Muhammad Luqman M.Sc

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RURAL DEVELOPMENT VISION AND PRACTICES OF CULTURALLY ROOTED SOCIAL MOVEMENT ORGANIZATIONS IN NORTH-WEST PAKISTAN: IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRI. EXTENSION

Muhammad Luqman M.Sc. (Hons.) Agricultural Extension Reg. No. 97-ag-1165

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Agricultural Extension

Institute of Agri. Extension & Rural Development Faculty of Social Sciences University of Agriculture, Faisalabad Pakistan 2014

Declaration

I hereby declare that the contents of the thesis entitled “Rural development vision and practices of culturally rooted Social Movement Organizations in North-West Pakistan: Implications for Agri. Extension” are product of my own research and no part has been copied from any published source (except the references, standard mathematical or genetic models/equations/formulas/protocols etc.). I further declared that this work has not been submitted for award of any other diploma/degree. The University may take action if the information provided is found inaccurate at any stage. (In case of any default, the scholar will be proceeded against as per HEC plagiarism policy).

MUHAMMAD LUQMAN

The Controller of Examinations, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

We, the supervisory committee, certify that the contents and the form of thesis submitted by Muhammad Luqman, Regd. No. 97-ag-1165 have been found satisfactory. The suggestions by external examiners have been incorporated, checked and found satisfactory. It is submitted with the recommendations for further necessary action and final award of the Ph.D. Degree.

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:

CHAIRMAN: ______Dr. Babar Shahbaz

MEMBER: ______Prof. Dr. Tanvir Ali

MEMBER: ______Prof. Dr. M. Tahir Siddiqui

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DEDICATED

MY LOVING FATHER (LATE)

AND

SWEET MOTHER

WHOSE INSPIRATIONS ENLIGHTENED MY LIFE

Acknowledgements

First of all I bow myself before the Almighty Allah, who raised me in Muslims and also bestowed and blessed me with such a lucid intelligence because of which I could endeavor towards this dissertation. Countless salutations be upon the Holy Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H), the minaret of knowledge. It is quite delectable to avail of this most propitious opportunity to aciculate with utmost gratification, my profound and intense sense of indebtedness to my supervisor in Ph.D. degree, Dr. Babar Shahbaz, Assistant Professor, Institute of Agri. Ext. & RD, UAF. He has a puissant command on the subject and tremendous proclivity towards Agri. Ext. and Rural Development. He generously shared his wealth of theoretical insights, methodological and practical advice towards rural development. I never forget his affectionate supervision and invaluable guidance which he contributed to complete my course and research work in a multiple ways. It is a matter of great pleasure and honour for me to express my gratitude to the members of my Supervisory Committee Prof. Dr. Tanvir Ali, Director, Institute of Agri. Ext. & RD, UAF and Prof. Dr. M. Tahir Siddiqui, Chairman Department of Forestry and Range Management, UAF for their edifying proposals and valuable guidance that lucidly eased my way to success. I am only able to complete my degree under their kind and scholastic guidance, keen interest and consistent encouragement. I am highly grateful to their ever inspiring guidance, keen interest, scholarly comments and constructive suggestions. I am also thankful to all my teachers in the Institute of Agri. Ext. & RD, who helped and guided me during the entire course of my studies. It’s my pleasure to mention here the financial and technical support of National Center for Competence in Research (NCCR) – North-South and Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI), Islamabad, as the whole dissertation was completed under the theme of NCCR RP-1 research project “Contested Rural Development”. The words of appreciation will never be complete if I don’t mention the endless efforts, technical and intellectual guidance of Dr. Urs Guiser (Development Study Group, University of Zurich, Switzerland). Words are lacking to express thanks to my reverend parents. Success until the present stage is a result of their efforts, prayers, inspiring sentiments, regardless help and financial support during my educational programme. I am highly grateful to my beloved wife who struggled a lot for my success in my doctoral studies. Her patience and ever encouraging bahaviour during the whole period of my doctoral studies and stay at Faisalabad enabled me to complete my degree in a successful manner. Moreover, the love and presence of my cute daughters Urva Zainab and Khadija Zainab in my life has been a constant inspiration and stimulus, pushing me on towards completion through the long, sleepless nights as I tried to achieve the virtually impossible: to combine study and family life. Bundle of thanks I owe my brothers and sisters especially my friends for their strenuous efforts and encouraging attitude.

Muhammad Luqman

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter # Title Page #

1 Introduction 1

2 Review of Literature 16

3 Materials and Methods 53

4 Results and Discussions 67

5 Summary, conclusions and recommendations 189

Literature Cited 203

Appendix - I 242

Appendix - II 250

LIST OF TABLES

S. No. Title Page # 2.1 Statistics of different rural development indicators in four Provinces of 23 Pakistan 4.1 Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about operational 68 area of organizations 4.2 Mean and SD of different levels of working of organizations 69 4.3 Mean and SD of different sources of funding of organizations 70 4.4 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 72 status of working of organizations 4.5 Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about status of staff 73 of organizations 4.6 Claims of SMOs related to rural development 79 4.7 Respective working strategies of SMOs 85 4.8 Mean and SD of organizations regarding their educational practices 88 4.9 Mean and SD of organizations regarding their rural development practices 90 related to human health 4.10 Mean and SD of organizations regarding their rural development practices 92 related to agriculture 4.11 Mean and SD of organizations regarding their other rural development 93 practices 4.12 Mean and SD of reasons of rural poverty 97 4.13 Mean and SD of material impacts of rural poverty 100 4.14 Mean and SD of non-material impacts of rural poverty 101 4.15 Respondent‘s perception about rural poverty alleviation for rural development 103 4.16 Mean and SD of educational rural development activities of SMOs regarding 105 their effectiveness 4.17 Mean and SD of health related rural development practices of SMOs regarding 106 their effectiveness 4.18 Mean and SD of agriculture related rural development practices of SMOs 107 regarding their effectiveness 4.19 Mean and SD of other rural development practices of SMOs regarding their 108 effectiveness 4.20 Mean and SD of respective SMOs regarding their interaction with allied 109 departments and organizations 4.21 Distribution of the respondents according to their age 114 4.22 Distribution of the respondents according to their caste/khel 115 4.23 Distribution of the respondents according to their educational status 116 4.24 Distribution of the respondents according to their land holding status 117 4.25 Household‘s size of land holding 118 4.26 Distribution of the respondents according to their family type 120 4.27 Distribution of the respondents according to their main occupation 121 4.28 Distribution of the respondents according to their sources of cash household‘s 122 income

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4.29 Distribution of respondents according to their opinion about the working of 125 social organizations and local groups in the village regarding rural development 4.30 Mean, SD and F-Test value regarding intensity of participation of respondents 126 in rural development related activities of social organizations and local groups in their respective villages 4.31 t-test between respondent‘s intensity of participation in social organizations 126 and local groups 4.32 Mean and SD of rural development activities of respective social organizations 129 in the study area 4.33 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about the 133 quality of health services provided by state and SMOs 4.34 Mean and SD of different health related facilities being launched by respective 134 SMOs in their respective villages 4.35 Mean and SD regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of 135 SMOs regarding different health related activities 4.36 Mean, SD and t-test regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance 137 of Government health departments and SMOs about different health related activities 4.37 Percentage distribution of respondents according to their opinion about 141 responsibility to run educational institution in the area 4.38 Mean of different educational related facilities being launched by different 146 organizations 4.39 Mean and SD regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of 147 SMOs regarding their educational activities 4.40 Mean, SD and t-test regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance 148 of Government and SMOs about different educational activities 4.41 Percentage distribution of the respondents regarding Satisfaction of 150 educational services provided by Government on the basis of recent use 4.42 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion with 152 regard to receive different agricultural related services 4.43 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 153 provision of different agricultural related services 4.44 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 155 nature of organization/group that provided agricultural related services 4.45 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 157 timely availability of different agricultural related services 4.46 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 158 whether agricultural services of social organizations improve their overall agricultural productivity and livelihood 4.47 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 159 reasons due to which different agricultural services of social organizations improve their overall agricultural productivity and livelihood 4.48 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 160 reasons due to which different agricultural services didn‘t improve their overall agricultural productivity and livelihood

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4.49 Mean and SD regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of 161 respective SMOs about agricultural services 4.50 Mean, SD and t-test regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance 162 of government agricultural department and SMOs about delivery of different agricultural services 4.51 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 164 recipients of different agricultural services 4.52 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their main source of 165 drinking water 4.53 Distribution of respondents about their opinion about maintenance of source of 166 drinking water 4.54 Percentage distribution of the respondents about their opinion about frequency 167 of availability of drinking water 4.55 Mean and SD of different emergency relief services being provided by 169 Government and SMOs 4.56 Mean and SD regarding respondent‘s satisfaction level regarding performance 170 of respective SMOs about delivery of different emergency relief services 4.57 Mean, SD and t-test regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance 171 of Government and SMOs about delivery of different emergency relief services 4.58 Percentage distribution of respondents according to their opinion about 173 delivery of other rural development services 4.59 Criteria of social organizations and government rural development 173 departments for delivering services to the community 4.60 Mean and SD of reasons of rural poverty 176 4.61 Mean and SD of reasons of inequality 178 4.62 Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about means to 179 reduce poverty and inequality 4.63 Mean and SD and F-test statistics of activities of SMOs through which they 181 play role in reducing poverty and inequality 4.64 Mean and SD of the respective SMOs regarding effectiveness of their rural 185 development activities 4.65 Mean, SD and t-test of the effectiveness of activities of Government and 186 SMOs regarding rural development

LIST OF FIGURES S. No. Title Page # 3.1 Map of Pakistan showing study area (KPK) 54 3.2 Map of study area (district Mansehra) 56 3.3 Methodological tree of local residents as study respondents 60 3.4 The author is in meeting as participant observer 65 4.1 Level of participation in rural development activities of SMOs 111 4.2 A person busy in collecting sand from water - involve in Labour 124 4.3 Percentage distribution of the respondents about use of health facility 131 4.4 Opinion of the respondents about the cost of health services provided by 132 Government and social organizations 4.5 Mean distance between house of the respondent and school/college for both 138 the genders (boys and girls) 4.6 Gender disparity in female education in four provinces 139 4.7 Mean time to reach the school/college by both genders (male and female) 140 4.8 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to the frequency to 140 attend the school/college by their children 4.9 The condition of state owned school in village Paras after the earthquake of 142 2005 4.10 View of the school being run by Hussani Foundation in village Paras 143 4.11 Percentage distribution of the respondents about the cost of educational 143 services provided by government and SMOs 4.12 Percentage distribution of the respondents about the quality of educational 144 services provided by government and SMOs 4.13 The miserable condition of a school in village Paras 151 4.14 Percentage distribution of respondents about their opinion in providing 168 emergency relief services 4.15 Residences of majority of the households in the study area 175 4.16 Situation of poverty and food insecurity in the study area 175 4.17 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 180 role of SMOs in reducing rural poverty and inequality 4.18 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 182 involvement of SMOs in addressing the issues of poverty and inequality 4.19 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 183 involvement of poor people in activities of SMOs 4.20 Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about 184 level of participation in activities of SMOs

ABSTRACT In Pakistan, more than half of the population used to live in rural localities and depend upon farm and non-farm rural economy for their livelihoods. In these areas, persistent poverty and inadequate development indicators clearly describes their backwardness. In order to develop these rural dwellers, state (government) launched different rural development programmes during different regimes. These state-led programmes/initiatives left little impact on rural livelihoods. With special reference to North-West region (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, KPK province) these initiatives gained substantial success as the province stands on 3rd rank in Human Development Index (HDI). Besides state, a number of Civil Society Organizations are also engaged in rural development efforts throughout the country including KPK province. In the broader concept of civil society the emergence of Social Movement Organizations (SMOs) were also assumed to play a significant role in rural development. These organizations claimed to be deeply rooted in the traditional and religious culture of the rural KPK society and have greater capacity to cater the real needs of rural poor. Sometimes they challenge the state departments in providing basic welfare services to the rural community as they claimed that they have greater capability to provide these services at their door steps efficiently. But, their actual practices and claims related to rural development have not been yet identified. Keeping in view these perspectives the current PhD research was designed to analyse the vision and actual practices of these organizations regarding rural development in the KPK. The study followed the case study approach and selected District Mansehra as the study area. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from both categories of respondents i.e. staff/volunteers/members of SMOs as well as rural community affiliated with the respective SMO. The data were analysed using SPSS and content analysis technique. It was concluded that the major focus of all the three SMOs was on rural areas with a variety of funding sources. In all the three SMOs majority of the staff/volunteers/members was working on voluntary basis. They were involved in wide variety of rural development work related to education, health, agriculture, advocacy, social mobilization, emergency relief services etc. to empower the suppressed and ignored entities of society. It is further concluded that all the three SMOs were following the theme of people-centered RD approach covering all aspects of sustainable rural development. The perceived reasons of rural poverty in the area were lack of education, employment and good governance policies by the state. Small size of agricultural land holdings, appeared prominent in the study area, was also one of the major reasons of rural poverty and inequality. All the SMOs had strong horizontal (with village level local organizations) as well as vertical (with state departments) interaction and linkages for bring social change. Various RD practices rendered by SMOs appeared more effective than efforts of the state as large majority of the rural community were highly satisfied with their RD efforts. This scenario explores the potential of SMOs as alternate RD services providers in case of general failure of the state. Rural community perceived that collaborative strategic governance by the state and civil society would be more effective initiative towards reducing rural poverty and inequality. In addition, this collaboration will also pave the way toward sustainable rural development in KPK and ultimately in the entire country. In this way, mitigation of existing challenges such as food security and food sovereignty in the country will become easier. In view of these findings study recommends the development of partnership between NGOs/CBOs/FOs (including religious ones) and government (state) departments for efficient and effective delivery of rural extension/advisory services to the community; seeking for the sustainable rural development.

CHAPTER- 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Study context: Rural development in Pakistan & KP Province Pakistan, which is an important country of Asia, has attained international attention due to its strategic geographical location (Kapila, 2009). In Pakistan, like other developing countries of South Asia, the history of delivering and providing social welfare plans for rural poor is long and continued since independence involving various approaches and strategies implemented by the state controlled departments, but most of them had only limited success (World Bank, 2007). Only agricultural growth is not the only way towards rural development. Rural development calls for improving the overall socio-economic conditions of the rural people by raising their incomes and providing them with basic essential services like better housing, water supply, sewerage, better health services, quality educational facilities, better infrastructure etc. (Israr et al., 2009). Being the low income developing country agriculture is regarded as the most important sector of country‘s economy because it fulfills the food and fiber requirements of the fast growing population of the country (Ahmad and Farooq, 2010). Majority (> 50.0%) of total country‘s population resides in rural areas like other developing countries (Government of Pakistan, 2012). They have low income level as well as they also lack access to basic needs such as education, health, clean drinking water and proper sanitation (Qureshi, 2001). This situation counteracts their capacities and capabilities, limits the employment opportunities, resulting in their social exclusion (Hussain et al., 2003). In this context the role and nature of state and civil society efforts regarding rural development change time to time, which is need to be explored and discussed in the next section. 1.1.1 Timeline of rural development efforts

Government of Pakistan has launched many rural development programmes from time to time during different political and military regimes with the goal to develop rural people and to improve the quality of rural life. All these rural development programmes were partly or fully extended to all the four provinces of Pakistan (World Bank, 2007). The first programme of this nature was started in early 1950s with the name Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Programme - Village-AID (Luqman et al., 2005). During the early period of the programme it has attained much success but later suffered from due to conflicts of interests between different line departments (Davidson and Ahmad, 2003). With the closure of Village-AID in early 1960s,

1 rural development became a part of the Basic Democracies System (BDS). The same fate as that of Village-AID was happened with the BD system and could not achieve the desired results due to the top down planning, implementation and decision making of rural development policies (Khan and Khan, 2001). In the early 1970s, the then newly elected government closed down the BDS and introduced a new programme known as 'Integrated Rural Development Program' (IRDP) which resulted in establishing basic institutions and achieved some success but its impact on the rural masses was nominal (Davidson et al., 2001). Rural works programme (RWP) was continued side by side with IRDP but was furnished with a new name ‗People‘s Works Programme‘ during 1970s (Choudhary, 2002). This programme ended due to inter-departmental resentment and too much involvement of bureaucracy in planning and implementation process of rural development campaigns. Many short term plans were launched in the mid1980s, e.g. during 1985-88 the Prime Minister‘s five development points was introduced to promote the welfare and prosperity of rural community. The programme gained success to strong political commitment but comes to an end due to the change in political government (World Bank, 2007). ―Tameer-e-Watan‖ programme was commenced in 1991 with the participation of elected senators and members of national and provincial assemblies. Though the programme improved the physical infrastructure in some areas but its collective performance was reported as unsatisfactory. Corruption and sudden political change in the country were the main reasons of its failure (Khan and Khan, 2001). During early 1990s the Government initiated Social Action Programme (SAP) with the assistance from international funding agencies (Azizi, 1999). Due to the political change in the country the programme was terminated and, a new programme was started with the name ―Khushal Pakistan Programme‖ (KPP) with the aim to provide basic social services to the people at the grassroots level (Government of Pakistan, 2005). With the change in political regime in the country, the Devolution of Power Plan was introduced (in 2001) to uplift the economic status of rural people through pooling their resources and sources at grass root level (World Bank, 2002a; Zaidi, 2005; Lodhi et al., 2006; Luqman et al., 2007). In 2010 the National Assembly and Senate of Pakistan passed the 18th amendment of the constitution of Pakistan and it has become the part of an act of Parliament after the signature of President of Pakistan (Asif Ali Zardari). In that amendment the role of federal government has become very minimum in some departments including rural development, agriculture, social welfare and

2 social services. The responsibility has been transferred to the provincial governments to provide these services to the people at their door steps (Shah, 2012). Pakistan is the federation of five provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, Balochistan and Gilgit Baltistan) but there is quite unequal distribution of the rural development strategies and programmes in different provinces of the country. The government has launch same programmes to the mountainous regions like that of the plan area and neglect the aspect of access to resources and dependency over natural resources of the people residing in mountainous areas of KPK province (Rehman, 2005). There is huge variation in the human development index (HDI) and other indicators of poverty in different provinces and territories of Pakistan (SDPI, 2009). The urban and rural areas of Sindh and Punjab are top of HDI ranking but the rural mountainous areas of KPK and Baluchistan are very underdeveloped and extremely poor in terms of HDI and food security (ibid). According to an estimate about 22.3% of rural population is living below poverty line (Government of Pakistan, 2010). Among other reasons of high poverty rate and food security in the KPK province, lack of effective agriculture extension system in the region is also a main factor. And residents of this region apply traditional and older crop and fruit production technologies which lead to low yield (Shahbaz, 2008). In this situation village based traditional institutions served as rational suitable patterns for decentralized participatory and sustainable rural development in the mountains (Rehman, 2005). 1.1.2 Analysis of state rural development strategies From the above said it can be concluded that rural development in Pakistan remained inconsistent, political regime oriented and non-sustainable without any proper feedback (Khan and Khan, 2001; Qureshi, 2001). All the rural development initiatives taken by the Government of Pakistan during different political regimes were terminated one after the other due to many drawbacks and limitations (Luqman et al., 2013a). Political instability in the country and rivalry and contention among different government departments are some of the major factors for the failure of different rural development strategies and programmes (Saima et al., 2005). This overall failure of the state rural development initiatives established the space of other institutions to work in the field of rural development including Rural Support Programmes (RSPs) and other local organizations.

1.1.3 Role of non-state institutions in rural development: historical debate The failure of state rural development programmes and projects provide a space for other non-state rural development institutions. To fill this gap a number of rural support programmes are working under the umbrella of Rural Support Programme Network (RSPN) and covers more than 3.8 million rural households and claimed to be the largest civil society development network in the country (RSPN, 2010b). The major focus of these RSPs is on improving the economic conditions of rural poor through Community Organizations (COs) (Riaz et al., 2012). In KPK province Serhad Rural Support Programme (SRSP) and Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) in northern areas of Pakistan are the leading social service providing platforms especially in rural areas (RSPN, 2010b). These RSPs are striving hard to improve the rural livelihoods (Majeed et al., 2006). The efforts of these RSPs in reducing poverty convinced state departments that local level community based organizations must be streamlined in order to attain sustainable development in the country (Khan, 2009). It is often perceived by majority of the community that state organizations are voracious and inefficient in delivering basic social services such as health, education, safe drinking water, sanitation and shelter to the community which results in emerging wider role of local organizations in the form of professional associations, religious groups and other locally/culturally rooted organizations to induce competition and to make the state agencies more accountable (ESCAP, 2001). Some organizations like grassroots level organizations (GROs) have made significant contributions in recent years to poverty reduction, social welfare and the development of civil society as a whole (Pakistan Center for Philanthropy, 2007). In rural areas of KPK a significant improvement under the District Government system were established; where groups of non-elected community work towards rural development as Citizen Community Board (CCB) (Zaidi, 2005). Some local support organizations (grassroots development organizations) are also emerge in all over the country usually based at union council (UC) level established from the clusters of informal community based groups or organizations. These support organizations serve as the mediators and link between two parties i.e. formal and informal institutions and community groups (RSPN, 2007). These organizations are refers to the formal grouping of those individuals or group of individuals who are most severely affected due to the global economic and social

4 policies in terms of their sources of income or livelihoods. The gross root activists may be volunteers or paid members of community (Batliwala, 2002). The popularity of NGOs in the country and their importance is marked by the failure of the state-led social welfare plans to meet the desired ambitions, and development needs of the poor people (Shaukat, 2007). But this sector is liable of fulfilling the hidden western agenda of donor agencies in Pakistan. Religious groups are at the forefront in opposing cruising the working of NGOs because they say that these organizations are working against the socioeconomic norms of society (Rehman, 2006). Shaukat (2007) also stated that there exists distinct resistance between the working of NGOs in Pakistan by the religious groups or organizations arguing that they (NGOs) are extending the western agenda in the country and they are working against the social structure of Pakistani society. Somewhat similar observations were also reported by Iqbal, 2006 and Makhize, (2005). The rural community often believes that these organizations cannot play a positive role in the development of the province (Rehman, 2006). Religious organizations are at the forefront in opposing the working of these organizations. The religious scholars and leaders of these organizations argued that working strategy of such organizations is aside from our local cultural norms, values and traditions (HRCP, 2000). In different parts of KPK various religious organizations worked for the welfare of people but with little success (Rauf, 2006). Regarding delivery of services by the state and NGOs there is a constant difference of opinion between the local community, state and other development agencies (Kakepoto, 2008). With regard to conflicts in the North West region of Pakistan Shahbaz et al., (2008) also reported the emerging conflicts between state and non-state actors regarding access to forest resources. In these conflict-affected areas ―jirga‖ is the conflict resolution institution (Watto et al., 2010). In this regard it is necessary to take a broader understanding of civil society organizations outside the concept of only the modern NGOs (Geiser, 2006). In rural North-West region of Pakistan many civil society groups including traditional institutions are working for social change obscure from state social welfare departments. The government rarely encouraged the complimentary role of these organizations in delivering social services to rural poor for reducing poverty from the whole region (Hamid, 2002). These organizations serve as alternative domain parallel to state and sometimes separate from, the state (Rahman, 1997; Ghaus-Pasha, 2004). In Pakistan state rural development departments and modern NGOs working on the paradigm based

5 on modernization are still facing problems in delivering basic social services and benefits to the poor people. On the other side culturally rooted civil society groups and organizations are often challenging the state by claiming that they are in a better position to provide the real needs of the poor (Iqbal et.al., 2004). In this context the next section explains the role of civil society in rural development. 1.1.4 Civil society and its role in rural development Civil society is the mediating structure society and the state (Norton, 1995; Kabeer et al., 2010). The state is concerned with public goods and mobilizing the resources through state authorities; and the market is concerned with production of goods and services and mobilizing resources through market exchange. On the other hand civil society is concerned with common goods defined by social or community groups and mobilizes resources through visions and values of the respective society (Brown and Kalegaonkar, 1999). In wider terms the civil society arena comprises of different components like self-organized group of citizens, social movements, NGOs, associations, unions, philanthropic associations etc. (Fioramonti and Thümler, 2013). Regarding Pakistani civil society there exist a permanent ideological divide with reference ethnicity, caste, class and religion (Qadeer, 1997; RSPN, 2010a). The emergence of Non- governmental Organizations (NGOs) as the civil society partner in the developmental work during early 1980s added a new dimension in the rural development activities in Pakistan (Robinson and White, 1997). Most of the NGOs adopted participatory approach to rural development and poverty reduction through social mobilization at grass root level (ESCAP, 2001; Khan and Khan, 2004). The involvement of non-profit sector (NGOs, voluntary organizations) in the development process is one of the significant features of new development policy paradigm (Stamoulis and Zezza, 2003; Siddiqui, 2004). These organizations are considered as alternative social services providers (Saich, 2002). Although there are many success stories of non-profit and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), but in many countries such organization have had limited impact on the provision of the essential services to the poor people in rural areas (World Bank, 2004). This sector advocates strongly the presence of good governance policies to eradicate poverty and hunger (FAO, 2005). But this sector has several challenges in providing long term solutions to eradicate poverty and hunger and subsequently improve living conditions of rural poor (Coate and Handmer, 2006).

In broader sense the civil society with special reference to Pakistan is divided into two different tracks as traditional and modern (Qadeer, 1997). Regarding modern tracks, in Pakistan too, some NGOs gained some success in terms of providing welfare services to the rural community (Azam et al., 2009). But, it is often blamed that they are involved in fulfilling the hidden agenda of western donor agencies. Religious groups are at the forefront in opposing the working of NGOs because they say that these organizations are working against the socio- cultural norms of Pakistani society (Kakepoto, 2008). Besides NGOs, social movements within the perspectives of traditional and religious culture also claim to make a significant contribution towards the reduction of rural poverty (Mitlin and Bebbington, 2006). They figured prominently in linking up discussions of rural development with broader theoretical debates on civil society, power and identity as informal organizations in which rural people are the members (DFID, 2004). The social movements emerge, due to the vacuum created by the state and NGOs in terms of providing basic services such as education, health, social welfare services, etc. The welfare organizations and NGOs working on the western paradigm of development are facing many challenges in delivering social services to the poor and neglected people of the society (Kakepoto, 2008). In order to fill this gap many religious Islamic faith-based organizations which constitute about one third of the non-profit sector in Pakistan are working to provide welfare services particularly education, health and relief to poor residing both in urban and rural areas (Iqbal et al., 2004; Iqbal and Siddiqui, 2008). These organizations differ from ‗secular‘ NOGs in the sense of their working pattern, strategies, funding sources etc. and they claim to be in a better position to serve the society (Kirmani and Zaidi, 2010). However, the role and actual performance of these culturally rooted social organizations (religious and traditional) in the arena of rural development in Pakistan has so far not been studied comprehensively. In the broader sense social movements are also come under the umbrella of civil society and these local social organizations engaged in advocacy and lobbying related activities integrate and collaborate at different levels (horizontal or vertical) for bringing social change in the existing social structure which is also a theme of social movements (Khan and Khan, 2004). Further, this is right to say that social movements might preeminent be considered and conceptualized as different types of advocacy organizations (Andrews and Edwards, 2004; Gamson, 2004). The next section covers the basic theme and working of social movements and social movement organizations (SMOs).

1.2 Social movements and rural development A social movement may be defined as ―deliberate patterns of contentious actions committed by groups whose members are working toward the same broadly defined goal‖ (Brannan, 2009). If large numbers of people organize themselves to promote and to resist social change in a society, it also termed as social movement. The movements which promote social change are called proactive social movements while on the other hand the movements which resist social change are termed as reactive social movements (Henslin, 2006). In democratic states social movements are one of the legitimate alternative sources of power demanding policy changes required for poverty reduction for those people who have less economic and market opportunities than the people of upper classes enjoying bureaucratic positions (Moore, 2003). There are various forms of collective action and social movements are one of them (Snow et al., 2004). Some characteristics of social movements are that they are involved in conflict relations with clearly identified opponents having many informal networks with shared collective identity (De la Porta and Diani, 2006). Community oriented movements came into existence after the failure of the state in social welfare development. Frequently they emerge as a result of attempts to improve community livelihoods (Haynes, 1995). The classical model reasons behind the emergence of social movements include when individuals suffer relative deprivation which causes them to have a disruptive psychological state which in turn leads them to be part of a social movement. According to the resource mobilization model social movements are precisely dependent on the amount of ―social resources available to unorganized but aggrieved groups to launch an organized demand for change‖ (Jenkins and Perrow, 1977). A broad change in the political opportunity structure is another important factor behind the emergence of social movements (Andrews, 2001). In broader terms they emerge in relation to the conflict between society and the state (Vasconcellos and Vasconcellos, 2010). The Political Process model claims that social movements are dependent on three factors: ―the level of organization within the aggrieved population‖, ―the collective assessment of the prospective of successful insurgency within the same population and most importantly, ―the political alignment of groups within the larger political environment‖ (McAdam, 1982). Another important theory, when analyzing an ideological movement like the Jamaat-e-Islami, in Pakistan is that of ―master frames‖ and their effects on social movement (Benford and Snow, 2000).

Educational movements within the context of Pakistan, Al-Huda is a movement of Islamic education and reforms headed by a renowned female Islamic scholar Dr. Farhat Hashmi who also got inspiration from religious social movement named as Jamaat-e-Islami (Ahmad, 2011; Mushtaq, 2010). The sister organizations of Jamat is also involved in some kind of social change through social movement like Tahree-e-Islami and Tahreek-e-Mahnat (Moudadi, 2005). In 2008 for the restoration of judiciary, a social movement was launched jointly by the lawyers, civil society organizations and print as well as electronic media (Harvard Law Review, 2010). Redemptive social movement which is a type of social movement having aim is to change the society totally is present in Pakistan. Religious social movements such as Al-Huda Religious Educational Movement in Pakistan are the best example of these movements (Mushtaq, 2010). Different NGOs and civil society organizations also involve in advocacy and lobbying related activities in the form of a movement known NGO movement as in Pakistan (Khan and Khan, 2004). But the issue is that globally many of the social movements fail and there are many reasons behind their failure. Out of these reasons organizational failure is the most common one (Miller, 1999; Macionis, 2001). 1.2.1 Social movement organizations (SMOs) The relevance of social movements with that of the organizations is important to understand the actual activities of a social movement. There are variety of organizations (NGOs/CBOs/CSOs) involved in issues of poverty, inequality, social exclusion and sustainable development in the South (Earle, 2004 and Hilhorst, 2003). These civil society organizations perform a wide variety of tasks such as advocacy, delivering social welfare services, implementation of local or international funded projects, human resource development, motivating enhancing local community participation in community development projects etc. (Waisbord, 2011). But the degree and forms of these organizations is not served as the technical grounds in order to recognize their importance and significance to social movements (Snow and Soule, 2010). In social movements these organizations no doubt provide strong and critical basis for mobilization (Feweraker, 2001; Caniglia and Carmin, 2005). The success of social movements depends on the ability of individuals and civil society organizations to coordinate with each other to form networks (Wang and Soule, 2011). A typical social movement passes from different stages and in each and every stage organizations/associations/local groups play a key role in all stages especially during emergence and bureaucratization (Macionis, 2001 and De

9 la Porta and Diani, 2006). These organizations are technically termed as Social Movement Organizations (SMOs) as they are associated with a social movement and responsible for all the tasks that are necessary for its survival and success (Macionis, 2001). According to the perspective of resource mobilization theory within the social movements, it is very much clear that social movements rely upon and are composed of organizations as in case of civil rights movement churches provided significant forums for organizing and mobilizing people and same was the case in women‘s movement networks served as a strong basis for social mobilization (McAdam, 1988; Tarrow, 1998). The same were also pointed out by Staggenborg (1988) who concluded that social movement organizations (SMOs) not only assist social movements as presenters, these organizations also provide help to maintain movements during the time when resources are limited to manage the activities of movement. In some cases SMOs after the success in bringing social change in the society or change in the existing state policies converted into non-profit service delivery organizations and vice versa (Minkoff, 2002). In North West Pakistan Saibaan Development Organization is the best example that started their journey as a movement struggling for the basic rights of deprived community of district Mansehra and now converted into service providing organization (Saibaan Development Foundation, 2010). Similarly non-profit service delivery organizations may also mobilize their resources in different social movement activities. They start their journey as voluntary association or organization then transformed and changed into SMO and after success in mobilizing the resources converted into service delivery organizations (Hyde, 1992; Kurzman, 1998; Smith and Martin, 1999; and Hasenfeld and Gidron, 2005). In Pakistan non-profit organizations (NPOs) are broadly categorized into three main categories: welfare/charity oriented, community development oriented, and advocacy/lobbying focused. The advocacy/lobbying focused organizations are actively involved in unbiased development, community empowerment and transformation as well as leading advocacy campaigns and lobbying for social, cultural and economic change in the country (NGORC, 2003; Ghaus-Pasha et al., 2002). During initial years of advocacy focused organizations were mostly involve people of urban areas and working on issues like protection of environment, women, child, and labour rights, as well as governance (Sungi Development Foundation, 2001). These organizations have strong vertical as well as horizontal linkages with community at gross root level and with the other organizations (Aurat Foundation, 2002). At latter stage rural community

10 based organizations also start participating in advocacy, awareness raising campaigns and lobbying. The best example of this nature is the formation of Sustainable Agriculture Action Group (SAAG) to protect rights of small farmer under WTO policies. SAAG is a network of NGOs/CBOs, farmer associations, producer associations, farmer unions etc. An important result of mass mobilization of farmers and landless labouers against the state policies with regard to rights of small farmers is holding conferences, annual meetings, protests etc. of peasants and farmers (Sungi Development Foundation, 2000). Movement started by Women Action Forum and many other civil society organizations for the rights of women through lobbying, advocacy and public awareness campaigns launched exclusively by the forum or any other sister and collaborating organization (Daily Dawn News, 2013). Such movements are referred to as reformative social movements (Brown, 2007). These civil society organizations involve in transformative work along with the provision of basic community services to the needy, poor, marginalized and excluded groups of rural society. The religious based organizations/groups also involve in community welfare related activities. Each organization/group belongs to a specific sect and has different ideology (Howenstein, 2008). The main focus of these organizations including religious ones is to bring social change in the existing social and economic setup of the society. There is increasing horizontal linkage among different civil society organizations especially those working on pro- poor agenda to bring social change in the society through social movements as in the case of Baluchistan, Sindh and Southern Punjab (Khan and Khan, 2004). In district Mansehra (Hazara division of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa province) child rights movement is being started, in which different civil society organizations coordinate with each other and engage in organizing different activities in the region with regard to child rights (SPO, 2012). 1.3 Problem Statement Majority of the area of KP province is rural and mountainous in nature and is regarded as the least developed region of the country. The ever increasing poverty in these areas has made rural community more marginalized and neglected. The failure of state efforts in provision of welfare services to the people created a vacuum in the field of rural development. This gap has filed by those civil society organizations which are engaged in bringing social change regarding rural development through social movements. Commonly these organizations are referred to as social movement organizations (SMOs) which include locally originated

11 organizations/foundations/associations including religious ones. These organizations are working for social change in the field of rural development to upgrade the livelihoods of rural dwellers through social movements. 1.4 Rational of the research study Poverty reduction and rural development remained the major aim of various democratic and military governments in Pakistan since independence in 1947. Efforts to ameliorate poverty in many areas remained fruitless; consequently, significant proportion of the society is living below poverty line. A number of developmental agencies are working in our country to alleviate poverty especially from rural areas by helping people themselves (AKRSP, 2003). Increase in growth and squeeze in development expenditure have added to increasing poverty (UNDP, 2010). Like other countries of the global world NGOs in Pakistan playing an important role in developing rural areas on sustained basis (Jianxiu, 2006). Majority of them are working on self- reliance participatory approach. They have also established patterns of local governance that are democratic, transparent and accountable to their members. The result is a significant improvement in the quality of life in some areas (AKRSP, 2003). But there are multiple obstacles that can undermine their capacity to improve the living standards of rural poor. Rural areas are less developed in terms of economic opportunities as well as lack of accessibility to social services. Another key feature of poverty profile is its uneven variance across provinces and regions. In Pakistan rural development efforts were started immediately after independence. At national level the state has launched many programmes and plans for rural development but unfortunately none of them has fully achieved the desired goals and objectives due to the political instability, corruption, top down orientation and many other reasons (Khan and Khan, 2001; Lodhi et al., 2006; Luqman et al., 2004). Among other provinces, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province of Pakistan is gifted with a lot of natural resources (Wattoo et al., 2010). Like other provinces various approaches to rural development have been carried out in KPK by state authorities but most of these programmes could not succeed due to the reason that these authorities neglected the aspect of heterogeneity within the rural areas, for example access to and dependence of the people residing in mountainous areas on resources vary from village to village (Rehman, 2005). Although state rural development organizations succeeded to some extent in improving the living standards of

12 the most neglected rural community of the province but still there exists a wide gap. And poverty in rural areas of KP province is much higher than other provinces (Shah et al., 2010). It is here where exploring of the new dimensions and paradigms of rural development through culturally rooted social movement organizations can provide important insights. These rural social movement organizations claim that they are in a better position to cater the needs of people within the social and cultural norms and also in delivering new innovations and technologies regarding agriculture and other income generating activities. As outlined further above, these organizations include trade unions, professional organizations, religious organization, traditional or cultural based organizations, faith-based organizations, neighborhood associations, and some religious organizations. Keeping in view the above mentioned facts, the present research study has been designed to critically analyse the claims, visions and actual practices regarding the notion of rural development of local organizations (incl. religious) which are deeply rooted in the rural society of North West Pakistan (KPK). With this, it is specifically interested to understand how the working strategies of these organizations differ from those of the state-led-rural development departments. 1.5 Objectives 1.5.1 General Objective To analyse the rural development vision and practices of culturally rooted social movement organizations in North-West Pakistan. 1.5.2 Specific Objectives 1. To critically analyze the philosophical foundations such as believes, vision, objectives, claims and actual practices of culturally rooted organizations (including religious ones) which claim to be deeply rooted in the rural society of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province.

2. To compare the working strategies of these organizations and effectiveness their efforts towards rural development versus state-led rural development related departments.

3. To record and analyze the perceptions of rural community regarding rural poverty and inequality and role of the selected organizations to overcome poverty and inequality.

4. To identify lessons that one system (working of SMOs) can learn from the other (working of state).

5. To find out the implications of rural development endeavors of both systems for agricultural research, extension, and education triangle in general and farmers livelihoods in particular.

1.6 Limitations Following were the limitations of the present study:

 The study was limited to Hazara region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan.

 The study was further limited to District Mansehra due to time and financial constraints.

 Data were only collected from male respondents because interaction with females by the researcher is not possible due to the social and cultural norms of the research area.

 The researcher and the data collection team conducted all interviews in local language (Hindko, Urdu or Pushto) due to low illiteracy level generally in the whole province and specifically in the study area.

