always in the form of a chain of phrases incorporating some type of variation technique. This element suggests that the improvisation of sets of variations on chaconne formulae had certainly been a common practice for quite some time, and not only among Spanish guitarists.

Undoubtedly, the first milestone in the development of the chaconne dates from around

1720 when J. S. Bach completed his six Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin, BWV 1001–1006 with its monumental Ciaccona (final movement of Partita No. 2 in d minor, BWV 1004). In composing this masterpiece, Bach raised the bar so high that the task of the next generation of chaconne composers became much more complex, let alone the enormous pressure from being capable to sustain the comparison with Bach’s Ciaccona. A situation similar to what nineteenth- century symphony composers experienced after Beethoven composed his colossal Ninth

Symphony. Indeed, Bach and Beethoven did not simply create masterpieces but they basically redefined the chaconne and symphony genres, respectively. Hence, if a composition’s success can be measured based upon its popularity with the general public, number of performances, and praise from music critics, composers who succeeded in composing chaconnes (or passacaglias

! 5 for that matter, since the two names have often been used interchangeably, even in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries) are few. One may cite Brahms for the astonishing last movement of his

Symphony No. 4 in E minor, Op. 98, Webern for his unprecedented synthesis of ostinato and serial procedures (e.g., Passacaglia for orchestra, Op. 1 and Five Canons for high soprano, clarinet, and bass clarinet, Op. 16), and perhaps Corigliano for his internationally praised “Red

Violin” Chaconne, a composition that greatly beneficiated from the film industry and global media networks.

Moses Pergament (1893–1977), Hans Werner Henze (b. 1926), and John Adams

(b. 1947) composed their violin chaconnes between 1941 and 1993. The twentieth century, often characterized by radical music experimentation and an alleged deconstruction of the tonal system, witnessed an unprecedented revival of music from the past. The neo-classical movement, sparked by Prokofiev’s Symphony No. 1 in D Major, Op. 25 “Classical” (1917) and Stravinsky’s

Pulcinella (1920)—two seminal neo-classical works—truly resurrected complex techniques from the Middle Ages and the Baroque, including isorhythm, canons, and ostinato bass procedures, to name only a few. Amongst the latter, the chaconne and passacaglia regained significant importance in the twentieth century, as proven by innumerable compositions by leading composers, including John Adams, Béla Bartók, Alban Berg, Benjamin Britten, Aaron Copland,

John Corigliano, Philip Glass, Hans Henze, Paul Hindemith, György Ligeti, Witold Lutoslawski,

Bohuslav Martin", Krzysztof Penderecki, Max Reger, Arnold Schœnberg, Dmitri Shostakovich,

Igor Stravinsky, and Anton Webern.

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CHAPTER II

MOSES PERGAMENT: CHACONNE FOR SOLO VIOLIN

1. Musical Borrowing, Thematic Symbiosis, and Constructivism

Moses Pergament (1893–1977) composed his Chaconne for Solo Violin in 1941 at a time when Europe was devastated by the war and holocaust. In this regard, much symbolic interest resides in the chaconne’s central theme: its melodic contour clearly quotes the Ashkenazi melody

Kol Nidrei whereas its rhythmic frame is based on J. S. Bach’s violin Ciaccona, hence the handwritten subtitle “Homage to Bach.” Could this combination embody Pergament’s dream for a pacific coexistence of the German and Jewish people at a time when it seemed unconceivable?

What is sure is that in utilizing and uniting these two themes, Pergament achieved great depth and solemnity, simultaneously providing performers with clues regarding interpretative issues and suggesting a sense of musical direction.

Pergament’s synthetic double quotation appears very ingenious considering that the theme’s specific rhythmic arrangement suits both Kol Nidrei and Bach’s Ciaccona (see

Examples 1a–c). Similarities with Bach’s Ciaccona are indeed numerous: like Bach, Pergament constructed his main theme as an eight-measure phrase subdivided into two well balanced four- measure sub-phrases (see Examples 2a–b); he utilized a 3/4 time signature and placed strong emphasis on the second beat, perhaps alluding to the sarabande, another genre that, similarly to the chaconne, originated during the sixteenth-century in Latin America and Spain as a secular

! 7 sung dance often accompanied by a five-course guitar;1 and Pergament indicated that certain chords are to be played and arpeggiated in a reverse manner in order to highlight important inner or lower voices (indicated on the score by # or $ ) as it is the case and practice in several variations of Bach’s Ciaccona.

Ex. 1a. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, central theme, mm. 1–8.

Ex. 1b. Bruch, Kol Nidrei for Cello and Piano, Op. 47, central theme, mm. 9–12.

Ex. 1c. J. S. Bach, Partita No. 2 in d minor, BWV 1004, V. Ciaccona, central theme, mm. 1–8.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Meredith Ellis Little and Richard Hudson, “Sarabande,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd. ed., ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell (London: Macmillan, 2001), 22:273–77.

! 8 Ex. 2a. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, central theme, mm. 1–8.

%&&&&&&&&&&&&& A &&&&&&&&&&&&'%&&&&&&&&&&& B &&&&&&&&&&&&'

Ex. 2b. J. S. Bach, Partita No. 2 in d minor, BWV 1004, V. Ciaccona, central theme, mm. 1–8.

(&&&&&&&&&&&&& A &&&&&&&&&&&&)(&&&&&&&&&&& B &&&&&&&&&&&&)

Pergament constructed his Chaconne for Solo Violin with coherence and consistency.

The composition’s architectural design can be characterized by a collection of thirteen variations of equal length framed by a central theme that opens and concludes the work. Variations display great regularity: each variation contains eight measures subtly punctuated by two meter changes

(3/4 ! 4/4 at the fifth measure and 4/4 ! 3/4 at the eighth measure). This meter alternation—or ambiguity—results from Pergament’s compromise between the binary and ternary orientation of the Kol Nidrei and Bach’s Ciaccona themes, respectively. The effect is that of a gentle disruption that does not truly affect the rhythmic flow of the musical discourse. Beside structural coherence, the chaconne’s ease of comprehension also can be traced to Pergament’s treatment of variation technique: each bravura variation explores a distinctive technique or set of techniques, which contributes to outline phrase structure and clarify the musical discourse.

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2. Similarities with Eugène Ysaÿe’s Six Sonatas for Solo Violin, Op. 27

Hans Åstrand’s depiction of Pergament as a composer from Jewish descent in The New

Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians contributes to explain the composer’s borrowing of the Kol Nidrei melody.2 Furthermore, Åstrand’s biographical entry, although brief, provides valuable information in regards to the composer’s violin chaconne. Following studies at the

University of Helsinki (his city of birth), Pergament studied the violin at the St. Petersburg

Conservatory and opera conducting at the Stern Conservatory in Berlin. He spent much of the interwar period in Berlin and Paris before settling permanently in Stockholm. There he worked steadily as a composer and one of the city’s most influential and trenchant music critics. As

Åstrand commented, “the varied experiences of Pergament’s formative years gave him a breadth of perspective which is obvious in his vast output and which sets him apart from his compatriots.”3 Such cosmopolitan experiences and influences resulted in a significant interest in

Russian music (particularly Mussorgsky), German Expressionism, and French music as well, particularly Impressionism and Les Six. All these elements, including Pergament’s musical accomplishment as a violinist (he played for four years in the Helsinki Philharmonic Society) suggest that, aside from his Jewish heritage and the influence of J. S. Bach’s Ciaccona, a source

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2 Åstrand notes that some of Pergament’s most important works are rooted in Jewish themes and often find inspiration in Hebrew cantillation. Central to Pergament’s output is the massive choral symphony Den Judiska sången (The Jewish Song), composed in 1944 and set to a text by Ragnar Josephson. The work protests against the inhuman cruelty being inflicted upon the Jews by the Third Reich. The orchestral Rapsodia ebraica (Hebrew Rhapsody), another Jewish-inspired composition, condemns the massacres under the Nazis. Pergament also founded and directed the Orchestra of the Jewish Music Society in Stockholm. See Hans Åstrand, “Pergament, Moses,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd. ed., ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell (London: Macmillan, 2001), 19:388–89.