1.7 Assumptions Following were the assumptions of the present research study:  The respondents would provide correct information and data about the working of social organizations regarding rural development

 The respondents will fully aware of all the rural development related activities being undertaken by the local social organizations and government agricultural extension as well as rural development departments.

1.8 Format of thesis The thesis consists of five (5) chapters. Chapter 1 deals with the introduction of the study covering the context, rational of the research, research objectives, limitations and assumptions. Chapter 2 is the review of literature, which is further divided into two sections. First section explains the global scenario of rural poverty and inequality, and role of agriculture and agricultural extension in rural development. The 2nd section of review of literature covers aspects of development, rural development, global debate on rural development strategies, civil society including religious organizations and rural development with special focus on social movements, role of social organizations in social movements, and also different theories of social movements. Chapter 3 explains the methodology for conducting the present study. This chapter 14 explains and justifies which methods and techniques used in the study. Chapter 4, which is the results and discussion, consists of two sub sections. First section convers the results of sample - I which was the staff/members/volunteers of organizations and 2nd section explains the results of sample II which consists of the respondents from the rural community and beneficiaries of the studied organizations. Chapter 5 presents the conclusions drawn in the light of results and their implications in the field of agricultural extension and rural development.

CHAPTER - 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The main purpose of review of literature is to synthesize the available and relevant literature for its integration or association with the results of present research. It involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of research, reports of casual observations and opinion related to the individual‘s planned research project. It helped the researcher to fill in the gaps in his/her study (Punch, 2006; and Baser, 2006). For the current research project, the literature was collected from multiple sources such as digital library of the UAF, online journals, newspapers, published material (booklets, pamphlets etc.) from local organization like Sungi Nama, Alkhidmat Times. By doing this exercise the researcher became familiar about other studies in the particular research area, collected ideas about suitable research methodology; avoid replication of research and/ or formulation of hypothesis and research questions (Hek and Moule, 2006). Some of the appropriate and relevant references are given and discussed in this chapter under different sections and sub-sections. The chapter is divided into two parts. In the 1st part rural poverty and inequality in the global and Pakistani context will be discussed. Rural development and its link with agriculture development will be discussed in this section. Moreover, the role of agricultural extension in rural development process will also be discussed here. 2.1 Rural Development and Agriculture It is an established fact that rural development and agriculture are closely related to each other (IFAD, 2006; Diao et al., 2007; and Singh, 2007). Keeping in view this idea, this chapter discusses the general definition and concepts of poverty, global debates on rural poverty and inequality, role of agriculture in rural livelihoods and rural development in the global as well as Pakistani context. The chapter also covers the role of agricultural extension in rural development as agriculture sector comprises of three main components namely research, education and extension.

2.1.1 Poverty: general concepts Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon and there is no single definition of it. Different researchers define poverty from their own perspectives. They defined poverty in a number of ways. Poverty may be income or non-income. In terms of income it may be static or dynamic. Static concepts of poverty relates to the measurement of poverty at a point in time whereas dynamic poverty relates to changes in poverty over time (Ashfaq et al., 2009). In a more explicit manner poverty is referred to as an inability of an individual to meet the expense of the minimum standards of living. It is the deficiency in the overall wellbeing at an individual or household level and poor people are those who don‘t have sufficient income and resources to meet the basic living essentials1 (Janjua and Kamal, 2011; Ali, et al., 2010; World Bank, 2006a; Laderchi et al., 2003; World Bank, 2000). In the same vein Shah (2004) concluded that poor are those individuals who could not support themselves and their families. On the other hand in terms of non-income, poverty is regarded as the deprivation of social, cultural and economic rights (Arif and Bilquees, 2006; Bhutto and Bazmi, 2007). In this connection Jones and Novak (1999) described the material (economic benefits) as well as nonmaterial (lack of voice, disrespect and humiliation, assault on dignity and self-esteem, powerlessness and denial of basic community rights) indications of rural poverty. In relation to the material and non-material dimensions of poverty Ashfaq et al., (2009) also describe poverty in terms of income and non-income. They concluded that lack of participation or involvement in social activities/decisions and powerlessness was the non-income or non-material dimensions of poverty.

1 Basic living essentials mean basic needs of an individual for living. These needs are primary health care, basic education, food, shelter, water, sanitation etc.

2.1.2 Rural poverty and inequality: global debates There exists a strong relationship between rural life and poverty as according to an estimate 75% of the total world poverty persists in rural areas (IFAD, 2011; Hossain, 2005; Smith, 2004). A number of research studies has proved that majority of the world‘s poor reside in rural areas (Adeniji, 2010; Godfray et al., 2010; Maiangwa et al., 2010; Ommani, 2008; Chaudhry et al., 2006a; de Janvry et al., 2005; Broca, 2002 and many others). Out of this, a huge population (about 176 Million people resides in South Asia and are chronically poor2. The estimated number of chronically poor people in this region is comparatively high than rest of the regions of the world (CPRC, 2009). Majority of the countries of this region are regarded as fragile states3 (OECD, 2013). In such countries national or state departments are failed to meet the basic needs of their citizens (Mcloughlin, 2012; Earle, 2011). In these countries access to food and health facilities are the two major problems and becomes severe in case of poverty (Saidatulakmal and Riaz, 2012). And the livelihoods of people residing in rural territories of such countries are gradually facing more precarious conditions (Borras Jr. et al., 2008). In relation to the existence of poverty in rural areas the situation of food insecurity is automatically more severe and visible there. The difference in poverty level in rural and urban areas in the global world has also been discussed by different researchers and development agencies (European Commission, 2008; Bhutto and Bazmi 2007; Mosley and Miller, 2004; Fan et al., 2005). This rigorous presence of poverty in rural localities is due to the reason that there exists an interrelationship between agricultural growth and rural poverty (Hafeez et al., 2011; Weber et al., 2005). These rural poor are deeply affected by the policies of globalization, decentralization, and privatization which lead to lack of control over natural resources and access to basic facilities and human rights and ultimately responsible for the current global food crises (Bhutto and Bazmi, 2007; Bello, 2009; Chang, 2009; Holt-Gimenez et al., 2009; McMichael, 2009). In these circumstances eradication of rural poverty through sustainable development has become the ultimate goal for many of the developing countries (Ahmadi, 2011).

2 When an individual or group of individuals are in a state of poverty over a long period of time, they are considered as chronically poor

3 The states having least capacity to carry out good governance strategies for their citizens and more vulnerable to natural and economic shocks/crises/disasters (see OECD, 2013)

In rural areas especially of developing countries, poverty in the form of income or in other words material poverty is not the ultimate indicator of deprivation of an individual (Khan et al., 2011). In this view Sen (1999a) also reported some other dimensions of poverty like education, health and human security. He concluded that these dimensions are essentially important to determine the poverty level of an individual as education play an important role in poverty reduction (World Bank, 2002c). Other than poverty, inequality (social and economic) is also one of the contributing factors to social exclusion and also persists more in the rural areas (Dobelniece et al., 2008). The existence of poverty and inequality in a society is a serious issue towards sustainable development (Yasmeen et al., 2011). According to IFAD both poverty and inequality are interconnected with each other (IFAD, 2009). As that of poverty inequality is also the multidimensional phenomenon rather than one-dimensional (Jamal, 2009). Similar views were also reported by Alkire and Foster (2008) regarding different dimensions of rural poverty and inequality. It has been observed that globally in rural areas lack of economic growth and inequitable distribution of income and other resources are the two main root causes of poverty and inequality (World Bank, 2005). Globally, it has been observed that agricultural productivity brings many direct as well as indirect benefits to the rural poor (Dorward et al., 2004; Byerlee et al., 2005). With special reference to poor/low income or developing countries where majority of the population remain engaged in agriculture for their livelihoods, wealth and survival of the individuals are measured in terms of their control over land (USAID, 2005). In such countries agriculture has meaningful value (Ghale, 2011). Among rural communities the most marginalized people are particularly reside on mountains and deserts (ICARDA, 2008). In view of this fact Grunfest (1995) reported that the people who used to live on steep hills, they become more vulnerable to poverty as they live in risky areas and so their livelihoods become more fragile. These people have least protection in terms of income and resources which enhances their vulnerability (World Bank, 2001). Despite of this, the deficiency and lack of choices in maintaining livelihood strategies enhances the vulnerability of poor people (Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2005).

2.1.2.1 Rural poverty and inequality in Pakistan Like other developing regions of the world poverty in Pakistan is also generally the rural phenomenon as poverty in these areas was found to be twice than in urban areas and its contribution gradually increased towards overall poverty in the country (Ali et al., 2010). Various research studies showed that majority of the poor community resides in rural areas and experiencing poverty more severely than poor people who reside in urban territories (like Chaudhry et al., 2012; Khan et al., 2011; Khan, 2006; Malik, 2005 and many others). And within rural areas high poverty rate was found among peasants which may be agricultural labourers or shared croppers (Aslam, 2004). Various research studies discussed and proved the multidimensional nature of poverty in rural areas of Pakistan as well (see Naveed and Tunveer- ul-Islam, (2010); Chaudhry et al., (2009); Jamal (2009); Lohano, (2009); Schreiner, (2009); Gwatkin et al., (2007); Sahn and Stifel, (2001) and many others). Due to the complex situation of poverty in rural areas of Pakistan it has become the most serious concern for economists and development practitioners in the country is poverty (Chaudhry et al., 2012). The presence of multiple deprivations at household level or in other words multidimensional poverty was also pointed out by PPAF (2013). Regarding causes of rural poverty in Pakistan Akram et al., (2011) reported that economic instability and susceptibility in the country is its major cause. Despite of that, various researchers and development agencies argued that lack of effective governance or poor governance strategies are the key causes of poverty (Ahmed, 2011; Afsar, 2010; Miankhail, 2008; Usman, 2009; Aminuzzaman, 2007; Chaudhry et al., (2006b); Hassan, 2002; AusAid, 2000; FAO, 2000; and Sobhan, 1998). All these research studies linked rural poverty situation in Pakistan with the idea of poor governance policies by the state. These poor governance strategies results in political instability and extended corruption raising poverty (Usman, 2009). According to the report of IFAD (2011a), imbalance or unequal distribution of assets especially land and water in rural areas of Pakistan is the major cause of poverty in rural areas. Some other factors are also attributed to high poverty rate in rural areas of the country like illiteracy, improper health facilities, incompatibility of agricultural growth, limited road networks and large household size (Khan et al., 2011). The same was also highlighted by Malik et al., (2012) and Hashmi et al., (2008) that low educational level and large size of a household were among the important factors behind high poverty rate in rural Pakistan. They concluded

20 that all these factors mentioned in the previous lines are rapidly adding up rural poverty in the country. In connection with their conclusion, Imran et al., (2013) also reported that lack of educational and health facilities in rural areas of Southern Punjab (D.G. Khan District) are contributing towards poverty. Like other reasons of poverty, Gazdar (2007) reported that lack of employment opportunities in the rural areas is also responsible for prevalent poverty in these areas. In socio-economic development of both developing and developed countries equality play a key role (Ita et al., 2012). Like other developing countries of the world, inequality in Pakistan is rapidly increasing between wealthy and poor people due to the lack of sustainable growth in the rural economy as majority of the poor people in these countries are living in these areas and depend on agriculture sector for their overall livelihoods (Asad and Ahmad, 2011). According to Ahmad (2001) high level of inequality was found in rural areas of Pakistan among people of different professions or occupations. There exists an interrelationship between inequality and poverty (Kakwani, 2004). Keeping in mind this relationship Akram et al., (2011) quoted that widespread rural poverty in Pakistan is due to the prevailing income inequalities in the country between wealthy and poor. With reference to gender prevailing widespread gender inequality in rural areas of Pakistan is also boosting poverty in these areas (Chaudhry and Rehman, 2009). 2.1.2.2 Reasons of poverty and inequality in Pakistan In the South Asian region land is the symbol of power, wealth and status (Sud, 2007). Being the part of South Asia region in Pakistan rural poverty is also attributed to size of land holding (Chaudhry et al., 2009) as majority of farmers in Pakistan have small landholdings on which their livelihoods depends (Ghafoor et al., 2010). The existence of close link between rural poverty and landlessness is due to the factor that land is the principal asset in rural economy. People who are landless or only had very small land holdings perceive that they are not being listened by the state authorities (McCowan, 2003; Enns, 2009). And are being deprived and excluded from basic social services and benefits (Basnet and Upreti, 2008). Inspite of the significant contribution of these small landholders in overall agricultural output in the country, they are facing a number of constraints like lack of access to natural resources, such as land, forest and water; limited access to productive resources, such as financial and services, and reliable and stable input and output markets; lack of access to technical knowledge and training

21 opportunities and adequate information about market; land fragmentation and lack of voice and representation; and lack of infrastructure (Thapa, 2009). Major portion of the rural population in the country have small land holdings or worked in someone else‘s land on a share-cropping or contract basis and commonly known as peasants. The landless farmers face problems in accessing bank loans to start agricultural related business to escape from vicious circle of poverty because they are not the owners of the land. This condition of landlessness is also contributing towards poverty (Anwar et al., 2004). In Southern part of the Punjab province Pakistan Chaudhry et al., (2009) concluded that the incidence of rural poverty is high among landless households as more than fifty percent (58.3%) of the poor were landless in District Muzaffargarh. Like other provinces of Pakistan, poverty is also the rural phenomenon in Khyber Pukhyunkhawa (KP) province – the study province (Ali et al., 2008). According to report of World Bank (2007) high poverty was found in rural areas of KP province. In rural areas of the province, many problems are being faced by the community like poor infrastructure, degradation of natural resources, poor availability of education as well as health facilities, low literacy rate, limited access to economic opportunities, lack of good governance strategies and high level of gender inequalities (Shahbaz, 2008). The province is adversely effected due to the food scarcity and food shortage (Rehman, 2009). Due to these reasons, the overall poverty rate is higher in the province as compared to others (Halle et al., 2004). The same was also reported by Cheema (2005) and Arif et al., (2011). This situation of high poverty rate makes these people among the vulnerable and marginalized communities. These people have no or less land and only rely on other sources of income like labour, job etc. (Shahbaz, 2009). In addition to poverty and inequality in rural localities of the KPK province, multiple nature of deprivation in the form of lack of access to basic amenities of life was also found. These highly deprived segments of the society are generally socially excluded in terms of well-being indicators (Jamal, 2011). With regard to statistics of selected rural development indicators in different four provinces of the country, it is important to mention that there exists unequal distribution of educational as well as health facilities in these provinces (IFAD, 2011a). The basic statistics regarding some selected rural development indictors in four provinces of Pakistan is given below:

Province Poverty* Literacy HDI6 Multiple Agri. Yield of major crops (%)4 rate (%)5 deprivations Land8** per hectare in KGs8 M F (%)7 Wheat Rice Maize Punjab 28.6 64 42 0.6699 27.3 14.52 2846 1915 5444 Sindh 21.9 60 22 0.6282 28.2 7.29 3747 3406 640 Khyber 38.1 67 29 0.6065 32.8 4.37 1596 1701 1751 Pakhtunkhwa Balochistan 31.8 54 13 0.5557 46.7 7.97 2139 683 1075 * Poverty based on income (> 2$ a day) and access to basic needs ** Agi. Land in Million Hectares Table 2.1: Statistics of different rural development indicators in four Provinces of Pakistan The statistics/data regarding some indicators of rural development indicate that in poverty situation in KP province is higher (38.1%) than other provinces. With regard to literacy level high level of gender disparity exists in all the provinces. On the basis of Human Development Index (HDI) KP province falls at rank 3rd and 32% of total population of the province suffered from multiple deprivations which is higher than Punjab and Sindh. The KP province possesses least arable land than other rest of the three provinces and has low yield of major crops (wheat, rice and maize) than other provinces. All these factors are contributing towards high poverty rate prevailing in the province. As in rural areas of the country (Pakistan), most of the people rely on agriculture (both crop and livestock production) for their livelihoods. In this context, the development in agriculture sector will automatically boost the rural economy. This will also help in escaping rural people from vicious circle of poverty (IFAD, 2011b). The overall role of agriculture sector in the livelihoods of rural community is discussed in the next section. 2.1.3 Role of agriculture in rural livelihoods Agriculture is regarded as one of the oldest professions in the human civilization and also one of the oldest economic activities of the world (Hanif et al., 2010). It was started 10,000 years ago in the Middle East (Hanumanaikar, 2009). In rural areas majority of the households get their livelihoods through agricultural means directly or indirectly (Dev, 2011). Many research studies proved that in the whole world, agricultural development not only play significant role in reducing poverty by raising income of rural dwellers (see Deshmukh et al., 2011, Hafeez et al.,

4 Usman (2009). Socio-economic determinants of poverty: A case of Pakistan, University of Denmark 5 Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2012-2013, Government of Pakistan 6 SPDC research report No. 73, Trends in Human Development Indices, Social Policy and Research Center 7 Multiple deprivation mean percentage of population facing hunger, under nutrition, illiteracy, lack of access to clean and safe drinking water, lack of access to basic health services, social discrimination/inequality, insecurity and political exclusion. SPDC research report on districts’ indices of multiple deprivations for Pakistan, 2011 8 Pakistan Statistical Year Book 2012 23

2011; Haq, 2003; Madukwe et al., 2002; Lanjouw and Lanjouw, 2001; Johanson, 2000 and many others). Agriculture and agriculture related activities are the largest supplier of self-employment opportunities for people living within an agrarian structure. In the same context, Shrestha and Upreti, (2011) also reported that rural land based employment is an important aspect in several countries that highly depend on agriculture sector as an important source of livelihoods for majority of the population. 2.1.4 Rural development and agriculture In the global world, agriculture and rural development play a crucial role in economic growth thereby reducing poverty and food insecurity from rural areas (FAO, 2006; Ward et al., 2005). In accelerating development activities in rural areas agriculture is the central component (Brennan and Luloff, 2005). The contribution of this sector is evident in developing rural areas where it is one of the major economic activities especially in those countries where majority of population used to live in rural areas. Globally it has been proved agriculture sector plays a significant role in poverty reduction by raising agricultural productivity (Muzari et al., 2012; Taj et al., 2012; Turunen et al., 2011; Timmer, 2005). Moreover, these agricultural activities significantly contribute to the development of rural area (Abdullah et al., 2005). The most important matter of concern especially in developing countries regarding rural development is to enhance agricultural production on sustainable basis in order to provide sufficient food for an ever increasing population and to eradicate rural poverty (Turunen et al., 2011; Boz and Ozcatalbas, 2010; Prasad and Pandey, 2008; FAO, 2006; Ellis and Freeman 2004; Bryceson, 2000). It is important to mention here that not only advancement in on-farm activities i.e. agricultural production; many off-farm activities in rural areas also play an important role in promoting rural development (Broca, 2002). The poverty situation is severe in South Asia region where more than fifty percent of the world‘s population lives (MalekMohammadi, 2009). In this region agricultural as well as rural development efforts are the main drivers for reducing rural poverty and social exclusion (IFPRI, 2008; Hazell et al., 2007). For reliable development in rural areas and to reduce existing poverty situation in low income and developing countries including Pakistan, agriculture sector need to be develop on sustainable basis (Nadeem and Mushtaq, 2012; Chandio and Anwar, 2009; Rehman, 2005; Khan, 2002; Aslam, 2001; Ploeg et al., 2000; Schutjer, 1991). This sustainability

24 in agriculture must ensure social, ecological and economic sustainability for producing sufficient food (Kh. Kalantari, and Sh. Choobchian, 2013). Bing one of the main components of agriculture sector, agricultural extension plays an important role in raising farm productivity level. The major aim of agricultural extension is to improve the living conditions of rural poor through transfer and exchange of information and ultimately plays a prominent role in overall rural development (Eicher, 2001; Anderson and Feder, 2003; Farooq and Ishaq, 2005; Obaa et al., 2005; Photakoun et al., 2010). The linkages between major institutional components in the field of agriculture are widely recognized for an effective flow of technology and information between research extension and farmers (Peterson et al., 2001). The linkage in detailed and comprehensive form between agricultural extension and rural development is discussed in the next section. 2.1.5 Agricultural extension and rural development The meaning and concept of Extension has changed over time (Swanson, 2008). In general terms, it acts as a function that can be applied to various areas of society. Originally derived from ―university extension‖ (Mosher, 1976), the term ―extension‖ is applicable to various areas of development like education, health, agriculture etc. Its main purpose is bridging the gap between source of information and its end users (Hassan et al., 2012). In literature there are many definitions of extension but changing time to time (FAO, 2001). According to Bradfield (1966) extension is a type of informal education having aim to teach and train community how to raise their living standards by using their own resources of man power and materials. During late 60s there came a change in the concepts of extension from informal to non-formal education. It is a voluntary educational programme out of the educational institutions for adults (Agbogidi and Ofuoku, 2009). According to FAO (1973) extension is a service which is responsible for delivering assistance to rural people about latest production, protection and marketing of agriculture produce through educational process. Adams (1990) also defines extension on the same lines as specified by FAO in 1973. Recently extension has defined by Christoplos, (2010) as a system which facilitates the farming community in accessing knowledge, information and technologies; facilitate their interaction research, education, business, and other stakeholders; and support them to develop their own technical, organizational and management skills and practices. According to Katz, (2002) and Ajani and Onwubuya, (2010) ―extension‖ means providing advisory and other services to poor

25 families to make best possible use of their own resources at their own disposal. With special reference to rural areas these services are referred to as rural advisory services being delivered by extension agents. The prime objective of these services is to improve the wellbeing of rural community (Kolawole and Oladele, 2013; Davis et al., 2011). Conclusively, it is voluntary education system out of the formal education system to educate farmers (Odebode, 2004 and Khan, 2005). In short Extension is a wide field provides services in various sectors of society as mentioned in the table given below: Education Agriculture Rural Health Industry Development University Agricultural Rural Development Health Extension Industrial Extension Extension Extension services Extension (Continuing Education) Source: (FAO, 2001) As a function extension serve variety of purposes, like information dissemination regarding different daily life issues, conservation of environmental and its protection, and education (Rivera, 2008). Keeping in view the main tasks being performed in extension services Živković et al., (2009) identified different types of extension services as compulsory, economical, educational, universal and optional. Like other important functions of extension such as education and health its function is also important for the welfare of farmers. In reducing poverty and social inequalities as well as overall rural development i.e. welfare of rural families, extension strategies play significant role (Hoffmann et al., 2009). The important players in the extension function and policies are state extension departments, extension wing of private companies, NGOs, universities through outreach programmes, farmer‘s unions/associations, and research institutes (FAO, 2005a). In agriculture sector extension is responsible for the provision of agricultural and community development related services to rural people in order to bring improvement in their livelihoods (University of Greenwich, 2008). Regarding impact of agricultural extension on overall agricultural development, research studies proved that effective agricultural extension services stimulate the agricultural production of a country (Akinola et al., 2011; Adeniji, 2010; World

Bank, 2010; Živković et al., 2009). In agrarian economies of developing or low income countries agricultural extension serves as an important tool for overall economic development in general and specifically agricultural development (Dimelu and Okoro, 2011; Negusse et al., 2004). It serves as bridge between agricultural research and end users of that research i.e. farming community (Kibett et al., 2005). It also enables the flow of agricultural information and transfer of scientific knowledge to agricultural practice (Ngomane, 2000). And bring improvement in agricultural productivity through different rural development initiatives or activities (Ifeanyi-obi et al., 2012; Anriquez and Stamoulis, 2007; Muyanga and Jayne, 2006; Jamal and Tunio, 1998). Worldwide agricultural extension is responsible to almost one billion small-scale farmers (Davis et al., 2010). In other words it is responsible for empowering and educating all members of rural farm households in order to ensure holistic rural development (Koyenikan, 2008). In Pakistan agricultural extension is responsible for introducing modern and innovative agricultural related techniques/technologies to the farming community so that they can incorporate these agricultural innovative ideas into their existing agricultural production and protection practices (Pervaiz et al., 2013; Davis et al., 2011; Jan et al., 2008). Inspite of its crucial role in rural economy the state owned agricultural cum rural development services in majority of the developing countries including Pakistan are being criticized due to poor performance in delivery of services to the end users (FAO, 2010; World Bank, 2006c). 2.1.6 Summary and synthesis of literature reviewed This section has provided an overview of rationales behind rural development. The key rationales of rural development are prevailing poverty and inequality in rural areas. The different concepts of poverty and inequality in Pakistan with their determinants and reasons have been, discussed in this chapter. This chapter also gave an insight into the role of agriculture (farm income) in maintaining livelihoods of rural people and also escaping from poverty. The role of agricultural extension in rural development has also been discussed in this chapter. It is synthesized from the literature reviewed that in poverty is the rural phenomenon around the global world and poor people are those individuals who didn‘t have enough resources to maintain their basic requirements/needs of livelihoods. The outcome of rural poverty is inequality which prevails in majority of the developing countries including Pakistan. In reducing poverty from rural areas farm income play a key role thereby social and economic development of rural areas. As agriculture growth and development is an important indicator and step towards

27 rural development and in maintaining rural livelihoods on sustained basis agriculture has significant role in majority of the countries including countries of South Asia region like Pakistan. In agriculture sector, the role of agricultural extension in advising rural people to upgrade their standards of living on one hand and on the hand in enhancing overall national productivity is worth mentioning. The next chapter elaborates review of literature regarding the concepts of rural development, strategies of rural development in the global world and role of civil society in developing rural areas with special reference to Pakistan. 2.2. Civil society and Rural Development The 2nd section of review of literature starts with a brief overview of concept and rural development theories followed by rural development strategies and approaches around the global world. The role of different civil society organizations including social movement organizations in rural development is the major thrust of the present research, therefore the literature related to civil society and the role of social movement has been presented in the proceeding sections. Finally, the role of social organizations and participation of individuals in organizing and managing social movements are also discussed in this section. Moreover, the significance of social mobilization in social movements are described here including various methodological approaches being used by different social scientists while studying civil society discourse. 2.2.1 Rural development: theories and practices 2.2.1.1 Concept of development Development is a multifaceted process and the concerns regarding development has been the most important topic of discussion at national as well as international forums (Shah and Baporikar, 2012). Different researchers, scholars and development practitioners defined and conceptualize it on the basis of their own development experiences. For example in simple terms Hornby (2001) reported that development is an ongoing process of growth of something. Traditionally it is the growth of increase in per capita income of an individual. Later on development experts viewed that development is not only the economic phenomenon. It covers both economic (material) as well as non-economic (non-material) aspects of humans‘ life (Francis and David, 2012). In the similar context, Simon (2004) said that development is the process of improvement in the quality of life in terms of material as well as non-material. In a broader sense development is a general improvement in the standards of living, decreasing

28 income inequalities among different groups of society, and improvement in the capabilities of individuals for regular improvement over time (Zaman, 2002). The concept of sustainable development emerged in 1980s and gained importance in early 1990s after the Rio Earth Summit (Oluwatelure and Duyilemi 2013; Edwards, 2009). According to World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) and Drexhage and Murphy (2010) development that satisfies the needs/demands of present generations without compromising the needs and demands of future generations is known as sustainable development. A very comprehensive definition of sustainable development was given by (Edwards, 2009). He said that development which has the capacity to bring improvement in the overall quality of life both present and in the future is referred to as sustainable development. In the same vein Nnadi et al., (2012) reported that the theme of sustainable development encompasses development which has the capability to recover after shocks and stresses in the perspective of present and future without destroying the natural resources. Similar philosophy of sustainable development was also described by many authors like Sustainable Development Solutions Network, (2013); Neumayer (2010); Khor, (2011); Munro, (1995) and many others. They emphasized that such type of development covers a multiple set of activities to bring improvement in the human life in such a way that the improvement can be maintained for future also. 2.2.1.2 Rural development: Rational and concepts The importance and significance of rural development in the discourse of development is well described by agri. extension specialists and rural development practitioners both in the developing and developed world (Brennan, 2009). It covers all the needs of rural community as pointed out by Ackerman (2002) and Ekong (2010). In developing countries where major portion of population usually reside in rural territories, development is essential as poverty in these countries is more prominent in these areas and they are regarded as underdevelopment (Adisa, 2012). In such countries, there is great need to give priority to rural development in order to enable rural masses to contribute in the social as well as economic development of a country (Baride, 2013). Moreover, for fighting with poverty and inequality globally, rural development serves as an essential tool. It increases the self sufficiency of a nation. In developing world, the results or outcomes of globalization and to face the new emerging development issues rural development becomes more necessary (Francis and David, 2012). Further they concluded that

29 rural development play an important role in well-being of rural people and also improves their quality of life on one hand and on the other hand it also increases their productivity which ultimately contributes in the national development. Finally, it has been argued that in developing countries like Pakistan, rural development is essential for overall national development. With reference to the general concepts about rural development, different researchers and rural development agencies defined rural development in different perspectives. The detailed concepts and themes of rural development are described in the next paragraph. The term rural development is defined by the Science Dictionary as a programme or set of different activities carried out to ensure that rural areas remain economically and socially sustainable. Rural development is a complex phenomenon (Garcia et al., 2008). It is composed of a composite series of interconnecting practices devised from negotiations between different social actors having command over different types of resources, interests, values as well as institutional capabilities (Long, 1997). According to Al-Jayyousi, (2009) it involves a number of concepts like equity, justice, participation and empowerment. It focuses on the idea of people centered development. It is a continuous process of change in the behaviour and socio-economic environment of rural community (Nlerum, 2013). In other words rural development is the improvement in the life of rural farm families and environment by the use of human resource development activities (Eze, 2005). According to Baride (2013) it implies the reorganization of rural community through social mobilization so that they can easily able to improve their living standards. The process of rural development is not limited to agricultural and economic growth, it is the creation and equal as well as fair distribution of socio-economic benefits emerged as a result of this growth (Wandschneider and Davis, 2003). The same was also quoted by World Bank (2002b) who reported that rural development is associated with a broad range and variety of different agricultural as well as non-agricultural activities. In terms of agricultural extension all the strategies adopted by public or private agencies for the provision of welfare services to the rural community are regarded as rural development (FAO, 2010). This aspect of rural development is also referred to as transfer of farm advisory services which is only limited to agricultural growth and development. But this aspect doesn‘t cover the overall theme and objectives of rural development as rural development are not only restricted to agricultural growth (Kolawole and Oladele, 2013). It is the improvement of socio-economic conditions of

30 rural community in order to achieve harmony and social as well as economic balance at regional and national levels (Ekong, 2003). On the same lines Ward et al., (2005) narrated that rural development is a holistic approach involving multi development sectors. They argued that it is very much essential to focus on improving the well-being and welfare of rural people by helping themselves so that productive social and environmental resources can be built for coping with the growing demands of ever growing population and 21st century. In rural development on farm generation of resources as well as off farm agricultural employment labour play a key role (Hazel et al., 2007). Off-farm employment on agriculture farms by the landless workers lead to rural development. And far resources generate wealth for rural development which includes better housing, education, appropriate health facilities etc. (Rosset, 2000). According to Francis and David (2012) rural development is referred to as sustained improvement in the living standards of rural population and their welfare. Conclusively, rural development will only be effective if research institutes focus on real problems of farmers, if market and land are easily reached by the farming community and if there is environment of sufficient social, political, and economic security (FAO, 2010). Regarding sustainable rural development, livelihood strategies of rural people in order to achieve better livelihood outcomes (more cash income, increase in overall wellbeing, reduction in vulnerability, improved food security situation, and sustainable use of natural resources) play an important role (Kollmair and Juli, 2002; Krantz, 2001). In a wider perspective there are three main components of rural development: (1) protect natural environment (2) social well-being of rural people (3) access to sustainable economic opportunities (Hosn and Hammoud, 2009). For the present thesis I followed the concept and theme of rural development which emphasis on the well-being (material and non-material) of rural community through provision of quality based basic services resulting in reduced poverty and inequality presented by Francis and David (2012). He argues that rural development involves series of activities for the well-being of rural people or provision of improved quality of life in rural areas which includes health, education, drinking water, housing and rural infrastructure or means of transportation. Different researchers supported his idea of rural development as well-being of rural people (see United Nations, 2007; Perret et al., 2005; Simon, 2004; Ramsey and Smit, 2002). This concept of rural poor‘s well-being with reference to rural community development was also given by Nnadi et al.

(2012); Ramsey and Beesley (2006); and Chikaire et al. (2010). In the same vein Mashreque and Nasrullah (2005) said that rural development is the physical, economic and economic well-being of rural people. The idea of rural development with the perspective of improvement in the quality of life which encompasses agriculture development, provision of community services, infrastructure development, development of cottage industry etc. was also described by Jha and Jha (2006) and Cagliero et al. (2011). 2.2.1.3 Rural development strategies and programmes: Global debate Persistent rural poverty remains a matter of concern for the state and development agencies and the developing and transition countries. Various models, systems/strategies and programmes of rural development have been tried in the developing countries to uplift the living standards of rural poor as majority of the poor people reside in rural areas. From 1950s to early 1960s traditional agricultural professionals fashioned the basis of agriculture related twofold economic development in developing and low income countries (Fei and Ranis, 1964). The first paradigm shift in rural development occurred in the early 1960s, when small-farm agriculture considered the main engine of rural economic growth and overall economic development (Ellis, 2000). The second paradigm shift in rural development occurred during 1980s and 1990s from top-down (bureaucratic) to grassroots bottom-up (democratic) approach through participatory learning techniques. The grassroots bottom-up participatory processes of rural development which is democratic in nature has the capacity to empower local rural community to take control of their needs, priorities and assessment of development work for social change in the society (Mosse et al., 1998). On the other hand Ellis and Biggs (2001) differentiate the 1960s era as the era of modernization, the 1970s era as the era of state invasion, and the 1980s era as the era of market and trade liberalization. In 1980s NGOs also emerged as an important agent in 3rd world development (Sen, 1999b). Nemes (2005) identified two different systems of rural development: first one is the central system which is bureaucratic in nature and the 2nd one is the local system which is heuristic in nature. In ideal situations both the systems should work in collaboration with each other as Integrated Rural Development Paradigm (IRDP). However, lack of inclusion in the society and inconsistency of interests can lead to dysfunction within the system. Further he argued that majority of the rural development policies, programmes and practices tend to fail due to their central top-down and bureaucratic control throughout the development process This also

32 fail to promote the recognition and importance of local resources (manpower and materials) on sufficient and sustained basis, which is better achieved through bottom-up approach and local heuristic system. In Africa the research study of Dia (1996) showed that basically the problems of capacity building relate to the problems of institutional in nature rather than technical capacity and competencies and this is mainly due to lack of involvement between indigenous or local, informal institutions and formal institutions moved from outside. On one hand there is exist disentanglement between cultural values and practices and on the other hand institutions inspired externally. Systems externally imposed from internal socio-cultural practices did not relate to societal values or cultural practices lacking authenticity and local ownership and make enforcement difficult and complicated. In this scenario he suggested that local informal institutions have high levels of authenticity and liability because they detain commitment and dedication of the local people. Traditional local cultures are often perceived as positively associated with sustainable development in the perspective of civil society organizations. In accordance with the importance of cultural values and pattern Ahmed (2008) stated that these cultural patterns and practices of a specified target group is one of the important variables for development planners during the process of designing development programmes. He emphasized that nothing is ‗good‘ or ‗bad‘ in any culture and the sustainability of a development programme depends on the level of cultural development of that particular target group to a large extent. The success story of Grameen Bank in Bangladesh in the best example of culturally rooted developmental projects/experiments. The said programme succeeded without coming into direct conflict, gradually tried to alter the existing cultural practices towards achieving sustainable development and self-reliance. Livelihood outlooks may cut across the boundaries of more conventional approaches to looking at rural development which focuses on defined activities: agriculture, wage employment, farm labour, small-scale enterprise and so on. The recent approaches to livelihoods have challenged the complex phenomenon of rural development (Scoones, 2009). Rural development scheme (RDS) rendered by Islami Bank Bangladesh Ltd. has large positive impact, which was observed and measured in the case of food intake, housing, education, clothing, medical treatment, use of toilet, use of clear and safe pure drinking water, income, expenditure in rural areas of Bangladesh (Uddin, 2008). As a result of different rural development strategies in some Asian countries millions of rural people have escaped from the

33 vicious cycle of poverty and social exclusion, but still majority of rural communities continue to suffer from chronic and absolute poverty and live below poverty line (Singh, 2008). Which is basically rooted in inequity and maltreatment which results in low life expectancy, high infant mortality rate, low literacy rate, severe malnutrition etc. are the conditions of poverty shows close similarities to each other (Webster, 2004). Nkurunziza (2007) also expressed his views regarding poverty and stated that all definitions of poverty associate with the concept with a deficiency of basic requirements for human survival and welfare. The continuity in poverty as a condition perhaps, reveals that the similarities in the appearance of poverty, the poverty conditions affecting a majority of the rural population, are suffered from deception and dishonesty (Webster, 2004). The main reasons of the failure of different rural development programmes as well as poverty reduction programs and strategies are lack of community participation, integration and capacity building/training (Agunga, 2010). This failure of the government initiatives lead to the emergence of local community groups and organizations for the welfare of community (Haynes, 1995). Most of the development researchers agree that, in overall rural development process, rural people and communities play a key role. Community-based management of different civil society organizations working for sustainable rural development can perform in a better way especially at important stages of rural development process like planning, organizing, staffing, controlling and directing of rural development process on sustained basis. The strategy of rural sustainable development should consider local community as major partnership and stakeholder (Rashidpour and Hosseini, 2010). In this regard community management through the participation of local people is a good governance approach to poverty reduction and sustainable development as experienced in Iran (Loghman et al., 2011). Wijayaratna (2004) also emphasized that community based management become the fundamental instrument responsible for managing community development, which include the needs assessment and demands of community as well as the potential, such as internal and external available resources, planning and implementing of rural development programmes.

2.2.2 Civil society organizations and rural development 2.2.2.1 Civil society: definition and concepts Civil society is a very wide concept including all organizations and associations present and working in practice outside the state and the market. Its history goes back to ancient Greece. The basic modern concept of civil society goes back to 18th century when social, economic and political theorists developed the idea of civil society as a parallel domain to state but function outside the state (Ghaus-Pasha, 2005). It is the arena, outside of the family, the state and the market where people join together to advance common interests (Deniva, 2006). Recently, development practitioners emphasized that civil society actually binds the activities rendered by public and private sector for some common purpose (World Economic Forum, 2013). And within its arena there exist contested ideologies as described by many social scientists like Banks and Hulme (2012), Lewis and Kanji (2009), Komat (2004), Lewis (2002), Mohan (2002) and many others. In developing countries this sector includes a wide range of organizations, from large registered formal bodies to informal local organizations such as religious groups / organizations, modern groups / organizations, mass movements and action groups, organizations affiliated with political parties, trade and professional associations, non-commercial organizations and community based organizations. Diamond (2002) gave the more comprehensive definition of civil society and said that it is the sphere of organized social life in terms of voluntary, self-generating, self-supporting, autonomous and independent from the state structure, and bound by set of rules and regulations. Civil society is a promising dome for social change in the society especially with reference to developing countries. It includes a massive group of organizations and associations that represents the interests and benefits of that particular region or country to diverse degrees (Khan and Khan, 2004). Civil society also act as check and balance mechanism for state service delivery department. In broader terms groups of educationists, journalists; political and religious groups; community and neighborhood organizations and many other groups which involve and keep on working to bring change and improve society, all represent ‗civil society‘ (Corbridge, 2007; Kaviraj, 2001). It also referred to a political space where voluntary associations openly search for reshaping the rules and policies in terms of daily and social life (Scholte, 2001). In broader terms interest groups and voluntary associations play a role of mediator between the community members and the state (Seong-Kyo Ha, 2002).

The international financial institutions like the World Bank and IMF also support the participation of civil society groups or organizations in designing and implementation of poverty reduction programmes (UNRISD, 2010). Civil society institutions act as vehicles for participation of social groups in development programmes and activities (Mohan and Stokke, 2010). In a broader sense there are two main levels for the understanding of civil society (Bebbington and Hickey, 2006). At ideological and theoretical level the concept of civil society has grown vigorously in a fruitful manner within either the neoliberal school of thinking that advocates a reduced role for the state or a post-structural thinking that emphasizes the strong potential for the emergence of social movements within civil society. On the other hand at the conceptual level, civil society is usually treated in terms of so called civil society organizations (Edwards, 2004). However, Shahbaz and Ali, (2009) defined ‗civil society‘ as organized institutions in the context of the rural mountainous area of the KPK province as community based organizations (CBOs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Social movements. The formal (political parties, NGOs, trade unions, professional association, pressure groups, think tanks, academic associations etc.) and informal (FBOs, burial societies, shrines, neighborhood associations, jirgas, saving groups etc.) categories of civil society in Pakistan were reported by Sattar and Baig (2001). 2.2.2.2 Civil society organizations (CSOs) Civil society generally consists of organizations that fall between the family and the state. A civil society is characterized by active, diverse, inclusive citizen participation. It has been widely recognized as an essential 3rd sector who actively engages in providing welfare services to the community. In both the developed and developing countries the most critical issues regarding the Civil Society Organizations in the provision of services concerning accountability, quality and access (Clayton et al., 2000). According to Mitlin (1998), the main function and focus of civil society is to prevent abuse and misuse of the state departments and holding accountability of state institutes to the people. Civil society organizations (CSOs) emerged in the 1990s as increasingly influential and powerful actors in overall national development particularly in many countries it is the major responsibility of these organizations to provide basic services to community (Clayton et al., 2000). In the situation of poor governance and rising inequalities in many of the developing and low income countries like Pakistan civil society organizations play a considerable role in community mobilization and organization to alleviate poverty (Khan, 1999).

Their major function is to assist the rural communities by offering participatory rural development process and methodologies that serve as the bridge and link between all the stakeholders by mobilizing their resources and their efforts, mobilize resources. This process leads to quick and sustainable development of the area (Helmsing, 2004, Wilson, 2008). These CSOs are divided into three broad categories (1) development NGO‘s, capacity building and community based organizations and service delivery organizations (2) the groups that look for to reform public policy, push for civil and political rights and follow political liberalization in society. These include human rights and media groups, bar associations and policy research institutes (3) grass root groups and organizations, voluntary groups/associations, philanthropic/welfare trusts, community-based organizations, panchayats (councils of elders), madrassas (religious schools) and Islamic charities (Shah, 2004). It also include non-profit sector which is operated by voluntary or community organization, with the purpose of providing assistance to the poor and deprived masses of the community and thereby contribute to social welfare and equity (Shah and Mohanty, 2010; Saich, 2002). With special reference to Pakistan these civil society organizations are divided into different groups like modern-secular and religious or faith based organizations on the basis of different philosophical thoughts (Qadeer, 1997; Rehman, 2006). They are involved in variety of activities ranging from developmental work to philanthropy (Pasha et al., 2002). In the same context regarding the typology of non- profit organizations Khan and Khan, (2004) said that there are three broad categories of civil society/non-profit organizations in Pakistan: (1) welfare and charity based; (2) community development oriented; and (3) sustainable development/advocacy focused. 2.2.2.3 Localite/neighborhood civil society organizations As described in the previous section that traditional and local level organizations are also working for the welfare of poor and vulnerable groups of society. In general terms these organizations are referred to as community based organizations (CBOs). Regarding their specific role in rural development efforts Molyneux et al., (2007) explored their special role in community development. They argued that there is need for strong coordination and collaboration between organizations at strategic, intermediate and local levels, difficulties in establishing and maintaining strong trust among organizations, and reaching the poorest households through existing community groups. Among African countries in Sudan CBOs are responsible for providing social services, mobilizing communities towards different development

37 issues, assists in providing their latest technologies, knowledge and skills to their members to enhance their income generation opportunities. In addition to it, CBOs also helped in increasing areas under the tree/forest cover and raised villagers‘ awareness with respect to the importance of natural resources management. CBOs are active on a local or community level, usually small, moderately funded and dependent largely on voluntary members and staff rather than paid (VolResource, 2007). In case of natural disaster community based organizations (CBOs) concentrate a lot on rehabilitation services like provision of shelter and basic construction material, food, clothing, medicines etc. (Peters, and McDonald, 2011). They have the greater capacity to prioritize the problems of local people, determining goals of rural development, organizing suitable working committees, and maintaining effective and efficient information systems. In a strong civil society, it is the people who ultimately have to protect and reinstate the ecosystems/environment as this is the key to the survival of the rural folks and a sound environmental future in developing countries (Pandha and Pattnaik, 2003). Community based management of resources through CBOs is the major rural development strategy in order to reduce poverty (Masduqi et al., 2007). At local community level this approach is the ―good governance‖ approach (Danida, 2007; Sarrafi, 2003). But in rural community based approach different factors, stakeholders and obstacles had important effect (Rashidpour and Hosseini, 2010). In some parts of the world community based organizations are renamed as grass root organizations being closed to the poor people (Uphoff, 1993). In this context Veltmeyer (2004) said that the most appropriate and efficient agent for change in a society regarding development and for addressing the issues of rural poverty and securing sustainable livelihoods are grassroots organizations (GROs). He further said that these organizations have the capacity to undertake collective action in the common interest of community and to empower them on sustained basis. In the global arena grassroots movements becomes an emerging force in presenting the voices poor and marginalized community (Batliwala, 2002). Grassroots or community based organizations work on local community level (Harris and Rochester, 2001 and Smith, 2000). In United Kingdom the main aim of trade justice movement is to make the trading system much supportive in reducing global inequalities on international level. Many civil society organizations are the coalition partners of that movement. It includes trade unions, human rights groups, trade organizations, faith-based organizations, consumer groups (Kamat, 2010; Bendell and Ellersiek,

2009). In Indian civil society traditional and local self-help groups play significant role in addressing poverty issues (Pattenden, 2010). Similar situation prevails in North-West region of Pakistan (KPK) where different local groups present and also some of them challenge the legitimacy of the state in terms of rights and claims of the forest users (Shahbaz et al., 2008). Within the perspective of rural farming community traditional and formal farmer‘s organizations play role in bridging gap between local farmer group and the outside world as in case of African countries (Future Agricultures, 2009). These local traditional groups or organizations are not only involved in development oriented activities, they also involved in providing variety of relief services to the victims of floods, earthquake or in any calamity on voluntary basis (Ahmad et al., 2011). Although traditional CSOs like CBOs, GROs or local self- help groups have great potential in bringing sustainable improvements in the livelihoods of poor people but some limiting factors are also present which hindering the potential results of these traditional rural development institutions. These problems include lack of adequate capital, lack of technical knowledge, limited market chain for local products, poor infrastructure, information collapse and political hindrances (Mohamed, 2010). 2.2.2.4 Cosmopolite civil society organizations – NGOs and their role in rural development Society can be divided into three sectors; the state which has power, market which deals with the production of goods for maximizing the profit through delivery of services, and voluntary sector in which workers on work on voluntary basis not as paid professional staff (John, 1992). According to World Bank (2002b) rural development involves a variety of actors that differ according to the situation and circumstances including public, private and voluntary sector. In view of decreasing limited role by public sector in sustainable rural development, advocacy focused NGOs are actively and explicitly involved in equitable development, community empowerment and transformation as well as backing campaigns for social and economic change. These organizations deal with various complex nature of rural development issues ranging from rural community problems, environmental as well as economic issues (Wilson, 2010; Smillie, 1992). It would be better to say that in overall civil society development, NGOs play a critical role (Kabdiyeva, 2013). Major rural development programmes run by the 1st category of civil society organizations as described by Shah (2004), i.e., Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), were agricultural, health, human resource development/training, community development etc.

Majority of the beneficiaries, non-beneficiaries, workers of NGOs and workers of other development agencies considered rural development efforts of the NGOs as effective tool for rural development (Bhaskar and Geethakutty, 2001). All the NGOs work on the notion of voluntarism, self-help, self-governing and trailing a mandate of providing development and social welfare services. It was also synthesized that NGOs were considered as one of the major collective actors in the socio-economic progress and social change. Their roles as partners in social development process particularly in the developing countries were increasingly considered as an effective medium for bringing social change, economic development and improving democratic supremacy in the society (Jianxiu, 2006). NGOs and CSOs play an important role in rural development in developing and least developed countries (Heemskerk et al., 2008). Among developing countries, the above mentioned organizations i.e. NGOs have contributed considerably toward social activism in India through their rigorous campaigns, social mobilization programmes for community and efficient and valuable social networks. These organizations have enough capacity to build affinity with the local deprived people of the society and mobilize them by arranging a variety of people-oriented as well as people-centered strategies and programmes (Wardak et al., 2007; Pandha and Pattnaik, 2003). In Sri Lanka, development oriented NGOs are involved in various regarding rural development related activities which were being performed by the state (Stirrat and Henkel, 1997). Similarly, in India NGOs are involved in different rural development programmes including agricultural, health, human resource development, community development, industrial and trade development (Siddaraju, 2011; Bhaskar and Geethakutty, 2001). Furthermore, they said that the rural development programmes run by NGOs ultimately lead to progress in health, education, hygienic, economic development, and also overall human development. In the form of networks community-led organizations like NGOs also play a significant role in mainstreaming rural development innovations and social as well as economic empowerment of community (Appropriate Technology, 2012). 2.2.2.5 Religious/faith based organizations and their role in rural development work Religion is an important element in spiritual as well as material development of an individual (Holenstein, 2005). The religious organizations are also the part of civil society in broader sense in the light of definition of civil society given by Diamond in 2002. These organizations play a considerable role in the social development process and social change in the society (Bano and Nair, 2007; Tumainimungu, 2007). In this context Clarke (2005) reported that

40 in the late 19th and early 20th century, social development services delivery organizations like FBOs harmonize the state departments in the provision of social services. The same was also quoted by Clarke, (2006) and Cohen, (2005). They are act as potential alternative development and service providing institutes among local communities (Campbell, 2002). The study of Smith and Sosin showed that the agencies/organizations were relatively loosely attached to faith in terms of resources; they are more tightly joined in terms of authority. On the other hand culture was observed to play only a moderate role in this regard (Smith and Sosin, 2001). In Norway, for example, a large number of local civil society voluntary organizations and traditional organizations are working for wellbeing and interests of rural people through different rural development initiatives (Atterton, 2001). Similarly in Nigeria, faith-based organizations play a vital role in addressing the issues of poverty and inequality in a holistic way (Bachmann, 2007). And same also exists in Indonesia where many socio-religious organizations are engaging in different activities like education, health, social services and economic empowerment (Wagener, 2006). With special reference to rural localities, these faith based organizations play an important role in providing advisory services as well as training which is also the main aim of extension as ‗rural extension‘ go beyond agriculture (FAO, 2010; Rakodi, 2007; Anwar et al., 2006). In South Asia region there is dense religious mosaic and it is difficult to understand the diversity of religious organizations in service delivery to marginalized groups of society. All of the religious groups and sects in the region have a very long history in delivering welfare services to their followers as well as communities. They are particularly important contributors to the provision of education and health services although their welfare activities are extremely varied as started developmental work as non-state actors during 1980s and 1990s (Bano and Nair, 2007; Rakodi, 2007). With respect to Pakistan the philanthropy and voluntary welfare work is indigenous and part of our culture which is prevalent in all over the country (Government of Pakistan, 2010). In Pakistan majority of the social welfare organizations are religiously inspired as reported by Bano (2005). During the last five years, the rising emphasis on FBOs is a reflection of the realization of these agencies that FBOs continued to be active players within civil society. In Pakistan Al-Rasheed Foundation, Hamdard Foundation, Al-Khidmat Foundation are the best established FBOs engaged in providing social services like health, education, disaster relief, shelter etc. to orphans and poor people of the community.

The relations between FBOs engaged in service provision and state institutions vary with their motivation, areas of operation, and organizational affiliation (Bano and Nair, 2007). In the same vein Khan (2006) also commented that in providing relief services during earthquake in Pakistan civil society organizations especially FBOs played a significant role. About one-third of non-profit organizations in Pakistan are faith-based organizations and majority of them were engaged in providing social welfare services especially in areas of education and health. The reason behind their wide network is that the state departments fail to meet the basic requirements and needs of people. For many local people though, these organizations serve as alternative domain which is parallel to, but sometimes separate from, the state (Rehman, 1997; Ghaus- Pasha, 2004). They claim that they are in a better position to cater the needs of poor and marginalized people (Kirmani and Zaidi, 2010; Iqbal et al., 2004). In this way the sate encouraged the non-profit faith based sector to take an increased role in providing social services especially to the poor and vulnerable communities (Iqbal and Siddiqui, 2008). 2.2.2.6 From civil society to social movements In wider concept of civil society, social movements are also its part (Scholte, 2001). Social movements are defined as the processes of social mobilization that involve protest and claims for some kind of alternative society and social development (Ballard et al., 2005; Peet and Watts, 2004). Bebbington et al., (2008a) described social movements as processes of social mobilization of linking individuals and groups identified with particular norms and values. In the similar context, Kirmani (2008) explained that social movements is a phenomenon that covers a wide variety of processes involving individuals and groups with a variety of changing and often conflicting apprehensions. The same was also described by Jasper (2010), who reported that social movements are composed of individuals and their interactions between and across different communities. In a much broader term social movement is a form of collective action (Bebbington, 2009). These are also referred to as catalyst or agents of social struggles (Desai, 2002). Following this philosophy we say that social movements are the processes of collective action, dispersed but also sustained over time and space involving different actors at different level which may be local or central (Tsing, 2004). According to Tilly (1999) social movements are dynamic and complex in nature. It is an analogy of political campaign, neither a party nor a union. The same was also described by Tilly (1985). But, Brown (2007) differentiated social movements from interest groups. He said that

42 those groups who rely on mass protests and demonstration campaigns as well as who did not enjoy access to policy and political decision making process are termed as social movement organizations (SMOs). On the other hand groups that used to work within the system and have access to political decision making process are termed as interest groups. However interest-based associations/groups which include (trade unions, farmers associations, professional or/and business organizations, neighborhood groups, women‘s organizations and advocacy groups) may come out from social movements (UNRISD, 2010; Gorlach et al., 2008). Some social scientists like Andrews and Edwards (2004) and Skocpol (2003) said that non-profit organizations having involvement in advocacy and lobbying related activities are also referred to as social movements. As described earlier that both NGOs and social movements are the building blocks in a civil society. Both of them have different types of social action and visions of civil society. But there exist some differences between NGOs and social movements: (a) social movements are less institutionalized and more horizontal (b) compared to NGOs social movements lack paid and professional staff; mean formal division of labour. Most active members of social movement work on voluntary basis (c) NGOs publish their annual progress reports but social movements do not publish such type of material (d) social movements are spontaneous and amorphous (e) social movements try to solve their problem themselves without the consultation of highly paid professionals/consultants (Costoya, 2007). The difference in social movements and non-profit organizations was also reported by Muukkonen (2000). Social movements are also characterized by low degree of institutionalization, high heterogeneity lack of clearly defined boundaries and decision making structures within a social system (Earl, 2004). The main purpose behind the formation and establishment of social movements in a society is to bring social change but the degree and nature of change will depend upon the nature of movement (Eyben and Ladbury, 2006; Zirakzadeh, 2006). The traditional and realistic approaches to the social movements gave clear understanding about the emergence of social movements (Goodwin and Jasper, 2004). Regarding the initiation of these social movements in rural areas Yan (1990) analyzed that socioeconomic structure and labour market system in rural China were considered as the strong beginning or starting point for the movement of labour forms of employment. Within rural areas labour force movement has gained momentum in spite of institutional limitations. The strength of social movements in a democratic system was also pointed out by (Veltmeyer, 2004).

According to different sociologists social movements have been viewed as important vehicles by which the concerns of rural poor and marginalized groups of the society are given greater visibility within the social structure, significant means to empower local community, and also serve as an essential tool in the accountability of the state institutions regarding delivery of services (Fernando, 2012; Vasconcellos and Vasconcellos, 2010). In short, social movements can have significant impact on rural livelihoods either through direct rural development activities/initiatives, or by advocacy of rural community (Bebbington et al., 2008a). The social movements like farmers‘ movements, agricultural workers‘ movements etc. have significant potential in fostering process of rural social change that lead towards societies that are more participatory in nature and able to deliver human development and social welfare activities in an effective and efficient manner (Bebbington et al., 2008b). In rural India farmer/peasant movements evolve in order to fight and address the bad impacts/outcomes against regarding liberalization, privatization and globalization. They are also involved in addressing the issue of land distribution and other basic rights for peasants and landless labourers (Shah, 2004; Ramachandran and Rawal, 2010). In Brazil after the revival of democracy demand for the access to land by the landless workers has become the part of political process. For this purpose mean to access land, they started struggle under the platform of NSMs (new social movements) (Novaes, 1998). The major objective and target of these movements was to organize farmers/landless workers to have access to land to secure their livelihoods (Wright and Wolford, 2003). In developing countries like Pakistan the equal distribution of land to the peasants/farm workers or landless labourers is very much essential for its socio-economic as well as political development (Wolford, 2005). In this regard confrontation or resistance movements against any social change (reactive social movements9) might play a role in promoting social as well as revolutionary changes in an existing social structure (Mitlin et al., 2007). Similarly, in Brazil the rural social movements (associations, cooperatives and workers unions) were created in 1970s and engaged in welfare activities for farming community. These rural social movements are successful in achieving land rights to rural women (Deere, 2003). In rural India social movements also have the potential of reduction rural poverty and inequality

9Movements which resist some social change in a social structure are called reactive social movements (Henslin, 2006).

44 among different classes (Webster, 2004). In this view, Tilly (1999) also supported the possible impacts of social movements and social change on the livelihoods of people. He also characterized the social movements on the basis of their identification, historical background and significance. Many grassroots micro social movements also known as new social movements (NSMs) are involved in development work and addresses the issues of rural poverty, inequality, women empowerment, protection of environment, basic human rights, natural resources etc. (Pandha and Pattnaik, 2003). In Bolivia, majority of the social movements formed by indigenous peasants (farmers). Their agenda was to struggle against the neoliberal policies exist in the country. Social scientists describe the possible benefits of social movements and criticized many of the interventions of NGOs considering that their participatory approaches have often failed to achieve the target of sustainable development (Córdoba and Jansen, 2011). Research studies reveal that grievances about existing injustices in the society represent an alternative agenda of social development. In that agenda social movements play an important role (Escobar, 1995; Escobar and Alvarez, 1992). This also shows that importance of social movements. Regarding the power and overall strength of social movements it is viewed that power lies less in their ability to influence the particulars of policies and programmes, and more in their ability to bring social change and in reducing poverty (Mitlin and Bebbington, 2006). Furthermore, they argued that social movements are essential actors in reducing chronic poverty. With regard to address the issue of poverty by social movements Bebbington (2009) reported that a few social movements emerge specifically around the issue of poverty (Bebbington, 2009). Majority of them tend to focus on issues such as rights, protection of assets and distribution of these assets, access to basic services etc. (UNRISD, 2010). Social movements are the significant medium for conveying the variety of grievances and observations of community to the state which are radical in nature (Nicholls, 2009). Regarding rural development policies during recent decade agrarian/farmer movements emerged around the globe and actively involved in different development related policies and programmes (Borras Jr., 2010). The movements run by farmer/rural farm producer‘s organizations and local farmer groups, networks, rural producer groups and peasant groups are come under the category of agrarian movements (Borras et al., 2008). With reference to Pakistan, NGO movement, which is the alliance of many NGOs across the country, is one of the fast evolving social movements. This movement has horizontal and

45 vertical linkages with various types of social organizations and village level CBOs. The movement is working for numerous social, economic, environmental issues through community development and advocacy oriented NGOs (Khan and Khan, 2004). Some other examples of social movements are also present in Pakistani context. Out of these movements Al-Huda is a movement of Islamic education and reforms headed by a renowned female Islamic scholar Dr. Farhat Hashmi who also got inspiration from religious social movement named as Jamaat-e- Islami (Ahmad, 2011; Mushtaq, 2010). The sister organizations of Jamat like Al-Khidmat Foundation is also involved in some kind of social change through social movement like Tahree- e-Islami and Tahreek-e-Mahnat (Moudadi, 2005). In 2008 for the restoration of judiciary, a social movement was launched jointly by the lawyers, civil society organizations and print as well as electronic media (Harvard Law Review, 2010). 2.2.2.7 Role of social organizations in social movements One of the important dimensions of social movements is collective identity as pointed out by Diani, (2000) who defines a social movement as ―a network of informal interactions between individuals, groups and/or organizations, engaged in some kind of conflict based on the collective identity. The success of social movements is largely depends on the coordination and involvement of different civil society organizations as stated by Gorlach et al., (2008). The basic function of these organizations is to serve as promoters in social movements (Toft, 2010). As the community based organizations are mainly involved in delivery of basic social services to the people at their door steps by organizing advocacy campaigns for social change in the existing social structure (Lewis and Kanji, 2009). Such kind of public campaign may lead to from social movements. In the similar vein Lewis (2007) also summarized that NGOs serve as catalyst in the community in order to promote social change through awareness campaigns. In this context different researchers reported that in developing social movements already established local networks of local organizations and groups play an important role (see Earle, 2011; Clarke, 1998; Kurzman, 1998). As social movements passed from different stages as pointed out by De La Porta and Diani, (2006), at final endpoint stage some NGOs turn into local social movements (Kaldor, 2003). In many cases organizations are part of social movements and work within them to effect social change (Bendana, 2006). Social organizations serve as vehicles for community to participate in development process and for bringing social change which is also the main aim of

46 a social movement (Mitlin et al., 2005). In social movements some local organizations can also be seen as their organizational components in order to represent their interests and objectives (Lewis and Kanji, 2009). In India new social movements, organizations contributed a lot in social activism through intensive campaigns, community mobilization and efficient networks. As a social force, these organizations facilitate in establishing collective action for some social change (Sattanathan, 2011; Andrews and Biggs, 2006). Other than organizations, informal local groups in the form of networks constitute a social movement as reported by Klandermans (1992). In supporting social movements local or indigenous groups of poor and marginalized people play an important role (Earle, 2007). The nature and size of these organizations or groups associated with movements may vary in nature and size. They may be single or multiple in nature or networked organizations and they may have tight or loose organizational structure (Snow and Soule, 2010). The involvement of people in social movements is very much essential as it play an important role in managing as well as conducting movement activities (Ahmadi, 2011). The more involvement of peoples and organizations, the more effective a movement can appear in terms of achieving their goal and objectives (Amenta et al., 2010). The main source of power of social movements came from the mobilization of its resources (Ganz, 2010) and organizations play a key role in this regard i.e. mobilizing community for taking action in order to attain the goals of movements. Different organizations participate, coordinate and collaborate with each other in order to demonstrate a protest against any common community cause. Such collaboration could be valuable in spreading the information regarding that particular cause among different organizations (Levi and Murphy, 2006). With regard to social movements in Pakistan, women movement which is being run by different organizations and independent groups is the oldest one. Out of these organizations some are charitable and some are being run by some liberal groups of women. Women Action Forum (WAF) is the leading one among these organizations. Some other examples of such organizations are All Pakistan-Women's Association (APWA), and Anjuman-e-Jamhooriat Pasand Khawateen (Naz et al., 2013; Mumtaz, 1987; Rouse, 1986). This women's movement has now become influential due to the emergence and involvement of different women's organizations and associations working for the women's rights (Naz et al., 2012). The collaboration and networking of women activist groups, associations and charitable organizations is bridging the women‘s

47 movement in Pakistan (Naz, 2011; Shaheed, 2011). In Khyber Pukhtunkhwa province the people‘s rights movement which is being addressed the forest royalty issues of local community of Dir and Kohistan districts is also the result of a number of civil society organizations, out of which Sungi Development Foundation is the leading one (Khan et al., 2006). The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan in collaboration with the representatives of kissan (farmer) committees, peasant groups, and many other civil society organizations organized a peasant convention in Multan (Southern part of Punjab province). In the convection, the movement activists strongly recommended the land reforms and equal distribution of resources especially agricultural land in the country. They stressed that Government should prepare a policy regarding protection of rights of peasants and also rights of women who used to work hard in the field of agriculture (Rehman, 2012). In the whole Pakistan including Hazara region peasants and farmers are considered as the most mistreated segments of our society (Shah, 2013). The movement of for the rights of these victimized sections of society i.e. small farmers and peasants in the country is also running by different elements of society like Pakistan Kissan Board and many other NGOs (Iqtidar, 2011). At national level no political party is taking up the issues of land reforms is not struggling to change the land feudal system in the country. However, Jamiat-e-Islami itself whose ideology is to transform the social class structure along with its sister organizations (Al-Khidmat Foundation, Al-Khidmat Welfare Society etc.) are developing linkages with peasants and small farmers (Iqtidar, 2011). In 1950s, the former ameer (head) of Jamiat-e-Islami (Maulana Maududi) particularly opposed the land reforms at that time. He argued that these reforms are not according to the Islamic discourse. In the Past the Pakistan Kissan Board was closely associated with the Jamiat-e-Islami and engaged in organizing the small farmers and peasants through different mobilizing campaigns (ibid). The acquisition of agricultural land by the state to the foreign investors in Southern part of Punjab and Sindh has become a serious issue as the residents of these areas are considered as extremely poor and depend on that land for their livelihoods as peasants. The local community showed a negative response regarding acquisition of agricultural land by the state. They responded that agricultural land acquisition will enhance the rural poverty and food insecurity situation in the country. The said matter has also been addressed by the Seraiki Movement in Southern Punjab and many other civil society organizations including associations of peasants and farmers (Settle, 2012).

2.2.2.8 Participation of individuals in social movements The term participation is the major concept in rural development process. It guides the local people how to participate in the development discourse of their own development plan (Townsend et al., 2002). In rural development process the participation and active involvement of the local rural community play a key role (Rashidpour and Hosseini, 2010; Singha-Roy, 2010). There are many factors which hinders the participation of individuals in social movement activities. Out of these factors resources and time are the most prominent ones. In this context, Cleaver (2005) reported that the poor, marginalized and asset deprived people don‘t have time, resources, money, power, and social networks; due to these reasons they hesitate to participate in activities of social movements and other organizations. In some social movements e.g. farmer movements, women movements or environmental movements (Henslin, 2006) it is not necessary that only poor or marginalized people participate in these movements but many other people who do not directly affected from the phenomenon but participate as the supporters of poor people (Edelmann, 2009; Borras, 2010; UNRISD, 2010). Granovetter (1973) argued that active participation of individuals in a social movement and its activities depends on its engagement and affiliation with that movement. It is perceived that majority of the participants of social movements are often found in a condition of insecurity and lack of self-confidence (Pizzorno, 1986). In this situation social networking of individuals and associations in a movement mean SMOs can play important role. He said in the form of social networks, people‘s attachments/engagements provide a higher level of self-confidence among participants/members. While on the other hand Marwell and Oliver (1993) emphasized that intensity of participation depends upon their efficiency of contribution in the movement activities. There observations were also recorded by Omoni (1991), who reported that the participation of the individuals focused on their mobilization, organization and decision making. In religiously oriented social movements and social actions (violent/non-violent) religious ideologies of the people play a key role (Snow and Byrd, 2007). There are several risks which serve as a barrier not only to participation by the individuals or groups in a social movement, but also have a strong impact of intensity of involvement by an individual (Wiltfang and McAdam, 1991; Klandermans and Oegema, 1987). The level of participation of the beneficiaries and other community members in different activities of social mobilization process in a social movement is also endorsed by Grimble et al.,

(1994). In this context, Omobolanle, (2007) reported that an overwhelming majority (97.59%) of the farmers involved in cooperative societies as social organizational groups. Some of them are members while others are non-members. He concluded that in religious cooperative societies working on the notion of rural development only 26.44% of the respondents were members but nearly half (46.15%) of them were holding a position of officer. 2.2.2.9. Social mobilization and social movements The central pint in the philosophy of community development is the participation/involvement of local community in the entire development process. The people participation in the rural development activities are well explained by different researchers like Mubangizi & Gray, (2011) and Gorringe et al., (2009). In enhancing community participation in the development activities their mobilization plays a key role (Thapa and Morrison, 2012; World Bank, 2006b). Particularly, in chronic poverty10 reduction social mobilization plays an important role (Bebbington et al., 2010). This process has the capacity to interact with different individuals, groups, or organizations working on some common issue or cause (Thapa and Morrison, 2012). According to Wynistorf (2012), it serves as vehicle in bringing social-political change in a society. For mobilizing people in a particular social movement culture, values and identity of the participants are of due importance (Rutten, 1996). In Indian context, religion and caste and class in peasant social movements play an important role in mobilizing peasants against the state policies (Shah, 2004). The mobilization of community in a social movement also depends upon some other factors. Out of these factors different framing11 tasks being attended by the participants of movement are the most important ones (Snow and Benford, 1992). The social mobilization process in a movement also depends upon resources (Kretschmer, 2009). As poor and socially excluded groups have lack of resources, due to this factor they are also excluded from all the mobilization processes, which are the important step in a successful social movement (Jha et al., 2009). The associations/organizations which are associated with a particular social movement so-called social movement organizations (SMOs) (Diani, 2008). In mobilizing people through

10Long-term poverty experienced by an individual or household for such an extended period that it is unlikely to change (Shepherd, 2007). 11 Frame is the outline of interpretation used by the individuals to connect events and occurrences in a movement (Snow et.al., 1986).

50 interaction and contacts in a particular social movement SMOs play a significant role as described by Taylor (1989). The importance of social mobilization in social movements was also explained by Staggenborg & Lecomte (2009) and Ballard et al., (2005). Successful mobilization of resources in a social movement depends on the value and worth of the issue being addressed by that movement (Benford and Snow, 2000). In social mobilization process social networking of SMOs also plays a prominent role for bringing social change in a society (Henry et al., 2004). In disseminating information about the activities of a movement social networking play an eminent role as in case of religious education movement, Al-Huda religious movement in Pakistan, the female members of that movement integrate and collaborate with each other through relatives, friends, neighbors (Munson, 2002 and Mushtaq, 2010). 2.3 Synthesis From the literature reviewed in the previous sub-sections of the chapter, it is synthesized that rural development is a multifaceted process and sustainable rural development covers both material and non-material wellbeing of rural community. In the global world different rural development paradigms and approaches were being practiced for uplifting the standards of living of poor and marginalized rural dwellers. But many people are still facing massive difficulties in securing their livelihoods on sustainable basis due to which these people are regarded as socially excluded. Majority of these people are residing in developing and low income countries like Pakistan. For delivering services to these rural poor state authorities practiced a number of rural development strategies and programmes. But all these strategies could not gain maximum success in delivering development services to majority of the population who used to reside in rural localities. And the livelihood situation in these rural areas is becoming worse day by day. In this situation a number of civil society organizations emerged and actively engaged in a variety of activities. The major purpose and thrust of these activities is to empower and to bring social change in the society through different advocacy and lobbying related activities. As social movements is also the part of civil society in its broader concept. In managing activities of these social movements some civil society organizations are actively working. In technical terminologies these organizations are referred to as social movement organizations (SMOs). These SMOs including different social, cultural and religious groups are busy in delivering well-being services to the rural poor. They are engaged in providing rural development services to the rural people as alternative service providers. They claimed that they

51 are in a better position to cater the real needs of rural poor being deeply rooted in the social and religious culture of Pakistani society in general and KPK in particular. Sometimes these groups and organizations collaborate with each other on some specific issue of the community in the form of networks to bring momentum in their collective activities. In this situation active involvement of the community in these activities play a key role. And this can only be done through social mobilization process. In the present study the basic objectives, claims and actual practices of these organizations with regard to rural development in KPK were analyszed by using both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

CHAPTER- 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research Methodology or research design is the plan, structure and strategy of the investigation conceived, so as to obtain answer to research questions and to control variance (Kerlinger, 1998:300). According to Strydom et al., (2005) research design is a plan or blue print of how to conduct research. It is also the logical and systematic planning and directing of a particular research issue (Wahane, 2009). In more simple words it is the set of ideas about the relationship between phenomena and how the researcher gain knowledge in the context of research (Scott, and Morrison, 2006). This chapter explains the demographics of the research area (the universe of study) as well as about the study district (population of the study). Sampling procedure, sampling design/techniques, data collection sources and methods (qualitative and quantitative), and data analysis techniques, being used for the current research study are discussed in this chapter. 3.1. Nature of study The study was descriptive and comparative in nature to compare the working strategies of SMOs in the field of rural development with that of the state departments involved in rural development related activities. 3.2. Khyber Pukhtunkhwa: Study province The study was conducted in Khyber Pukhtunkhwa province-KPK (formerly known as North West Frontier Province-NWFP) of Pakistan. The province is located between 31015’ and 0 0 0 36 57’ North latitude and 69 5’ and 74 7’ East longitude. The maximum length of the province between the parallels is about 408 miles and maximum breadth falls between the meridians to about 279 miles (Khan, 2012). The province has a long history of conflicts and natural disasters (DRC, 2013; UN-HABITAT, 2010). The province also has strong agricultural history and trade. Hydro-electric power and availability of minerals in the province are the sources of economy. The estimated population of the province is 25.3 Million and covers an area of 10.17 million hectares (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2011a; Government of Pakistan, 2011a). Out of which about 13.89 million acre area is the agricultural land (Khan, 2012). The share of the province is 7.79 % out of the total cultivated land of Pakistan (Naeem Ur Rehman et al., 2012). The province is regarded as marginalized and fragile with mostly rough terrain in the highlands (Shahbaz, 2008), however the province is endowed with natural resources and biodiversity

(Shahbaz, 2007). The Province is rich in forests, as about 40% of the country‘s forest area is situated here (FAO, 2005b). The province is gifted with fertile plains and hilly areas and has ability to produce wide varieties of crops, fruits and vegetables. The province is also good in production of quality flowers, medicinal plants and which are relatively uncommon in other parts of country (Khan, 2012). It shares its boundaries with China in North and Afghanistan to the west as shown in following figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Map of Pakistan showing study area (KPK)

The literacy rate of the province is 52.0% which is less than the overall national literacy rate (58.0%) (Government of Pakistan, 2013). The poverty situation is severe in the province. According to an estimate about 38.1% of total population of province is residing below poverty line (Government of NWFP, 2009). There is clear decline in the GDP growth rate (3%) of the province during 2008/2009, which was 5.7% during 2004/2005 (Nyborg et al., 2012). In order to improve the livelihoods of poor and vulnerable rural communities of the province state

(government) as well as various non-state actors including religious/faith based organizations/ groups are engaged (Ahmed et al., 2009). Whole of the province is divided into 25 districts or administrative units (Farhatullah and Farmanullah, 2002). Out of these 25 districts district Manshera was selected randomly as the study area for the present research as case study. 3.3. Mansehra: The study district District Mansehra is the highly populous district of Hazara division situated on the east of river Indus (Shahbaz et al., 2011; Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2011b; SDC, 2010). The name of the District was derived from its headquarters town Mansehra. It is named after Man Singh, the Governor General under the rule of Ranjit Singh. It is located in the North Eastern part of KPK province at altitude of 3200 feet. Among other districts of the Hazara region its population according to 1998 census report is highest 1,152,839 with an average annual growth rate of 2.4%. The total area of the district is 4,579 sq. km. Hindko, Pashtoo, Gojree and Urdu are the common languages being spoken in the district (Government of Pakistan, 2009). It is located at the eastern boundary of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province from 34º - 14´ to 35º - 11´ north latitudes and 72º - 49´ to 74º - 08´east longitudes. Its boundary touches to the district Kohistan and Battagram to the North, Muzaffarabad districts of AJK to the East, Abbotabad and Haripur districts to the South and district Shangla and Buner to the West (Government of Pakistan, 2007). The total area of the district is about 1.07 million acres (Government of Pakistan, 2009a). The district is further divided into three tehsils (sub districts) namely Balakot, Mansehra, and Oghi (Population Council, 2010). Teshile Balakot consists of 15 union councils while on the other hand Mansehra and Oghi comprises of 33 and 11 union councils, respectively. The map is the district showing three administrative units (Mansehra, Balakot and Ohgi) and districts located at the boundary of the district is given in following figure 3.2:

Figure 3.2: Map of study area (district Mansehra) The climate of the district is cold in winter season and pleasantly slighter warm in summer season. The northern part of the district is cold in summer season and extremely cold in winter season and receives heavy snow fall during winter. There are two distinct seasons of the district Mansehra; the summer season which starts from April and ends at September, on the other hand the winter season starts from October and end at March. The mean maximum temperature of the district is about 35° C and minimum average temperature is about 21°C during the month of June mean during peak summer season. But during winter season i.e. in the

56 month of January, the mean maximum and minimum temperatures are 14°C and 2°C, respectively (Government of Pakistan, 2007). The economy of the district is highly varied and depends on different sectors like agriculture, poultry, mining, tourism and natural resources. Out of the total area of the district only 24.3% (0.26 million acres) area is under cultivation. Agricultural products of the area include wheat, rice, maize, barley and sugarcane. Tobacco is also one of the leading cash crops of the district. Due to the favorable climatic conditions the study area (Mansehra), has a very good track record in the production of fruits and vegetables. Due to the small land holdings, the people not only rely on agriculture for their livelihoods but also on some other sources like labour, handicraft etc. Livestock and fisheries are the main sources of meat and milk in the district. Manshera is also one of the well-known districts of the KPK province in mining (Government of Pakistan, 2009). The district is also a very attractive place for tourists from all over the world. The situation of provision of basic services like education, health, sanitation, drinking water facility and proper nutrition in the district is very poor (Javed, 2011). 3.5. Sampling design Sampling is a crucial issue in social science research (Fox et al., 2009). It is referred to as taking any portion of a population or universe as representative of that population. Feasibility is the major reason for sampling. Entire coverage of the total population is impossible due to availability of time, money and efforts. The use of sample in research resulted in obtaining more accurate information and results than by using entire population (Strydom et al., 2005). There are many techniques which are being used in social science research for the selection of sample from the given population. Each technique has its own merits and demerits (Langham, 1999). Keeping in view the nature of the current study, purposive as well as simple random sampling techniques was used. The same techniques were also used by Ali et al., (2005) while the selection of respondents to determine the effect of education on gender violence in Pakistan. 3.6. Categories of respondents In order to achieve the objectives of the present research and to collect most pertinent information from different stakeholders who are involved in different rural development activities in the study district (Mansehra), it is essential to identify the respondents of the present study. Two categories of respondents were selected as the study respondents in the present research as discussed below:

3.6.1. Category-I (Staff/volunteers of organizations) An inventory or checklist of social organizations working in the area was prepared through intensive field visits, discussion with key informants, holding focus group meeting with different stakeholders etc. The same technique was also used by Botchwey (2006) while determining the role of social organizations in local community development. From that inventory twenty (20) organizations12 were selected as the population of current study which was actually working and involved in rural development related activities like education, health, relief services, agricultural development etc. in district Mansehra. The same approach was also adopted by Gregorio (2011) while analyzing the role of networks of social movement organizations (SMOs) in Indonesia. The selected organizations were further divide into four broad categories as given as following table: Advocacy, Services Development related Multidimensional Lobbying (Emergency, Relief, Charity) activities Aurat Foundation Edhi Foundation RABT development Sungi development organization Foundation Sarhad Awami Al-khidmat Foundation Society for sustainable Saiban Development Forestry Ittehad development Organization Tahreek-e-soba Flahe Insaniat Foundation HAASHAR Association Friends Welfare Hazara Association, Pakistan (movement for separate Hazara province) Injuman-e- Rural community council Skyians Welfare kashtkarian Organization Hazara Omeed area coordination Integrated Development council Empowerment & Advocacy for Livelihood Support (IDEALS) Siran Ittehad Welfare Society Dehi Ijtamai Triqiati

12 These organizations are also the part of any of the social movement in the form of networks

Council Rural Development Support Organization Finally out of the twenty organizations one organization each from three categories was selected as the sample for current study. Purposive sampling design was used for the selection of social organizations. The organizations fall in the category of only advocacy and lobbying were not included in the sample as these organizations had no such eminent role in rural development related activities. The names of these organizations are given below: 1. Al-Khidmat Foundation

2. Sungi Development Foundation

3. Rural Development Support Organization (RDSO)

3.6.2. Category-II (Local residents’ respondents) The 2nd category of respondents consists of rural residents of those areas where the selected organizations have their projects/interventions. The selection of these respondents (local rural residents) was selected through simple random sampling technique. At first three separate lists of villages in which the selected organizations (SUNGI development foundation, Al- Khidmat Foundation and Rural Development Support Organization- RDSO) were working was prepared in consultation with the staff of respective organizations and local key informants. From each of the three lists two villages from each list were selected randomly, thus made a total six number of villages. A consolidated list of these villages is given below: Organization Name of the selected villages Sungi Development Foundation Shamori (UC Garhi Habibullah) Hasamabad (UC Ghanool) Al-Khidmat Foundation Paras (UC Kavie) Gurlat (UC Balakot) Rural Development Support Organization (RDSO) Kharabad (UC Karnool) Treeda (UC Karnool)

Then from each of the above mentioned selected villages seventy five (75) respondents were selected through simple random sampling technique and made a total sample size of 450 study respondents, that was enough as explained and described by Sudman (1983). The comprehensive methodological tree of the selection of 450 study respondents (local residents) is given in following figure 3.3.