3 Ibid.

! 10 of inspiration for Pergament’s violin chaconne may have been Belgian violinist, composer, and conductor Eugène Ysaÿe (1858–1931). Regarded as one of the great virtuosos and most influential musical figures of the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century,4 Ysaÿe performed and conducted throughout Europe (including Scandinavian countries), as well as in the United

States and Russia, always leaving vivid and inspiring impressions.5 Like Pergament, Ysaÿe spent a large amount of time in Paris and Berlin and was deeply influenced by French Impressionism, fin-de-siècle German music, as well as J. S. Bach’s six solo violin sonatas and partitas. His own

Six Sonatas for Solo Violin, Op. 27 evinces his admiration for the baroque master. However, aside from biographical similarities (the violin, similar influences, geography, etc.) the strongest connection between Pergament’s violin chaconne and Ysaÿe’s solo violin sonatas may be the music itself.

Pergament’s chaconne is indeed strongly reminiscent of Ysaÿe’s musical style, particularly his solo violin sonatas. Composed in the key of E minor, Pergament’s chaconne can be characterized by a modern-sounding blend of common-practice tonality and non-functional harmony: triadic prolongations, diminished chords, strong (yet highly expressive) dissonances, and chromatic patterns—techniques dear to impressionist and turn-of-the-century composers for their blurring and “colorizing” qualities. Pergament’s combination of such harmonies with a pronounced taste for dazzling virtuosity and numerous idiomatic chordal arrangements reminds

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 The long list of compositions dedicated to and/or premiered by Ysaÿe includes Chausson’s Poème; Elgar’s Violin Concerto; Fauré’s Piano Quintet; violin sonatas by Franck, d’Indy, and Lekeu; and string quartets by Debussy and Saint-Saëns, to name only a few. Ysaÿe founded the Quatuor Ysaÿe and contributed to the establishment of the Berlin Philharmonic Society and Queen Elizabeth International Violin Competition. His most famous students include Ernest Bloch, Jascha Brodsky, Josef Gingold, Nathan Milstein, Louis Persinger, and William Primrose.

5 Ysaÿe scholar Michel Stockhem writes, “[Ysaÿe] appeared before the international public as a great and consummate virtuoso soloist, in which capacity he was ‘lionized’ in America no less than in Europe.” Eugène Ysaÿe, Six Sonatas for Violin Solo, Op. 27 (Munich: G. Henle, 2004), v.!

! 11 the listener of Ysaÿe’s musical style. The Belgian virtuoso was indeed the first composer who truly championed such colorful combinations on the violin, thus adding a new dimension and purpose to extreme virtuosity. Ysaÿe completed his cycle of six solo violin sonatas in 1923–24, nearly twenty years before Pergament’s chaconne. At that time, Ysaÿe had been deeply impressed by a recital in which Josef Szigeti had played J. S. Bach’s six sonatas and partitas for solo violin. However, Szigeti’s performance did not mark the beginning of Ysaÿe’s encounter with Bach: he had long occupied himself with the composer’s works for unaccompanied violin and had regularly performed the d-minor Ciaccona. Coincidently, Ysaÿe’s sometime partner on the piano was Ferruccio Busoni, another great admirer of Bach, as exemplified by his numerous transcriptions, including the arrangement of Bach’s violin Ciaccona. Stockhem claims: “Ysaÿe’s six [violin] sonatas were conceived as a modern-day response to Bach’s music and a renewal of the message they contain. But they are also a response to everything that had changed in music and violin playing in the meantime—two contrasting aspects that nonetheless proved mutually compatible.”6 From this standpoint, the same can be said of Pergament’s chaconne in regards to its modern-sounding quotations of Kol Nidrei and Bach’s Ciaccona. This chapter explores similarities between Pergament’s chaconne and Ysaÿe’s best-known work, his cycle of six solo violin sonatas.

In regards to musical quotation and utilization of pre-existing material, Ysaÿe’s solo violin sonatas owe much of their notoriety to the composer’s incorporation of well-known themes. For instance, the second sonata (often nicknamed “Obsession” after the title of the first movement) pays homage to great composers of the past (including J. S. Bach and Hector

Berlioz) in a very dramatic and sometimes theatrical manner. The sonata’s first movement,

“Obsession”-Prélude quotes six short excerpts from the Prelude of Bach’s third solo violin !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 Ibid.

! 12 partita, including its opening and closing sections, which in turn frame Ysaÿe’s own Prélude (see

Examples 3a–d). Furthermore, in the sonata’s second movement, “Malinconia”-Poco Lento, the thirteenth-century Latin hymn Dies Irae (Day of Wrath) makes an unexpected, yet powerful appearance in an organum-like setting and acts as a cadential addendum (see Example 4).

! !

Ex. 3a–d. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 2, I. “Obsession”-Prélude, quotation of J. S. Bach’s Partita No. 3 in E Major, BWV 1006, I. Prelude.7

3a. mm. 1–3. BWV 1006 (opening)

3b. mm. 30–32. BWV 1006

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7 Ysaÿe indicated each quotation with brackets.

! 13 3c. mm. 69–71. BWV 1006

3d. mm. 84–85. BWV 1006 (closing)

Ex. 4. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 2, II. “Malinconia”-Poco Lento, mm. 22–25, quotation of thirteenth-century Latin hymn Dies Irae (Day of Wrath).

%&&&&&&&&&&&&&& Dies Irae &&&&&&&&&&&&&'

In addition to making musical quotations, Ysaÿe also experimented with the concept of hiding a theme within a dense polyphonic texture or in the midst of florid passages, in a cantus firmus or ostinato manner, perhaps (aside from the compositional tour-de-force) to make the listener wonder why presumably new musical material would consistently sound familiar throughout an entire movement or section (see Examples 5a–b).

! 14 Ex. 5a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 4, II. Sarabande, hidden ostinato theme.8

5a. mm. 1–11.

5b. mm. 31–36.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8 Ysaÿe indicated the hidden ostinato theme in small notes.

! 15 The composer’s polyphonic approach of the violin, an instrument traditionally utilized for its melodic capabilities (see Examples 5a, 6, 7a–b, and 13a–c) marks one of the most striking resemblances between Pergament’s and Ysaÿe’s characteristic writing. Furthermore, not only did the two composers utilize three- and four-note chords, but they frequently employed chords that require pressing down three or even four fingers simultaneously, as shown by the following representative fingering combinations: [1-2-3-4], [1-1-2-4], [1-3-3-4], [1-3-2-0], and their inversions.9 Violinists find these fingering arrangements significantly more challenging than the most commonly used chords, which require only two or three fingers and include open strings or perfect fifths produced with a single finger: [0-0-1-2], [1-1-2-3], [0-1-4], etc. Such chordal arrangements increase the level of difficulty, particularly regarding accurate intonation, muscular tension in the left hand, and legato phrasing (see Examples 7a–b and 8a–c).

Ex. 6. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 5, II. “Danse Rustique”-Allegro giocoso molto moderato, mm. 11–19, polyphonic treatment of the violin.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9 Indicates fingering combinations from low to high register, i.e., from G- to E-string.

! 16 Ex. 7a–b. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, challenging fingering combinations.

7a. mm. 1–8. [1-3-2-0] [3-2-1] [1-1-2-2] [1-3-2-0] [0-1-3-2] ! " # " # #

7b. mm. 74–76. [1-2-4] [0-1-2-2] [1-3-4] [1-2-3] # # ! ! "

Ex. 8a–c. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 1, challenging fingering combinations.

8a. I. Grave, mm. 7–8. 8b. I. Grave, mm. 35–36.

[1-2-2-3] [0-1-3-2] [1-2-3-4] [1-1-3-2] [4-3-1-0] [1-2-3-4] # # # # # #

8c. II. Fugato, mm. 60–62.

[0-1-2-3] [1-1-2-4] [1-2-3-4] [1-1-2-4] [1-2-3-4] # " # ! #

! 17 Ysaÿe and Pergament both employ continuously trilled double stops over a relatively long duration in their violin works. Trills may be measured or unmeasured and occur either above or below the note to be trilled, with a wide range of intervals (from minor seconds to fifths and sixths). In comparison to the traditional, leading-tone/tonic trill used at cadences over one or two beats only, such diversity of trill intervals, direction, and duration adds remarkable variety and unexpectedness to the melody, alongside increasing virtuosity—aspect that Ysaÿe and

Pergament must have found appealing (see Examples 9a–b and 10a–b).

Ex. 9a–b. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, double-stops with continuous trills.

9a. mm. 41–43, double stops with continuous trills (upper note).