Villages in which SUNGI Villages in which Al- Villages in which RDSO is is working Khidmat is working working

V-1 V-2 V-1 V-2 V-1 V-2

75 75 75 75 75 75

450 Respondents

Figure 3.3: Methodological tree of local residents as study respondents 3.7. Sources of Data Both primary and secondary sources of data were used in the present research. The primary data were collected from residents of the selected villages and key informants for indepth study. On the other hand secondary sources such as books, government reports, research papers, research articles, review articles and other literature related to rural development, working papers/booklets and broachers of CBOs/NGOs, newspaper/ magazines articles etc. were used extensively. 3.8. Data collection methods There are two common methods of data collection in social science research i.e. quantitative and qualitative. Due to the complex nature of research questions in the present study, a combination of both the qualitative and quantitative methods was applied for the purpose of triangulation and to avoid biases (Mayring, 2002). The use of both qualitative and quantitative methods was also used in order to validate the research findings. The data for the current study were collected by data collection team which comprises of post graduate students of the Institute of Agri. Extension and Rural Development. Two day training was given to the data collection

60 team to conduct interviews as training to the interviewer help greatly in achieving the desired goals of the study (Hoyle et al., 2002; Gillham, 2000). 3.8.1. Quantitative data collection methods Quantitative studies provide data that can be expressed in numeric form. The important point of quantitative studies is that it provides data that is descriptive in nature (Madrigal and McClain, 2012). Quantitative methods tend to be more structured research instruments and their results provide less detail on behaviors, attitudes and motivation. The analysis of quantitative data tends to be more objective because the results are based on a sample that represents a large population (David, 2001). Such methods are particularly suitable for simplifying complex social issues and social reality which are in numeric form (Crossley, 2010). In quantitative research paradigm research problems are theory based and hypothesis derived from general theory (Adindu, 2006). In social sciences survey research is widely used to collect quantitative in a systematic manner (Glasow, 2005), in which mainly two tools of data collection are widely used i.e. questionnaire and interview schedule (Bhattacherjee, 2012). The main difference between questionnaire and interview schedule is that questionnaires are filled by the respondents, it may mailed, distributed or E-Mailed but on the other hand interview schedule is to be filled by the researcher (Trochim, 2006). The main purpose of these tools is to obtain facts and opinions of the study respondents about a phenomenon. Due to the low literacy rate in the research area, interview schedule was used to collect quantitative data in the present research study. The data were collected during the year 2012-2013. 3.8.1.1. Research instrument Data collection is an essential and important component of conducting research. Various tools are being used in social science research for the collection of data from the field (Heaton, 2004). It is very much difficult and complicated to say which one is the best method of data collection (O‘Leary, 2004). In the present research structured interview schedule were used as the quantitative data collection tool. For this purpose two separate interview schedules (one for staff of organizations and one for rural community) were prepared keeping in view the objectives of study and discussion with different stakeholders and senior researchers of the Institute of Agri. Extension and rural development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan and Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI), Islamabad and University of Zurich,

Switzerland. A rational behind the selection of interview schedule as research instrument was that, it gives a good return rate in answering the questions (Gray, 2004; Cohn et al., 2000). The interview schedule consisted of both open and close ended questions. Bipolar as well as likert type (3 and 5 point) scale was used in order to prioritize the opinion of respondents about the working of organizations with regard to different rural development practices. For collecting qualitative data through focus group discussion meetings interview guide or unstructured interview schedule was designed keeping in view the scope and objectives of study as used by different researchers like Asghar et al., 2010 and Kausar et al., 2012. 3.8.2. Qualitative data collection methods Qualitative research is an umbrella term which covers a range of interpretive techniques seeks to describe, decode, translate, and come with meaning and not the frequency of certain phenomena in the social science research (Agar, 2004). Qualitative research methods are less structured, place more emphasis in on the in-depth findings, and tend to be more subjective in analysis of data. Qualitative research methods provide more detail about behaviors and attitudes, and the motivation that supports people‘s actions (David, 2001). This method allows gaining an empathic understanding of a complex social phenomenon and complexities of human experiences (Holliday, 2002). Qualitative research is a broad approach to the study of social phenomena; its various genres are naturalistic and interpretive, and they draw on multiple methods of inquiry (Marshall and Rossman, 1999). It provides a distinctive kind of information/data (Ritchie, and Spencer, 1994). This method enables large amount of personal indepth reflections about a phenomenon to be included in a short period of time (Nuorteva et al., 2010). Qualitative research methods are also characterized by its strong commitment with the respondent which is being interviewed (Mayring, 2002). Thus, based on secondary data and review of literature studies, this study used qualitative methods to deeply understanding the actual practices and the claims of social movements in the field of rural development in North- West Pakistan. Moreover, the study conducted individual as well as group meetings with the participants during data collection process within the framework of rural development activities at three different levels (farmer, extension and research). The advantage of focus group discussions over the individual interviews are as follows: First, people can speak freely and feel more comfortable talking to each other rather than taking to an interviewer from outside and the interpreter. Second, very ordinary things which normally are poor reflected may be easier to

62 discuss in groups (Morgan, 1997). In order to deep understanding about the quantitative data following tools were used in order to collect qualitative data in this study: 3.8.2.1. Key informant interviews

A key informant interview is one where an individual with prior knowledge about a community is questioned to collect information related to that particular community. In social science research key informant interviews are used to gain indepth understanding and knowledge about a particular phenomenon (Elmendorf and Luloff, 2006). For quick assessment in the field of social research these types of interviews are widely used from the persons who have enough knowledge about an activity. Keeping in view the importance of key informant interviews in social sciences, key informant interviews were conducted from the following key informants: i. Administrative Officer, Ministry of Rural Development, Islamabad

ii. Executive District Officer (EDO), Social welfare, Special Education and Women Empowerment Department, District Peshawar and Mansehra

iii. Chairman, Citizen Community Board Network, District Mansehra

iv. Director Agriculture Extension, District Peshawar, Abbotabad and Mansehra

v. Chairman/chairpersons/heads of social welfare organizations

vi. Local activists

vii. Local religious as well as political leaders

viii. Journalists/civil society activists

ix. Officials of Pakistan Academy for Rural Development, Peshawar

x. Chairman of farmer associations

The key informant interviews covered the following topics:  Perceptions regarding rural development

 Reasons of persistent poverty and inequality in the area

 Role of the state and non-state actors in rural development especially in the field of education, health, agriculture development and provision of relief and rehabilitation services to the community during emergency

 Linkages between different non state organizations to address the issues of community

 Involvement of local community in activities rendered by social organizations

3.8.2.2. Focus group discussion (FGD) Among different methods of qualitative research focus group discussion meetings have a unique importance as pointed out by Allen, 2005; Latta and Goodman, 2005; Tucker et al., 2005 and many others. This method provides an insight into how different participants/members of a group thanks about a particular issue (ODI, 2009). Focus group discussion is the best method for exploratory research studies (Bhattacherjee, 2012). Many other social scientists also pointed out advantages of focus group meetings in qualitative research (see Reid (1994); Sinclair (2000); Patton (2002); Allen (2005); Tucker et al., (2005). In social science research studies this method is widely used for indepth probing of field problems as adopted by Acharya, (2012); Thapa, (2012); Wattoo et al., (2010); Babar et al., (2008) and many others. Keeping in view its importance focus groups discussion meetings were conducted from all the stakeholders (staff of state social welfare department, staff of state agri. extension department, rural community from all of the six villages). From the staff of different rural development related state departments focus groups discussion meetings were conducted in April, 2012 and with the rural community the meetings were conducted March, 2013. 3.8.2.3. Observations Observations are the systematic description of events, behaviour, and objects in a social setting chosen for a particular research study (Marshall and Rossman, 1989). It enables the researcher to learn about activities of the people using the five senses (DeWalt and DeWalt, 2002). In view of its importance in the present research the qualitative data were also collected through field observations as well as participant observation during meetings of community and organizations as shown in following figure 3.4, in which the author observes the activities during a meeting of constituency relation group (CRG) organized by Sungi.

Figure 3.4: The author is in meeting as participant observer 3.9. Validity and reliability of research instrument Validity and reliability are the two different terms used in social science research (Cohen et al., 2008). Validity is defined as the degree to which a research instrument actually measures what it claims to measure or who well said research instrument fulfills its function (Oluwatayo, and Ayodele, 2012). It is an indication about the accuracy of a research instrument in terms of extent to which the results and conclusions of research match with reality (McBurney and White, 2007). On the other hand reliability of research instrument in quantitative research demonstrate that whether the instrument gives the same results over time mean that the instrument is reliable to measure something (Bowling, 2009). While in qualitative research the term reliability should be replaced with credibility, neutrality, conformability, dependability, consistency, applicability, trustworthiness and transferability as suggested by Golafshani, 2003). Keeping in view the importance of validity and reliability of research instrument in social science research, after constructing the interview schedules for the current research study, the researcher measured the content and face validity as content validity shows the degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included within a given idea (Babbie, 2007) and face validity refers to researchers‘ individual opinion of the arrangement and relevance of the

65 measuring instrument whether the items in the instrument appear to be relevant, reasonable, unambiguous and clear (Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2005; Whiston, 2005). A panel of experts comprises of faculty members of Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan and University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Pakistan were requested to judge the effectiveness and relevance of each questions i.e. validity of interview schedule with that of the objectives of the study. Changes were made keeping in view the suggestions pointed out by the experts to make the final draft of interview schedules. The interview schedules were further pretested in the field situation to determine its reliability. 3.10. Data analysis and interpretation Data analysis means finding answers by way of interpreting the data and results of a particular research (Strydom et al., 2005). It is very much difficult to explain raw data and there is dire need to analyze that raw data. The process of data analysis helps in categorization, ordering, manipulating and summarizing data for obtaining answers to research questions of a study. The rationale behind data analysis is to reduce data to an understandable and interpretable form so that the relationships can be studied tested and conclusions can also easily be drawn. In the present research study data were analyzed by using SPSS. Paired t-test was used to find out the difference of opinion of two samples as used by Mohsin et al., (2011). Moreover, in order to find out the difference in opinion of rural community affiliated with the respective SMOs, F-test was used.

CHAPTER- 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The general objective of the present research study was to analyse the vision and practices of social movement organizations (SMOs) with regard to rural development in North- West Pakistan. The data were collected from two (02) categories of respondents. The 1st category of respondents was the staff/member/volunteers of respective SMOs. And 2nd category was the rural community from those villages in which selected social movement organizations were involving in rural development work by using qualitative and quantitative methods. The collected data were analyzed and interpreted in order to draw conclusions and policy recommendations concerning rural development. As mentioned earlier that there are two categories of respondents in this research study. So, whole of the chapter is mainly divided into two (02) sections. 4.1 SECTION – I: RESPONSES OF STAFF/VOLUNTEERS OF SMOs The 1st section of the chapter is further organized as follows. The 1st part of the section I deal with the brief profile (operational area, levels of working, funding sources, status of working and their staff) of those organizations which are under study in the present research. The objectives, vision, claims, organizational structure, working strategies and their actual practices with regard to rural development are also discuss in that part. In 2nd part rural poverty, its causes including its material and non-material dimensions/impacts from the view of staff of organizations are presented and discussed. The perceptions of the staff of organizations about rural poverty reduction for rural development of rural area also discuss here in 2nd part of this section I. In 3rd and last part of this section the effectiveness of rural development practices being launched by the respective SMO and the interaction/collaboration between these organizations with other groups and organizations as well as allied state departments is presented. Moreover, in this subsection of the chapter, level of participation by the members of SMOs in their activities is presented and discussed. 4.1.1 Part – 1: Profile of Social Movement Organizations (SMOs) Any formal organization involved in activities to promote particular agenda of a social movement or to achieve its goals or objectives is referred to as Social Movement Organization (SMO) (Brown, 2007). They mobilize their resources to overcome obstacles present in the social system as well as resistance created by the society so that movement‘s goals can easily be attained (Freeman, 1978). It is better to say that social movement organizations are peculiar type

67 of organizations originated from the society, in which they have to work in order to bring change in that society (ibid). In the present research, an inventory of those organizations (incl. religious ones) was prepared which were involved in some collective actions in order to bring change in the existing social structure. The detailed inventory of these organizations and their selection criteria has already been discussed in Chapter 3 (Materials and Methods) of the thesis. From that inventory three organizations namely Sungi Development Foundation, Al-Khidmat Foundation and Rural Development Support Organization (RDSO) were finally selected for indepth study. A brief profile with respect to their operational areas, different levels of their working, funding sources, status of their working as well as status of their staff of these organizations is presented below: 4.1.1.1 Operational area The areas where activities of any organizations are being carried out are referred to as their operational areas. Every organization working for social welfare/rural development has its specific operational area depending upon the nature and objectives on which it is working. On geographical basis these areas are divided into two main categories i.e. rural and urban. In the present research respondents (staff of organizations) were asked to tell about the operational area of the organization in which they were working. The data in this regard are presented in Table 4.1 as given below: Table 4.1: Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about operational area of organizations Operational Area Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Exclusively Rural 76.5 (%) 47.1 (%) 100 (%) Exclusively Urban 0 (%) 0 (%) 0 (%) Both Rural and Urban 23.5 (%) 52.9 (%) 0 (%)

The data tabulated in Table 4.1 showed that out of the three organizations, no organization was working in exclusively urban areas. In case of Sungi development foundation, majority (76.5%) of the respondents reported that Sungi was working in exclusively rural areas. One of the staff members said that: “the main focus of our organization is to reach the poorest of the poor, and to train them, to provide them advocacy about their rights by organizing them into groups. As major portion of poor people reside in rural areas that’s why, rural localities are our major target areas” Regarding operational area of Al-khidmat Foundation slightly more than 50% of the respondents said that Al-Khidmat was working both in urban as well as rural areas. On the other

68 hand Rural Development Support Organization (RDSO) was completely rural based and exclusively works only in rural areas as reported by all of the respondents. 4.1.1.2 Levels of working Different organizations engaged in rural development work are working at different administrative and organizational levels. In the context of Pakistan for the current research these levels are divided into five main tiers where different civil society organizations work. These levels are village/union council (UC), district, provincial, national and international13. Out of these administrative tiers village/UC is regarded as the lowest tier where an organization works. In this research study, the working of organizations were determined on different levels through 4 point likert type scale (0= Never, 1= Sometimes, 2= Most of the time, 3= All the time). The mean and SD of respective organizations at their respective levels is presented in Table 4.2 as given below: Table 4.2: Mean and SD of different levels of working of organizations Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Levels of working Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Village/UC 2.71 0.470 2.41 0.618 2.88 0.332 District 2.29 0.588 2.12 0.332 - - Provincial 1.71 0.588 2.00 0.354 - - National 1.18 0.393 2.00 0.354 - - International 0.47 0.515 1.00 0.000 - -

The data presented in the above table (4.2) showed that all the three organizations which we have studied (Sungi Development Foundation, Al-Khidmat Foundation and RDSO) were mostly working at village/union council (UC) level having mean 2.71, 2.41, and 2.88 for Sungi, Al-Khidmat and RDSO, respectively. These results showed that the major focus of all the organizations was on rural areas, keeping in view the fact that majority of the poor and neglected and marginalized poor people reside in these rural areas. During qualitative interviews with one of the staff members from the field staff of Sungi, he said:

13 A village is a cluster of houses in a rural area with varying density of population and union council is a group of villages. Here village/UC level means an organization only work in a particular single village or in a single UC. Similarly, district level means the organization used to work within a district. Provinces composed of districts and provincial level means an organization operated in more than district of the same province. National level means the organization continue their working in the whole country i.e. in all the provinces and if an organization has their branches in other countries we say that that organization works at international level.

“we start work from village level through formation of village organizations (VOs) comprises of total twenty five (25) members. The problems and issues of respective villages discuss at village level, and then we collaborate with other organizations of the same and other villages to from a cluster of organizations. Village is our first and initial foundation for working” With regard to the working of RDSO, one of the volunteers said: “RDSO only works within a union council “Karnool”. But it starts work from village level through formation of village organizations and village committees” The above captioned qualitative remarks regarding working of organizations at their respective levels confirmed the quantitative results, which also showed that in most of the cases all the organizations work at village level. The data presented in Table 4.2 also indicate that in some cases Al-khidmat foundation is also working at international level mean in other countries out of the Pakistan. 4.1.1.3 Sources of funding Social movement organizations (SMOs) engaged in development related activities need resources in terms of money according to the resource mobilization theory of Social Movements (McCarthy and Zald, 2001). In Pakistan civil society organizations have a variety of funding sources in order to carry on their activities to promote human wellbeing or welfare (Pasha et al., 2002). Keeping in view the importance of income and funding sources for SMOs with special reference to Pakistan, the respondents (staff of organizations) were asked to tell about their main sources of funding and the data were recorded through 4 point likert type scale (0= Never, 1= Sometimes, 2= Most of the time, 3= All the time) as presented in Table 4.3. Table 4.3: Mean and SD of different sources of funding of organizations Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Funding sources Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Own sources 0.24 0.437 1.35 0.606 1.53 0.515 Charity 0.88 0.697 2.18 0.393 1.24 0.437 Donations 1.65 0.931 2.29 0.470 1.24 0.437 Funding from Gov. Agencies 0.24 0.437 - - 0.12 0.332 Funding from private agencies 0.65 0.931 0.71 0.686 0.12 0.332 Funding from international agencies 2.29 0.470 1.24 0.437 - -

The data presented in Table 4.3 indicate that in case of Sungi development foundation “funding from international agencies” was the major source having highest mean value (x = 2.29). This indicate that Sungi Development Foundation rely on international donors as in most

70 of the cases they receive funds from donors to carry on their activities. During discussion with one of their staff members, he said: “after surveying at village level as well as consultation meetings with the representatives of all the village level organizations, issues and problems are highlighted. After that we prepared a proposal to solve the said issue or problem for submitting to the potential national or international donor agencies for funding” The above remark indicates that the working of Sungi is mostly based on project based activities (also see table 4.4). The data regarding funding sources of SMOs, which is tabulated in Table 4.3 also showed that in case of Al-Khidmat Foundation, charity and donations were their main funding sources having x = 2.29, and 2.18, respectively. These results indicate that Al- Khidmat Foundation which is the sister organization of one of the oldest and largest religious political parties of Pakistan, mostly earns its income through charity and donations. Being faith- based organization, they receive charity, zakat/sadaqah14 etc. from the people. They collected zakat from the people through private zakat collection system. The philosophy behind this fact is that in providing voluntary services and engagement of people in philanthropic activities, religion serves as a major motivating force (Iqbal and Siddiqui, 2008). In the same context Bano (2005) also reported that majority of the volunteer social welfare organizations in Pakistan are religiously inspired. In an international research study conducted by Hasenfeld and Gidron (2005), it also has been proved that the organizations having religious background obtain funding in the form of charity and donations in order to assist poor, neglected and marginalized families. With special emphasis on Al-Khidmat Foundation which is an Islamic fail-based organization Abbasi (2011) and Mufti (2012) reported that Al-Khidmat foundation heavily depends on the donations for social welfare activities. With regard to funding sources of RDSO, ―own sources‖ were their major sources of funding as reported by majority of their staff members (x = 1.53/3.00). During discussion with one of the members of their executive body, he said:

14 Zakat is one of the pillars of Islam and it is obligatory for every Muslim (men and women) to donate certain portion (2.5% of total value of wealth or capital) on yearly basis for charity (see Abdullah & Suhaib, 2011 and Craig, 2012). Sadaqah is a voluntary charity and is optional i.e. distribution of money or goods to the needy people. It may be given any time to those who deserve in addition to zakat. On voluntary basis (Zakat collection system on private basis) wealthy people donate zakat or sadaqah to needy and poor members of society.

“We work only at union council level. Our working is mainly based on advocacy/awareness as well as empowering rural community by raising their voice at local and national level about their rights. Service delivery to the community is not our major objective. For this purpose we didn’t need much funding. Our main income source is our own sources mean membership/registration fee from members, annual collection from all the village organizations etc. However, in some cases, some influential and local political personalities also help us by giving donations and charity” The above qualitative remarks confirmed the findings of quantitative data that in RDSO their own sources were regarded as the major sources of income. These funding sources act as important revenue generation basis for non-profit organizations so efficient execution of their activities and plans as reported by Tait (2011). 4.1.1.4 Status of working On the basis of sources of funding of civil society organizations and their objectives on which they are working, these organizations are divided into two main categories. The activities of some organizations are project based15 and some of them are regularly involved in development as well as welfare work throughout the year. In the present research study the status of working of SMOs were identified and the data in this regard is given in Table 4.4: Table 4.4: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about status of working of organizations Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Status of working % % % Project based 41.2 - - Regular 17.6 88.2 100 Both 41.2 11.8 0

The data presented in Table 4.4 depicted that Al-Khidmat Foundation and RDSO continue their working throughout the year on regular basis according to the opinion of 88.2% and 100.0% of the respondents, respectively. Both of these organizations are locally originated and had strong penetration in the community due to their regular working through their network of volunteers by using their own resources of funding. As in case of Al-Khidmat Foundation

15 Project based mean organizations submit any development related project like imparting training to male and female community members or distribution of seed or other farm inputs to farmers or others and submit it to the any of the funding agency for funds. The project will be for a stipulated period of time. After the completion of that project they start working on other projects. But some organizations carry on their activities throughout the whole year. They didn’t depend on projects.

72 majority of the funds came from donations and charity (Table 4.3). During key informant interviews, one of the informants of Al-Khidmat said that: “we continue our working regularly throughout the year on different occasions as we are accountable to God and community also” The captioned comments of key informant of Al-Khidmat Foundation confirmed the quantitative results that the activities of foundation regularly continue throughout the year but in some cases they also involve in some project based welfare activities. Further, the data tabulated in Table 4.4 showed that Sungi Development Foundation was only the organizations among all three who‘s majority of the staff reported that we work regularly as well as on projects also according to the opinion of 41.2% of the respondents in both the cases. Regarding working of Sungi one of the staff members said that: “Keeping in view the problems and issues came from the village level organizations (as we work through grass root village organizations), our senior management prepared a project about that issue and submit it to the funding agency. The above comment clearly indicates the sources of funding of Sungi and its status of working in the community. 4.1.1.5 Status of staff The human resources of civil society organizations including SMOs depend upon their status of staff i.e. whether their staff is paid or volunteers. All the CSOs have voluntary staff members but some of them also hire paid staff depending upon their revenue sources. In the current research study the status of staff in the organizations was explored whether they are working as paid staff or on voluntary basis or they have both paid as well as paid staff members. The data in this regard is tabulated in Table 4.5 as given below: Table 4.5: Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about status of majority of the staff of organizations Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Status of staff % % % Paid as regular staff 5.9 - - Volunteer - 52.9 100 Both voluntary and paid staff 94.1 47.1 -

The data presented in table 4.5 showed that majority of the respondents said that their respective organization work through volunteers especially in case of RDSO who‘s all members (100.0%) work only on voluntary basis and in case of Al-Khidmat Foundation slightly more than

73 half (52.9%) of the respondents were of the view that status of their staff was volunteers. During qualitative interviews it was noted that “Al-Khidmat foundation is exclusively involved in educational activities like opening of schools/colleges both for boys and girls and in these institutions they hire personnel’s as regular and contractual staff members but on the other hand in different field activities all the work was done through volunteers”. According to the results of an international study, Meyer Jr. (2013) said that in social organizations volunteers devote a significant portion of their time in order to provide unpaid services. The data presented in Table 4.5 showed that 5.9% of the people interviewed from Sungi Development Foundation think that they mainly work through paid staff. But majority (94.1%) of the people interviewed thinks that they work through both volunteers as well as paid staff. This showed that although Sungi development foundation had paid staff but they also had volunteers. On the same lines Luqman et al., (2013b) reported that in Khyber Pukhtunkhwa province, Pakistan social organizations engaged in rural development mostly rely on volunteers. 4.1.2 Objectives of Social Movement Organizations (SMOs) Objectives are the expression of the ends towards which efforts are being directed to achieve a specific goal. At organizational level objectives are the plans or steps being undertaken by the management of organization in order to achieve specific goals being identified keeping in view the manifesto of organization (Ray, 2011). In this research study three organizations are studied (as already explained in the previous section). The main objective of these respective SMOs is given below: (a) Sungi Development Foundation Sungi Development Foundation is one of the leading social organization working throughout the country especially in the Hazara region since last two decades (Sungi Development Foundation, 2011). According to the opinions of their staff the main objective of Sungi Development Foundation is to “bring social change to develop peaceful and prosperous society based on equality and justice”. Their staff members emphasized that Sungi Development Foundation is working on right-based approach having aim of equal distribution of resources to all peoples of society. This right-based approach being adopted by Sungi Development Foundation leads to social inclusion which is referred to as elimination of institutional barriers in order to increase the access or approach to development opportunities by all the individuals and groups on equality. The impact of adopting right-based approach on social inclusion was also

74 reported by Bennett (2002). While discussion with the staff members of Sungi Development Foundation it was noted that their focus was on the empowerment of poorest, marginalized, and vulnerable groups of people for social change. For this purpose awareness campaigns were launched in collaboration with other civil society organizations and local groups. (b) Al-Khidmat Foundation In Pakistan a number of religious political parties are engaged in welfare work through their welfare wings. All these parties affiliated and linkages with different Islamic schools of thoughts or sects. Out of these parties Jamiat-e-Islami is the largest and oldest political party involved in intense welfare activities through separate welfare foundation known as Al-Khidmat Foundation (Iqbal and Siddiqui, 2008). The main objective of Al-Khidmat Foundation is to “serve humanity”. It was concluded from the comments of their staff/voluntary workers during a focus group meeting that basic philosophy behind their objective to serve human beings is to gain Khushnoodi (happiness) from Allah. They said that this is the obligation of every Muslim to provide services on voluntary basis to other members of society. Their staff emphasized and claimed that Al-Khidmat Foundation Pakistan is one of the largest welfare organizations solely dedicated for humanitarian services. They said that we are the volunteers and only works for the service of humanity. Further they said that Jamiat-e-Islami is a tahreek (movement) and we are the part of that movement. We struggle for the change in existing system of inequality especially with regard to land rights of peasants. For this purpose we are also the part of peasant movement in Pakistan and also have strong linkage linkages with farmer‘s independent body i.e. Pakistan Kissan Board. The association or linkages of Al-Khidmat Foundation with Pakistan Kissan Board was also reported by Iqtidar (2011). (c) Rural Development Support Organization (RDSO) RDSO is a locally originated social organization working in one of the union council of district Mansehra (Karnool) in the form of cluster of village organizations. According to the perceptions of their volunteers the prime objective of RDSO is to “empower poor and marginalized sections of society through advocacy, education and training”. Their volunteers who act as their staff members emphasized on the creation of such social, cultural, economic and political environment that would facilitate and encourage the poor and powerless members of society. In simpler form they said we are struggling for the empowerment of poor people because empowerment reduces poverty and inequality in a society. The impact of empowering local

75 community on poverty reduction was also discussed by Dahal (2010) and Sharma (2003). They conclude that empowering local community played a significant role in poverty reduction. In the research area it was observed that women were more deprived and vulnerable than men in terms of access to basic educational, health, agricultural as well as access to micro-credit facilities. Empowerment of these poor and vulnerable rural women was also one of the major tasks of RDSO through educational and skills enhancement programmes. They believed on the philosophy that development will be more effective by empowering both the genders through education and skills. This philosophy of women empowerment which is being followed by RDSO was also cited and described by Awan et al., (2009). From the main objectives of all the three organizations, it is clear that all of them are engaged in variety of social welfare work especially empowering the suppressed and neglected people of the study area. It was also noted during detailed interviews with the staff/volunteers of all organizations that Al-Khidmat foundation has affiliation/association with one of the oldest and largest religious political party (Jamat-e-Islami). But neither the Sungi development foundation nor the RDSO have any political or religious affiliation. 4.1.3 Vision According to the online Merriam-Webster Dictionary, vision or vision statement mean the major purpose of an organization. It is the synopses of organizational activities/tasks. Vision focuses on the future of an organization mean. Simply, it is the summary to what the specific organization desires to be in the future. The vision of any organization gives direction to move forward for attaining their goals (CARI, 2008). Particularly in the field of rural development in developing or low income countries, the vision of a social or community organization is very much important (Schneider and Peters, 2012). Keeping in view the importance of an organizational vision in the field of rural development, in the present study, the respondents (staff/volunteers of SMOs) were asked question related to rural development and its importance according to the vision of their respective organizations, in which they were working. The vision as perceived by the respective staff of SMOs regarding rural development are given and discussed below: (a) Sungi Development Foundation According to the perceptions of staff of Sungi Development Foundation, their vision with regard to the development of rural areas i.e. rural development is:

“Improve the socio-economic condition of rural community and engage them in decision and policy making The vision of Sungi Development Foundation regarding rural development as stated above indicate that bringing overall improvement in the existing social and economic status of rural people in the area is their major vision and mission. For this purpose and to create rural development vision from the view point of local community, they involve them in decision making process through advocacy and dialogue. This also cleared from the qualitative remarks of one of their staff members. He said: “our vision is to develop such society in which all the people have equal access to justice and other basic necessities of life” The above mentioned qualitative remark gave an idea of importance of equality and justice in a society. (b) Al-Khidmat Foundation The perceived vision of the staff of Al-Khidmat Foundation regarding rural development is: “Wellbeing of people without class/race/gender based discrimination within the Islamic teaching quoted in Quran and Hadith16” This indicates that wellbeing of community without all types of discrimination like class, race or gender is the vision and mission of Al-Khidmat Foundation. During discussion with their staff members/ volunteers it was noted that the central vision of Al-Khidmat foundation is to establish Islamic welfare system keeping in view the teachings of Islam reported by God in Quran and in Hadith as Sunnah quoted by Last Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). They said that existing social or capitalistic system is not in accordance to the Islamic values and has no capacity to escape rural people from poverty. They emphasized that as a nation there are three symbols of our success and prosperity; these are Allah (God), Muhammad (PBUH), and Quran – Book of God. Further, they said equal distribution of wealth, land and other social services is essential for wellbeing of community, which is the main aim and notion of rural development. This notion of rural development is also described by Sher and Sher (1994) and Tavira and Tapia (2008).

16 Sayings of Last Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

(c) Rural Development Support Organization (RDSO) The perceived vision of the staff of RDSO which is a grassroots level SMO regarding rural development is: “Empower the rural poor and bring social change in the society” During discussion with their President it was observed that empowerment of the community is their major vision and focus. He narrated that: “The vision and mission of RDSO is to give voice and power to those individuals and groups of society, who have no voice and are powerless and to bringing social change in the existing society, political and economic structure” The above mentioned vision of rural development through empowering the poor and neglected masses of society has capacity to improve rural farm and non-farm productivity in order to enhance rural food security and sustainable development in rural territories. The volunteers of RDSO commented that majority of the poor people in rural areas have limited access to land and other natural resources to maintain their livelihoods. In order to empower these poor people by giving them equal and secure access to land, land reforms through policy dialogue with all the stakeholders are very much essential. The need of land reforms in Pakistan to empower rural poor was also discussed by International Fund for Agricultural Development in the report IFAD (2011a). In this situation many civil society organizations are playing important role in addressing the issue of unequal distribution of land and wealth in the country. The working of wide variety of CSOs on issue of land reforms in Pakistan was also quoted and discussed in a report published by Oxfam (2011). With special reference to study area (KPK province) different civil society organizations in the form of alliance (group of organizations) are working on the agenda of land reforms and imparting land rights to landless poor rural people. RDSO and Sungi development foundation are also the part of that alliance which is struggling for the redistribution of agricultural land. After discussing the vision (with the notion of rural development) of all the three organizations it is important to mention here that there exists no significant difference between their respective visions. However, across the three organizations, their motives and the source of inspiration or motivation might be different.

4.1.4 Claims of SMOs regarding rural development According to the online the free dictionary17 by Farlex claim is ―assert or affirm strongly‖ or it is the state which is to be true or existing. Every social organization has different claims based on the objectives and target areas. In the present research the rural development claims of non-state organizations which were under study in the present research were identified through qualitative interviews and summarized in Table 4.6. Table 4.6: Claims of SMOs related to rural development Claims regarding SMOs Sungi Al-khidmat RDSO Networking Grass root level Wide village level Wide national and network/penetration at network in the region international network village community level Working strategy Work to serve the Work through bottom- Ensure maximum humanity within socio- up development community economic culture of the approach and capacity to participation in society in view of represent the real needs development plans Islamic values of local people Activities/actions Advocacy of community and Provide welfare Provide skill create a spirit of self- services to every development platform help among rural marginalized/poor for both the genders at community member of society village level

Claims of all the three organizations as presented in table 4.6 showed that networking of village level organizations through maximum participation of local people is the major claim and is the main central working idea of Sungi Development Foundation. They also claimed that empowerment through advocacy of community is our main strategy. While discussion with the head of regional office of Sungi development foundation in Mansehra she said: “we work for the empowerment of local people to take initiatives and set development plans according to their own needs and priorities. We actually work on creating the spirit of self-help among the rural communities through advocacy” During focus group discussion with the staff members and volunteers of Sungi Development Foundation they viewed that we believe on the idea that: “if one doesn’t want to change him/herself, no one can help him”

17 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/affirm

Their staff claimed that Sungi is working to bring social and economic change in the society. These claims of Sungi Development Foundations were also confirmed by Janjua (2009) while analyzing and evaluating their activities. It was noted that Al-khidmat foundation claims that they work on wide national and international platform keeping in view the religious socio-economic cultural norms and values of the society. They also claimed that service for humanity on voluntary basis and provide welfare community services to all people in the society was the main ideology of our organization. One of the staff members said that: “the notion of mutual interdependency and cordial care of all the citizens without discrimination on the basis of gender, race, class and culture is the central idea of Al-Khidmat Foundation” From the above captioned comments it is clear that the social work rendered by Al- Khidmat Foundation is free of any type of discrimination. They said state (Government) should remove all types of discrimination from the country; especially access to educational and other development services. There should be one educational system for all the people in a society. They strongly condemn the existing heterogeneous educational system in Pakistan. They also emphasized on getting religious as well as secular/worldly education. Further they said every member of society should take care of other poor and neglected masses of society. As this is the preaching‘s/teachings of Islam. They claims that we focus on getting Islamic education (Quran and Hadith) besides education of other scientific subjects as they perceive that Islamic education is compulsory for one‘s eternal success. They said there is no such state controlled educational institute in the country in which both Islamic and science subjects are being taught. Due to this reason Al-Khidmat foundation is running their own schools/colleges for both the genders in every city of the country with name Taimeer-e-Millat school/college (Institute of nation‘s building). With regard to the presence of deprived and powerless people in the society they perceived that ―no person is left helpless in the society‖. In this view, during focus group discussion with their staff they commented that: “in the community no person is lacking in or deprived of strength or power” They work on the notion of poverty eradication from the society keeping in mind the philosophy of Muslim brotherhood. They argued that collective aspiration force exists among the members of Al-Khidmat Foundation Tehreek-i-Islami (Islamic Movement) for welfare work. With regard to significance of welfare or voluntary work of Al-Khidmat Foundation Bano (2009)

80 reported that their work for poor, needy and marginalized people help in bringing social change in the minds of people and also help in organizing all the efforts in the form of a movement. The voluntary workers of RDSO claim that we have a grass root level networking in the rural community at village level within the union council (UC) Karnool. Further they said that we have deep rooted penetration in all the villages placed in the UC. We followed the bottom-up rural development approach. They said, we are the ones‘ who actually represent the real needs and demands of rural poor. Their point of view was that, as the state efforts are incapable of developing rural people and reducing poverty from rural areas, so community has to set their own development plans by their own efforts. They said no one will come to help us; we have to develop by our own efforts. Regarding activities, their volunteers said we provided skill enhancement programmes both for male and female community members at village level. We are actually providing income generation platform for the community. The staff of RDSO also claimed that they believe in equal distribution of resources among all members of the rural community in order to attain the main idea of sustainable rural development. 4.1.5 Structure of organizations Organizational structure is referred to as the framework of inter relationship which brings all the people and resources within an organization in order to achieve objectives. It is the hierarchy of people and different sections or departments in an organization (Montana and Charnov, 1999). In simple words it denotes how authorities and responsibilities are distributed and delegated in the organization. It helps in binding the people in the form of a group and also provides clear guidelines to all the members of an organization. It is the structure of an organization which provides a determined and aim or goal oriented behavior. Moreover, the organizational structure also helps in maintaining the coordination between diverse components of an organization (Shtub and Karni, 2010). In a typical organizational structure there are three distinct elements as described by Berkowitz and Wolff (1999). The first and foremost important one is governing or decision making authority which mean who is responsible for taking and managing decisions in the organization, which may be single individual or group of individuals. The 2nd element of organizational structure is rules of organizations which help in efficient functioning of that organization. These rules may explicit or implicit in nature. The 3rd element in an organizational structure is varying degree and nature of distribution of work among all members of the

81 organization. This distribution of work may be formal or informal and may be consists of temporary casual workers or permanent staff members. In the current research study, the overall structure of SMOs which were under study was analyzed keeping in mind the above mentioned elements in an organizational structure and discussed one by one under the following subsections: (a) Sungi Development Foundation Sungi Development Foundation is an organization working at national level especially in Hazara region of KPK province Pakistan. Regarding organizational structure of Sungi, their programme coordinator of district Manshera said: “the organizational structure of Sungi is formal one. Every individual which is associated with Sungi has their own typical role and responsibilities. There are clear cut demarcation in the job titles and responsibilities of every staff member whether he/she is paid staff member or voluntary staff member” The above remark regarding organizational structure of Sungi Development Foundation showed that all the employees working in Sungi and volunteers have well defined tasks and responsibilities. These defined tasks help in managing all the activities being rendered by the organization to achieve specific goals. Regarding 1st element of structure of organizations i.e. governing and decision making authority in the organization, the staff member (programme coordinator) of Sungi Development Foundation narrated: “all the decisions of the organization are made at the top management level. There is board of directors which are monitoring all the activities of organization. All the high level decisions were made in the meeting of board or directors. At organizational there is also a programme management committee, which is responsible for all the decisions and initiatives at the organizational level. There is also a salary review committee, whose sole responsibility is to review the salary packages of all the staff of Sungi” The above said remarks about the power of decision making in Sungi Development Foundation indicated that governance in the organization is not in single hand. Only single individual is not responsible for taking all the decisions and managing all the activities. It is clear that Sungi is not following the bureaucratic/autocratic style of governance and management. They followed the decentralized delegation of power or authority mean the whole authority is not in the hands of a single person or individual. With regard to 2nd and 3rd element of organizational

82 structure in any organization i.e. status of rules of the organization and division of labour within the organization, one of the staff members of Sungi reported that: “There are rules and regulations in Sungi. In other words you can say that there is code of conducts in the organization and every one must follow those rules and regulations. There is also division of labour in the organization. Every individual has his/her own duties” From the above discussion it is concluded that in Sungi development foundation all the elements of a typical organizational structure exists. (b) Al-Khidmat Foundation While asking about their overall organizational structure, one of the (karkoon18) workers said: “the organizational structure of Al-Khidmat is typically hierarchical. But the job and responsibilities of all the members associated with Jamiat are changing time to time according to the situation. The structure is highly organized in nature with strong networking at grass root level” The above captioned remarks with regard to the organizational structure of Al-Khidmat foundation showed that although their structure is hierarchical i.e. the organization start from the top with an ameer (leader) and then came down to the other members and subordinates. But their structure was not completely formal one due to the changing duties of the staff and volunteers from time to time. This informal structure of social organizations and their networks help in effective, efficient and immediate response from the other staff members and also to work for some common cause and purpose as reported by Wang and Ahmed (2002). Regarding 1st element of organizational structure which is the decision making authority, the secretary of Al- Khidmat foundation, Mansehra said: “in the organization no single person has the authority to decide the management issues. All the issues are discussed and finalized by the mutual consensus of all the members of the respective district. Some high level issues e.g. purchase of goods or equipment or vehicles/ ambulances are finalized by the provincial level management committee” The above captioned remarks indicated that the organizational structure of Al-Khidmat is decentralized as all the decisions are being done with the mutual consultation with all the

18 Karkoon is an Urdu world mean worker

83 members. No one person has the sole authority to take decision about any issue of the organization. This also indicated that decision power is not in the hands of a single person or individual and they followed the democratic style of working with instead of autocratic. It was also synthesized from the discussion that they followed the highly organized structure of mutual networking of all the members at national and international level as well. The organizational structure of an organization is also depend upon its size which may be big or small one as described by Meyer (1972). The organizations having large size are involved in multiple activities and have multi-departmental and sub-sectional organizational structure. Regarding size of Al-Khidmat foundation, their secretary (staff member) argued that: “Al-Khidmat foundation is one of the largest non-profit organizations working at national as well as international level. Its network is deep rooted in the religious culture of Pakistan. In every city of Pakistan, its branch is working for providing services to all community members without gender, race, culture and religious discrimination at any level. Al-khidmat is not only focusing a single area, its involvement in multiple activities is its success and praise by the national and foreign development agencies. The basic purpose of initiating welfare work under the platform of Jamat-e-Islami was to bring momentum in the activities of Jamat for change the socio-economic culture of society” The above said remarks of the respondents regarding size of Al-Khidmat foundation clearly indicated that their network is the largest one among many other social welfare organizations of Pakistan. The involvement of Al-khidmat foundation in activities to bring change in the society as elaborated by their staff in the above captioned remarks was also discussed by Bano (2009) and Abbasi (2011). (c) Rural Development Support Organization (RDSO) RDSO is the local level organization working at union council level (UC). Regarding their organizational structure, the chairman of organization said: “although the organizational structure of our organization is hierarchical, but no prescribed duties are assigned to any member or worker of organization. Many of the members are engaged in doing multiple tasks and assignments as decided by the executive body. As in our organization no paid staff is working, all the members have to work only on voluntary basis. This engagement of workers in voluntary work becomes the basis of informal nature of our organization”

The above captioned remarks regarding organizational structure of RDSO, depicted that due to lack of fixed job responsibilities and requirement of contiguous response from the members, the organization is referred to as informal one. With regard to decision making authority at organizational level, the staff of RDSO said: “the decision making process in our organization is decentralized. All the decisions are made with the consultation of all the presidents of all the village organizations (VOs). Initially, the president of the respective organization discusses all the issues and concerns directly with the community in the meeting organized at village level. Then after consensus these issues are also discussed in the meeting of all the presidents of ACC. And finally the decisions discussed and finalized by the ACC are approved by the executive body of organization which is headed by a President” These qualitative remarks depicted that in RDSO the decision making authority is not a single individual. The executive body is wholly responsible for managing and deciding all the matters of organization. 4.1.6 Working strategies of SMOs Strategy is the plan or policy being adopted by an individual or by group of individuals as in the form of organization for completing objectives or achieving goals of the respective organization or individual. At individual or organizational level working strategies play significant role in achieving predetermined objectives in a successful manner (Cieri et al., 2002). Every organization adopts different working strategy in order to attain success and to meet specific targets. The working strategies of SMOs which were under study in the current research are presented in Table 4.7 as given below: Table 4.7: Respective working strategies of SMOs Sungi Al-khidmat RDSO Good governance for the Follow the problem solving Problem and issues people and by the people approach identification at community level

Social mobilization and Focus on the livelihoods of Launch skill enhancement advocacy using PRA and RRA deprived, neglected, and programmes for both the deserving poor community genders and their advocacy through need based approach

Community based Well organized linkages with Networking and performance evaluation and sister organizations and collaboration with all CBOs strong linkages with line state different professional of UC and with the allied departments and partner associations departments organizations

The working strategies of the respective SMOs as shown in Table 4.7 indicated that there exist minor differences between their working strategies. The working strategy of Sungi development foundation was based on the participatory rural development paradigms which focus on the notion that development for the community and by the community. For this purpose they used participatory techniques like participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and rapid rural appraisal (RRA) for mobilizing local community. They start and continue their work and activities on the basis of performance evaluation by the local community and also work through strong linkages with the different state departments and other local as well as national level civil society organizations. Regarding their working policy one of their staff members argued that: “Sungi development foundation works on the pattern of participatory rural development. For this purpose we start work through involvement of local community in the decision making process. The reason is that they know better about their problems and also about their possible solutions and also about their resources in the form of manpower. Our duty is just to mobilize the community about some common cause. For mobilization we also collaborate with other organizations in order to bring momentum and continuity in the activities” The above said remarks depicted the participatory strategy or approach towards rural development in the area. The views of the staff and volunteers (workers) of Al-khidmat foundation about their working strategy for rural development as presented in Table 4.7 showed that they mainly work for the livelihoods of those community members who are vulnerable and helpless by keeping in mind the idea of need-based approach. Application of problem solving approach towards rural development was also one of their major working plans. For this purpose they work through organized grassroots linkages with their sister organizations and other professional associations by using the platform of Jamat-e-Islami Pakistan. They perceived that their working strategy and approach paved the way of social change which is prerequisite of social movements.

On the other hand the staff of RDSO argued that they also work through participatory rural development approach by identifying and prioritizing the actual problems and issues as well as their needs. About working strategies of RDSO, one of their staff members said: “Our organization starts work first by identifying the problems of local community, then prioritizing those problems. These two tasks are completed by our village level organization through active participation of all the members of that respective VO”. It has been concluded that all the three SMOs are working on the theme of people- centered rural development approach which covers all aspects of sustainable rural development. It was also conclude that the working strategies adopted by the SMOs towards rural development in the study area are different to some extent. The staff of all the SMOs reported that the working strategies adopted by the state departments for rural development in the form of different rural development programmes and initiatives are actually based on the traditional rural development approaches with broader concept of trickle-down theory. And this approach has no capacity to reduce poverty and to develop rural people on sustainable basis. The working approach followed by SMOs is the strategy to achieve the goal of poverty reduction as explained by Cleary, D. in working paper of FAO (2003) and Krantz (2001). 4.1.7 Actual rural development Practices Social organizations in Pakistan involve in numerous welfare, charitable, philanthropic and development related activities. They fill a vacuum created by the state by providing a variety of community services (education, health, agriculture, relief services in emergency etc.) especially to vulnerable, marginalized and neglected groups of society (Khan and Khan, 2004). These community services are the actual rural development practices of these organizations. In the present research the actual rural development practices of studied organizations (Sungi development foundation, Al-Khidmat foundation and Rural development support organization - RDSO) were identified and presented below: 4.1.7.1 Educational practices/activities Education is the major need of the community and it is the fundamental right of every individual of society to get education (Hassan, 2010). It has significant contribution in building up a nation on concrete lines. Imparting education to rural people is the basic strategy and essential requirement of rural development (Aref, 2011b; Abdulahi, 2008; Jaiyeoba, 2007; Riddell, 2006; Raji, 2004; Atchoarena and Gasperini 2003 and Lasker et al., 2001). Insipte of the importance of education in individual as well as national development of a country, in the study

87 province (KPK) disparity in literacy rate of both the genders is high as compared to Punjab and Sindh province (SPDC, 2003). In this situation besides state efforts in improving literacy level of Pakistani people a number of non-profit social organizations are also working and involved in educational activities (Ghaus-Pasha et al., 2002). The SMOs which were under study in the present research were also involved in different educational activities. These activities were rated on the 3 point likert scale (1= Never, 2= Sometime, 3= Most of the time) and the results in this regard are given below in Table 4.8: Table 4.8: Mean and SD of organizations regarding their educational practices Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Educational activities/practices Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Open new schools 1.00 0.000 3.00 0.000 1.24 0.434 Ensure enrollment of both genders 2.41 0.498 2.68 0.4711 2.63 0.487 Provide free schooling to needy students 1.80 0.654 2.66 0.4801 2.24 0.434 Provide school uniform to needy students 1.74 0.681 2.73 0.4486 1.69 0.847 Provide free books and stationary to needy students 1.74 0.681 2.73 0.4486 1.69 0.847 Support to existing schools 2.35 0.706 2.20 0.7817 1.67 0.689 Launch skill oriented programmes for rural people 2.52 0.505 2.54 0.5049 2.88 0.331 Overall Mean 1.94 2.65 2.01 The data presented in table 4.8 depicted that all the three SMOs are involved in variety of educational practices. Their main motive is to educate the rural community as education play a significant role in rural poverty (Riddell, 2006). Among different educational practices being offered by Sungi Development Foundation ―launch skill oriented progarmmes for rural people‖ was on the top with highest mean value (x = 2.52/3.00) followed by ―ensure enrollment of both the genders‖, and support to existing schools having x = 2.41, and x = 2.35, respectively. This showed that Sungi Development Foundation were mostly involved in educational practices like provision of skill enhancement programmes, ensure gender equality in provision of education and also give support to existing educational institutions of the area in terms of finance or provision of teaching staff. Regarding educational practices of RDSO, the data tabulated in table 5.8 showed that among different practices launch skill oriented progarmmes was also on the top with highest mean (x = 2.88). This showed that like Sungi RDSO is also involved mostly in those activities which enhance skill level of rural community. This is due to the reason that they believed that after getting training, the trainee will be able to earn money to maintain his/her livelihood status.

The data regarding involvement of Al-khidmat foundation in different educational practices showed that in all the educational activities, they are mostly involved in opening new schools in the area was on the top with maximum mean (x = 3.00). The overall mean value of educational practices of Al-Khidmat Foundation was also higher (x = 2.65) than that of Sungi (x = 1.94) and RDSO (x = 2.01). This showed that the engagement of Al-Khidmat foundation in imparting education to the rural community is maximum. It was personally observed during data collection that schools in different localities are in operation under the umbrella of Al-khidmat foundation. Separate schools and colleges for male and female were engaged in imparting education and training to the community. In view of these results Iqbal and Siddiqui (2008) also reported that Islamic faith based organizations which are also the part of non-profit sector in Pakistan are heavily involved in welfare activities especially education and health. The philosophy behind this fact is that they believed that without education, no change in a society is possible. During qualitative interviews the Principal of women college/mudrassa being run by the management of Jamiat-e-Islami in Mansehra said: “Lack of education is the basic cause of poverty in this area. I personally considered illiterate people as poor because he/she has no awareness who to earn money within the Islamic perspective. No nation can go ahead without education. Keeping in view this idea in mind we are working for enhancing educational level of community in the area” The above qualitative remarks verified the quantitative findings of the present study and also depicted that Al-khidmat foundation is extensively involved in educational activities which is the prerequisite for sustainable rural development in the region. 4.1.7.2 Health related activities/practices In human development index health is one of the significant components and considers as the central part of HDI (Canning, 2010). It is a type of human capital and highly correlated with poverty (Bleakley, 2010). It is common perception that unhealthy human beings tend to be poor than the healthy ones. In simple words we can say that “health is wealth”. It has been recognized that access and awareness of health services is very much important to tackle the vulnerabilities and threats related to human health hazards (Antony and Laxmaiah, 2008). In Pakistan like other countries of the developing world human health related issues and problems are very common. These problems are more prevalent in rural areas as people of these areas have very least access to health related facilities (Shaukat et al., 2012). In imparting health services to the rural

89 community both public and private sector are working. Other than these two sectors, non-profit sector is also involved in different health related in Pakistan (Iqbal et al., 2004). In the study area many social welfare organizations are involved in delivering health related facilities to the rural people. The involvement of SMOs which were under study in the present research in different rural development related activities including human health were measured on the 3 point likert type scale (1= Never, 2= Sometime, 3= Most of the time) and the results in this regard are given in Table 4.9: Table 4.9: Mean and SD of organizations regarding their rural development practices related to human health Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Health related activities/practices Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Open basic health centers in rural area 1.04 0.206 2.27 0.708 1.24 0.434 Install free medical camps 1.80 0.401 2.93 0.264 1.24 0.434 Provide free medicines and medical facility to needy people 1.41 0.498 2.71 0.461 2.00 0.500 Provide free medical training to rural female 2.50 0.506 2.34 0.728 2.45 0.503 Launch awareness campaigns regarding human health 2.74 0.444 2.61 0.494 2.67 0.591 Ambulance services 1.00 0.000 2.66 0.728 1.00 0.000 Blood camps 1.46 0.781 2.66 0.728 1.49 0.711 Medical laboratory at discount rate 1.00 0.000 2.63 0.733 1.00 0.000 Overall Mean 1.62 2.60 1.64 The data tabulated in Table 4.9 regarding level of involvement of SMOs in different health related activities in the research areas showed that all the SMOs were involved in variety of tasks related to human health to improve the health status of rural people. Out of these tasks launch awareness campaigns regarding human health for the rural community was the major activity in which Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO were mostly involve having highest mean (2.74/3.00) and (2.67/3.00), respectively. This showed that both Sungi and RDSO were mostly involved in raising public awareness about health. About health services delivery by these SMOs their staff viewed that: “Our work is only to increase awareness level of community about their health. As delivering other health services to the people high revenue is required. To provide better health facility to the people, it is the duty of the state. We believe that health of people can only be improved through timely provision of health facilities to the people or also by enhancing their knowledge level about health care”

The above said remarks confirmed the findings of quantitative data that Sungi and RDSO were heavily involved in enhancing public awareness about their health. The data given in Table 4.9 also showed that among other health related activities or tasks being undertaken by Al- khidmat foundation, install free medical camps for rural community was on the top with highest mean value (2.93/3.00). The overall mean value (2.60/3.00) of all the health related activities also showed that the rate of involvement of Al-khidmat foundation in health activities is higher than that of Sungi Development Foundation (x = 1.62) and RDSO (x = 1.64).This showed that they mostly involved in helping the needy people by providing them free of cost medicines and also medical facilities. With regard to the involvement of Al-khidmat foundation in delivering free medical facility to the needy and poor people, their secretary said: “After verification the village committees of Al-khidmat send application of the person to the district management regarding his/her help in medical facilities. District management also scrutinize and verified the income status of the applicant. After that the organization provides him/her the medicines and other related medical facility to the applicant. The basic purpose of all this activity is to gain the happiness of God” The above qualitative remarks showed and proved that in most of the cases Al-Khidmat foundation mostly involves in philanthropic activities. The findings/results of present study also confirms of findings reported by Ismail (2004) regarding working of Al-Khidmat foundation. 4.1.7.3 Agricultural practices/activities In rural areas agriculture is the main profession. Majority of the rural people are engaged in agricultural related activities for their livelihoods (FAO, 2006). In Pakistan more than half of the population resides in rural territories (Government of Pakistan, 2011b). The wellbeing of this high proportion of rural population is associated with development and advancement of agriculture as in case of many other developing countries (Cleaver, 2013). It is the sole responsibility of the government to deliver agricultural services to the rural community at their door steps through public sector extension department (Khan et al., 2012; Achakzai, 2013). But the performance of public sector extension department is not upto the mark. In these circumstances other civil society organizations (CSOs) are also working for disseminating and delivering agricultural services to the people in the study area (Ahmed et al., 2009). Being the part of civil society the extent or rate of involvement of SMOs which were under study in the present research in different agricultural activities or practices were

91 determined with the help of a three (3) point likert type scale (1= Never, 2= Sometime, 3= Most of the time). The mean and SD of respective SMOs regarding their involvement in agricultural practices with aim to improve livelihood standards of rural community is presented in Table 4.10 as given below: Table 4.10: Mean and SD of organizations regarding their rural development practices related to agriculture Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Agricultural activities/practices Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Provide agricultural advisory services to farmers 2.13 0.619 1.83 0.738 2.55 0.503 Provide free farm inputs 1.46 0.504 2.17 0.381 1.61 0.862 Provide farm inputs on credit 1.22 0.554 1.51 0.506 1.24 0.434 Provide tube wells/water pumps for irrigation purpose at farms 1.70 0.465 1.78 0.571 2.12 0.600 Provide training to farmers regarding crop and livestock management practices 2.26 0.444 2.20 0.749 2.80 0.407 Provide services regarding marketing of agricultural produce 1.80 0.749 1.51 0.506 1.24 0.434 Launch awareness training sessions regarding protection of natural environment 2.63 0.488 2.17 0.919 2.24 0.434 Overall Mean 1.89 1.88 1.97 The data tabulated in Table 4.10 clearly indicated that according to the staff of Sungi Development Foundation, launching awareness training sessions for rural community regarding protection of natural environment was their main activity in which they mostly involve (x = 2.63/3.00). On the other hand according to the perceptions of the staff of Al-khidmat Foundation and RDSO providing training facility to farmers regarding improved crop and livestock management practices was their major activity with x = 2.20/3.00 and x = 2.80/3.00, respectively. This indicate that in the research area CSOs were mostly involve in those which enhance the knowledge level of the rural people about latest technologies related to crop and livestock management. The overall mean value of all the agricultural practices or activities in which the three SMOs involve showed that RDSO, which was working at rural grassroots level in the study area was found to be mostly involve in these agricultural activities with highest mean (1.97/3.00) as compared to Sungi (x = 1.89/3.00) and Al-Khidmat foundation (x = 1.88/3.00). This showed that civil society organizations having no religious affiliation were mostly involve in agricultural practices as compared to those which have affiliation with any religious sect (commonly referred to as faith based organizations) e.g. Al-Khidmat foundation as in case of present study.

4.1.7.4 Other rural development practices/activities It has already been clear that rural development is not a one-dimensional aspect. It is a multidimensional phenomenon covering all the aspects of social life. The detail discussion has already been given in Chapter 2 of the dissertation (review of literature). The SMOs which were under current research study were involved in variety of rural development tasks and practices including education, health and agriculture development as discussed in the preceding sections. The rate of involvement of these SMOs in miscellaneous rural development activities were determined through 3 point likert type scale (1= Never, 2= Sometime, 3= Most of the time). The mean and SD of the respective SMO with regard to their involvement in other rural development practices are presented in Table 4.11 as given below: Table 4.11: Mean and SD of organizations regarding their other rural development practices Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Miscellaneous rural development practices Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Engaging in create a spirit of self-help 2.61 0.493 2.56 0.502 2.92 0.277 Provide basic necessities in emergency as relief services 2.09 0.463 3.00 0.000 2.37 0.487 Gender Empowerment through education and training 2.74 0.444 2.51 0.506 2.73 0.446 Advocacy and social mobilization 3.00 0.000 2.63 0.488 3.00 0.000 Provide services to develop rural infrastructure 2.04 0.556 2.78 0.419 2.49 0.505 Provide small loans without interest 1.52 0.809 2.61 0.802 1.24 0.434 Entrepreneurship 2.59 0.498 2.10 0.664 2.04 0.455 Provision of drinking water for community 1.50 0.624 2.71 0.716 2.37 0.487 Overall Mean 2.15 2.66 2.34 The Data presented in Table 4.11 showed that out of different miscellaneous rural development activities being imparted by Sungi Development Foundation in the study area for the development of rural people, advocacy and social mobilization was the activity or practice in which they mostly involve and had maximum mean value (3.00). This showed that the working of Sungi development foundation is mainly based on the philosophy of equitable, participatory and sustainable development. Such kind of development can only be achieved through advocacy in which social mobilization is the integral component of development process. Similar to the results of Sungi development foundation same findings were also obtained in case of RDSO. These results showed that the main practice of Sungi development foundation and RDSO related to rural development were advocacy and social mobilization. Regarding involvement of Sungi

93 development foundation in advocacy and social mobilization activity one of their senior staff member commented that: “Advocacy is our major activity. We mobilize the community through advocacy campaigns. For policy advocacy we are also collaborating and building linkages with other civil society organizations and also with other stakeholders. The best example of this network is human rights advocacy network, which is working for the rights of people of Gilgit Baltistan through advocacy and dialogue with all the stakeholders” The above captioned qualitative remark of the staff member of Sungi depicted and confirmed the quantitative findings of the present study. On the other hand according to the staff of Al-khidmat foundation provide basic necessities of life in emergency as relief services is their major activity or practice with maximum mean value (x = 3.00). This showed that in emergency situations like earthquake, floods and other natural hazards, Al-khidmat foundation mostly engage in providing basic amenities of life to the who were effected by that disaster or hazard. With regard to the involvement of Al-khidmat foundation in emergency relief services their president of district Mansehra said: “On humanitarian basis whenever there is any disaster e.g. earthquake or flood or any accidental situation, within no time our volunteers start work there. Our organization provides all the basic facilities to the people. Our belief is that all the Muslims are like a single body and our brothers. If any one of us is in trouble whole of the Muslim umma will be in trouble. Due to this philosophy we are striving hard to help those who are in difficulty and helpless. On such occasions our workers collected donations both in the form of money and goods from the people within the whole country as well as also from abroad. We provide all the food items along with other necessary items or goods which are essential for life to the people who are being effected by the disaster” The qualitative remark regarding involvement of Al-khidmat foundation in providing all the basic amenities of life confirmed the findings of quantitative data which showed that Al- khidmat foundation mostly involved in relief activities during emergency. The 2nd rural development activity or practice in which Sungi development foundation and RDSO were mostly involved were gender empowerment through education and training having highest mean (2.74/3.00) and (2.73/3.00), respectively. On the other hand the 2nd most important rural development practice which was being imparted by the Al-Khidmat foundation

94 was provision of services to develop rural infrastructure with highest mean value (x = 2.78/3.00). The data presented in Table 18 also showed that the overall mean value of different other rural development practices was higher (x = 2.66/3.00) in case of Al-Khidmat foundation as compared to others with overall mean (x ) 2.34/3.00 for RDSO and 2.15/3.00 for Sungi development foundation. 4.1.8: Rural poverty, causes and dimensions 4.1.8.1 Poor and their significant features The term poverty is very vague as it is a complex phenomenon and it covers a variety of aspects and dimensions. In order to find out who is considered as poor according to the opinions of staff/volunteers/workers of SMOs, a question was asked to them during qualitative in-depth interviews. Their responses in this regard are presented and synthesized in this section. About the definition of a poor person one of the staff members of Sungi Development foundation narrated that: “Any person who don’t have minimum amount of money which is necessary to afford basic requirements of human life is considered as poor” The above captioned remark followed the monetary approach of poverty, which is one of the conventional approaches of poverty and wellbeing indicators as discussed by Hulme and McKay, (2005). But this approach is insufficient to cover the overall human wellbeing indicators as development practitioners argued that only economic growth is not sufficient for reducing poverty and inequality (Laderchi et al., 2003; Sumner, 2003). In this context the members of a group meeting of volunteers of Al-Khidmat Foundation agreed that: “A person who has deficiency of access to basic services like education, health, sanitation, clean drinking water, electricity is referred to as poor” The above remark showed that only deficiency of money is not the poverty. Lack of access to basic services or essentials of live is also referred to as poverty. In the same context one of the key informants (district Ameer19 of Jamiat-e-Islami) narrated that: “A person who is uneducated and have poor health condition, he or she is considered as poor”

19 District head

The remark given above depicted and confirmed that lack of access to services like education and health leads to poverty. In the same concept the field workers of Sungi Development Foundation during group discussion concluded that: “If a person is deficient of basic necessities of life such as food, shelter, health facility, and safety. We call this person as poor” With somehow different context explained by staff and volunteers of Sungi development foundation and RDSO about rural poverty the president (head) of RDSO said: “In rural localities poor person is whom whose livelihoods totally depend upon agriculture, but they have no access to agricultural services to improve their status of livelihoods” It was observed that in the field area as compared to men women has very least access to land and other productive assets. They have no access to agricultural services although they used to work in agricultural fields along with men in addition to their household duties. Due to this factor women in these areas are considered as more poor and vulnerable than men. Although it has been clear that lack of income or access to basic services is the main features of poor individuals in a society but some social scientists (for example Dariye (2006) and Baklit (2001) argued that socially excluded individuals are also considered as poor. In this context one of the key informants (activist of Sungi Development Foundation) commented that: “A person who is being socially, economically and politically discriminated is considered as poor. In other words if a person has non voice and power in a society he or she is also referred to as poor” The above captioned remarks clearly indicate the non-material dimensions of poor people. As non-material aspects of poverty are equally important in human development, in view of this fact like other non-material aspects of poverty regional disparity is also very much important. During qualitative discussion it was noted that people of the study area argued that there exists widespread disparity in the Hazara region. As majority of the funds and benefits are being distributed and allocated for the development of those areas where Pushto speaking people are very common. They said there are plenty of resources in the Hazara region. All of our resources are being utilized by the provincial government only for the development of Peshawar (provincial capital of KPK province). Due to this disparity majority of the people of this area are being poor.

4.1.8.2 Causes of rural poverty Since independence Pakistan is facing a number of socio-economic problems and widespread poverty is one of them (Chaudhry, 2003). It is a multidimensional phenomenon and a number of interrelated factors are responsible for its existence in our society. There are multiple reasons of rural poverty in Pakistan. The detailed description of these causes has already been discussed in the chapter - 2 of thesis. Here in this section reasons/causes of poverty which prevails in the study area are presented. Four point likert Scale (1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree) was used to prioritize the different reasons or causes of poverty on the basis of mean value and are given below in Table 4.12. Table 4.12: Mean and SD of reasons of rural poverty Reasons of poverty Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank Order Order Order Lack of access to educational 4.41 1.064 3 4.88 0.332 2 5.00 0.000 1 facilities Lack of access to training 4.53 0.800 2 4.53 1.068 5 4.59 0.507 4 facilities Lack of control over natural 3.00 1.414 15 2.65 1.222 14 3.59 0.870 8 resources Lack of access to health 4.24 1.147 5 4.41 0.618 6 4.53 0.515 5 Facilities Low agri. produce 3.76 1.348 8 4.12 1.166 7 4.47 0.717 6 Lack of access to agri. 3.47 1.328 12 3.82 1.185 9 3.35 0.862 9 information sources Lack of awareness regarding 3.76 1.300 8 4.65 0.862 4 4.24 0.831 7 latest agricultural practices Poor road infrastructure 3.65 1.115 10 3.88 0.857 8 4.65 0.493 3 network Poor marketing facilities of 3.88 1.054 7 3.00 1.061 12 3.12 1.054 11 agricultural produce Poor access to clean drinking 3.24 0.970 14 2.06 1.088 17 2.41 1.004 14 water Poor access to sanitation 3.71 0.686 9 2.35 1.057 16 2.59 1.176 13 facilities Small land holdings 4.12 1.054 6 4.76 0.437 3 4.88 0.332 2 Lack of employment and income generation 4.59 0.712 1 5.00 0.000 1 5.00 0.000 1 opportunities

Lack of access to 3.29 1.263 13 2.47 1.068 15 2.94 1.197 12 loans/microcredit Lack of access to Social safety 3.18 1.074 14 2.76 1.200 13 3.29 0.985 10 Nets (SSNs) Deterioration of the natural 2.94 1.298 16 3.53 1.231 10 2.94 1.029 12 resource Lack of participation by the local community in 3.53 1.328 11 3.24 1.437 11 1.88 0.600 16 development work Emerging social, political and regional conflicts 3.29 1.160 13 2.35 0.996 16 2.18 0.951 15 (violence/terrorism) Overall national economic 4.29 0.772 4 4.88 0.332 2 5.00 0.000 1 policies

The data presented in Table 4.12 showed that among other reasons of rural poverty lack of employment and income generation opportunities in the research area was on the top according to the perception of staff of all the three organizations with highest mean (x ) value (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 4.59/5.00, for Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 5.00/5.00 and for RDSO x = 5.00/5.00). This indicates that the staff of Al-Khidmat Foundation and RDSO respondents was strongly agreed that limited availability of the employment opportunities in the public and private sector was the major cause of poverty in rural areas of the study region. The relationship between unemployment and rural poverty in Pakistan was also discussed by many social scientists like Saleem (2007); Chaudhry (2003); Malik and Nazli (1999) and many others. During qualitative interviews one of the key informants (member of CRG20 committee of Sungi Development Foundation) said: “here there is no industry in the area. We have very limited number of job opportunities in the government offices (public sector) as well as in the private sector. Due to the non-availability of jobs in government and private offices, our net income is very low. And this is the biggest factor of high poverty rate in the area” The above captioned remarks confirmed the quantitative results and proved that in the research area minimum availability of employment opportunities in order to meet basic

20 Constituent Relation Group (In each constituency Sungi Development Foundation binds members from each sections of society in a single group)

98 livelihood‘s requirements are lead to high poverty rate. The causes or reasons of poverty which are presented in Table 4.12 also showed that respondents in the study area also perceived that lack of access to educational opportunities was also responsible for poverty in the research area. This best depicted from the high mean value (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 4.41/5.00, for Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 4.88/5.00 and for RDSO x = 5.00/5.00). The reason behind lack of access to education as one of the major causes of rural poverty is due to the fact that education plays an important role in improving the quality of life of an individual (Islam et al., 2005). From the results of present study it has been proved that education is essential for poverty reduction on one hand and to achieve the goal of sustainable rural development on the other hand. But unfortunately in whole of the country (Pakistan) the educational facilities are regarded as substandard and unsatisfactory. Especially in rural territories the situation of education is more upsetting where more than half of the population reside. It is generally perceived that the miserable state of education across the country is one of the main causes of poverty. Supporting this statement Chaudhry (2003) concluded that the distressing condition of education in rural areas is highly responsible for high poverty level in these areas. In this view, the voluntary workers of RDSO reported that the state (government) allocated a very low percentage of its annual GDP to education sector which is a very serious issue and is a big hurdle in combating against poverty. The politicians spend major portion of the development fund on non-development or unnecessary activities. Lack of access to educational and employment opportunities or facilities as cause of poverty has also been confirmed from the responses of the rural community. They also agreed that lack of access to education is the basic cause of poverty in rural areas (see Table 4.60). The other reported causes/reasons of poverty were overall national economic policies (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 4.29/5.00, for Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 4.88/5.00 and for RDSO x = 5.00/5.00), lack of access to training facilities (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 4.53/5.00, for Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 4.53/5.00 and for RDSO x = 4.59/5.00), lack of access to health facilities (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 4.24/5.00, for Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 4.41/5.00 and for RDSO x = 4.53/5.00), lack of awareness regarding latest agricultural practices (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 3.76/5.00, for Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 4.65/5.00 and for RDSO x = 4.24/5.00) and small land holdings (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 4.12/5.00, for Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 4.76/5.00 and for RDSO

99 x = 4.88/5.00). Similar results were also pointed out by Arif and Farooq (2012); Chani et al., (2011); Shah (2011); Miankhail (2008); Shah (2009); Usman (2009), Bokosi (2006), Mallick and Ghani (2005), Zaman and Aman (2004) and many other research studies. 4.1.8.3 Impacts/dimensions of rural poverty Poverty is a multifaceted and multi-dimensional term; it may be material or non-material (Ashfaq et al., 2009). Actually it is the condition of deprivation due to the lack of both material and non-material resources. It is the ill-being of material and non-material things for healthy and prosperous living (Hussain et al., 2002). Keeping in view the significance of both material and non-material dimensions and impacts of poverty, data were collected for both of these dimensions of poverty by using a four point likert Scale (1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree). 4.1.8.3.1 Material impacts/dimensions Some of the perceived material impacts or dimensions of poverty with special reference to study area are presented in Table 4.13 as given below. The prioritization of these impacts was done on the basis of mean value. Table 4.13: Mean and SD of material impacts of rural poverty Material impacts of Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO poverty Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank Order Order Order Less income 4.41 1.004 3 5.00 0.000 1 4.59 0.507 3 Lack of access to basic necessities (education, 4.76 0.437 1 5.00 0.000 1 4.88 0.332 1 health, water, sanitation, roads, shelter etc.) Irregular income 4.41 0.618 3 4.47 0.800 2 4.88 0.332 1 Hunger/malnutrition 4.47 1.007 2 4.47 0.874 2 4.71 0.470 2

The data presented in Table 4.13 showed that among material impacts of poverty, lack of access to basic necessities of life for healthy living was on the top with highest mean value according to the perception of staff of all the three organizations (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 4.76/5.00, Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 5.00/5.00 and RDSO x = 4.88/5.00). These findings showed that respondents were agreed that lack of access to basic necessities of life like education, health, drinking water, sanitation, roads, infrastructure etc. and hunger which were attributed to less income were the important material dimensions or impacts of poverty in rural areas of the study region. It was noted during qualitative interviews that worker/volunteers/staff of all the organizations perceived that poor people have least educational

100 opportunities. They said it is due to the fact that education in the country is very much expensive. In connection with the quantitative and qualitative findings of the present study regarding material impacts/dimensions of rural poverty, different previous research studies proved that in developing countries including Pakistan, rural poor have least access to basic amenities of life (for example see Sarker & Panday, 2007 and Islam et al., 2005). 4.1.8.3.2 Non-material impacts/dimensions As poverty has both material and non-material dimensions or aspects and both of them are equally important for human wellbeing (Nkurunziza, 2007). Some of the non-material impacts and dimensions of poverty in rural areas of the study region are presented in Table 4.14. The prioritization of these non-material impacts was done on the basis of mean value which was calculated by using a four point likert Scale (1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree). Table 4.14: Mean and SD of non-material impacts of rural poverty Material impacts of Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO poverty Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank Order Order Order Lack of voice in society 4.59 0.618 3 4.76 0.437 1 5.00 0.000 1 Lack of dignity or self- 4.35 0.996 4 4.76 0.562 1 4.88 0.332 2 respect Exclusion from society 4.82 0.393 1 4.47 0.800 3 5.00 0.000 1 Lack of access to basic 4.65 0.606 2 4.82 0.393 1 5.00 0.000 1 human rights Lack of access to 3.71 1.312 6 3.82 0.883 6 4.41 0.870 3 resources Vulnerability to natural 4.29 0.686 5 4.00 1.000 5 3.82 0.951 4 shocks Vulnerability to economic 4.35 0.606 4 4.06 0.966 4 3.82 0.951 4 shocks

The data presented in Table 4.14 indicate that among various non-material impacts of rural poverty lack of access to basic human rights was on the top with highest mean value according to the perceptions of staff of all the three SMOs (for Sungi Development Foundation x = 4.65/5.00, Al-Khidmat Foundation x = 4.82/5.00 and RDSO x = 5.00/5.00). The other important dimensions or non-material impacts of rural poverty in the areas as pointed out by the staff of organizations were lack of voice in a society and exclusion from society as depicted from the data tabulated in Table 4.14. The mean value of all the non-material impacts of rural poverty showed that respondents were agreed that besides material dimensions and impacts of rural poverty, it also had some non-material impacts. These findings proved that poverty is a product

101 of many interlinking and associated factors as reported by Hossain (2005) and Sen (2000). During qualitative discussion it was noted that majority of the respondents (members of focus group meetings) were agreed that poor people are marginalized and excluded from society and we have to work for those socially excluded community members as it is our moral duty. They have very least access and opportunities to participate in the development activities. In other words he said that these people have no voice and power which is one of the main non-material impact or dimension of poverty. During focus groups discussion meetings with staff of organizations some other non-material impacts of rural poverty were threshed out. Out of these mental tension and involvement of poor people in illegal, immoral and unethical activities were the most common ones. A person from the field staff of RDSO during group discussion expressed his views in following words: “If a person didn’t have anything to eat, have non clothes to wear, have no shelter to reside. All these factors compel him to be involved in illegal activities” These qualitative results confirmed that poverty in Pakistan is one of the main factors behind the crimes and involvement of individuals in illegal and criminal activities. It was also noted during focus group meetings that majority of the respondents were agreed that hunger which is associated with poverty pushes hungry people towards mental tension and stress. And that stress pushes these people to be involved in criminal and illegal activities. One of the participant of group meeting said this factor is due to the fact that hungry person is an angry person. He can do everything to meet his daily food and other basic requirements. 4.1.9 How rural poverty can be alleviated: perceptions/believes of staff/volunteers An important aim of rural development is the material and non-material wellbeing of rural community (Francis and David, 2012; Rai et al., 2011). As poverty in rural areas is directly related to the wellbeing those people who used to live in these rural areas i.e. rural dwellers. Due to this reason, there is dreadful need to alleviate rural poverty in order to achieve the objective of sustainable rural development. Keeping in mind this fact the respondents (staff/volunteers of SMOs) were asked to report how poverty can be alleviated from rural areas so that these areas can be developed on sustainable basis. The believes of the staff/volunteers of respective SMO with regard to poverty alleviation for achieving the target of sustainable rural development are given in Table 4.15:

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Table 4.15: Respondent’s perception about rural poverty alleviation for rural development Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Empowering the Provision of all basic Providing awareness among rural marginalized people necessities of life to all being community about their rights, humans advocacy of community Provision of all basic Imparting education and Bringing social change in the necessities of life to all training to all people minds of community about social segment of society structure Improvement in the social Overall (material and non- Provision of welfare services to and economic and political material) wellbeing of rural poor, neglected and marginalized situation of rural community people of community community Provide awareness to the Social justice Provide all basic necessities of community about their life especially education, health rights and agricultural development

The opinions or believes of the respondents belonging to the respective SMOs regarding poverty reduction for attaining the idea and objective of rural development in the region as presented in Table 4.15 showed that rural development can be done through multiple ways and procedures. The staff of Sungi Development Foundation believed that rural development can be achieved by social economic and political empowerment of rural poor, equal access to all the people to the basic amenities of rural life and their advocacy about their rights. This showed that for entire development of rural communities their empowerment and equal distribution and access to basic social services are very much essential. The staff of Al-khidmat Foundation believed that ensuring social justice or equality in the rural community was the main key towards rural poverty reduction and ultimately towards rural development. They said our religion (Islam) preaches us to ensure justice and equality for all the individuals in the society irrespective of dimensions of discriminations based on gender, class etc. Further they said that Islamic ideology is basically based on equality and justice. Their staff also emphasized that the development notions in 1960s in Pakistan lacking the importance of non-material dimensions of poverty or in other words non-material wellbeing of rural community. In this context they believed that for overall rural development, only material wellbeing is not sufficient. And non-material wellbeing is equally important in which access to education and training is the essential. Regarding importance of education in rural development process and rural poverty reduction the volunteers/workers of Al-khidmat foundation said that it

103 is very much essential to impart education for all the people in the society so that target of sustainable rural development can easily be attained. According to the opinions of the members of RDSO about ways to achieve rural development, it has been clear that they believe on the change in existing social and economic structure of society. They said there should be equal distribution of resources to all the people in the society regardless of the class. Their point of view that existing system of agricultural land holding is only protects the feudal lords and their lands. Under this system there is no chance of poverty reduction from rural localities. Their volunteers emphasized that state (government) should pass a rule for agricultural land reforms in the country. Advocacy of rural community about their rights and provision of basic facilities of life to them is also very much essential for rural development. They also argued that community used to live in rural areas is heavily depends upon agriculture sector. Keeping in mind this notion they said that agricultural development is very much important vehicle for achieving the objective of rural development in the study region. It was concluded from the qualitative discussion with the respondents (staff/volunteers of all the SMOs) that rural development is a multidimensional process which covers following aspects: 1. capacity building (education and training) of rural community

2. access to basic physical (infrastructure development) as well as social services

3. access to income or employment generating opportunities

4. sustainable use of natural resources

5. equality and social justice

4.1.10 Effectiveness of rural development practices of SMOs as perceived by their staff or volunteers In the preceding sections the involvement of SMOs in different rural development activities were discussed. In this section the effectiveness of these rural development practices being launched by the respective SMOs as perceived by their respective staff or volunteers in the research area was determined. For this purpose 3 point likert type scale was used (1= Poor, 2= Average, 3= good).