9b. mm. 47–48, double stops with continuous trills (lower note).

! 18 Ex. 10a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonatas for Solo Violin Nos. 1 and 3, double-stops with continuous trills.

10a. Sonata No. 1, III. Allegretto poco scherzoso, mm. 47–50, upper-note trills.

10b. Sonata No. 3, mm. 56–61, lower- and upper-note trills.

The utilization of fast, slurred arpeggios is a common technique not only among violinists-composers, but composers in general; however, the utilization of inverted arpeggios

(i.e., from top to bottom or high to low strings) is somewhat more unusual. Such technique possesses two advantages: (1) it emphasizes high-register moving notes by placing them on strong beats; and (2) it enables the production of low-register bass pedals with the option of

! 19 utilizing D or G open strings (or both, see Example 11b), which generates longer resonance, thus prolonging the pedal (see Examples 11a–b and 12a–b).

Ex. 11a–b. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, inverted arpeggios.

11a. mm. 96–102.

11b. mm. 74–84.

! 20 Ex. 12a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonatas for Solo Violin Nos. 1 and 4, inverted arpeggios.

12a. Sonata No. 1, I. Grave, mm. 29–32.

12b. Sonata No. 4, I. Allemanda, mm. 5–6.

Musical sequences have had different purposes depending on musical periods and styles.

In their violin compositions, Ysaÿe and Pergament both made extensive use of sequences in order to increase musical tension, to create harmonic modulations, to produce virtuosity, or to enhance the ostinato character of a passage—an element particularly important in Pergament’s chaconne. Most striking is these two composers’s use of intensely chromatic double-stop sequences, which often requires finger substitution (i.e., repeating a note using a different finger due to necessary shifting). Ysaÿe’s and Pergament’s chromatic (and most always stepwise) double-stop sequences necessitate numerous finger substitutions in a relatively short space of

! 21 time, making it very difficult to maintain accurate intonation and “unbroken” melodic flow (see

Examples 13a–c and 14a–e).

Ex. 13a–c. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, double-stop sequences and finger substitution.

13a. mm. 59–60. 13b. m. 95.

13c. mm. 89–92.

Ex. 14a–e. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 1, No. 3, and No. 6, double-stop sequences and finger substitution (added " and # indicate finger-substitution technique as required by Ysaÿe’s original fingerings).

14a. Sonata No. 3, introduction, ascending sequence and finger substitution.

" " " "

! 22 14b. Sonata No. 1, II. Fugato, mm. 6–10, descending chromatic sequence and finger substitution.

" " "

14c. Sonata No. 3, mm. 44–47, descending chromatic sequences and finger substitution.

# # # #

" " " "

14d. Sonata No. 6, mm. 178–81, ascending sequence.

14e. Sonata No. 1, III. Allegretto poco scherzoso, mm. 43–46, descending chromatic sequences.

! 23 Over the last three centuries, numerous composers from diverse countries have paid tribute to J. S. Bach by means of direct quotations or subtle allusions. Pergament’s violin chaconne and Ysaÿe’s Six Sonatas for Solo Violin, Op. 27 contain both: Pergament explored the chaconne genre, a baroque dance that acquired a whole new dimension after Bach’s monumental violin Ciaccona; he also paid homage to Bach by cleverly utilizing the overall shape and rhythmic frame of the Ciaccona’s central theme. Ysaÿe composed his own cycle of six sonatas for unaccompanied violin, which contains both multi-movement sonatas modeled on the baroque sonata or dance suite format (Sonata No. 1, No. 2, No. 4, and No. 5 contain movements titled

Prelude, Grave, Allemanda, Danse Rustique, Fugato, Sarabande, etc.) and single-movement, through-composed sonatas with a more improvisatory character resembling the baroque Fantasia or English Ballad (see Sonata No. 3, “Ballade” and No. 6). In addition, Ysaÿe and Pergament both made ample use of baroque contrapuntal techniques, including fugal and ostinato procedures (see Ysaÿe’s Sonata No. 1, II. Fugato; Sonata No. 4, II. Sarabande; and Examples

5a–b) as well as virtually all of the baroque ornaments (mordent, turn, trill, appoggiatura, acciaccatura, etc.). In addition, both composers employed the very characteristic stylized dotted

French style, so popular in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (see Examples 15a–b and

16).

! 24 Ex. 15a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 4, dotted and double-dotted French baroque style.

15a. I. Allemanda, mm. 8–13.

15b. III. Finale, mm. 24–33.

Ex. 16. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, dotted French baroque style, mm. 74–76.

! 25 From a modern aesthetic, Pergament’s and Ysaÿe’s musical styles feature additional similarities. For instance, the trained violinist will immediately link Pergament’s manipulation of timbral colors—particularly the specific technique that consists of slurring the same note alternatively on two different strings—to a technique that Ysaÿe frequently used, which subtly enhances the musical discourse, adding “sound effect” to a passage, with finesse (see Examples

17a–b and 18a–b).

Ex. 17a–b. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, timbral colors (same pitch performed on two strings).

17a. m. 88. 17b. mm. 83–84.

!" !" !"

Ex. 18a–b. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 2, timbral colors (same pitch performed on two strings).

18a. I. “Obsession”-Prélude, m. 29 and mm. 61–62.

!" !" !" !" etc.

18b. IV. “Les Furies”-Allegro Furioso, mm. 54 and 55.

!" !" !" etc. !" !" etc.

! 26 Both composers’s musical style can also be characterized by extended tertian harmony and modern dissonance treatment. If the “colorization” of the harmony remains the primary effect, however, such extensive use of extended tertian harmony contributes to blur the relationships between harmonic pillars (i.e., tonic, subdominant, and dominant), thus rendering the music somewhat more complex than what it essentially is. Despite the fact that common- practice tonality remains operative in Pergament’s chaconne and Ysaÿe’s violin sonatas, such harmonic embellishment makes these compositions sound modern. Hence, numerous appoggiaturas, double appoggiaturas, retardations, pedals, ninths, and even elevenths abundantly overwhelm the texture with added layers of complexity, giving the illusion that the harmonic motion has ceased (see Examples 19a–e). Such an intricate web of non-chord tones also contributes to the emotionally powerful tension/relaxation patterns, which eventually creates a large-scale, yet coherent bittersweet harmonic drama. Furthermore, Pergament (like Ysaÿe before him) reinforced the harmonic instability by profusely inserting diminished-chord sonorities (see Examples 20a–d and 21a–e).

Ex. 19a–e. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, non-chord tones and “colorizing” dissonance treatment.

19a. mm. 10–11 and 14. # # # ##

" "

! 27 19b. mm. 19–20. 19c. mm. 12–13. # # #

" " " " " "

19d. mm. 68–70. 19e. mm. 71–72.

# # # # # # #

" " " " "

Ex. 20a–d. Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, diminished chords.

20a. m. 110. 20b. m. 109.

%&&&&' %&&&&' %&&&&'

(&&&&) (&&&&)(&&&&) (&&&&)(&&&&&)

20c. mm. 7–8. 20d. m. 76.

# # #

! 28 Ex. 21a–e. Ysaÿe, Sonata for Solo Violin No. 1, diminished chords.

21a. I. Grave, mm. 1–2.

# # #

21b. I. Grave, mm. 7–8. 21c. II. Fugato, m. 106.

# #

21d. III. Allegretto poco scherzoso, m. 22. 21e. II. Fugato, m. 111.

%&&&&&&&&&' %&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&'

(&&&&&)

! 29 Although composers other than Ysaÿe utilized some of the same compositional attributes and techniques, it is the combination and blending of these stylistic ingredients, all at once, that persuasively link Pergament’s chaconne to Ysaÿe’s unaccompanied violin sonatas. To some,

Pergament’s chaconne may even resemble a catalog of techniques that Ysaÿe championed, especially since Pergament apparently manipulated these techniques for similar goals (i.e., colorizing, blurring, creating emotional intensity, increasing virtuosity, etc.). Yet, despite composing in a style reminiscent of Ysaÿe’s and quoting masterworks, Pergament convincingly succeeded in suffusing his solo violin chaconne with his own personal voice.