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4.1.10.1 Effectiveness of educational services/practices of SMOs Among all the rural development practices, education is very much important one as lack of education is one of the major causes of rural poverty generally in the whole country and specifically in the study area (see table 4.12 and table 4.60). In human development index, education is also very much important. As discussed earlier (see table 4.8) that in the research area SMOs were involved in a variety of educational related activities. Now the effectiveness of these activities which was measured through a likert scale (1= Poor, 2= Average, 3= good) and the results in this regard are presented in Table 4.16 as given below: Table 4.16: Mean and SD of educational rural development activities of SMOs regarding their effectiveness Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Educational practices Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Open new schools - - 3.00 0.000 - - Ensure enrollment of both genders 2.53 0.515 2.35 0.493 2.88 0.332 Provide free schooling to needy students 1.83 0.718 2.88 0.332 2.29 0.686 Provide school uniform to needy students 1.27 0.467 2.88 0.332 2.00 0.756 Provide free books and stationary to needy students 1.64 1.206 2.88 0.332 2.00 0.756 Support to existing schools 2.07 0.799 2.08 0.515 2.56 0.882 Launch skill oriented programmes for rural people 2.41 0.712 2.18 0.636 2.88 0.332

The data presented in Table 4.16 showed that among various educational rural development activities being undertaken by Sungi development foundation, the effectiveness of their activity to ensure enrollment of both genders in educational institutions was higher with highest mean value (2.53/3.00). This indicates that their main focus is to increase the educational level of both men and women so that they can contribute better in overall local as well as national development which will ultimately ensure food security in the region (Luqman et al., 2013c). With regard to educational activities of Al-khidmat foundation, it is clear from the results that the effectiveness of their activity i.e. opening new schools in the research area was found to be good having maximum mean value (x = 3.00). Similar results were also found about effectiveness of educational practices RDSO. But the effectiveness of skill enhancement activity of RDSO for the rural people was also good with highest mean value (x = 2.88). From the results about the effectiveness of educational activity of respective SMOs it has been clear that all of them are engaged those educational activities which ultimately play major role in educational level of the rural community. This enhancement in their literacy rate will automatically help in reducing poverty from the rural areas.

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4.1.10.2 Effectiveness of health related practices/activities of SMOs Health is the important human capital. The SMOs which are under study in the present research are actively involved in variety of health related rural development activities and practices. The effectiveness of these health related practices of respective SMOs were determined by using the three (03) likert scale (1= Poor, 2= Average, 3= good) and the results in this regard are presented in Table 4.17 as given below: Table 4.17: Mean and SD of health related rural development practices of SMOs regarding their effectiveness Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Health related practices Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Open basic health centers in rural area 1.50 0.707 2.31 0.602 2.00 0.000 Install free medical camps 1.69 0.793 2.76 0.437 1.00 0.000 Provide free medicines and medical facility to needy people 1.40 0.699 2.53 0.515 1.62 0.768 Provide free medical training to rural female 2.00 0.707 2.00 0.603 2.24 0.664 Launch awareness campaigns regarding human health 2.29 0.772 2.00 0.365 2.29 0.772 Ambulance services - - 2.82 0.393 - - Blood camps 1.00 0.000 2.47 0.516 - - Medical laboratory at discount/subsidized rate - - 2.80 0.414 - -

The data given in Table 4.17 showed that among different health practices of Sungi development foundation the effectiveness of launching awareness campaigns regarding human health was higher having highest mean (2.29/3.00). This showed that the effectiveness of these health campaigns is good and effectively contribute in creating awareness in the rural community about good health. Similar results were also found in case of health activities of RDSO which showed that their awareness creating activity about human health in the area is more effective than other activities. This might be due to the reason that both of these SMOs were heavily involved and concentrate more on the creating awareness among the community than delivering other health services to the people, which is the sole responsibility of the state. On the other hand different results was found in case of Al-khidmat foundation whose ambulance providing facility and provision of medical laboratory facilities at discount rates in the area was more effective than other practices with mean value (x = 2.82) and x = 2.80, respectively.

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4.1.10.3 Effectiveness of agricultural rural development practices of SMOs In rural areas farming is the major source of income for majority of the population. The overall development and well-being of this vast population is linked with the development of agriculture sector. In the research area SMOs whose rural development practices are being studied in the present research are doing different various rural development practices related to agriculture. The rate of involvement of these SMOs in various agricultural practices are already discussed and explained in section 4.1.7.3 and Table 4.10. In this section the effectiveness of these practices were measured with the help of a three (03) point likert scale (1= Poor, 2= Average, 3= good) and the results in this regard are given in Table 4.18 as given below: Table 4.18: Mean and SD of agriculture related rural development practices of SMOs regarding their effectiveness Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Agricultural practices Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Provide agricultural advisory services to farmers 2.20 0.676 1.00 0.000 2.65 0.493 Provide free farm inputs 2.00 0.756 1.27 0.467 2.00 0.894 Provide farm inputs on credit 2.67 0.577 - - - - Provide tube wells/water pumps for irrigation purpose at farms 1.67 0.651 1.67 0.516 2.00 0.000 Provide training to farmers regarding crop and livestock management practices 2.07 0.799 1.27 0.467 2.41 0.507 Provide services regarding marketing of agricultural produce 1.80 0.919 - - - - Launch awareness training sessions regarding protection of natural environment 2.12 0.697 1.82 0.405 2.24 0.437

The data tabulated in table 4.18 showed that among various agricultural practices being undertaken by Sungi development foundation, the effectiveness of their activity related to provision of farm inputs on credit was higher with highest mean (x ) value (2.67/3.00). On the other hand the effectiveness of launching awareness training sessions to protect natural environment as agricultural related activity, was in between poor and average but inclined towards average as cleared from the mean (1.82/3.00). Similarly, among agricultural practices of RDSO providing farm advisory services to the rural community was their most effective activity as indicated from the mean value (2.65/3.00). This showed that the advisory services or in other words farm extension services provided by RDSO were effectively contribute in enhancing farmer‘s knowledge and awareness regarding crop production and protection practices. This enhancement in the farmer‘s knowledge about agriculture automatically play role in increasing farm production and farm income thereby reducing rural poverty.

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4.1.10.4 Effectiveness of other rural development practices of SMOs Civil society organizations including SMOs which are being studied in the current research are actively involved in some other activities which are directly or indirectly related to the well-being of rural community. The rate of involvement of the respective SMOs in these miscellaneous rural development practices are already discussed in the preceding sections (see section 4.1.7.4 and Table 4.11). The effectiveness of these services were measured with the help of a three (03) likert scale (1= Poor, 2= Average, 3= good) in this section. The results regarding the effectiveness of these rural development practices of respective SMOs are presented in Table 4.19 as given below: Table 4.19: Mean and SD of other rural development practices of SMOs regarding their effectiveness Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Other rural development practices Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Engaging in create a spirit of self-help 2.47 0.515 1.88 0.332 2.41 0.507 Provide basic necessities in emergency as relief services 2.25 0.447 3.00 0.000 2.12 0.332 Gender Empowerment through education and training 2.41 0.507 1.88 0.485 2.35 0.702 Advocacy and social mobilization 2.82 0.393 2.41 0.507 3.00 0.000 Provide services to develop rural infrastructure 1.67 0.617 2.29 0.588 2.00 0.500 Provide small loans without interest 1.40 0.894 2.54 0.519 - - Entrepreneurship 2.41 0.507 1.80 0.919 2.00 0.577 Provision of drinking water for community 2.14 0.378 2.73 0.458 1.88 0.332

The data given in Table 4.19 indicated that the effectiveness of providing advocacy and social mobilization by Sungi development foundation to the rural people was found to be higher having highest mean (2.82/3.00). About these results one of the persons from the senior management of Sungi development foundation (key informant) viewed: “Advocacy is one of our most effective tools to mobilize the community for some specific purpose or to achieve some specific goal” The qualitative remarks of the key informant confirmed that advocacy and social mobilization is the most effective activity being undertaken by Sungi development foundation in the research area. The same nature of results was also found in case of rural development activities of RDSO which showed that advocacy and social mobilization of rural community was their most effective rural development practice as clearly depicted from the mean value which is maximum (x = 3.00). The results regarding effectiveness of advocacy and social mobilization services of Sungi development foundation and RDSO showed that both of the SMOs were

108 heavily engaged in advocacy related activities as also confirmed from the data presented in Table 5.7. However, different results were obtained in case of practices of Al-khidmat foundation. The data presented in Table 4.19 indicated that providing basic amenities of life to the people during emergency or disaster or natural hazards as relief services was their most effective practice or activity having maximum mean value (x = 3.00). These results showed that Al-khidmat a foundation is actively involved in providing relief services to the community in emergency situations. 4.1.11 Interaction of SMOs with different allied state departments and organizations Interaction and linkages between SMOs for collection action is very much important (McCarthy and Zald, 2001). Community-led organizations in the form of networks play an important role in mainstreaming rural development initiatives and social as well as economic empowerment of rural community (Hartman, 2012). It has also been proved from the research that if government (state departments) collaborates with civil society organizations/community organizations, the effectiveness of poverty reduction plans of both the sectors could be enhanced (Kailm and Salahuddin, 2011). In view of significance of interaction of different civil society organizations and state allied departments in the horizontal and vertical from, in the present study, the level of interaction of respective SMOs with other organizations and also with allied departments was measured. For this purpose a five point likert type scale (1= V. Low, 2= Low, 3= Average, 4=High, 5= V. High) was used and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.20 as given below: Table 4.20: Mean and SD of respective SMOs regarding their interaction with allied departments and organizations Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO Interaction with ….. Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Informal local groups 4.18 1.334 4.53 0.515 4.59 0.712 Local village level organizations/committees 4.59 1.004 4.06 0.966 5.00 0.000 National level organizations 4.41 0.939 4.29 0.849 3.12 0.332 International organizations 3.87 0.915 3.35 0.931 - - State agriculture extension department 3.00 0.866 1.67 0.577 2.54 0.776 State rural development department 3.35 1.115 2.00 1.414 3.13 0.640 State social welfare department 4.59 0.507 3.35 0.931 4.41 0.712 State health department 3.71 1.160 3.82 0.728 3.59 0.507 State agri. marketing department 2.45 1.036 - - - - State education department 4.06 0.659 4.29 0.686 3.65 0.493 District forest and wildlife department 4.00 0.000 2.86 0.378 2.78 0.833

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The data regarding level of interaction of SMOs with other civil society organization and different allied state departments showed that the level of interaction of Sungi development foundation was high (x = 4.59/5.00) with local village level organizations and committees and also with state owned social welfare department (x = 4.59/5.00). This showed that high level of horizontal linkages or interaction and collaboration was found between Sungi development foundation and village organizations as well as committees. Similarly, the vertical interaction with social welfare department of the state was also found to be high. The horizontal and vertical interaction of Sungi development foundation was also discussed in their annual report 2011. The report concludes that Sungi have strong linkages with local village level Zakat committees (Sungi Development Foundation, 2009). About their interaction one of the member of VO of Sungi Development Foundation: “although the Zakat committees are working in our village since long time ago but due to the lack of awareness about it we could not receive any benefit from it. Sungi has strong linkages with these committees and Sungi also awareness us about the function of zakat committees for the welfare of poor. Due to these linkages we are able to receive benefits like free treatment and medicines etc.” Another staff member of Sungi development foundation viewed that: “Sungi has high level of coordination and networking with national level social organizations and also with the state departments. As an alliance with the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), Mansehra, a network of NGOs was established with name National Humanitarian Network (NHN) was established. In that alliance the role of Sungi is to establish coordination between line departments and other organizations” From the qualitative remarks it has been clear that Sungi development foundation has strong linkages and interaction with other CSOs as well as state departments to achieve the goal of sustainable rural development. From the discussion with the volunteers and members of the executive council of RDSO it has been clear that at UC level, their coordination and networking with the village committees and VOs is very strong. This confirmed the quantitative results of the study that RDSO has very high interaction with local village level organizations and committees having maximum mean value (5.00). But contrasting results was found in case of horizontal and vertical interaction of Al-khidmat foundation. The results showed that Al-khidmat foundation had high level of interaction (x = 4.53/5.00) with other informal groups in the form of

110 horizontal linkages. And also had high level of interaction and collaboration with state educational departments (x = 4.29/5.00). This might be due to the fact that Al-khidmat foundation was actively involved in educational activities, Due to which they coordinate with state educational department frequently. From the results it has been conclude that there are horizontal linkages between different civil society organizations and groups and vertical linkages with other non-profit sector organizations (NPOs). The same views were also reported by Khan and Khan (2004). 4.1.12 Level of participation of members It has already discussed in detail that SMOs which are under study in the current research study are involved in different rural development activities. In these rural development activities, the involvement of local community is very much important as all the SMOs focus on the participatory rural development paradigm (Rashidpour and Hosseini, 2010). In this context, the level of participation of the members in all the rural development initiatives and activities being taken by their respective SMO was measured through a scale of low medium and high. The data in this regard is presented in figure 4.1 as given below:

RDSO

Al-Khidmat High Medium Low

Sungi

0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage

Figure 4.1: Level of participation in rural development activities of SMOs The data presented in figure 4.1 showed that in rural development activities of RDSO, the involvement of their members was high according to the responses of the majority (>80.0%) of their staff. Similar trend of involvement of the members was also found in case of Al-khidmat

111 where about 50.0% of the staff reported that the involvement of members in their activities was high. But opposite results was found in case of Sungi development foundation where majority (58.8%) of the staff said that the participation level of the members in their rural development activities was medium. The high level of participation by the members of RDSO and Al-khidmat was due to the fact that both of these SMOs were particularly targeted the poor and marginalized people. And this is fact that in social movements working on the agenda of addressing issues of poor people, the participation of poor and marginalized people will be higher however some other people from the general public also participate as the supporter of poor people (Edelmann, 2009 and Borras, 2010). During indepth qualitative interviews it was noted that the respondents perceived that due to the lack of resources, time and money, the poor people seldom participate in activities of civil society organizations. This concept is clear from the results of present research that in rural development activities of Sungi development foundation where only 41.2% of the staff said that the involvement of members was high although poor and marginalized people were their main targets.

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4.2 SECTION – II: RESPONSES OF RURAL COMMUNITY The 2nd section of the chapter (results and discussions) described the results of data regarding the perceptions of rural community about the rural development practices of SMOs (Sungi, Al-Khidmat and RDSO). The section further divided into four (04) parts and organized as follows: The 1st part describes the socio-economic or demographic characteristics (age, caste/khel, educational status, land holding status, size of land holding, family type, occupation and major sources of cash income) of respondents. In the 2nd part working of social organizations and traditional groups as well as their interaction with national and international organizations are discussed. Intensity of participation/involvement of rural community in activities of social organizations and traditional groups are discussed here in this 2nd part. The extent of involvement of SMOs in different rural development practices are also presented and discussed in this part. The 3rd part of this section deals with the basic rural development services (health, educational, agricultural, emergency relief, drinking water supply etc.) launched by SMOs in the research area. Comparison between the satisfaction level of rural community about the above mentioned rural development services launched by SMOs and government (state) departments is discussed here. The 4th and last part of this section elaborates the perceptions of rural poverty and inequality, its various reasons prevails in the research area. Means and strategies to reduce poverty and inequality from the eyes of rural community are presented in this part. The role of SMOs in poverty and inequality reduction from the rural areas are also presented and discussed here. Finally, the comparison between the rural development activities/efforts of SMOs and government are discussed in this part. 4.2.1 Socio-economic characteristics Demographic or socio-economic characteristics occupied an important and significant position in social science research studies (Frear, 2007). These attributes are much important in order to give initial and first-hand information about a community and social interaction among the community (Nosheen et al., 2008). In view of its importance the data regarding different socio-economic characteristics of respondents (rural community) were collected and discussed as under:

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4.2.1.1 Age The total number of years of an individual from the day of his/her birth uptill the day of data collection from the field. It has great influence on the social and mental behaviour of a people (Naeem, 2005). It makes an individual mentally mature and able to take sensible and rational decisions (Butt et al., 2011). Keeping in view the importance of age in social science research studies among other socio-economic factors, the data in this regard was collected in the present research study, which is tabulated in Table 4.21 and also discussed below: Table 4.21: Distribution of the respondents according to their age

Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s villages RDSO’s villages Age (in years) f % F % F % 18-35 37 24.7 42 28.0 61 40.7 36-50 72 48.0 40 26.7 71 47.3 51-70 37 24.7 56 37.3 18 12.0 70 + 4 2.7 12 8.0 - - Total 150 100 150 100 150 100

The data presented in Table 4.21 regarding age of the respondents in the respective three sites of the study area in which the respective SMO is working showed that in villages in which Sungi development foundation and RDSO is working majority of the respondents had age between 36-50 years as reported by 48.0% and 47.3% of the respondents, respectively. But in those villages in which Al-khidmat foundation is working majority (37.3%) of the respondents had age between 51-70 years. To some extent similar results were also reported by Jalal-Ud-Din (2011) who said that majority (41.42%) of the respondents was belonged to old age group having age between 46-55 years. 4.2.1.2 Caste/khel The people residing in district Mansehra belongs to different castes and groups. In the current research, the question to find out the caste of the respondents was included in the interview schedule and the data in this regard was collected which tabulated in Table 4.22 as given below:

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Table 4.22: Distribution of the respondents according to their caste/khel Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s villages RDSO’s villages Caste/khel f % F % f % Syed 26 17.3 51 34.0 43 28.7 Tanoli 18 12.0 7 4.7 0 0.0 Mughal 37 24.7 8 5.3 0 0.0 Rajput 3 2.0 1 0.7 2 1.3 Swati 4 2.7 29 19.3 5 3.3 Awan 14 9.3 20 13.3 51 34.0 Qureshi 21 14.0 11 7.3 3 2.0 Gujar 23 15.3 16 10.7 42 28.0 Khan 4 2.7 7 4.7 4 2.7 Total 150 100 150 100 150 100

The data presented in Table 4.22 showed that in Sungi‘s villages majority of the respondents (24.7%) were ―Mughal‖ followed by ―Syed (34.0%)‖ and ―Awan (34.0%)‖ in working villages of Al-khidmat foundation and RDSO, respectively. This indicates the presence of vast diverse variety of caste/khel in the study area. One of the respondents, during interview said: “The people of Mansehra are highly heterogeneous in nature and grouped into different “Jumba” (group) and “Bradri” (castes)” This also showed the existence of diversity in caste system in the study area. 4.2.1.3 Educational level The educational level is the yardstick to measure the status of a society. It is considered as a powerful source of change and development at individual as well as societal level (Siddiqui, 2006). The sigkificance of education in an individual‘s life in general and in a society in particular has already been described by various social scientists at national and international level (like Naeem Ur Rehman et al., 2012; Amin et al., 2011; Laszlo, 2008; Ashraf, 2007; Kilpatrick, 2000). In view of its importance in the present study the respondents were asked question about their formal educational level, and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.23 given below:

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Table 4.23: Distribution of the respondents according to their educational status Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s villages RDSO’s villages Educational status f % f % F % Illiterate 34 22.7 19 12.7 7 4.7 Primary 46 30.7 47 31.3 12 8.0 Middle 36 24.0 16 10.7 58 38.7 Secondary 25 16.7 44 29.3 45 30.0 Intermediate 6 4.0 13 8.7 13 8.7 Bachelor and Above 3 2.0 11 7.3 15 10.0 Total 150 100.0 150 100.0 150 100.0

The data presented in Table 4.23 showed that in working villages of Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO, majority of the respondents were had primary level (upto 5 years of schooling) education as reported by 30.7% and 31.3% of the respondents, respectively. But in those villages where RDSO is working, the educational level of majority of the respondents was little bit higher. In these villages majority (38.7%) of the respondents had education upto middle (8 years of schooling). In all the working villages of three organizations, a very few percentage of the respondents had education upto intermediate and graduation level (12 to 14 years of schooling). This indicates the low educational level of majority of rural community of the study area. In connection to these results Khan et al., (2009) who said that 70.0% of the respondents in District Mardan of KP province had education upto secondary level. Regarding educational level of the respondents in North West Pakistan Jalal-Ud-Din (2011) also reported that majority (46.16%) of the sample respondents had primary level education and on the other hand 38.46% of them had secondary level education. In the present research study only 0.9% of them had vocational education and training and only 6.4% of the respondents had graduation or higher level education in the research area. Scientific research proved that children of families, who are poor, generally receive less education than the others. The reason behind this phenomenon is that the lack of availability of sufficient resources to meet the expenses of education of their children. High educational level is responsible for the development and prosperity of a nation as quoted by Amin et al., (2009). In the stud area low education and lack of technical and vocational trainings to the community was one of the causes of ever increasing poverty. During qualitative focus group discussion meetings people emphasized that “poverty and inequality can only be reduced through education and training”.

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The low educational level of the farming community in the study area and in the whole province also contributes in low agricultural output in terms of production and alarming poverty situation. This showed that education is also the important determinant of production in the field of agriculture and the state should take possible measures to increase the educational level of the rural people so that farm production could be increased and rural people can also contribute in overall national economy. 4.2.1.4 Land holding status Land has material (economic) as well as non-material (status, symbol and emotional) value (Regmi, 1999). In those countries where national economy totally based upon agriculture, access to land is very much important for improving standards of living by increasing farm income (material benefit) and enhancing social status (non-material benefit) (Nepali and Pyakuryal, 2008). Many national as well as international research studies quoted the importance of land in rural communities (see Ojo and Babayo, 2013; Pervaiz et al., 2013; Muller and Lotze- Campen, 2012; Khanal et al., 2006 and many others). Keeping in view the importance of landholding in livelihoods of rural people, the data were collected regarding their land holding status and tabulated in Table 4.24 as given below: Table 4.24: Distribution of the respondents according to their land holding status Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s villages RDSO’s villages Land holding status f % F % F % Landless labourer 7 4.7 15 10.0 48 32.0 Land owner 83 55.3 121 80.7 79 52.7 Tenant 3 2.0 14 9.3 12 8.0 Nil 57 38.0 0 0.0 11 7.3 Total 150 100 150 100 150 100

The data presented in Table 4.24 showed that I working villages of Sungi development foundation near about 45.0% of the respondents had no ownership of land. They were landless labourers or tenants or had no affiliation with farming as they were neither owners/ tenants nor worked as agricultural labourer. The similar situation was exist in working villages of Al- khidmat foundation and RDSO but the situation is quite worse in those villages in which RDSO is working where about 47% of the respondents had no land. This showed that although majority of the community was used to live in rural localities in the research area, but they had no ownership of land. This showed minimum availability of income generating sources in the rural areas which is responsible for prevailing food insecurity in the mountainous region of Pakistan.

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Research study showed that higher the number of landless households in rural areas, higher will be the food insecurity as determined and explained by Bashir et al., (2012). Generally, it has also been proved that poverty is more in those households who have no land and they are being known as non-farm households and land play an important role in rural poverty reduction and finally getting out of poverty (Nnadi et al., 2012; Malik, 2008). 4.2.1.5 Size of land holding Size of land holding is the ownership of agricultural land which is in the possession of an individual himself or by his/her family. It is an important factor in taking decisions regarding agricultural (crop and livestock practices) (USDA, 2007). In rural areas of Pakistan land is the principal asset and is the main source income (Anwar et al., 2004; Arif, 2004). In the present research study it was found that slightly more than 60.0% of the respondents had agricultural land. This situation also bound the rural community to earn money from non-agricultural resources/non-farm in order to secure their livelihoods. The data concerning land holding of the respondents is given in table 4.25 given below: Table 4.25: Household’s size of land holding Land holding size (in kanals) Sungi's villages Al-Khimat's villages RDSO's villages Minimum 0.25 0.25 1 Maximum 60 100 150 Average 12.45 14.98 16.22

The data concerning size of landholding in the research area as presented in table 4.25 reveals that the land holding of the people is very small. The minimum size of land holding in the area was 0.25 kanals and maximum size was 150 kanals. This minimum size of land holding in the area bound the rural people to do subsistence farming. Majority of the households didn‘t even grow cereal crops for annual food consumption for their own family. This indicates the status of food security in the area. The results of the present study are also similar to that of the Pervaiz et al., (2013) and (Ghafoor et al., 2010) who reported that majority of the farmers in Pakistan have small land holdings. During qualitative interviews it was noted that due to small land holdings in the area, people adopt traditional techniques of farming which is major factor behind low agricultural production in the research area. They said that due to small size of land we are facing a number of social as well as agricultural related constraints which have bad impact on our livelihoods. These constrains are well explained by Mohsin et al., (2011) and

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Akram et al., (2004). During qualitative key informant interviews one of the informants said that: “we have very small agricultural land and major portion of this land is uneven, we need a lot of financial capital to level the land and to make it useful for cultivation but we have least financial resources and financial capital so we rely on other sources of income like labour and driving” The qualitative remarks captioned above confirmed that small farmers with small size of land holding have less income and substandard farming. This situation makes the farmer poorer and poorer. It was also observed that in the research area the households who had small or no land (agricultural labourer) were poorer than others and were facing high level of food insecurity. This proved that small farmers and farm labourere who have no land are the highly food insecure people as they have no alternate income sources. Due to the high food insecurity level among these rural communities the livelihoods of these people are under heavy pressure. In view of the results of present study different social scientists reported that in developing countries like Pakistan majority of the rural people who have no or small size of land are facing severe problems of food insecurity (for example Smith 2013; Gustavsson et al., 2011 and Ashley & Maxwell 2002). About consequences of small land holdings in rural areas of the study area another respondent said: “we have very least access to agricultural credit due to small land holdings as Banks who disburse credit to the farming community, they fix the criteria of land holding with the amount of credit to be demanded” The above captioned remarks regarding availability of agricultural credit to those farmers who have small land holdings were in line with the findings of Enwerem and Ohajianya, (2013). They conclude that in Nigeria small scale farmers have less access to credit and extension facilities as compared to large scale farmers. 4.2.1.6 Family type Family type indicates the pattern of living of individuals in a family system. This also referred to as structure of a family which is conceived as pattern of roles and relationships in a society (Bahadur and Dhawan, 2008). Generally family type divided into two sub-types as nuclear and joint. Nuclear family system referred to as system in which husband, wife and their children used to live under one roof. On the other hand joint family system referred to as system where other members of family like father, mother, brothers, and sisters used to live under one

119 roof (Hassan, 2008). The respondents were asked to determine their family type or system in which they were living and the data concerning family type is given in Table 4.26: Table 4.26: Distribution of the respondents according to their family type

Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s villages RDSO’s villages Family type f % f % F % Nuclear 38 25.3 77 51.3 29 19.3 Joint 112 74.7 73 48.7 121 80.7 Total 150 100 150 100 150 100

The data tabulated in Table 4.26 showed that in those villages in which Al-khidmat foundation is working, about half (51.3%) of the respondents said that they used to live in nuclear family system and nearly about half (48.7%) of respondents said that they lived in joint family system. On the other hand in working villages of Sungi development foundation and RDSO, high majority of the respondents said that they living in joint family system as reported by 74.7% and 80.7% of the respondent, respectively. Collectively, it is cleared from the data that joint family system is very common in the area. This might be due to the limited resources. If a family lives in nuclear family system they need more resources and especially physical financial capitals i.e. they need a separate house to live, separate income resources to maintain livelihoods. The qualitative remarks of the respondents confirmed the above mentioned results as one of the respondents said: “we are living in resource scarce areas, major portion of the land is under mountains and forests, and we have minimum agricultural land. And it is very much hard for those families who used to live under nuclear family system only to fulfill food necessities. In joint family system all the resources combined in one place and all family members enjoy equal benefits” In view of the results of present study, Alam (2008) reported that in rural areas of NWFP (now KP province) joint family system is very much common. But Khattak et al., (2013) reported that although majority of the people used to live in joint family system in district Karak (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province) but majority of them (45.0%) had separate kitchens. 4.2.1.7 Occupation Occupation is referred to as means to maintain livelihoods adopt by an individual. In other words occupations are livelihood strategies. In the present research question was asked to the respondents about their main profession in order to meet their daily expenses and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.27.

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Table 4.27: Distribution of the respondents according to their main occupation Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s villages RDSO’s villages Occupation f % f % f % Farming 24 16.0 13 8.7 12 8.0 Non-farming 67 44.7 4 2.7 42 28.0 Both 59 39.3 133 88.7 96 64.0 Total 150 100 150 100 150 100

The data presented in Table 4.27 showed that although the respondents reside in rural areas but only few percentage of them adopt farming as their main profession. In working villages of Al-khidmat foundation and RDSO, majority of the respondents earned income from farming as well as non-farming sources as reported by 88.7% and 64.0% of the respondents, respectively. But the situation is somewhat different in those villages in which Sungi Development Foundation is working where majority (44.7%) of the respondents adopt non- farming profession as their source of income for their livelihoods. This might be due to the low size of landholding in these villages as compared to others (see table 4.25). These findings were in line with the results described by Israr and Khan, (2010) and Khattak and Hussain (2008a), who concluded that in hilly areas of Northern Pakistan majority of the rural people derive their income both from farm as well as non-farm sources. When the respondents were asked to point out the major reasons or factors behind their involvement in farm as well as non-farm activities, they said there are numerous reasons but the most important ones are small size of land holdings, adoption of traditional methods of farm production and high poverty rate. Other than these reasons, migration of Afghan refugees during and after the Afghan war is also one of the reasons as during qualitative interviews with a key informant, he said: “on our majority of agricultural land, the Afghan refugees work as tenants and they work on low wages, and we didn’t have enough chances to work on agricultural land. So we adopt other non- farming professions in replacement of farming” The above captioned remarks indicate that only advancement in agriculture (farm) sector is not only the solution to escape rural people from the vicious circle of poverty. Due to the involvement of rural people also in non-farm rural economy, there is great need to develop non- farm rural sector. These results supported the findings of World Bank (2007). They reported that majority (˃ 50.0%) of the rural population engage with non-farm sector for their livelihoods. In this situation only agriculture development is not sufficient for rural poverty reduction and rural

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development, there is need to develop the non-farm sector in the region for sustainable rural development. 4.2.1.8 Sources on income Income of an individual denotes an important area of consideration when we talk about rural poverty (Chaudhry et al., 2009). It is defined as the money received by an individual as an award in response to his/her work and services provided by him/her during a specific period of time (Arshad et al., 2010). And its sources referred to as individual‘s sources and means to earn money. In rural areas of KP province there are diversified farm and non-farm income sources as reported by Israr and Khan (2010). The main rational behind this diversification is that it has the capacity to improve the living standards of rural people thereby reducing rural poverty, risks and vulnerability (Ellis, 2000; FAO, 2004). The income which drive from sale of crop, livestock and forest is known as farm income and income which drive from any business activity, job, labour, pension foreign remittances etc. are referred to as non-farm (Mishra et al., 2002). In the present research, the respondents were asked questions to identify their primary, secondary and tertiary sources of cash income and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.28. Table 4.28: Percentage distribution of respondents according to their sources of cash household’s income Sungi's villages Al-khidmat's villages RDSO’s villages Sources of P S T P S T P S T Income f % f % f % f % f % f % f % f % f % Crop sale/Farming 37 24.7 17 14.9 24 25.0 21 14 21 14 99 66.9 56 37.3 11 8.1 31 24.8 Business 46 30.7 3 2.6 14 14.6 38 25.3 22 14.7 10 6.8 8 5.3 4 3 7 5.6 Livestock 2 1.3 38 33.3 14 14.6 0 0 19 12.7 14 9.5 39 26 41 30.4 21 16.8 Labour (both local and migrant) 49 32.7 24 21.1 17 17.7 55 36.7 47 31.3 6 4.1 16 10.7 29 21.5 26 20.8 Salary 15 10 9 7.9 5 5.2 34 22.7 17 11.3 2 1.4 30 20 33 24.4 20 16 Pension 0 0 1 0.9 0 0 2 1.3 0 0 0 0 1 0.7 8 5.9 3 2.4 Foreign remittances 1 0.7 11 9.6 9 9.4 0 0 1 0.7 8 5.4 0 0 7 5.2 9 7.2 Forest 0 0 11 9.6 13 13.5 0 0 23 15.3 9 6.1 0 0 2 1.5 8 6.4 P- Primary, S- Secondary and T- Tertiary Sources of Income Note: In case of secondary and tertiary sources of income response rate is not 100.0% due to no response The data presented in Table 4.28 showed that in those villages where Sungi development foundation and Al-khidmat Foundation is working, labour is the primary source of income as reported by majority of the respondents. But the situation is quite different in those villages in which RDSO is working. In these villages farming is the primary source of income as reported by 37.3% of the respondents. This might be due to the factor of difference size of land as in

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RDSO working villages, the average size of landholding was higher as compared to others (see table 4.5). This also evident clear from the data that in all the villages in which the three organizations working, labour was the major source of income for majority of the respondents and farming was found to the tertiary source of income for majority of the respondents. This might be due to the limited cultivable land and non-availability of water for irrigation purpose. The qualitative interviews confirmed that results of present study as one key informant in village Dhara of tehsil Ooghi viewed that: “there is scarcity of not only irrigation water and also drinking water in the village. The well from where our forefather’s use of collect water for drinking purpose is dried now due to the increase in temperature and reduction in rainfall intensity. So we adopt non-agricultural sources of income” The above qualitative remarks confirmed that in Pakistan there is shortage of irrigation water. It was personally observed during field visits that rural people involve in labour activities. This is best illustrated in figure 4.2 in which a rural people doing labour work as he is busy in collecting sand from the river with too cold water of Kunhar river in Ghari Habib Ullaha, tehsil Balakot. During discussion with him he said: “my home is very far from here …… there is no labour work in my village. There is no industry in the area where we have to work on daily basis. Whole of my land is consists of rocks and the land is very much uneven and farming is not possible there. So I have travelled over a long distance to reach here in Ghari Bazar and doing labour work ….. as I need money to feed my family”

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Figure 4.2: A person busy in collecting sand from water - involve in Labour (Photo by author) Similar results were also reported by Tahir et al., (21012) who said that in North West Pakistan most of the farmers engaged in daily paid labour. In different villages of Kaghan valley e.g. Paras, Kavie and Bhunja skilled and unskilled labour was the main livelihood activity of rural people as reported by majority of the respondents as reported by Safdar (2012). 4.2.2 Working of social organizations and local traditional groups In different parts of the world including Pakistan, a number of informal/invisible as well as formal rural development institutions are working for the welfare of rural community. In KP province of Pakistan ―Jirga‖ is the well-known informal institution (Czech, 1996) and formal institutions include multi sector registered associations/organizations/societies (Shah and Baporikar, 2012). In the present research formal institutions were those organizations which were registered with the state and involved in different welfare/development as well as advocacy oriented activities in order to bring social change in the society and/or the part of any of the social movements. And the informal institutions were the informal local groups, village based

124 committees, peasant associations, farmer‘s ittehad21 self-help groups and religious groups working for the welfare of rural community. In this context, the respondents were asked questions about the presence of these formal and informal rural development institutions and the data in this regard is given in Table 4.29. Table 4.29: Distribution of respondents according to their opinion about the working of social organizations and local groups in the village regarding rural development Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s Villages RDSO’s villages Working of----- Yes No Yes No Yes No ----- F % f % f % f % f % f % Social organizations 150 100.0 0 0 148 98.7 2 1.3 150 100.0 0 0.0 Local groups 120 80.0 30 20.0 121 80.7 29 19.3 150 100.0 0 0.0

The data given in Table 4.29 showed that in all the working villages of all the three organizations, a large majority of the respondents were reported the existence of social organizations as well as local groups and associations. The local groups and associations/organizations were involved in creating awareness among rural community about their rights. 4.2.2.1 Intensity of participation/involvement The term participation of the people in development oriented activities of local formal and informal rural development institutions has been defined by different researchers and social scientists from their own view point. UNDP defines it in a more comprehensive way and concluded that participation is a tool of social change. It helps poor people in providing strong base for direct involvement in development plans and initiatives (UNDP, 1997). It is also regarded as the main pillar of community development programmes (Ahmadi et al., 2013). In development preview participation is widely accepted by many researchers and development agencies like Shah and Baporikar (2012); Rashidpour and Hosseini (2010) Masanyiwa and Kinyashi (2008); Khan, (2006); World Bank, (2000b) and many others. In case of social movements‘ rate of participation or involvement of people enhance the effectiveness of movement in terms of achieving goals and objectives (Amenta et al., 2010). With this notion in the current study the respondents were asked to tell about their intensity of participation in rural development related activities of those social organizations and local groups which were actually working in their village and their responses in this regard is tabulated in Table 4.30.