! 30

CHAPTER III

HANS W. HENZE: IL VITALINO RADDOPPIATO

The Salzburg Festival commissioned Hans Werner Henze’s violin chaconne and Gidon

Kremer premiered it in 1978. Henze based it on Tommaso A. Vitali’s Violin Chaconne in

G Minor, and the chaconne bears the unusual and somewhat humorous title Il Vitalino

Raddoppiato, which literally translates “Vitalino reduplicated” or “Vitalino doubled.” The title refers to Vitali’s nickname, “Vitalino,” or “little Vitali,” and to the fact that Henze basically doubled the length of Vitali’s chaconne by adding newly composed variations in the manner of a baroque double. In other words, Henze “revisited” Vitali’s chaconne and expanded it by inserting contemporary idiomatic techniques, unexpected stylistic twists, and modernist dissonances.

Although Vitali composed his violin chaconne during the first decades of the eighteenth century, German virtuoso violinist and composer Ferdinand David (Mendelssohn’s favorite violinist1) brought it to light more than a century later when he published a heavily edited version of it in the second volume of his anthology Die Höhe Schule des Violinspiels (“The Advanced

School of Violin Playing”) in 1867. Since this time, Vitali’s chaconne has held a canonic place in

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Mendelssohn appointed David concertmaster of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and dedicated his celebrated Violin Concerto in E minor, Op. 64, to him.

! 31 the violin repertoire, as proven by innumerable editions and arrangements.2 Legendary violinist

Jascha Heifetz even chose to open his New York debut recital at Carnegie Hall with this piece in

1917. And when Henze published Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, he commented:

To me, the [chaconne] of Tommaso Vitali is a curiously wonderful memory of my youth. It seemed to me then as if this music could illumine and preserve my dreams, as if it could recognize and describe everything that I myself was not able to articulate, describe—neither graphically nor by means of words or tones. This music contained some sense of well-being, some longing that has come to rest, to a state of permanence. Some kind of lingering, some kind of consolation. Something that is remote, off time and space, something that was strange to me, both uncanny and attractive.3

Therefore, in order to comprehend and appreciate Henze’s violin chaconne, one must first explore Vitali’s.

1. Tommaso A. Vitali: Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor

Despite the unprecedented high standards set by J. S. Bach’s Ciaccona, Vitali’s

Chaconne has aged surprisingly well. One can only speculate about the possible influence between Bach’s violin chaconne and Vitali’s since scholars have not been able to determine which chaconne was composed first, and whether Vitali and Bach had any acquaintance with one another’s works. To a first-time listener, the emotional power of Vitali’s theme represents one of the most striking elements (see Example 22). Indeed, his theme features a melodic contour of

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2 Michelangelo Abbado, Leopold Auer, Giacomo Benvenuti, Léopold Charlier, Ferdinand David, Pierre Doukan, Carl Fischer, Zino Francescatti, Guido Guerrini, Diethard Hellmann, Maxim Jacobsen, Henry Schradieck, and Line Talluel have all edited Vitali’s Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor.

3 Hans W. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato: ciaccona per violino soloista e orchestra da camera (Mainz: Schott, 1977), i.

! 32 unusual expressiveness for the time, albeit bound to a repetitive harmonic scheme. Vitali composed the theme as an eight-measure period, subdivided into two well-balanced antecedent and consequent phrases. Although doubtlessly enhanced by the majestic tonality of G minor, the depth of this theme can be attributed to other elements: a melody reminiscent of the Italian bel canto style; an expressive use of emotionally charged half-steps (G/F# and A/B!), which reinforces essential voice-leading in the context of G minor; a dramatic utilization of closely juxtaposed cross relations (F#/F" and B!/B"), which produces a beautiful harmonic conflict and modal ambiguity; a brief, yet colorful modulation to the subdominant in the consequent phrase; and a theme reaching its highest climactic pitch (D6) in the sixth measure. This climax occurs in almost perfect accordance with the mathematical proportion of the so-called “golden mean.”4

! ! ! Ex. 22. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, theme, mm. 9–17.

! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!F# F"!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!B"################B!!!!!!!

antecedent consequent!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 In mathematics and the arts, two quantities are in the golden ratio if the ration between the sum of those quantities and the larger one is the same as the ratio between the larger one and the smaller one, a mathematical constant of approximately 0.618.

! 33 Based on the earliest manuscript,5 Vitali’s Chaconne consists of 238 measures in 3/2 time with a tempo marking of Adagio. Vitali built the entire work upon a four-measure descending tetrachord from the tonic to the dominant: G*F*E!*D. The theme results in a half cadence at the end of each variation (see Figure 1).

Fig. 1. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, descending (Phrygian) tetrachord.

[G * F * E! * D] [G * F * E! * D] [G * F * E! * D]

G minor: i V i V etc. &&&) &&&) half cadence half cadence !

Vitali repeats this basso ostinato fifty-four times and reverses direction three times, ascending in contrary motion, again from tonic to dominant (now encompassing a diatonic pentachord). Such a repeating pattern provides a strong harmonic foundation for the piece. The interaction of these two interdependent melodies (i.e., the ostinato bass and treble melody) is quite remarkable; it gently fluctuates between a harmonious duet and an amiable rivalry, and

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5 Manuscript preserved in the Sächsische Landesbibliothek of Dresden and numbered Mus.-2037-R-1. The Civic Bibliographic Museum of Music in Bologna (Vitali’s city of birth) acquired a photocopy of this manuscript in 1963.

! 34 produces colorful, yet carefully controlled, dissonances, particularly major and minor seconds and sevenths, diminished fourths, and tritones (see Examples 23a–c).

Ex. 23a–c. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, expressive dissonance treatment.

! 23a. m. 9. 23b. m. 15. 23c. m. 20.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!#!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!#!#!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!# #!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Undoubtedly, the beauty and originality of Vitali’s chaconne can also be attributed to the expressiveness of the modulations, so unusual for the time as to have led Hermann Keller to suggest that the work might be a spurious creation of Ferdinand David6 (see Table 1). From the first variation, a series of harmonic appoggiaturas denotes an exceptional gift of imagination and feeling for chromaticism. For instance, two audacious modulations occur very suddenly and without any preparation at mm. 37 and 135, bringing back the entire theme in the far-flung territories of B! minor and E! minor, respectively. Equally unusual is the utilization of stepwise modulations and third-related keys (instead of the more traditional circle-of-fifths root motion); as well as the predominance of the minor mode; omission of the Picardy third; and even the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 Hermann Keller, “Die Chaconne g-moll von Vitali?,” Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 125 (April 1964): 147.

! 35 utilization of chords outside the diatonic system. For example, the F-minor episode at m. 62 does not belong to the diatonic orbit of G minor.

Table 1. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, tonal structure and modulations.

G min B! min F min G min A min G min C min E! Maj E! min G min

m. 1 37 62 67 87 118 124 127 135 143–203 !

If Vitali’s chaconne sounds quite original and avant-garde in regards to its harmony, a certain degree of predictability and fairly conservative idiomatic writing for the violin characterize this work, as well. For example, the bravura variations feature simple eighth-note, triplet, sextuplet, and sixteenth-note figures; arpeggios with added trills; broken triads with ricochet technique; octaves; and double-stop elaborations (see Examples 24a–h). Because Vitali originally scored this work for violin and organ!i.e., for church performance!one may assume that Vitali deliberately sought a style emphasizing power of emotions over mere virtuosic display, thus contrasting with numerous violin pieces of the time, including Tartini’s “Devil’s

Trill” Sonata or Locatelli’s Harmonic Labyrinth.

! 36 Ex. 24a–h. Vitali, Chaconne for Violin and Basso in G Minor, bravura variations.

24a. slurred string crossings 24b. slurred string crossings 24c. string crossings and double-stops (eighth-note figures), m. 29. (triplet figures), m. 33. (sixteenth-note figures), m. 193.

24d. continuous trills, m. 58. 24e. “flying” staccato over 24f. broken chords three strings, m. 80. (triplet figures), m. 83.

24g. ricochet, m. 110. 24h. long slurs (sixteenth-note figures), m. 133.

! 37 Considering the colorful and diverse musical elements that comprise Vitali’s chaconne and its memorable theme, it was only a matter of time before a twentieth-century composer would decide to pay homage to the Bolognese composer. But the question was whom? And how? Henze had a clear plan in mind, one that would integrate Vitali’s entire chaconne and cause the listener to aurally travel back and forth between Baroque and modernist idioms.

Henze’s admiration for Vitali’s chaconne led him to compose a respectful, heartfelt, and creative violin chaconne while preserving the integrity of Vitali’s original composition.

2. Hans W. Henze: Il Vitalino Raddoppiato

In Henze’s Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, musical borrowing occurs by means of interpolated quotations of Vitali’s chaconne variations. Henze left Vitali’s original thematic material virtually unaltered, except that he surrounded the solo violin with orchestral forces, instead of Vitali’s original basso continuo accompaniment (see Figure 2). Obviously, Henze did not attempt to disguise his utilization of pre-existing compositional material; instead, he overtly advertized it. In

Henze’s own variations, Vitali’s thematic material provides only the general idea for creative extensions and developmental elaborations. An alternation of neo-baroque quotations and newly composed twentieth-century variations results in an immensely colorful patchwork. When compared to the techniques of paraphrase and collage Henze’s violin chaconne can be considered an entirely new work; it contains an imaginary musical dialog between music of the past and present, between naïve simplicity and expressive angst. Indeed, as the music unfolds,

Henze progressively distances himself from baroque sonorities in order to reach a drastically

! 38 different stylistic landscape, a musical world closer to his own time (i.e., the Cold War) filled with violence and anxiety. On the subject of his violin chaconne, Henze commented:

Virtually nothing is known about Tommaso A. Vitali. I like his nickname “Vitalino” which was found in a copy of the ciaccona…. I still like his composition. So I have paid tribute to him by adding one or two variations from my pen to each of his ciaccona variations, like the doubles in the “settecento.” One can see from the notes of the score which one was composed by Tommaso and which one by me. One can even hear it and perhaps reconstruct the work process during which I identified my imagination, my passions with those of Tommaso by removing the music from the “settecento” manner, leaving me the pure feeling, emphasizing the modern, unconventional features of the original. His bass has been left almost completely. I have tried to bring out some of the numerous dance-like elements of the ciaccona in order to increase the pictorial quality of the whole work. Now we are singing together, in his language, of the same things.7

Fig. 2. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, instrumentation.

Chamber Orchestra 1 Flute (doubling Piccolo) 1 Oboe (doubling Cor anglais) 1 Bass Clarinet in B! 1 Bassoon 1 Horn in F Harp Violins I Violins II Violas Violoncellos Double Basses

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7 Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, i.

! 39 Despite a relatively modest orchestration (see Figure 2), Il Vitalino Raddoppiato resembles a rich musical journey through musical styles and timbres. Henze composed his work as a continuous exploration of timbres, colors, and dissonances, which eventually culminates with variations clearly reminiscent of both the Second Viennese School and the post-modern styles of Ligeti and Penderecki. A brief, yet powerful and threatening introduction opens the piece, foreshadowing which path the chaconne will eventually follow, some twenty minutes later. This first glimpse of darkness gives way to a delightful entrance of the violin soloist who plays the primary theme of Vitali’s chaconne in the original key of G minor. Henze then gently punctuates the calm and bittersweet mood with the rhythmic regularity and cadential reiterations of the chaconne variations and their doubles. But as soon as one gets a comfortable grasp of the piece, finding reference points and landmarks, Henze initiates a disruption process. He does so in a very progressive manner starting with mild dissonances and unexpected harmonies. For example, at m. 105 the listener is expecting an authentic cadence in the key of F minor but is surprised by a deceptive-like V-iv cadence reinforced by accents, fortepianos, and sforzandos

(see Example 25a). A similar situation occurs sixteen measures later when Henze sets up a perfect authentic cadence but instead unexpectedly substitutes a shocking V-"vii progression (see

Example 25b); although the solo violin follows through with its cadential leading-tone/tonic linear motion (F#-G), what was supposed to sound like an arrival point and bright tonic (G), becomes a dissonant non-chord tone, which functions as a retardation to the following A-flat.

Perhaps these sudden modulations represent Henze’s modern interpretation of Vitali’s own audacious modulations at mm. 37 and 135 (see Table 1), in an up-to-date musical language.

! 40 Ex. 25a. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, harmonic disruption (deceptive cadence), mm. 101–110.

! 41

! 42 Ex. 25b. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, harmonic disruption (sudden modulation), mm. 120–122.

! 43 Henze’s harmonic disruptions frequently create a strong sense of stylistic overlapping and harmonic conflict. Three additional instances illustrate Henze’s creativity and diversity of ideas in exploring harmonic conflict:

1. the first instance occurs at mm. 177–81. Henze’s newly composed four-measure double in which the solo violin part takes an unusual turn, moves away from the harmonic context of the orchestral accompaniment, thus sounding entirely foreign. Indeed, the solo violin part seems to deliberately avoid chord tones; it passes through very dissonant non-chord tones, essentially circling around chord tones and consonances (see Example 25c);

2. the second instance happens at m. 274 where an unprepared modulation from G minor to

E major occurs (see Example 25d). The juxtaposition of the old and new tonics (G and G#) and

B!/B"#cross relation adds a bold facet to Henze’s musical language, as does the con impeto, rocket-like arpeggio setting of the E-major chord; and

3. Henze takes the concept of disruption to the next level, accentuating his chaconne’s modern idiom in the third instance during the following variation at mm. 279–89. He adds to the ongoing disruption complex fugal writing, harmonic superimposition, unprepared leaps, and timbral dissimilitude. Indeed, the flute, bass clarinet, and solo violin actively contribute to this variation and stretch the timbral spectrum and melodic range. Even if all three instruments play similar material, their superimposition and overlapping fugal entries generate raucous dissonances and the illusion of polytonality (see Example 25e).

! 44 Ex. 25c–e. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, harmonic disruption (tonal conflict).

25c. mm. 176–81.

! 45

! 46 25d. mm. 268–76.

! 47

! 48 25e. mm. 277–90.

! 49

! 50

! 51 By introducing such modern compositional devices, Henze appears to be alluding to

Second Viennese School procedures, even employing Schœnberg’s Hauptstimme (“principal line”) symbol at mm. 406–407; reminding the listener of Webernian pointillistic textures marked pp or ppp; while invoking some of Schœnberg’s most recognizable gestures at mm. 419–24

(broadened timbral spectrum produced by the heterogeneous association of the solo violin with the bass clarinet as well as wide, dissonant leaps). Another example of Second Viennese School gestures occurs at mm. 493–99, a variation strongly evocative of Berg’s Violin Concerto, particularly in its lyricism and leaping, yet relatively consonant, intervals. Nevertheless, Henze did not employ any twelve-tone or remotely serial procedures (see Examples 26a–c).

! 52 Ex. 26a–c. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, Second Viennese School similitudes.

26a. mm. 406–407.

! 53 26b. mm. 419–25.

! 54 26c. mm. 489–99.

! 55

! 56 Although Henze invokes neo-baroque harmonies, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato takes the shape of a large-scale, developmental composition, which encompasses a variety of musical styles, seemingly following some type of chronological timeline (from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to the present day). In this respect, Henze juxtaposed and interpolated a variety of styles in a heterogeneous and idiosyncratic manner. Indeed, in addition to the aforementioned neo-baroque, Second Viennese School, and post-modernist musical styles, the listener may also hear sonorities reminiscent of the following musical styles: (1) the neo-romantic style, in particular at mm. 77–80, mm. 117–20, and mm. 414–18 (the excerpt from mm. 117–20 harkens back to the music of Brahms, most notably with the utilization of the French horn in a majestic and serene manner); pockets of minimalism, such as mm. 306–309, a passage actually quite analogous to the third movement titled “Toccare” of Adams’s Violin Concerto; and perhaps most peculiarly, numerous occurrences of tango-like variations (mm. 41–56, 89–92, 113–16, 231–35,

430–35, and 504–507). Indeed, Henze’s persistent references to Latin dance music eventually makes one wonder: did Henze attempt to reproduce in a modern-day musical language the exotic side of the baroque chaconne as seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Western audiences probably received it? Based on Henze’s music and own words (see p. 39), this may be the case.