21 Group of farmers/rural farm producers and have some common objective

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Table 4.30: Mean, SD and F-Test value regarding intensity of participation of respondents in rural development related activities of social organizations and local groups in their respective villages Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s Villages RDSO’s villages Participation in Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD F-Test Social organizations 1.89 0.677 1.49 0.623 1.91 0.560 21.231** Local groups 1.88 0.651 1.74 0.713 2.00 0.568 5.350** (Scale: 1 = Low; 2 = Medium; 3 = High) Highly significant P<0.05 Note: response rate is not 100% due to no response It is clear from the results given in Table 4.30 that in all the working villages of the three organizations, the level of participation of rural community in rural development related activities of social organizations and local groups/associations were found to be medium. But is interested to note that the rural community level of participation in development related activities of local groups/peasant associations or organizations were little bit higher as compared to the other formal social organizations and NGOs. The community members argued that compared to registered organizations/NGOs, local committees, associations or groups are actually representing the real needs and demands of local community in an efficient manner. The reason behind this fact might be that the local groups and village based associations are self-motivated and run the community members of that particular village. In view of these results Shah and Baporikar, (2012) reported that in village Shewa of District Swabi, KP province, Pakistan Shewa Educated Social Welfare Association (SESWA) is a self-motivated group of youth of village Shewa and working for the welfare of their village. Now SESWA has become an example for whole district Swabi and other villages are trying to develop their own groups and association on the same pattern of SESWA. The results of the F-test statistics showed that there is highly significant difference (P<0.05) in the level of participation of rural community in rural development related activities of social organizations as well as local groups between the rural people belonging to different localities in which the selected three organizations are working. The difference in mean regarding the intensity of participation of respondents in activities of SMOs and local groups is presented in Table 4.31. Table 4.31: t-test between respondent’s intensity of participation in activities of SMOs and local groups Intensity SMOs (n= 448) Local groups (n= 391) t-test Mean SD Mean SD 1.76 0.649 1.88 0.648 -3.251** ** Highly significant

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The data presented in Table 4.31 clearly showed that the mean of intensity of participation by the respondents in rural development oriented activities of local groups was more (1.88/3.00) as compared to the mean of intensity of participation in social organizations which was 1.76/3.00. The negative t-test value (-3.251) also indicated that the mean of 2nd group i.e. local traditional groups was higher. The t-test value (-3.251) showed a significant difference between respondent‘s intensity of participation in RD activities of social organizations and local traditional groups. This might be due to the nature of origination of local groups and social organizations as local groups are locally originated from the village for representing needs and demands of local villagers. This had been also confirmed by the qualitative remarks of a respondent: “we rely and trust more on the committees and groups of our own villagers because they knows well about our problems and priorities. And we participated in their activities with happiness” The above captioned remarks confirmed the high intensity of participation in rural development related activities undertaken by local groups and village level committees as compared to the social organizations working in different villages having office in urban localities. 4.2.2.2 Linkages of local traditional groups with organizations Horizontal and vertical linkages and collaboration between different organizations contribute in significant manner with all aspects of rural development (APO, 2004). In the study area a number of informal institutions in the form of local groups including religious ones, professional associations, and village level committees were working for rural development. The presence of Anjuman-e-Kashtarian Hazara (Association of Farmers of Hazara), Serhd Awami Forestry Ittehad (SAFI), Kaghan Valley Development Forum (KVDF), Women Agricultural Development Organization (WADO), Kohsar Local Support Organization (LKSO), Omeed Area Coordination Council, village level zakat, development, service and burial committees etc. in the research area were the examples of such local informal institutions. These institutions play an important role in mobilizing the people for some specific purpose. The successful example of this nature is the self-mobilization of the affected local community of district Swabi and other adjacent areas of KP province due to the construction of Ghazi Barotha Dam. The community made village groups/committees and grass root organizations (GROs) for demanding compensation from the state authorities in response to their loss of physical capital (agricultural

127 land and houses). Some national level organizations also collaborated with these local organizations and community welfare groups and started a movement (Shah and Baporikar, 2012). Regarding reasoning of collaboration and coordination between different organizations and local groups, the respondents said that in social movements it is necessary to mobilize people through coordination and also to ensure maximum community participation in movement activities. It was observed that in the research area Sungi Development Foundations is also one of them who is the leading locally originated organization fighting for the rights of community. During qualitative discussion with the key official of Sungi Development Foundation he said: “we sensitize the issues during meetings with all the sections of community. After sensitization of the issue our field workers promote and encourage individual participation in different issue related activities” It was found that these local informal groups and organizations/associations had strong horizontal (with the organization on the same level) and vertical (with national and international level organizations and state departments) linkages. Religious groups and associations coordinated with religious national and international organizations like Al-khidmat Foundation, Flah-e-Insaniat Foundation, Hussaini Foundation, Islamic Relief, Helping Hand etc. On the other hand it was also found that organizations which are secular in nature coordinated and had linkages with secular national as well as international level organizations like Sungi Development Foundation, Serhad Rural Support Programme (SRSP), Action AID, Aurat Association, Women Action Forum (WAF), HAASHAR Association, Saibaan Foundation were the prominent examples of such organizations. These secular, development oriented and advocacy based organizations collaborated and formed a forum regarding child rights in the region with the name Child Rights and Advocacy Network (CRANK) in the form of a social movement. WAF was also the forum of individuals and organizations struggling for the rights of women. These results confirmed the findings of Khan and Khan, (2004) who reported the presence of NGOs movement and social change in Pakistan.

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4.2.3 Rural development practices and indicators Rural development is a complex and multi-dimensional concept. In a simplest form it is the physical, social and economic development of areas where majority of land is supposed to be used as agricultural purpose. Its determinants are sustainability in economic development and welfare of rural community (Shelomentseva and Soltangazinov, 2013). International rural development agencies and practitioners identified several indicators and practices of rural development. In case of developing countries World Bank recommended that provision of community services (e.g. health education, portable water supply, training, agriculture, infrastructure development etc.), strategies reduction in poverty and inequality by growth in rural economy are the key practices and indicators towards rural development (Adisa, 2012). As the main objective of the present research was to identify and effectiveness of different rural development practices being undertaken by the social movement organizations (SMOs), therefore, in all aspects of rural development practices of SMOs data were collected and presented in Table 4.32. The extent of involvement of social organizations in different rural development activities was measured through 3 point likert type scale (1= never, 2= occasionally, 3= frequently). Table 4.32: Mean and SD of rural development activities of respective social organizations in the study area Sungi’s villages Al-Khidmat’s villages RDSO’s villages Activity Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Educational 1.69 .645 1.94 .238 1.49 .642 Health related 1.89 .706 1.71 .548 1.51 .730 Agricultural 2.17 .680 1.23 .420 2.33 .730 Skill enhancement trainings 2.07 .696 1.45 .499 2.40 .724 Rural infrastructure development 2.19 .692 1.55 .499 2.21 .609 Advocacy regarding rights 2.05 .683 1.56 .549 2.05 .740 Entrepreneurship 1.97 .670 1.23 .420 1.77 .657 Microcredit schemes 1.75 .744 1.19 .396 1.74 .755 Emergency relief services 1.97 .601 2.11 .687 1.96 .601

The results presented in table given above (4.32) showed that among three SMOs, RDSO is extensively involved in skill enhancement trainings for rural community having highest mean (2.40/3.00) among other rural development related activities. In developing rural infrastructure and agricultural development activities Sungi is famous with mean value (2.19/3.00) and (2.17/3.00), respectively.

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On the other hand Al-Khidmat Foundation which is working under the umbrella of the largest religious political party in Pakistan and Bangladesh i.e. Jamat-e-Islami is famous due to their educational and emergency relief services with mean value (1.94/3.00) and (2.11/3.00), respectively. These findings also confirmed by Bano (2009) and Rakodi (2007) reported that different sister organizations of the Jamat involved in different rural education and development activities. In advocacy related activities about the rights of community Sungi Development Foundation has a unique name and importance as well as in the present study respondents said that Sungi ―occasionally‖ involve in these activities having mean (2.05/3.00). Regarding rights of farmer‘s establishment of SAAG and movement for the protection of forests in North West Pakistan through Serhad Awami Forestry Ittehad (SAFI) are some best examples of advocacy related activities of Sungi (Sungi Development Foundation, 2000). 4.2.4 Basic services Rural development is regarded as an integrated process involves many activities at the same time (Idrees et al., 2008). Among these activities, provision of basic services (health, education, drinking water and social services) to the rural community is one of the main themes of rural development (IFAD, 2009b). Due to the inefficiency of the state (government) departments in providing basic amenities (health, education, drinking water and social services) of life to rural people for combating against rural poverty and inequality, different social organizations are actively involved in providing these services to the people at their door steps. These community services are one by one discussed below: 4.2.4.1 Health services Health is defined as the condition having complete social, physical and mental well-being of an individual (Azhar et al., 2009). In Pakistan health related problems and issues are very common especially in rural areas (Javed et al., 2013; Akram and Khan, 2007). In the present study it was found that the distance between the nearest health center and house of the respondent was high which is about 2.2 KMs. In general the health centers in hilly areas of Pakistan are usually located away and inaccessible to rural community. Due to the topography of the region and non-availability of effective road network according to the respondents, the mean time to reach the nearest health center was about 40.5 Minutes. The respondents reported that health centers in whole the district situated away from our villages and due to the non- availability of proper transport facilities we cannot move the patient easily. It was personally

130 observed during field visits that large majority of the population has little or no access to proper health facilities and due this reason they were facing the high incidence of different types of chronic diseases in rural areas. Inspite of all these hard facts people mostly contact with government health centers in order to get health facility as shown in Figure 4.3:

40 Percentage 30

0 Govt. Clinic Private Clinic Medical Campus of SOs Place from whre respondnet mostly got health facility

Figure 4.3: Percentage distribution of the respondents about use of health facility The data presented in figure 4.3 showed that majority of the respondents (64.2%) received health care related facilities from government health centers (at village level known as basic health units – BHUs) followed by 35.6% of the respondents who reported that they use the private clinics in case of health advise. Only few percentage of the respondents (0.2%) received health facilities from the medical campus of social organizations. This might be due to the minimum installation of medical campus of social organizations. One of the staff members of social organizations commented that: “Installation of medical campus on regular basis required a full time doctor and dispenser in the village and it is very much hard and difficult for us to manage. However, we install medical camps only in emergency situation e.g. floods or earthquake. In those campuses we provide free medical services to the community” It was observed during field visits and noted during discussion with community that health services being provided by the state health department was not up to the mark due to which people used to visit the private clinics for medical services but the health services of

131 private clinics was expensive as compared to the state departments. So majority of people could not afford it due to high poverty rate in the area. In connection to these findings of Mujib-ur- Rehman et al., (2007) said that in rural areas of KP province the performance of government health department in providing primary health care is poor. 4.2.4.1.1 Opinion of the respondents about the cost of health services provided by government and SMOs Non-profit social organizations are regarded as the alternative providers of health care services parallel to the state (Gilson et al., 1994). In the current research study the respondents were asked question to tell about the cost of health services being provided by the state health department in comparison to the services provided by social organizations in the study area and their responses in this regard were given in figure 4.4 given below:

90 80 70 60 50 40 Government 30 SO 20 10 0 Costly Cheap Free of cost Cost of health services

Figure 4.4: Opinion of the respondents about the cost of health services provided by Government and SMOs The data presented in figure 4.4 depicted that the health services provided by Government health department and social movement organizations were cheap as reported by 78.4% and 75.6% of the respondents, respectively. However, in providing these health services free of cost social organizations played an important role as 18.4% of the respondents said that social organizations provide free health services to the community. On the other hand only 8.2% of the respondents said that Government provided free health services. Similar trend was found in case of costly provision of health services as 13.3% of the respondents said that government provided costly health services as compared to the social organizations whereas only 6.0% were

132 in favour of the statement that social organizations provided costly health services. It was observed that self-medication is very much common in the study area and people reluctant to visit the nearby basic health unit and hospital or private clinics. The reason behind this fact might be due to the affordability of cost of health services as majority of the people in the region are living below poverty line. 4.2.4.1.2 Opinion of the respondents about the quality of health services provided by government and SMOs Provision of good quality health services to the community by the public sector (state department) is one of the main indicators of good governance strategies of a state (Mehboob, 2011). In developing countries like Pakistan apart from state departments, non-state sector is also involve in delivery of health related services to the rural community (World Health Organization, 2005). In order to determine the opinion of the respondents about the quality of health services provided by government and comparing with the social organizations, the respondents were asked question to tell about the overall quality of health services provided by government and social organizations. And the data regarding this aspect is tabulated in Table 6.33. Table 4.33: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about the quality of health services provided by state and SMOs Quality State (government) SMOs f % F % Good 50 11.1 246 54.7 Average 135 30.0 181 40.2 Poor 265 58.9 23 5.1

The data tabulated in Table 4.33 revealed that the health services provided by the government (public sector health department) were poor as reported by majority (58.9%) of the respondents. Only 11.1% of the respondents were in favour of good quality of health services provided by the government. The opinions were opposite in case of services provided by social organizations where > 50.0% of the respondents said that health services of social organizations were good as compared to the state. And about 40.2% said that their services were average in terms of quality. The respondents were further asked to tell the major reasons behind the poor performance of public sector in providing health services to the people. In response a large majority of the respondents said that government spent a very least amount of annual budget on health sector. One of the member of focus group meeting said health and life of a common man is not the priority of government.

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It was personally noted during discussion with community members in Paras that majority of people used to visit the diagnostic laboratory and hospital established by Al-Khidmat foundation. They said that: “the laboratory provide us especially low income and deserving people, low cost and high quality health services as compared to the health care facilities provided by government health centers or hospitals” The above captioned qualitative remarks indicate the presence of low quality health services provided by the public sector health departments in the study area. 4.2.4.1.3 Health facilities launched by social organizations The state departments in Pakistan fail to meet the basic needs of poor and needy people, this situation has created a gap and to fill this gap a number of non-profit social organizations are engaged in providing welfare services like health and education (Iqbal and Siddiqui, 2008). The organizations which were studied during the present research study were also involved in variety of health care facilities. These areas were identified through 3 point likert type scale (1= never, 2= occasionally, 3= frequently) and the data in this regard are presented in Table 4.34. Table 4.34: Mean and SD of different health related facilities being launched by respective SMOs in their respective working villages Al-Khidmat’s Sungi’s villages villages RDSO’s villages Health related facilities Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Open basic health centers/clinics in rural area 1.21 0.411 1.77 0.420 1.31 0.533 Install free medical campus 1.24 0.429 1.63 0.524 1.25 0.555 Provide free medical facility to needy people 1.47 0.501 1.94 0.421 1.69 0.477 Provide free medical training facility to rural female 1.35 0.480 1.37 0.550 1.39 0.502 Launch awareness campaigns regarding health care 1.92 0.550 1.55 0.499 1.87 0.482

The data presented in Table 4.34 showed that ―launch awareness campaigns regarding health care‖ was the main health related facility being launched by Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO having highest mean value 1.92/3.00 and 1.87/3.00, respectively. This is due to the reason that both Sungi and RDSO are the advocacy based organizations. Service delivery is not their responsibility as this is the sole responsibility of the state. Their role is only to aware the community about their rights. The situation was quite different in case of health services provided by Al-Khidmat Foundation. The results showed that among different health

134 related facilities ―provide free medical facility to needy people‖ was the major activity being rendered by Al-Khidmat Foundation having maximum mean value (1.94/3.00). It means Al- Khidmat Foundation actively involved in philanthropic activities by providing health services to the needy people of the society. This might be due to the reason that Al-Khidmat Foundation has affiliation with religion (Islam) and it is the main factor and act as best motivating force behind the involvement of non-profit organizations in philanthropic activities as reported by Iqbal and Siddiqui (2008). 4.2.4.1.4 Satisfaction level of respondents about the performance of SMOs regarding health services The respondents were asked question to inquire about their general satisfaction level about the overall performance of respective SMOs in providing different health related facilities. The satisfaction level of respondents were measured through five (5) point likert type scale (1 = highly dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = undecided, 4 = satisfied, 5 = highly satisfied) and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.35. Table 4.35: Mean and SD regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of SMOs regarding different health related activities Sungi’s Al-Khidmat’s RDSO’s F-test villages villages villages Health related activities Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Open basic health centers/clinics in rural area 2.48 0.783 3.13 1.191 2.41 0.787 26.858** Install free medical campus 2.49 0.841 2.66 1.067 2.19 0.576 11.554** Provide free medical facility to needy people 2.71 0.822 3.41 1.254 2.19 0.587 65.03** Provide free medical training to rural female 2.95 0.929 2.02 0.823 2.35 0.602 53.035** Launch awareness campaigns regarding health care 3.09 1.039 1.79 0.756 2.73 0.783 90.578** Overall Mean 2.75 2.60 2.38 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data presented in Table 4.35 showed that the satisfaction level of respondents was higher (x = 3.13/5.00) about opening of health centers/clinics in rural areas by Al-Khidmat Foundation than that of Sungi Development Foundation (x = 2.48/5.00) and RDSO (x = 2.41/5.00). Similar trend was found in case of install free medical campus and provide free medical facility to needy people by Al-Khidmat Foundation where the respondent‘s satisfaction level was also higher (x = 2.66/5.00 and 3.41/5.00). But the opposite results was found in case of other health related activities like provision of free medical training to rural female and launching awareness campaigns regarding health care. The respondent‘s satisfaction level was

135 higher (x = 2.95/5.00) for providing free medical facility to rural female by Sungi development foundation than Al-Khidmat foundation (x = 2.02/5.00) and RDSO (x = 2.35/5.00). This showed that the provision of medical services by Sungi development foundation is free of gender discrimination. Similarly, the satisfaction level of rural community was much higher (x = 3.09/5.00) for launching awareness campaigns regarding health care in the area than that of Al- khidmat foundation (x = 1.79/5.00) and RDSO (x = 2.73/5.00). This showed that in those villages in which Al-khidmat foundation was working (Paras and Gurlat), the respondents were not satisfied about their health activity regarding awareness campaigns about human health. The overall mean of all the health related activities launched by respective SMOs in the research area showed that satisfaction level of respondents was higher (x = 2.75/5.00) about health care activities of Sungi Development Foundation. The result of F-test showed that there is highly significant difference between the satisfaction level of the respondents regarding health related activities of all the three SMOs (Sungi Development Foundation, Al-Khidmat Foundation and RDSO). This indicates that there exists significant variation between the satisfaction level of respondents affiliated with their respective SMO with regard to health related activities. 4.2.4.1.5 Satisfaction level of respondents about performance of health services provided by (state) government versus SMOs The respondents were asked question to inquire about their general satisfaction level about the overall performance of government health department and social organizations in providing different health related facilities. The satisfaction level of respondents were measured through five (5) point likert type scale (1 = highly dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = undecided, 4 = satisfied, 5 = highly satisfied) and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.36.

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Table 4.36: Mean, SD and t-test regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of Government health departments and SMOs about different health related activities Government (n= 450) SMOs (n= 450) t-test Health related activities Rank Rank Mean SD Mean SD order order Open basic health centers/clinics in 2.40 0.902 1 2.68 0.99 2 -4.404** rural area Install free medical campus 1.85 0.702 5 2.45 0.87 4 -12.664** Provide free medical facility to 2.19 0.915 2 2.77 1.05 1 -8.27** needy people Provide free medical training 1.95 0.652 4 2.44 0.88 5 -11.706** facility to rural female Launch awareness campaigns 1.97 0.765 3 2.54 1.03 3 -10.984** regarding health care Overall mean 2.07 2.58 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data presented in Table 4.36 showed that regarding satisfaction level of the respondents about different health related activities provided by the state health departments (public sector), no such activity was identified about which the respondent was found satisfied. However, about some activities like ―open basic health centers/clinics in rural areas‖ and ―provide free medical facility to needy people‖ the satisfaction level of respondents were ―undecided‖ with mean value 2.40/5.00 and 2.19/5.00, respectively. The overall mean 2.07/5.00 of all the health related activities of the government sector also showed that respondents were found unsatisfied about the performance of public sector health department. But, in case of health activities rendered by social movement organizations (SMOs) in the study area, the respondent‘s satisfaction level about their performance in health sector was higher as compared to the state departments with over all mean value 2.58/5.00. This showed that the respondents were also not totally satisfied with the performance of social sector in providing health services to the community. The results also showed that among other activities rendered SMOs in the field of health ―provide free medical facility to needy people‖ was at the top and stood at rank 1 on the basis of mean which was 2.77/5.00. The t-test result showed a significant difference between the respondent‘s satisfaction level about the performance of government and social organizations with regard to all health care related activities. The t-test results also showed that the performance of SMOs in providing health services to the community was better than the government health sector as the respondent‘s satisfaction level was higher in case of SMOs and showed negative test values. This

137 depicted that the mean of second group (SMOs) is higher than first group (government), which proves that SMOs are the alternative health service providers to the rural poor. 4.2.4.2 Educational services Education is the most important factor and plays an important role in building of a nation through human resource development. It has the capacity to promote the socio-economic status of community especially deprived masses of the society. Better education significantly adds up in the earnings of an individual for better living (Rehman et al., 2011; ESCAP, 2003; Roberts, 2003; Christian, 2002; Gupta et al., 2002). In view of the significance of education in general life of individuals the data regarding provision of educational services provided by the state in the research area was collected and discussed in the next subsections. 4.2.4.2.1 Location of educational institutions as perceived by respondents It was noted that the educational institutions (schools and colleges) were located very far from the house of the respondents. It was also personally observed by the researcher during field visits that in the research area children used to travel by foot on the sloppy mountains. Regarding quantitative results of the present study the mean distance of the nearest school/college in the research area was about 1.6 Kms for boys. But this distance was found more in case of girls which is 2.1 Kms. The difference in mean distance of school/college for boys and girls is given in following figure 4.5:

2.5

1.5 Distance in KMs 1

0.5

0 Boys Girls Gender

Figure 4.5: Mean distance between house of the respondent and school/college for both the genders (boys and girls)

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The data presented in figure 4.5 showed that girls in rural areas of KP province used to travel more than boys for getting education. This is one of the main factors behind the low educational and literacy rate girls in the rural areas of the province is about 35.0%, which is higher than rural areas of Sindh and Baluchistan and lesser than rural Punjab (Government of Pakistan, 2013). The disparity in education of male and female in all the four provinces is given in following figure 4.6:

LIteracy Rate % 40 Female Male 30

0 Punjab Sindh KPK Balochistan

Source: Government of Pakistan, 2013 Figure 4.6: Gender disparity in female education in four provinces The data presented in figure 4.6 showed that in the study province (KPK), the gender disparity regarding education is much wider as compared to other provinces. According to the report of State Bank of Pakistan, gender disparity in rural areas of KPK is very much clear due to the low female literacy rate as compared to male. This is encouraging that with the passage of time this gender gap in education is narrowing due to the state reforms in education sector which mainly focus on female education and to enhance the female literacy rate (State Bank of Pakistan, 2006). The poor access to educational institutions by rural females in the research area as cleared from the results of present study is one of the major factors behind the low female literacy rate in rural areas of whole KPKP. The findings of the present study regarding educational facilities for rural female confirms the results of Shahbaz, (2007) while determining the impact of participatory forest management on the livelihoods of rural people of KP province (formerly known as NWFP). In the present research study it was also noted that mean time to reach the nearest school/college for girls is higher than in case of boys as given in Figure 4.7:

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45 40 35 30

Mean Time 25 (Minutes) 20 15 10 5 0 Boys Girls Gender

Figure 4.7: Mean time to reach the school/college by both genders (male and female) 4.2.4.2.2 Frequency to attend the school/college by the children of respondents The data regarding frequency to attend the school/college by the children of respondents was collected and is given in figure 4.8:

0 Frequently Occasionally Rarely

Figure 4.8: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to the frequency to attend the school/college by their children These data presented in figure 4.8 showed that slightly more than 50.0% of the respondents said that their children frequently attend the school/college. Only few percentage (2.1%) of the respondents said that their children rarely attend the education institutions

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(school/college). These results showed that in the study area the community had strong desires that their children must get education but due to the lack of sufficient educational facilities in the KP province, they can‘t do that. But Steimann (2004) reported that in mountainous areas of KP province majority of the girls used to leave the school after primary level education due to inadequate educational facilities in the area. The other factor behind the low educational level of rural female is poverty which is higher in KP province than other provinces of Pakistan. This has been proved fact that rate of poverty and food insecurity is higher in women and children as they may drop out from the educational institutions when their families have not enough resources to bear educational expenses (Goh, 2012). Inspite of all these factors people in the study area had strong desire that their children must be educated. Due to this reason their children frequently attend the school/college as cleared by the graph given in figure 4.8. The qualitative interviews and focus group discussions also confirmed the urge of the respondents regarding education of their children as one of the villagers in Paras said that: “education is necessary for our existence. Our religion also teaches us to get education at every cost. By getting education we can better utilize our resources and it will be very helpful in minimizing our economic and social problems” 4.2.4.2.3 Responsibility of running educational institutions in the research area In democratic countries like Pakistan it is prime responsibility of the state to provide equitable services to the community. In the study area different institutes were engaged in providing education to the people other than state owned education department. The respondents were asked question to identify the stakeholder who is responsible for running of educational institutions from where their children got education and the data in this regard is tabulated in Table 4.37 given below: Table 4.37: Percentage distribution of respondents according to their opinion about responsibility to run educational institution in the area Educational Institution run by------Frequency Percent Government 327 76.0 Local social organization 3 0.7 INGO 18 4.2 Trust 4 0.9 Religious Organization 60 14.0 Madrassa 3 0.7 Private 15 3.5 Total 430 100.0

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Note: response rate was not 100.0% as 4.44% of the respondents said that their children was school going The data presented in Table 4.37 showed that government (state education department) is responsible for running of those educational institutions from where their children got education as reported by majority (76.0%) of the respondents followed by 14.0% of the respondents who said that religious organization is running the school in their villages and their children used to get education from these schools. The other stakeholders who were involved in providing education to the community were local social organization, INGO, trust, Madrassa and private schools. It was observed during field visits that local social organizations like Sahara community center and Kaghan valley development forum etc. were only involved in imparting skill enhancement trainings to both the gender in order to building up their capacity not the formal education. This might be due to the lack of resources by the local community organizations. In one of the study villages Paras, majority of the people used the facility of education given by the religious organization as Al-Khidmat Foundation (affiliation with Deobandi sect of Islam) and Hussani Foundation (affiliation with Shia’s sect of Islam) were running their own schools. During investigation from the community it was found that the school which was state owned and was running under the provincial education department of Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was deteriorated during the earthquake of October, 2005 as shown in the figure 4.9 given below:

Figure 4.9: The condition of state owned school in village Paras after the earthquake of 2005 The school which was being run in the Paras village by the Hussani foundation was known with the name ―Mula Asghar Memorial Uswa Public School as shown in the following figure 4.10:

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Figure 4.10: View of the school being run by Hussani Foundation in village Paras 4.2.4.2.4 Cost and quality of educational services provided by government and SMOs In the research area, a variety of actors are involved in educational activities. The main actors are state department (government sector) and civil society in which SMOs play a significant role as they are involved in advocacy and lobbying related activities (Andrews and Edwards, 2004; Brown, 2007). In order to find out the difference between cost and quality of educational services provided by both of these actors, the respondents were asked questions and the data in this regard is given in figure 4.11 given below:

80 70 60 50 % 40 Government 30 SMOs 20 10 0 Costly Cheap Free of cost Cost of educational services

Figure 4.11: Percentage distribution of the respondents about the cost of educational services provided by government and SMOs The data presented in figure 4.11 showed that 7.1% of the respondents said that educational services provided by state owned education department was costly as compared to

143 the services provided by SMOs where only 4.4% were on the view of costly educational services. These results were in accordance with the findings quoted by Waqar (2005) who said that social services in NWFP (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province) especially education and health were going down day by day due to a number of factors and high cost of these services were one of them. Opposite results were found in case of cheap educational services where high percentage (75.6%) of the respondents said that educational services rendered by SMOs were cheap as compared to the government where 69.3% of the respondents were said that their educational services were cheap. Regarding provision of free of cost educational services provided by the state high percentage of the respondents (23.6%) was found as compared to the services provided by SMOs where only 19.9% of the respondents said that their educational services were free of cost. The presence of high percentage of respondents in provision of free of cost educational services by the government might be due to the launch of foreign funded different educational plans to promote the literacy rate of KP province. In these programmes free education was given to the students including books and other educational materials. The comparison between quality of education being provided by public sector and social movement organizations (SMOs) in the study area is given in figure 4.12.

40 Government SMOs 30

0 Good Average Poor

Figure 4.12: Percentage distribution of the respondents about the quality of educational services provided by government and SMOs The data presented in figure 4.12 clearly depicted the quality of educational services provided by government as well as social movement organizations i.e. the civil society. Regarding quality of education provided by government (public sector), majority (70.2%) of the

144 respondents viewed about the poor educational facility of the public sector. Whereas, those social organizations which were involved in educational and training activities like Al-Khidmat Foundation and Hussani Foundation (in the field of education) and Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO (in the field of skill enhancement trainings) were engaged in providing average quality education to the community as reported by majority (60.9%) of the respondents. And about 38.8% of the respondents said that education provided by SMOs had good quality. The results regarding poor quality of educational services provided by the public sector in the study area were in accordance with the findings quoted Save the Children (2009). It was also found during qualitative interviews that due to the poor quality of educational services provided by the state department‘s community think about private educational system so that their children can get quality education but due to the high cost of educational services provided by private sector they bound to use the facility of public sector in provision of education to their children. One of the school teachers said: “Inspite of spending lot of money on education in the form of building, equipment, salaries etc. by the government, the quality of education provided by public sector education system is considerably low” The qualitative remark captioned above confirmed that quality of education provided by the public sector in the study areas was low. The low quality of education by the state departments is due to the lack of dedication and motivation in the teaching staff and low level of salaries as reported by Akram and Khan (2007). It is also noted during data collection that teaching staff working in government schools/colleges located in rural areas of whole of the country are disadvantaged from some benefits as well as allowances than that of the staff working in urban areas, which is responsible for low interest level of teachers of rural areas. 4.2.4.2.5 Educational facilities launched by respective SMOs n their working villages In the research area besides public sector education department, a number of civil society organizations engaged in different educational activities. The extent of involvement of these organizations in different educational related activities were measured through 3 point likert type scale (1= never, 2= occasionally, 3= frequently). The mean and SD of different educational activities of three studied organizations (Sungi, Al-Khidmat and RDSO) is given in Table 4.38:

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Table 4.38: Mean of different educational related facilities being launched by different organizations Sungi’s Al-Khidmat’s RDSO’s villages villages villages Educational related facilities Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Opening of schools/training centers 1.52 0.599 1.97 0.356 1.93 0.656 Provide free schooling to needy students 1.49 0.515 2.09 0.282 2.03 0.572 Provide free uniform or books and stationary to needy students 1.69 0.533 1.97 0.448 2.01 0.505 Support to existing schools /training centers 1.41 0.493 1.55 0.499 1.46 0.563 Launch skill oriented programmes for rural people 1.87 0.564 1.39 0.490 2.10 0.540 The data presented in Table 4.38 showed that among different educational activities launched by Sungi Development Foundation ―launching of skill oriented programmes‖ was at the top with highest mean value (1.87/3.00). It means that organizations were more inclined towards occasional involvement in skill enhancement trainings for rural community. The similar results was also found in case of RDSO where launching of skill enhancement programmes for rural people was the main educational activity with highest mean value (2.10/3.00). This might be due to the reason that RDSO was running a Sahara Community Center where regular training programmes were launched for rural community. These results showed that social organizations actively involved in skill oriented programmes. The involvement of non-profit social organizations in training activities was also reported by FAO, (2010), and concluded that these organizations play an important role in imparting training to rural community which is one of the main aim of extension. The results of present study also indicate that organizations which had no religious affiliation like Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO were actively involved in skill promotion trainings. On the other hand organization with religious affiliation and background like Al-Khidmat Foundation was involved in philanthropic activities by providing free schooling to needy students in the study area among other educational activities having highest mean value (2.09/3.00). 4.2.4.2.6 Satisfaction level of respondents about performance of educational services provided by respective SMOs in their respective area The respondents were asked question to inquire about their general satisfaction level about the overall performance of respective SMOs in providing different educational facilities in their respective working areas. The satisfaction level of respondents were measured through five (5) point likert type scale (1 = highly dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = undecided, 4 = satisfied, 5 = highly satisfied) and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.39.

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Table 4.39: Mean and SD regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of SMOs regarding their educational activities Sungi’s Al-Khidmat’s RDSO’s F-test villages villages villages Educational activities Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Opening of schools/training centers 3.01 1.081 3.27 0.872 2.85 0.870 7.28** Provide free schooling to needy students 3.29 0.900 3.82 0.910 2.59 0.667 82.578** Provide free uniform or books and stationary to needy students 3.44 0.871 3.73 0.994 2.93 0.748 31.96** Support to existing schools /training centers 3.13 1.191 2.59 0.285 2.58 0.726 12.465** Launch skill oriented programmes for rural people 3.51 1.186 2.77 1.424 2.60 0.859 24.979** Overall mean 3.28 3.24 2.71 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data given in Table 4.39 showed that among different educational activities launched by Al-Khidmat Foundation, the respondent‘s satisfaction level about their performance was higher (x = 3.27, 3.82 and 3.73/5.00) in case of opening of schools/training centers, provide free schooling and free uniform or books and stationary to needy students, respectively. The reason might be due to their high involvement rate in these activities than Sungi development foundation and RDSO in the research area (see table 4.38). On the other hand in supporting existing schools /training centers and launch skill oriented programmes for rural people in those villages in which Sungi development foundation was working, the respondent‘s satisfaction level about these two educational activities was higher (x = 3.13 and 3.51/5.00). In these two activities the involvement rate of RDSO was higher than other activities (see table 6.18). But, the respondent‘s satisfaction level about their performance was low (x = 2.58 and 2.60/5.00) as compared to Sungi Development Foundation and Al-Khidmat Foundation. The overall mean value for all the educational activities showed that there is little bit difference between the respondent‘s satisfaction level in Sungi‘s villages (x = 3.28/5.00) and Al-Khidmat villages (x = 3.24/5.00). But this difference was much higher in case of RDSO (x = 2.71/3.00). It means, the satisfaction level of respondents in those villages (Khairabad and Traida) with regard to their performance in educational activities was low. In order to find out the statistical difference between the satisfaction level of respondents of all the three SMOs, F-test was applied. The results of F-test showed a highly significant difference between the satisfaction level of respondents affiliated with all the three SMOs with regard to different educational services provided by the respective SMO in their working areas.

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4.2.4.2.7 Satisfaction level of respondents about performance of educational services provided by government (state departments) versus SMOs The respondents were asked question to inquire about their general satisfaction level about the overall performance of educational department running by the state and social movement organizations (SMOs) in providing different educational facilities. The satisfaction level of respondents were measured through five (5) point likert type scale (1 = highly dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = undecided, 4 = satisfied, 5 = highly satisfied) and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.40. Table 4.40: Mean, SD and t-test regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of Government and SMOs about different educational activities Government SMOs (n= 450) (n= 450) t-test Educational related activities Rank Rank Mean SD Mean SD order order Opening of schools/training centers 2.70 1.034 3 3.04 0.959 3 -5.179** Provide free schooling to needy 2.89 1.119 1 3.24 0.973 2 -4.544** students Provide free uniform or books and 2.87 1.057 2 3.37 0.935 1 -7.36** stationary to needy students Support to existing schools 2.01 0.905 4 2.77 1.123 5 -11.724** /training centers Launch skill oriented programmes 1.78 0.900 5 2.96 1.241 4 -17.261** for rural people Overall mean 2.45 3.08 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data presented in Table 4.40 showed that providing free schooling and free uniform or books and stationary to needy students was the major two activities about which the satisfaction level of the respondents was higher in both the cases i.e. provision of these services by the government (state) as well as by the SMOs. However, the satisfaction level of the respondents was higher in case of SMOs due to high mean (3.37/5.00 and 3.24/5.00) value as compared to the government (state) departments. It clearly indicates that respondent‘s satisfaction level regarding different educational activities was higher in case of SMOs due to the high overall mean value which is 3.08/5.00. On the other hand overall mean value in case of respondent‘s satisfaction level about performance of educational services rendered by the state departments was low (2.45/5.00). These results regarding high satisfaction level of respondents about educational services of SMOs confirmed the results given by Rehman and Ismail (2012) who concluded that majority (85.54%) of the respondents were satisfied with the performance of civil society organizations in the promotion of primary education. The provision of free 148 educational services provided by the state departments might be due to the different educational plans and initiatives of international donors in collaboration with the Government of Pakistan in order to enhance the literacy rate of the province. During qualitative discussion with the villagers in the study area regarding performance of the state in delivering educational services to the community, one of the persons responded that: “the government has totally failed to provide good quality and cheap education to our children. Especially in imparting trainings to enhance the skill level of rural community, government didn’t do anything, and people used to engage in unskilled labour work with low wages. In this situation we are relying on other stakeholders (alternate service providers), who provide education to our children as well as skill enhancement trainings and in providing skills to the rural community local village level organizations play significant role. Some national level organizations especially religious ones are also running their own schools and colleges providing cost effective and quality education to the community” The above qualitative remark of the respondents confirmed the quantitative findings of the present research that in providing education to the community especially to the poor, neglected and needy masses of the society social organizations has a leading role and people‘s satisfaction level about these organizations is higher than the state departments. The involvement of religious organizations as alternate educational service providers is also confirmed by Rakodi (2007) who emphasized that religious organizations are the important providers of education and health services in developing countries. With special reference to Pakistan Ghaus-Pasha, (2004) also confirmed the working of Islamic faith based organizations in education sector. In the research area (district Mansehra) it was observed that Al-Khidmat Foundation was responsible for running schools and colleges (for both genders in different rural and urban localities) under the prime umbrella of Jamiat-e-Islami Pakistan. The results of the t-test showed that there exists a significant difference in the satisfaction level of the respondents regarding performance of public sector education departments and social movement organizations in providing good quality and cheap education services to the rural community. The negative value to the t-test as mentioned in the Table 6.18 showed that the mean value of the 2nd group (social movement organizations) was higher in all the cases with regard to their performance in providing educational services to the rural people.