The parallel Henze implicitly draws between the seventeenth-century Latin American chaconne and the late nineteenth-century Argentinean tango is a clever and colorful one. Beside obvious commonalities, including the two genres’s dance elements and geographical origins, further analogous perceptions can be made. First, during most of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the chaconne was considered a very sensuous and sometimes even immoral dance throughout

Western Europe. If audiences today no longer perceive the chaconne in such controversial terms—largely due to deeply noble (at times even sacred) contributions, such as Bach’s

! 57 Ciaccona and Brahms’s Fourth Symphony as well as our modern-day conception of sensuality and eroticism—the same may not be said of the tango. In effect, most audiences today generally perceive the tango as a voluptuous, seductive dance. The tango, like the chaconne, finds its roots in Spanish popular culture and was much favored by European immigrants and slaves in lower- and working-class slums in urban Argentina. Consequently, Henze’s utilization of tango-like passages may be regarded as translating for modern ears the impressions and sounds that

Western baroque audiences would feel and perceive when hearing the chaconne.

The association of such diverse musical styles implies vivid contrasts, which do not disappoint. The first such contrast occurs at mm. 12–13, when the solo violin first enters accompanied by the harp and then the cellos, both playing in a conventional four-part choral style reminiscent of keyboard writing; then follows a neo-baroque ritornello with the entire string section repeating the theme. Common-practice tonality, consonances, and textural clarity fundamentally define these two sections. However, a listener will find the preceding introduction less conventional. It can be characterized by irregular chords with added sforzandos, clashing dissonances (G-unison chords over a sul ponticello F#-pedal), and brutal pizzicatos in the strings and horn parts. (Henze indicated that horn pizzicatos should be performed “bouché”) (see

Example 27a). Another example of stark juxtaposition occurs in mm. 168–69 where off-beat dotted rhythms marked forte follow a calm and dreamy variation characterized by harp figures and a peaceful, choral-like string texture (see Example 27b). In fact, similar unanticipated transitions originate in Henze’s intermittent utilization of the harp, such as mm. 302 and 338 where the harp entrances allow a powerful effect of appeasement after modern-sounding variations.

! 58 Ex. 27a–b. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, contrasting juxtapositions.

27a. mm. 1–20.

! 59

! 60

! 61 27b. mm. 162–72.

! 62

! 63 Like Ferdinand David’s edition of Vitali’s chaconne, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato ends with a cadenza, although the latter is now largely raddoppiata (“reduplicated”). In contrast to the original cadenza, Henze did not merely elaborate a two-measure 6/4 cadential formula but rather composed a distinct five-minute developmental section with sonorities so remote from the baroque period that the listener seems to be encouraged to reflect on how far the musical ideas have traveled and how much textural colors have been transformed (see Example 28). Rather than “mutation,” the term “metamorphosis” seems more appropriate in this case, especially when one realizes that the original chaconne that Henze utilized during the first twenty minutes was not just transformed, but simply disappeared. Henze was apparently seeking such concept of musical metamorphosis. Perhaps not coincidently, Henze’s cadenza contains sonorities and idiomatic leaps reminiscent of Penderecki’s cadenza in his Violin Concerto No. 2

“Metamorphosen.” After initially spoiling the listener’s ears with sweetly consonant harmonies,

Henze reaches remarkable artistic depth and succeeds in triggering reflection and memories in the listener’s mind. What was supposed to be a modern tribute to Vitali’s chaconne has become something else, which goes far beyond the listener’s expectations. Quoting Vitali’s chaconne provided Henze with a point of departure upon which he could translate and deconstruct Vitali’s musical ideas.

! 64 Ex. 28. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, ending (including cadenza), mm. 511–17.

! 65

! 66

! 67

! 68

CHAPTER IV

JOHN ADAMS: BODY THROUGH WHICH THE DREAM FLOWS

1. John Coolidge Adams

Born in 1947, American composer John Adams is often categorized as a minimalist composer. However, such clear-cut label hardly applies to his entire output and seems far too limiting in regards to his violin chaconne, Body through Which the Dream Flows. While Adams employs some minimalist techniques, such as pulsating rhythms, phase-music techniques

(mm. 121–32), repeating patterns, and diatonicism, he is not a strict follower of the minimalist movement. His approach to composition is often more developmental than his predecessors, reaching climaxes and featuring other elements of romanticism as well (mm. 132–47). Music critic Kyle Gann corroborates this idea asserting that during the 1980s minimalism developed into a less strict, more complex style sometimes called post-minimalism or totalism; it broke out of the strongly framed repetition and stasis of early minimalism and became enriched with a confluence of other rhythmic and structural influences.1

Adams often suffuses his musical style with two central concepts: duality and gradual transformation. Duality often focuses on the conflicts between present and past, or dream versus reality. The other concept of slow transformation underlies many of Adams’s compositions. For instance, Harmonium for Large Orchestra and Chorus starts with quietly insistent repetitions of

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Kyle Gann, “Minimal Music, Maximal Impact,” from NewMusicBox (available from www.newmusicbox.org/article.nmbx?id=1536; internet).

! 69 one pitch “D” and one syllable “no,” and, by means of a gentle unfolding, develops into a rich, pulsating fabric of sound. Adams’s exploration of the concepts of duality and transformation logically led him to explore the chaconne genre, a genre essentially based upon the concept of change over continuity.

2. Body through Which the Dream Flows’s Basso Ostinato

In 1993 Adams composed his violin chaconne and utilized it as the middle (slow) movement of his violin concerto. Violinist Jorja Fleezanis, who had collaborated with Adams in composing the solo part, premiered the concerto the following year accompanied by the

Minnesota Orchestra under Edo de Waart. Adams’s violin chaconne bears the poetic title Body through Which the Dream Flows, a phrase Adams borrowed from a poem by Robert Haas.2 This chaconne was largely inspired by Pachelbel’s Canon in D Major3—which Adams utilizes consistently throughout the entire composition—as well as the traditional cadential formulas of

J. S. Bach’s Passacaglia in C minor, BWV 582, and “Dido’s Lament” from Purcell’s Dido and

Aeneas (see Examples 29a–b).

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2 Thomas May, The John Adams Reader: Essential Writings on an American Composer (Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus, 2006), 156.

3 In an interview conducted and transcribed by Rebecca Jemian and Anne-Marie de Zeeuw, John Adams mentioned the utilization of Pachelbel’s Canon in D Major as a composition upon which his chaconne is based. See Rebecca Jemian and Anne-Marie de Zeeuw, John Adams on His Violin Concerto, from John Adams’s official website (available from www.earbox.com; internet).

! 70 Ex. 29a. Pachelbel, Canon in D Major, basso ostinato.

Ex. 29b. Adams, Body through Which the Dream Flows, basso ostinato.

%&&&&&&&&&&BWV 582&&&&&&&&&&'

(&&&&Dido’s Lament&&&&)

Utilizing such a well-known bass pattern creates a double effect: it made the recurring basso ostinato easily audible and recognizable for connoisseurs and amateurs alike, and gave

Adams the opportunity to render his basso ostinato’s numerous mutations and gradual deconstruction even more noticeable. Nevertheless, such compositional approach implies rigorous planning, on which Adams commented:

This is probably the most rigorously worked-out piece that I have composed in terms of its internal design, its genetic structure and the way in which the larger structures reiterate…. Basically the large organism is a picture of the smallest cellular structure. I perform all kinds of operations, transforming musical cells into a multitude of shapes and forms: they change mode, direction, and undergo all kinds of augmentation and diminution.4

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 Ibid.

! 71 Although Pachelbel’s basso ostinato clearly inspired Adams, the new ostinato is tonally closed. This type of tonal organization has implications for the continuity and the shape of the movement, supporting a perpetual stop-start mechanism. Yet, Adams seemed to view this element as secondary in comparison to the concept of mutation:

What I like about my chaconne treatment, despite the fact that it keeps closing in on itself, is that once it begins mutating, it produces some deeply disturbing events. It is like some piece of kinetic sculpture or a clock that normally functions in a regular, predictable, reassuring, comforting manner, over and over again to the point where one is almost lulled to sleep. Then it suddenly begins to go awry, starts going into very strange modal areas, starts to experience arrhythmia, and begins to behave in a dreamlike, irrational manner. It becomes Salvador Dali’s clock. What happens above the chaconne line, with all these figures whose rhythm is either augmented or diminished, causes a constant sense of overlapping and for me an interesting dissonance to this kind of clockwork ostinato.5

In his chaconne, Adams manipulates musical borrowing in a particular way. If, at the outset of the work, the listener can easily recognize Pachelbel’s basso ostinato (in the original key of D Major), only elements of it remain as the music unfolds (either its melodic contour, pitch content, or overall gestures). In effect, the idea of an unceasing cantus firmus (central to the chaconne genre) pertains to this composition, yet, as opposed to Henze’s treatment of his violin chaconne’s basso ostinato, Adams dramatically mutates his. As a result of its substantial reworking, the ostinato’s identity and purpose begin to change path, acquiring a new, more descriptive facet in order to gain the capacity to portray the chaconne’s poetical title.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5 Ibid.

! 72 3. Harmonic and Rhythmic Mutation

In comparison to most composers of violin chaconnes!not only the great baroque masters but also twentieth-century composers such as Reger and Corigliano!Adams approached the chaconne genre with a fluent manipulation of ostinato techniques. He repeats his basso ostinato precisely twenty-nine times and puts it through numerous rhythmic and harmonic mutations in a highly constructivist manner. Twenty-one statements start on D, the chaconne’s tonal center, the remaining eight statements are transpositions. As the music unfolds, Adams begins inserting the interval of the tritone, which becomes increasingly prominent (see Table 2).

A tritone opens statements 10–12 and 27, and is displaced to subsequent intervals in statements

23–25, simultaneously mutating through enharmonic relations (C/F# at m. 122 becomes B#/F# at mm. 126 and 129). Moreover, Adams transposes statement 28 to a tritone above statement 27.

Adams also applies wide-ranging rhythmic transformations to his chaconne’s basso ostinato, including augmentation, diminution and blending of binary and ternary figures (see

Examples 30a–d). Nonetheless, the two most important rhythmic elements Adams manipulates constantly are displacement and overlapping. As paradoxical as it may appear for a minimalist composer, Adams often blurs the pulsating basso ostinato with a surrounding mass of intricate countermelodies. Perhaps this captures his conception of a dream (represented by the shapeless and autonomous solo violin) transpiercing a body that relies on a steady heartbeat (represented by the basso ostinato’s regularity and predictability). The texture becomes densely organic with a network of overlapping musical cells that gain progressive independence, yet contribute to the whole.

! 73 Ex. 30a–d. Adams, Body through Which the Dream Flows, rhythmic transformations.

30a. Original basso ostinato (statement 1), mm. 1–6.

30b. Rhythmic diminution (statement 16), mm. 81–83.

30c. Rhythmic augmentation (statement 29), mm. 166–74.

30d. Harmonic mutation and combination of binary and ternary rhythmic figures (statement 25), mm. 129–31.

! 74

4. Structural and Constituent Elements

The constituent elements of Adams’s violin chaconne hail from baroque to modernist,

minimalist and other post-modernist techniques, including the following: electronic music,6

quarter-tones (see mm. 8–30, viola part), Varèsian percussion instruments (marimba, low

tom toms, roto toms, bowed vibraphone, tubular bells, chimes, claves, bongos, congas, bass

drums, tambourine, guiro, and cowbell), hypnotic minimalist passages (mm. 106–132), and

polyrhythms (mm. 101–114) (see Table 2 and Examples 31a–c).

Table 2. Adams, Body through Which the Dream Flows, structural design and main features.

Opening A Episode 1 B Episode 2 C Closing

Measures 1–33 34–84 85–91 92–132 132–47 148–65 166–end

Basso ostinato 1–5 6–16 — 17–25 — 26–28 29 statements Main tonal D D D / B! / D ~~ B! ~~ A D center(s) D ! C# (tonic pedal)

tritone synthesizer’s no basso no basso synthesizer’s appears minimalist polyrhythms “vectoring” ostinato ostinato “vectoring” Main features/ m. 62 characteristics “Mahlerian” calm, solo violin phase improv. descent to dark mood neo-romantic stagnant double-stops music style low register style

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 The orchestration calls for two keyboard synthesizers—an instrument of which Adams seems particularly fond—preferably a Yamaha SY99 and a Kursweil K2000. Their subtle electronic echoes of pop music reflect some of Adams’s recent pieces (such as Scratchband) that attempt overtly to combine vernacular and art music traditions.

! 75 Ex. 31a–c. Adams, Body through Which the Dream Flows, modernist and post-modernist techniques.

31a. Quarter-tones mm. 1–30 (viola part).

! 76

! 77 31b. Polyrhythms, mm. 109–112.

! 78 31c. Minimalism and phase music, mm. 119–30.

! 79

! 80

! 81 On a structural level, Adams framed his chaconne with the second synthesizer’s

“vectoring”!a technique solely used at the work’s outset and conclusion defined by the composer as “a complex polyphonic sound with slow attack and decay and pronounced vibrato.”7 The original basso ostinato opens and closes the chaconne, resulting in a great sense of cyclicism and stability. In addition, two short episodes gently interrupt the ostinato’s perpetual recurrences (mm. 85–91 and 132–47), thus providing two pauses that create a powerful effect of emptiness and mystery (see Table 2). In other words, the clock stops twice.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7 John Adams, Violin Concerto, full score (New York: Boosey & Hawkes, 2006), ii.

! 82

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

If the difficulty to draw firm conclusions about the chaconne’s origins and early stages often results in much approximation and speculation, it simultaneously provides valuable information: first, in comparison to many other musical genres, the chaconne appears to be in constant “mutation,” as if unremittingly affected by change. Second, beside undeniable masterpieces and milestones, such as J. S. Bach’s Ciaccona, the chaconne’s developmental timeline does not really feature clear stages per se or even a “maturity” period, unlike many other genres. Third, nor does it exhibit clearly delineated and universally accepted structural features. It seems as if the essential duality that characterizes the chaconne, that is, change over continuity or perpetuating itself while constantly generating renewed musical interest, also affects and “permeates” its own development over time. This has provided numerous composers a tremendous “multi-layer” platform for experimentation. Moreover, the arduous challenge of composing stretches of compelling music, in spite of a repeating basso ostinato, appears to be what interests chaconne composers as well, perhaps even more so than sectional variation procedures. Thus, one may no longer wonder why composers from the baroque and modern musical eras (generally regarded as great inventers and innovative “crafters”) have explored

! 83 the chaconne genre with great productivity, both quantitatively and qualitatively.1

Pergament’s Chaconne for Solo Violin in E minor is remarkable for its imaginative and agile synthesis of well-known pre-existing themes, coupled with a musical style that, in turn, synthesizes the “old” common-practice tonality principles with “new” expressive dissonance treatment and extended tertian harmony championed by fin-de-siècle composers. Duality, indeed, exists at many levels in this composition: common-practice tonality vs. non-functional harmony, external quotations vs. newly composed material, virtuosity vs. depth of musical language, etc.

The resulting colorful and emotional conflicts undoubtedly create a powerful impression for the listener, whether s/he is acquainted with Pergament’s music or not. In regards to its constructivist attributes and phrase articulation, Pergament’s Chaconne is straightforward, rendering its variation sequence easily comprehensible. Actually, one may hardly believe that this composition has failed to attract interest from music publishers and recording labels since 1941, thus explaining why most professional violinists have never heard of this chaconne, let alone amateurs and beginning violinists. To date, Bulgarian virtuoso Emil Dekov has been the only one !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Baroque chaconne composers include H. Bach, J. S. Bach, C. Baton, A. Bertali, H. Biber, G. Böhm, J. Boismortier, C. Boquet, D. Buxtehude, A. Caldara, S. Capricornus, F. Cavalli, M. Cazzati, J. Clarke, L. Clerambault, F. Corbetta, A. Corelli, L. and F. Couperin, E. dall’Abaco, J. d’Anglebert, L. Dornel, J. Duphly, P. Erlebach, J. C. Fischer, A. Forqueray, G. Frescobaldi, J. Fux, J. Gallot, E. Gaultier, J. Geoffroy, P. Gillier, C. Graupner, G. Handel, E. Jacquet de La Guerre, G. Kapsperger, J. Krieger, J. Kusser, M. La Barre, M. Lalande, J. Leclair, G. Le Roux, C. Lonati, J. Lully, M. Marais, B. Marcello, N. Matteis, J. Meder, T. Merula, M. Monteclair, J. Morel, C. Mouton, G. Muffat, J. Pachelbel, A. Philidor, H. Purcell, J. Rameau, J. Rebel, J. Sainte-Colombe, G. Sanz, J. Schenck, T. Schwartzkopff, A. Steffani, B. Storace, G. Telemann, R. Valentine, F. Veracini, R. Visée, T. Vitali, A. Vivaldi, and S. Weiss; Twentieth-century chaconne composers include J. Adams, W. Alwyn, M. Arnold, B. Bartók, H. Berg, H. Blake, E. Bohnke, B. Britten, D. Brubeck, A. Casella, L. Chobanian, M. Colgrass, J. Corigliano, M. Dalbavie, L. Dallapiccola, N. Dello Joio, M. Denhoff, E. Denisov, D. Diamond, H. Distler, C. Domeniconi, M. Dupré, H. Eisler, F. Farkas, B. Ferneyhough, N. Flagello, W. Flanagan, G. Frumerie, H. Genzmer, R. Gerhard, A. Goehr, R. Golani-Erdesz, S. Gubaidulina, D. Hagen, J. Harbison, L. Harrison, H. Henze, M. Isaacs, W. Josephs, E. Krenek, M. Kupferman, R. Kyr, P. Lane, G. Ligeti, D. Lilburn, D. Liptak, C. Matthews, D. Matthews, M. Maute, M. Meynaud, C. Nielsen, S. H. Nielsen, K. Penderecki, E. Pepping, M. Pergament, K. Rasmussen, A. Rawsthorne, M. Reger, J. Rogers, N. Rorem, P. Ruders, A. Sallinen, A. Sapp, R. Saxton, H. Schmidt, R. Shchedrin, J. Sichel, A. Sokolovic, A. Steinnhardt, G. Trovesi, E. Tubin, F. Valen, J. Vieaux, A. Violette, and S. Wolpe.

! 84 to record Pergament’s violin chaconne.2 It often takes a famous artist to successfully “promote” a new composition. Such has been the case with Adams’s Body through Which the Dream Flows

(published by Boosey & Hawkes), which has been performed worldwide and recorded by some of the greatest contemporary violinists, including Gidon Kremer, Leila Josefowicz, Robert

McDuffie, and rising star Chloë Hanslip. Coincidently, Gidon Kremer also premiered Henze’s

Il Vitalino Raddoppiato in Salzburg in 1978 with the ORF Symphonie-Orchester under Leif

Segerstram. Pergament’s violin chaconne, alas, did not benefit from such a brilliant advocate or powerful publisher.3

Subtly related to the concept of change over continuity, the exploration of temporal relationships in music (enabled by the chaconne’s multiple layers of sound) often finds fertile ground in the ostinato genre. Such is the case with Henze’s and Adams’s violin chaconnes, although each composer mined this area in different ways. Henze’s Il Vitalino Raddoppiato seems to be summarizing a long, general timeline that bounds the late Baroque period (i.e.,

Vitali’s chaconne’s period of composition) to the present day in a bold and disparate manner.

The surprising musical journey that Henze created will probably make many listeners raise eyebrows, smile, and enjoy. Underneath Il Vitalino Raddoppiato’s patchwork appearance is the idea of conflicting temporal relationships conveyed by the juxtaposition of heterogeneous musical styles that, nevertheless, share a simple repeating tetrachord as a common root. In other words, the listener witnesses a dialog between the present and past, and vertical and linear sonorities.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2 Moses Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin, BIS-CD-9, 1992, CD.

3 I was able to locate and obtain what appears to be the only copy of Pergament’s Chaconne for Solo Violin in E Minor available in the United States and in the WorldCat library network. This particular copy seems to have been the property of the Bibliothek der Hochschule Mozarteum in Salzburg, Austria. It now belongs to the Brigham Young University’s Harold B. Lee Library in Provo, Utah. See Appendix.

! 85 Adams’s eagerness to enhance his musical language with some type of temporal countenance takes a very different path. Instead of generating “looping” temporal liaisons between present and past or disparate musical styles, Adams pursued the alternative of superimposing parallel layers of musical material, thus creating different musical dimensions.

When asked what he was trying to achieve by mixing constant pulsations with patterns that simultaneously project conflicting speeds, Adams replied:

I am trying to find ways to enrich the experience of perceiving the way time is divided. I have never been interested in music that denies pulsation. The events make their appearance in a very formal, sequential manner. Then the little engines go through their repetition and evolve into different patterns…. In the creation of temporal relationships there seems to be a point beyond which musical time itself begins to sound dissonant…. I feel that there is a natural way of dividing time and then there is a dissonant way of dividing time. I do not know where that dissonance begins. Two against three obviously does not feel dissonant to me; it has a wonderful texture to it, as does three against four. Three against five begins to push the envelope. I guess when you get beyond that, that we get to an area of cognition…. And perhaps it is a question of whether something is learned or not. It may be that one can learn these things and get to a point where they feel absolutely natural.4

This riveting and peculiar concept of “temporal dissonance” can certainly be heard in

Adams’s chaconne at mm. 60–92 and 149–74. At these points, several musical parts progressively depart from a shared rhythmic pace or “feel” in order to multiply temporal dimensions. On the same topic Adams added:

I think there are two ways to achieve a shifting of gears in music. One is changing tempos through rational divisions of time, which is what you call metric modulation. The other is by speeding up or slowing down. I like to use both of them because they each have very different expressive results…. I also shrunk [my chaconne’s basso ostinato] and expanded it rhythmically. This movement is extremely tight compositionally. You will find the violin theme, which starts out as a very free counterpoint to the chaconne, coming back all through the rest of the movement in the woodwinds or, at the very end, in the violins, and has been altered rhythmically…. I do this neither arbitrarily nor with !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 Adams, quoted in Jemian and de Zeeuw, John Adams on His Violin Concerto.

! 86 exceedingly specific intent. It is somewhere in the middle, a means of creating a sense of what I call genetic integrity in the work and also a kind of almost subliminal recall. Now once I call attention to them, they are not subliminal, but that is a technique that I learned, I suppose, from Wagner more than from anybody else. This sense of having been somewhere, having experienced something and coming back to it, is really motivic recall…. I think that [the idea of ears shifting to a different level like those popular 3-D images where you look at the surface and then, using a different viewing technique, a picture comes out behind it] is a very useful analogy.5

Based on his description, Adams seemed to have treated his basso ostinato almost as a neo-Wagnerian leitmotif, suffusing or “breathing life” into it. In opposition to Henze’s ground bass, for example, which remains the quintessential, non-changing foundation of Henze’s entire chaconne, Adams’s basso ostinato becomes the true engine of change. It “lives” and mutates, thus instilling transformational process throughout the chaconne’s musical texture.

Henze’s real success in Il Vitalino Raddoppiato can be attributed to his capacity to avoid lengthy identical quotations, tedious repetitions, in other words, ennui—instead, he has produced a compositional tour de force, given the chaconne’s massive length.6 In preserving the repeating harmonic structure of Vitali’s basso ostinato while steadily making the musical material increase in complexity, Henze created a type of kaleidoscopic prism of musical colors and emotions.

Henze utilized several concepts and techniques to achieve such a creative composition without ever boring the listener. First, he sometimes juxtaposed in a humorous manner neo-baroque and twentieth-century compositional styles in the piece’s unfolding; not only does this maintain musical interest, but it simultaneously requires the listener to constantly “switch gears” and adjust the way s/he processes and comprehends the music. Second, he followed harsh

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5 Ibid.

6 On the score, Henze indicated an estimated total duration of circa thirty-five minutes. Henze, Il Vitalino Raddoppiato, ii.

! 87 dissonances with sweet consonances, hammering rhythms with melodic slurs, and dignified church-like passages with a sensuous tango.

Pergament, Henze, and Adams penned these three violin chaconnes at different times in the twentieth century (1941, 1977, and 1993 respectively); they not only reflect compositional trends of specific time periods but also demonstrate these composers’s predilections and ingenuity. Beyond the standard issues related to ostinato procedures and variation technique, each composer was obviously interested in ancillary elements and sought peripheral musical dimensions, such as temporal relationships, stylistic juxtapositions, and the concepts of mutation, duality, and transformation. That so many twentieth-century composers from diverse backgrounds and styles (including the three composers discussed above) continue to rediscover the chaconne’s peculiarities and utilize them as basis for deep musical exploration proves that this late sixteenth-century genre still fascinates the most accomplished and cutting-edge composers.7 Much emotional and constructivist music has yet to be generated through ostinato procedures and hopefully, such a quest shall contribute to more performances of Pergament’s,

Henze’s, and Adams’s violin chaconnes, as they so richly deserve.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7 See p. 84, n. 1.

! 88 APPENDIX

Moses Pergament, Chaconne for Solo Violin

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! 91

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