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4.2.4.2.8 Response of respondents regarding satisfaction about educational services provided by state (government) on the basis of their recent use The response of the respondents regarding their satisfaction about educational services provided by the state education department was determined on the basis of their recent usage of educational facility from institutes (schools/colleges/training centers) run under the control of public sector. The responses of the respondents in this regard are tabulated in Table 4.41, given below: Table 4.41: Percentage distribution of the respondents regarding satisfaction of educational services provided by Government on the basis of recent use Satisfaction about Response Yes No Neither Yes Nor no f % f % f % Number of teaching staff 279 85.3 44 13.5 4 1.2 Competency of teaching staff 101 30.9 156 47.7 70 21.4 Infrastructure of school/college / training centers 73 22.3 187 57.2 67 20.5 Quality of equipment (e.g. books, computers, chairs, 104 31.8 138 42.2 85 26.0 chemicals/glassware etc.) Syllabus of school/college /training centers 226 69.1 40 12.2 61 18.7 Note: response rate is not 100.0% due to no response in some cases and children of some respondents were not school going The data presented in Table 4.41 showed that an overwhelming majority (85.3%) of the respondents were responded that they were satisfied regarding number of teaching staff in government educational institutions but this situation was quite reverse in case of competency of teaching staff in these schools/colleges/training centers as near about half (47.7%) of the respondents that they were not satisfied regarding the competency of teaching staff employed in government schools and colleges. During qualitative discussion, one of the community members said that: “the competency level of teachers in government institutions especially in schools located in rural areas is very low. Majority of teachers employed in these schools are employed on political basis and they off and on visit the school not on regular basis” The data presented in Table 4.41 also showed that round about sixty percent (57.2%) of the respondents were not satisfied with the existing infrastructure of schools/colleges or training centers. The respondents said that “majority of the schools in rural areas were demolished during the earthquake in 2005 and uptill now the government didn’t take any steps to improve the conditions of these schools”

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It was personally observed during data collection that the condition of infrastructure of schools in rural areas was not upto the mark and after earthquake government didn‘t try to improve their condition. A view of such schools is given in figure 4.13:

Figure 4.13: The miserable condition of a school in village Paras (photo my researcher) The data regarding satisfaction of rural community about the educational services of public sector education which is given in Table 6.19 showed that majority (42.2%) of the respondents were not satisfied with the quality of equipment which include books, chairs, tables, chemicals, glassware etc. currently present in the schools/colleges from where their children got education. On the other hand a simple majority (69.1%) of the respondents were said that they were satisfied with the syllabus of government/state owned schools/colleges/training centers. About the syllabus of government schools one of the parents said: “the syllabus is very good, the problem is only with the competency of teachers and their regularity and dedication with the teaching profession” From the above said discussion and data it is clear that in majority of the aspects regarding educational services of state owned institutions, majority of the respondents were not satisfied with their educational services but due to high poverty rate and low income level of majority of the respondents their children used to go public scoter educational institutions as private schooling is expensive in Pakistan and not affordable for residents of research area.

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4.2.4.3 Agricultural services Pakistan is agriculture based country where majority of the population is directly or indirectly depends on agriculture profession (Government of Pakistan, 2013). Providing sustainable agriculture services to the vast majority of rural population will boost our national income (World Bank, 2010). In this regard agricultural extension plays a key role as this sector is mainly responsible for provision of agricultural services to rural people in order to improve their livelihoods on one hand and to raise national productivity on the other hand (University of Greenwich, 2008). In the present research, the respondents were asked questions regarding receive of agricultural related services and the data in this regard is given in Table 4.42: Table 4.42: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion with regard to receive different agricultural related services Agricultural Services Yes No f % F % Extension and education 261 58.0 189 42.0 Distribution of seeds/farm inputs 296 65.8 154 34.2 Trainings related to crops 219 48.7 231 51.3 Trainings related to livestock 275 61.1 175 38.9 Poultry 192 42.7 258 57.3 Forestry services 200 44.4 250 55.6 Fruit saplings 168 37.3 282 62.7 Tree saplings 206 45.8 244 54.2 Vaccination for livestock 254 56.4 196 43.6 Awareness campaigns regarding latest agricultural technologies 160 35.6 290 64.4

The data given in Table 4.42 showed that among different agricultural related services majority (65.8%) of the respondents were the recipients of facility of distribution of seeds and other farm inputs. The high percentage of respondents who receive this facility was due to the involvement of number of local, national or international level organizations in distribution of seeds and other farm inputs especially fertilizers or pesticides to the rural community. Trainings related to livestock management and its care was the other area after receiving the facility of distribution of seeds/farm inputs in which simple majority (61.1%) of the respondents said that they received this facility. This might be due to the significance of trainings in improving the knowledge level of an individual. The rural community in the research area realizes the importance trainings related to crop and livestock management as it was also indicated from the given data that round about 50.0% of the respondents also receive trainings related to crop. A very least percentage of the respondents (35.6%) receive the facility of awareness campaigns

152 regarding latest agricultural technologies. This showed that there is deficiency of campaigns or advisory services by the public sector extension department about modern and up-to-date agricultural technologies, due to which rural people used to adopt traditional agricultural practices leading to low farm production. It was general perception of the rural community that agricultural extension system of the government sector whose prime duty is to introduce latest farm practices to the rural people is not effective. The poor performance of public sector extension in KPK province was also discussed by Farooq et al., (2010); Ahmed et al., (2009) and Ahmad et al., (2007a). During qualitative discussion with the people, it was also noted that high poverty rate in the research area was one of the major hindrances behind the non-adoption of improved and latest agricultural practices. Because majority of the people in the area were the small farmers and they didn‘t have much resources to buy improved/high yielding seed and other farm inputs. 4.2.4.3.1 Provision of agricultural services This is the prime duty of agricultural extension department to communicate agricultural related information to the end users mean farming community (Ahmad et al., 2008 and Jan et al., 2008). In the study province (KPK) both public sector and NGOs are involved in dissemination of improved farm practices to the rural community (Ahmed et al., 2009). In the present research respondents were asked questions regarding provision of agricultural related services including extension services and the data in this regard is presented in Table 4.43 given below: Table 4.43: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about provision of different agricultural related services Agricultural Services Government Social Organizations/Group f % f % Extension and education 18 6.9 243 93.1 Distribution of seeds/farm inputs 5 1.7 291 98.3 Trainings related to crops 6 2.7 213 97.3 Trainings related to livestock 5 1.8 270 98.2 Poultry 7 3.7 185 96.3 Forestry services 57 28.5 143 71.5 Fruit saplings 24 14.3 144 85.7 Tree saplings 11 5.4 195 94.6 Vaccination for livestock 64 24.8 190 75.2 Awareness campaigns regarding latest 13 8.1 147 91.9 agricultural technologies

The data presented in Table 4.43 showed that all the agricultural related services were provided by social organizations in comparison to the state/government department. As in case of all services, high majority of the respondents argued that state departments seldom involved in

153 delivering agricultural and extension related services to the community. These results are in accordance with the findings of Ahmed et al., (2009) who concluded that civil society organizations had an edge over public sector agriculture extension department in delivering extension services to the people. This showed the poor performance of public sector extension in delivering agricultural extension services to the rural people. In qualitative discussion respondents reported that extension department of the district is inefficient and didn‘t perform their duties well. Due to which our farm production is very low as we didn‘t know how to maximize profit in farm income. Our produce is substandard and due to no other option we have to sell it at very low rate in the market. The poor performance of extension department in the whole country was discussed by different researchers like Qasim (2012); Ashraf (2004); and Ashfaq et al., (2003). The results presented in table 4.43 indicate that in the study area the agricultural related services were provided by social organizations as well as local farmer‘s groups to the farming community as reported by an overwhelming majority of the respondents. During focus group meeting all the members said that extension field workers of the state extension department didn‘t visit their fields and didn‘t involve in extension and agricultural advisory services. Further they said that the agricultural advices/ information disseminated by different social organizations are very much effective as compared to the state agricultural extension services. Due to these reasons we seldom contact with the extension agent of the public sector extension department. This shows the failure of public sector extension and other state agriculture related department to deliver agricultural services to the rural people. During qualitative discussion it was also noted that extension staff rarely contact with the rural people as one of the person in the village Khairabad (UC Kurnool) said that “in our village no official of the agriculture department came to update our knowledge regarding rural livelihood farming strategies. So we contact with the organizations for our agriculture related problems. In most of the cases the personnel of agriculture department only visit the field of influential persons of the area” The above captioned qualitative remarks confirmed the inefficiency of the state extension department. In view of these results Ahmad et al., (2007c), reported that in the research area only 12.5% of the respondents said that extension worker visit their field and majority of them were big and influential farmers. A number of factors are responsible for this failure of state extension

154 department in delivering agricultural services at the door steps of the farmers. Some of these factors are as identified by different researchers like Pervaiz et al., (2013); Khan and Akram (2012); Farooq et al., (2010); Jan et al., (2008) and Khan (2005) are weak linkages between research and extension, mobility, lack of funds and resources etc. 4.2.4.3.2 Nature of organizations/groups that provided agricultural services In Pakistan in general and specifically in study region (KP province) different actors are involved in variety of rural development activities and initiatives like state departments and civil society (Zaman, 2002). Among these rural development activities provision of agricultural services to the rural community is very much important as large majority of the people in the study area resided in rural areas where agriculture is the main economic activity. Regarding receiving of different agricultural services from social organizations/groups as described in Table 4.43, the respondents were further asked to differentiate/distinguish between these organizations/groups based on religion, secularism and ethnicity and the data in this regard is given in Table 4.44 given below: Table 4.44: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about nature of organization/group that provided agricultural related services Agricultural Services Religious Secular Ethnic f % f % F % Extension and education 5 2.1 236 97.1 2 0.8 Distribution of seeds/farm inputs 5 1.7 286 98.3 - - Trainings related to crops 4 1.9 209 98.1 - - Trainings related to livestock 2 0.7 268 99.3 - - Poultry - - 185 100.0 - - Forestry services - - 143 100.0 - - Fruit saplings 2 1.4 142 98.6 - - Tree saplings 6 3.1 189 96.9 - - Vaccination for livestock - - 190 100.0 - - Awareness campaigns regarding latest agri. technologies - - 147 100.0 - -

The data presented in Table 4.44 showed that majority of the respondents reported that the organizations which were secular in nature were actively involved in delivering agricultural services to the rural people. In some agricultural related services like poultry, forestry services, vaccination for livestock and awareness campaigns regarding latest agricultural technologies, cent percent (100.0%) of the respondents said that secular based organizations provided these agricultural related services to us. During qualitative interviews with key informants and focus group discussion meetings, it was also found that in the study area NGOs/CBOs which had no

155 affiliation with any religion/caste/ethnicity were heavily involved in delivering agriculture oriented services to the rural people. During focus group discussion meetings, one of the persons said: “for our agricultural related issues or problems, staff of agriculture department is not doing any work. However, in most of the cases we got help from staff of NGOs. For the distribution of seeds and trainings related to agriculture and livestock management, NGOs play a significant role” The above captioned qualitative remarks of the rural people confirmed the quantitative data, in which an overwhelming majority of the respondents were of the view that NGOs with secular nature were the major contributors of agricultural services to the rural community of the study area. These results are in accordance with the findings of Ahmed et al., (2009). They concluded that in KP province NGOs were actively involved in inseminating agriculture extension services among the rural community. On international level many research studies proved that NGOs/CBOS/FOs are playing an important role in agricultural production and management through a number of agricultural extension and education activities (Wahab et al., 2011; Arokoyo et al., 2002; Jibowo, 2000 and many others). The data regarding nature of organizations/groups involved in delivering agricultural services to the rural people as presented in Table 6.24, also indicate that religious based organizations were least involved in agricultural related activities as reported by very few number of the respondents. The reason behind their low level of involvement in agricultural activities might be due to the lack of involvement of religious leaders in agricultural development activities as reported by Khan (1999). He concluded that in NWFP (now Khyber Pukhtunkhwa) in villages local religious leaders at grassroots level could play a significant role in agricultural technology transfer but they had no formal role in agricultural development. With regard to the potential role of religious organizations in providing agricultural services to the people Mwangi et al., (2003) reported that through agricultural extension services religious organizations could play a major role in serving local people.

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4.2.4.3.3 Availability of agricultural services Among different rural services agricultural services are very much important (Albert, 2000). The main target of these activities is the rural people who involved agricultural activities (Nederlof et al., 2008). It is widely accepted that access to or availability of these agricultural services are of great importance for the rural poor (Nkonya et al., 2009; Pardey et al., 2006). In the study area besides public sector different civil society organizations were involved in delivering agricultural services to the rural people in order to improve their livelihoods as mentioned in Table 4.43 and Table 4.44. In the present study respondents were asked question regarding their opinion about availability of agricultural services in time. The data in this regard is presented in Table 4.45. Table 4.45: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about timely availability of different agricultural related services Agricultural Services Yes No f % f % Extension and education 204 78.2 57 21.8 Distribution of seeds/farm inputs 283 95.6 13 4.4 Trainings related to crops 191 87.2 28 12.8 Trainings related to livestock 241 87.6 34 12.4 Poultry 162 84.4 30 15.6 Forestry services 169 84.5 31 15.5 Fruit saplings 147 87.5 21 12.5 Tree saplings 181 87.9 25 12.1 Vaccination for livestock 212 83.5 42 16.5 Awareness campaigns regarding latest agri. technologies 129 80.6 31 19.4

The data presented in Table 4.45 showed that an overwhelming majority (>80.0%) of the respondents were in favour of the timely availability of agricultural services to the rural farming community like distribution of seeds/farm inputs, trainings related to crops and livestock, poultry and forestry services, distribution of fruit and tree saplings, vaccination for livestock and awareness campaigns regarding latest agricultural technologies. On the other hand in extension education related agricultural services about 78.2% of the respondents were in favour of in time availability of services. It was also noted during qualitative discussion that in the research area civil society organizations were mainly focus on distribution of seeds and other farm inputs and imparting crop/livestock trainings to the rural people. The respondents said that agricultural services provided by civil society organizations are well in time compared to the public sector department.

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4.2.4.3.4 Impact of agricultural services on the rural livelihoods Agricultural services provided to rural poor plays an important role in escaping them from poverty and improving livelihoods by increasing agricultural production (McCulloch et al., 2007). In order to prove this fact with special reference to KP province Pakistan (research area), the respondents were asked question about the impact of agricultural services on the livelihoods of rural people and also overall productivity of their farm. The data in this regard is presented in Table 4.46 given below: Table 4.46: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about whether agricultural services of social organizations improve overall agricultural productivity and livelihood Agricultural Services Yes No f % f % Extension and education 227 87.0 34 13.0 Distribution of seeds/farm inputs 290 98.0 6 2.0 Trainings related to crops 219 100.0 0 0.00 Trainings related to livestock 274 99.6 1 0.4 Poultry 171 89.1 21 10.9 Forestry services 168 84.0 32 16.0 Fruit saplings 155 92.3 13 7.7 Tree saplings 194 94.2 12 5.8 Vaccination for livestock 239 94.1 15 5.9 Awareness campaigns regarding latest agri. technologies 142 88.7 18 11.3

The data tabulated in Table 4.46 indicate that 100.0% of respondents in case of trainings related to crops and 99.6% in case of trainings related to livestock improved their overall agricultural productivity as well as livelihoods. During discussion respondents said trainings related to crop and livestock management has numerous impacts on our livelihoods. After getting training which is mostly impacted by NGOs in the area, we become aware to latest crop and livestock management techniques. This helps us in increasing our farm income. The results of the study also showed that extension and educational services also played an important role in the improvement of wellbeing status of rural people as reported by a large majority (87.0%) of the respondents. All the remaining agricultural services like distribution of seeds/farm inputs, forestry and poultry services, tree and fruit saplings, vaccination for livestock and launching awareness campaigns regarding latest agricultural technologies also played an eminent role in farm productivity and automatically on livelihoods of rural people as reported by vast majority (>84.0%) of the respondents. Regarding impacts of agricultural services delivered by local social organizations in the study area Shah et al., (2013) concluded that grassroots community 158 organizations play an important role in enhancing food security and reducing poverty in rural areas of Haripur district of Hazara region (KPK province). 4.2.4.3.5 Reasons behind improvement capability of agricultural services of local organizations It has been proved through various research studies that agriculture plays an important role in improving livelihoods of rural dwellers (see Muzari et al., 2012; Taj et al., 2012; Turunen et al., 2011; Prasad and Pandey, 2008; Abdullah et al., 2005; Timmer, 2005 and many more). In the present research study an attempt was made to probe out the reasons due to which agricultural services of social organizations play a role in improving agricultural productivity and livelihoods of respondents. The data in this regard is given below in Table 4.47: Table 4.47: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about reasons due to which different agricultural services of social organizations improve their overall agricultural productivity and livelihood Agricultural Services Good quality Timely Competency of staff services availability f % F % f % Extension and education 124 54.6 96 42.3 7 3.1 Distribution of seeds/farm inputs 116 39.6 138 47.9 36 12.5 Trainings related to crops 69 31.5 89 40.6 61 27.9 Trainings related to livestock 116 42.3 74 27.1 84 30.6 Poultry 128 74.8 24 14.1 19 11.1 Forestry services 93 55.3 67 39.9 8 4.8 Fruit saplings 92 59.4 51 32.9 12 7.7 Tree saplings 104 53.6 83 42.8 7 3.6 Vaccination for livestock 110 46.0 97 40.6 32 13.4 Awareness campaigns regarding latest 104 73.2 12 8.5 26 18.3 agricultural technologies

The data tabulated in Table 4.47 showed that in extension and education services majority (54.6%) of the respondents said that social organizations provided good quality extension and education related services to the rural community. The similar reason was also pointed out in case of trainings related to livestock, poultry services, forestry services, fruit saplings, tree saplings, vaccination for livestock and awareness campaigns regarding latest agricultural technologies as reported by 42.3%, 74.8%, 55.3%, 59.4%, 53.6%, 46.0% and 73.2%, respectively. These results showed that in all the agriculture related services except distribution of seeds/farm inputs and trainings related to crops majority of the respondents was in favour of good quality services of social organizations.

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They argued that as compared to the state agriculture extension department, the services provided by social organizations to improve the livelihood standards of rural community of study area were of good quality. It was also noted during qualitative individual interviews and focus group discussion meetings that the community of the research area relied more on agricultural information delivered by social organizations working in the area. In case of distribution of seeds/farm inputs and trainings related to crops majority (47.9%) and (40.6%) of the respondents said that the timely availability of these services by the local social organizations was the main reason behind the fact that agricultural services rendered by SOs in the area played an important role in improving agricultural productivity and livelihoods of rural people. 4.2.4.3.6 Reasons due to which agricultural services of social organizations didn’t bring improvement in the agricultural productivity and livelihood Although majority of the respondents were in reported that agricultural services provided by social organizations played an important role in bringing improvement in the productivity of their farm as well as their livelihoods (data tabulated in Table 4.45). However, some of the respondents negate the above mentioned statement. They said that agricultural services of social organizations didn‘t bring any improvement in their livelihoods as indicated from the data given in Table 4.45. The respondents were further asked to tell about the main reasons due to which these agricultural services didn‘t bring any improvement in the livelihoods of rural people. The data in this regard is tabulated in Table 4.48 as given below: Table 4.48: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about reasons due to which different agricultural services didn’t improve their overall agricultural productivity and livelihood Agricultural Services Not upto Delay in Poor quality standard availability F % F % f % Extension and education 10 29.4 14 41.2 10 29.4 Distribution of seeds/farm inputs - - 6 100.0 - - Trainings related to livestock - - - - 1 100.0 Poultry 4 19.1 8 38.1 9 42.8 Forestry services 9 28.1 4 12.5 19 59.4 Fruit saplings 4 30.8 6 46.1 3 23.1 Tree saplings 6 50.0 2 16.7 4 33.3 Vaccination for livestock 3 20.0 4 26.7 8 53.3 Awareness campaigns regarding latest 9 50.0 5 27.8 4 22.2 agricultural technologies

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The data presented in Table 4.48 depicted that in majority of the agricultural services majority of the respondents were of the view that delay in availability regarding agriculture services was the main reason due to which the services didn‘t improve their overall farm productivity and also their livelihoods. In case of distribution of seeds/farm inputs, cent percent (100.0%) of the respondents said that social organizations distribute seeds and other farm inputs to the rural community but the delay in their availability didn‘t play any role to bring improvement in their livelihoods. Similar results were also found in case of training related to livestock where only one respondent was reported that the livestock trainings imparted by social organizations didn‘t bring any improvement in their overall livelihoods due to the poor quality of these trainings. During qualitative indepth interviews it was also noted that although majority of the respondents were in favour of the positive impacts of agricultural services delivered by social organizations in the study area. But some also had opinions with no positive impacts on their livelihoods. 4.2.4.3.7 Satisfaction level of respondents about performance of agricultural services provided respective SMOs The respondents were asked question to inquire about their general satisfaction level about the overall performance of SMOs in providing different agricultural services. The satisfaction level of respondents were measured through five (5) point likert type scale (1 = highly dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = undecided, 4 = satisfied, 5 = highly satisfied). The results in this regard are presented in Table 4.49. Table 4.49: Mean and SD regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of respective SMOs about agricultural services Al-Khidmat’s F-test Sungi’s villages villages RDSO’s villages Agricultural services Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Extension and education 3.45 1.097 1.85 0.880 3.35 0.592 156.596** Distribution of seeds/farm inputs 3.72 0.898 2.59 0.991 3.62 0.682 77.66** Trainings related to livestock 3.59 0.998 1.90 0.775 3.53 0.953 164.496** Poultry 3.57 1.071 2.15 1.073 3.66 1.016 96.352** Forestry services 3.06 1.125 1.23 0.561 3.15 0.792 239.016** Fruit saplings 2.97 1.158 1.35 0.543 3.23 0.814 204.559** Tree saplings 3.02 1.167 1.27 0.578 3.25 0.714 237.924** Vaccination for livestock 3.21 1.173 1.36 0.688 3.49 0.739 251.285** Awareness campaigns regarding latest agricultural technologies 3.43 1.089 1.70 0.758 3.19 0.757 169.299** Overall Mean 3.32 1.71 3.36

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**Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data presented in Table 4.49 depicted that the satisfaction level of respondents was high (overall x = 3.36/5.00) about performance of RDSO in delivering agricultural services to the rural community than performance of Sungi Development Foundation (overall x = 3.32/5.00) and Al-Khidmat Foundation (overall x = 1.71/5.00). This showed that respondents were not satisfied with the performance of Al-Khidmat Foundation regarding provision of agricultural services to the rural people. This might be due to the reason of low involvement rate of religious or faith-based organizations like Al-khidmat Foundation in agriculture related activities. The same was also quoted by Khan (1999). Such organizations actively involved in educational and health related activities in developing countries like Pakistan as reported by Rakodi (2007). The result of F-test showed that there is highly significant difference (P<0.05) in the satisfaction level of respondents of those villages in which all the three SMOs were working. This showed the diversity of satisfaction level of respondents belonging to different organizations. 4.2.4.3.8 Satisfaction level of respondents about performance of agricultural services provided by government (state departments) versus SMOs The respondents were asked question to inquire about their general satisfaction level about the overall performance of agricultural departments running by under the state control (government or public sector) and SMOs in providing different agricultural services. The satisfaction level of respondents were measured through five (5) point likert type scale (1 = highly dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = undecided, 4 = satisfied, 5 = highly satisfied). To find out the difference in opinions of the respondents about the performance of SMOs and state agriculture departments regarding agriculture services, t-test statistics was employed and the results in this regard is presented in Table 4.50 as given below: Table 4.50: Mean, SD and t-test regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of government agricultural department and SMOs about delivery of different agricultural services Government (n= 450) SMOs (n= 450) Agricultural services Rank Rank t-test Mean SD Mean SD order order Extension and education 1.92 1.052 2 2.89 1.147 4 -15.902** Distribution of seeds/farm inputs 1.78 0.821 4 3.31 1.004 1 -32.746** Trainings related to crops 1.69 0.842 6 3.00 1.203 3 -24.592** Trainings related to livestock 1.69 0.859 6 3.13 1.259 2 -26.325** Poultry 1.65 0.865 9 2.49 1.230 9 -16.384** Forestry services 1.86 1.123 3 2.52 1.208 8 -11.978**

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Fruit saplings 1.66 0.920 8 2.52 1.229 8 -16.883** Tree saplings 1.68 0.920 7 2.69 1.299 6 -18.448** Vaccination for livestock 2.04 1.145 1 2.77 1.168 5 -11.954** Awareness campaigns regarding -19.600** latest agricultural technologies 1.74 0.956 5 2.68 1.152 7 Overall Mean = 1.77 2.80 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data presented in Table 4.50 depicted that among various agriculture services rendered by the state agriculture department, the satisfaction level of the respondents was high in ―vaccination for livestock‖ with highest mean value (2.04/5.00). The data was also indicated that the over mean about the satisfaction of the respondents regarding agricultural services of the government was 1.77/5.00. These results indicate that the respondents were dissatisfied with all the agriculture related services provided by state departments. On the other hand the satisfaction level of the respondents were comparatively high with regard to the agriculture related services as provided by the social movement organizations in the study area as overall mean value is higher in this case (2.80/5.00). The respondents were not completely satisfied with the agriculture services of social organizations. However, they were more satisfied from social organizations as compared to the state (public sector) agriculture department. Among various agricultural activities provided by SMOs as mentioned in the Table 4.46 the satisfaction level of the respondents was maximum in case of ―distribution of seeds/farm inputs‖ with highest men value (3.31/5.00). Trainings related to livestock and crops delivered by social organizations ranked at 2nd and 3rd, respectively on the basis of mean value. These results are in accordance with the results of Idrees et al., (2007a), who reported that majority of the respondents, were highly satisfied by the agricultural services delivered by community organizations. The results of the t-test analysis showed that there was highly significant difference between the satisfaction level of the respondents about the performance of state agriculture departments and social organizations with regard to the delivery of different agriculture related services (P<0.05). In all the agricultural services the negative t-test value indicate that satisfaction level of the respondents about the delivery of agricultural services by the social organizations in the study area was higher as compared to the public sector agriculture departments. These results were in line with the findings of Ahmed et al., (2009) who conclude that performance of civil society organizations is better than public sector extension in the field of agriculture with special reference to NWFP (now KPK province), Pakistan. Correlation test

163 statistics was also employed to determine the relationship between the performance of government and social organizations. And the results in this regard showed that there was highly significant correlation between the performance of these two sector regarding provision of different agricultural services. 4.2.4.3.9 Recipients of agricultural services In this world nature created two sexes of mankind i.e. male and female. Both of them has right of equal access to all the basic essentials of life and opportunities (Hassan, 2008). But in reality there exist disparities in gaining access to resources including agriculture services in Pakistan (Anwar et al., 2013; Butt et al., 2008 and Mustafa, 2003). In the present study an attempt was made to determine the recipients of agricultural services being provided by social organizations (Sungi, Al-Khidmat and RDSO) out of both the sexes. The data in this regard is presented in Table 4.51 as given below: Table 4.51: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about recipients of different agricultural services Recipients of Agricultural Services Sungi Al-Khidmat RDSO f % F % f % Male members only 15 10 114 76.0 9 6.0 Female members only 14 9.3 - - 1 0.7 Both male and female members 121 80.7 36 24.0 140 93.3

The data tabulated in Table 4.51 showed that in working areas of Sungi Development Foundation, an overwhelming majority (80.7%) of the respondents reported that both male and female members of the society were the recipients of agricultural services being provided under the platform of Sungi. More or less similar observations were also recorded from the respondents being interviewed from those areas in which RDSO was working, where 93.3% of the respondents were in favour of the statement that both male and female members of the society receive agricultural services from RDSO. But this situation was quite opposite in working areas of Al-Khidmat Foundation, where none of the respondents said that only female members of the area receive services from them. In operational areas of Al-Khidmat Foundation majority (76.0%) of the respondents reported that only male members were the main recipients of agricultural services provided by Al-Khidmat Foundation. During focus group discussion meetings with personals of working areas of Al-Khidmat, said that women in our villages have no significant work regarding agriculture in fields, majority of the farm operations were completed by male members, so they (female members) didn‘t need to receive agricultural

164 services. On the other hand in other people belonging to those villages in which Sungi and RDSO were working, they said both women and men were the reciprocal to each other in every field of life including agriculture. So, we provided agricultural services to both male and female members of society. In view of these qualitative as well as quantitative results of the present study Khattak and Hussain, (2008b), reported that as in district Mansehra both men and women actively involved in performing agricultural activities, so they need equal access to agricultural services. But unfortunately women Pakistan have low opportunities regarding education, training and other social and economic opportunities as reported by different researchers like Luqman et al., (2013c); Munawar et al., (2013); Mahmood & Malik (2007) and many others. 4.2.4.4 Supply of drinking water Availability and access to safe and healthy drinking water is fundamental to human life (Obiora and Madukwe, 2011; Ahmad et al., 2010). The rural areas of whole of the country are more deficient of safe and sufficient supply of drinking water (Ahmad et al., 2013; Aurangzeb et al., 2007; Rosemann, 2005). 4.2.4.4.1 Major source of drinking water In the present research study an attempt was made in order to identify the main sources of drinking water of the respondents and the data in this regard is tabulated in Table 4.52 given below: Table 4.52: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their main source of drinking water Main source of drinking water f % Dug well 17 3.8 Water from spring 99 22.0 Water Tanker 14 3.1 Piped water inside house 288 64.0 Surface water 11 2.4 Water pump 18 4.0 Public water plant installed by Govt. 3 0.7

The data presented in Table 4.52 showed that piped water inside house is the main source of drinking water as reported by majority (64.0%) of the respondents. Only few percentage of the respondents used water pup as main drinking water source and public water plant as reported by 4.0% and 0.7% of the respondents, respectively. This might be due to the reason that the study area is hilly consisting of mountains and ground water level is very low. This will be very difficult to pump up water in hill areas due to the rocks. So people used to rely most on other

165 sources of water and in these areas spring water is the most appropriate source. Water from these springs came to the houses of community through water supply schemes installed by government or local community organizations. With regard to the results of present study which indicate that in study area piped water is the main source of drinking water and as compared to other provinces source of drinking water as piped is being used by majority of the community in whole of the study province (Khyber Pukhtunkhwa) according to Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey (PSLM). In rural areas of the study district (Mansehra) 66.0% of the people used facility of piped water as main source of drinking water (Government of Pakistan, 2011c). 4.2.4.4.2 Responsibility of maintaining source of drinking water After accessing the clean drinking water, the maintenance of its source is very much important to have its continuous and non-stop availability for the community members. Due to the geographical location and climatic extremes of the study area the maintenance of source of drinking water is much important. In the current research study, respondents were asked question to tell about the sector that is mainly responsible for maintenance of drinking water source. The data in this regard is tabulated in Table 4.53 as given below: Table 4.53: Distribution of respondents about their opinion about maintenance of source of drinking water Maintaining source of drinking water Frequency Percent Government 169 37.6 Social organization/group 281 62.4 Total 450 100.0

The data presented in Table 4.53 showed that community itself in the form of local organization/groups mainly maintains the source of drinking water as reported by majority (62.4%) of the respondents. However, government also maintains the drinking water sources in the research area but only 37.6% of the respondents said that government (state) maintains their sources of drinking water. This showed that maintenance of drinking water source e.g. breakage, leakage or blockage in the water pipes as well as cleanliness of spring especially after rain or snow storm etc. was mainly done by community itself through groups/committees or village level organizations. In the same vein Mansuri and Rao (2004) reported that local rural community managed rural development projects in a better way than the government as in Northern areas of Pakistan.

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4.2.4.4.3 Frequency of availability of drinking water Water is an essential competent of life. In other words water is the sign of life. The importance of access to safe and clean drinking water to the human beings is well explained by Luqman et al., (2013d) and Zahoorullah et al., (2003). In view of its importance in the human life, respondents were asked question to tell about their opinion about the frequency of availability of drinking water. The data in this regard is given in Table 4.54 given below: Table 4.54: Percentage distribution of the respondents about their opinion about frequency of availability of drinking water Frequency of availability Frequency Percent Available all the time 6 1.3 Available most of the time 213 47.3 Sometimes available 221 49.1 Often not available 10 2.2 Total 450 100.0

The data tabulated in Table 4.54 showed that in the study area drinking water was sometimes available according to the opinion of about 50.0% of the respondents. About 47.3% of the respondents said that drinking water was mostly available to them. As water is very much important for the existing of life but only 1.3% of the respondents said that all the time water was available for us. And 2.2% of them reported that water was not often available in rural areas. In connection with the results of present research Aurangzeb et al., (2007) reported that in NWFP (now KPK) majority of the people didn‘t have access to sufficient quantity of clean drinking water. 4.2.4.5 Emergency relief services The services provided to the effected communities in order to give them relief in emergency situations or in response to disasters are referred to as emergency relief services (RCN, 2009). In this situation the daily patterns of life are disturbed resulting in need of social protection, food, clothes and other necessities of life (World Health Organization, 1999). In every part of the global world disasters occurs since time immemorial. Pakistan is one of the most catastrophe prone countries of the global world (Sohdar, 2012). In the present study, respondents were asked question to tell about relief service provider in emergency situations e.g. after natural hazards or calamity like floods, earthquake, cyclones etc. The data in this regard is given in figure 4.14:

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40 Percent 30

0 Government Social organization/group Emgency Relief Service Provider

Figure 4.14: Percentage distribution of respondents about their opinion in providing emergency relief services The data given in figure 4.14 showed that majority (65.6%) of the respondents reported that in emergency situations after natural hazards or calamity civil society organizations provide relief services to the community at their door steps. On the other hand 34.4% of the respondents said that government (state) provided these services to the effected community. During qualitative interviews it was also noted that in providing emergency relief services after the earthquake in 2005, social organizations especially having religious affiliations played a significant role instead to state departments. With regard to the confirmation of qualitative comments of respondents in providing services during earthquake in Pakistan Khan (2006) reported that in providing support to earthquake victim‘s voluntary civil society organizations deserves the greatest compliment. In connection with the quantitative as well as qualitative results Bano and Nair (2007) also reported that in providing disaster relief services Islamic Faith Based Organizations had a unique and worth mentioning role. 4.2.4.5.1 Extent of providing emergency relief services by government and SMOs The extent of providing emergency relief services by government and social movement organizations was measured through 3 point likert type scale (1= Never, 2= Occasionally, 3= Frequently). The mean, SD and rank order of different relief services provided both by government and local as well as foreign social organizations is given in Table 4.55 as given below:

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Table 4.55: Mean and SD of different emergency relief services being provided by Government and SMOs Emergency Relief Services Government SMOs Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank order order Provide shelter 1.82 0.721 6 2.29 0.648 3 Provide basic food necessities 1.89 0.585 5 2.59 0.497 1 Provide emergency medical services 2.10 0.612 2 2.31 0.530 2 Provide educational facilities 1.94 0.536 3 2.27 0.521 4 Provide cash 2.16 0.700 1 1.69 0.804 6 Rehabilitation services 1.91 0.516 4 2.23 0.572 5 Overall Mean 1.97 2.23 The data presented in Table 4.55 showed that although government and SMOs played important role in providing emergency relief services to the disaster victim community by providing a variety of services. Among these relief services provided by government, providing cash to the people was on the top with highest mean value (2.16/3.00). And providing shelter to the people during and after disasters or emergency situations had 6th rank order and fall at the bottom having lowest mean value (1.82/3.00). These results showed that providing shelter and food during these situations is not the priority of government and the state agencies showed least involvement in providing emergency relief services having low overall mean value (1.97/3.00). On the other hand opposite response of the community was found in case of provision of disaster management services. Among various services provided by SMOs in the research area during earthquake of 2005, providing basic food necessities to the people was on the top with highest mean value (2.59/3.00). And providing cash to the effected community was the least priority of these SMOs as indicated from the mean value (1.69/3.00) and stood at rank 6th among different relief services. The data also showed that as compared to state agencies, social organizations involved more in disaster or emergency management services as clearly indicated from overall mean of these services (2.23/3.00). These results showed that apart from community development work in Pakistan a number of welfare oriented social organizations are engaged in emergency relief services as these organizations cover up the gaps created by Government in provision of relief services (UNICEF, 2008; Khan and Khan, 2004).

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4.2.4.5.2 Respondent’s satisfaction level about the performance of respective SMOs in providing emergency relief services The general satisfaction level of respondents about the delivery of relief services during disaster or emergency situations by the SMOs which are under research in this study (Sungi development foundation, Al-Khidmat foundation and RDSO). A five (5) point likert type scale (1 = highly dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = undecided, 4 = satisfied, 5 = highly satisfied) was used for the said purpose. The results in this regard are presented in Table 4.56. Table 4.56: Mean and SD regarding respondent’s satisfaction level regarding performance of respective SMOs about delivery of different emergency relief services Al-Khidmat’s RDSO’s F-test Sungi’s villages villages villages Emergency relief services Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Provide shelter 3.75 1.010 4.28 0.636 3.12 0.859 70.256** Provide basic food necessities 4.02 0.807 4.15 0.595 3.88 0.601 5.861** Provide emergency medical services 3.83 0.880 4.11 0.796 3.71 0.863 8.804** Provide educational facilities 3.51 1.085 3.74 0.806 3.46 0.832 3.946** Provide cash 3.21 1.249 2.48 0.730 3.10 0.939 23.276** Rehabilitation services 3.88 0.904 3.64 0.583 3.76 0.880 3.355** Overall Mean 3.70 3.73 3.50 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data given in Table 4.56 showed that in delivering of relief services like provision of shelter, basic food necessities, medical and educational services by Al-Khidmat Foundation, the satisfaction level of respondents was higher (x = 4.28, 4.15, 4.11 and .3.74/5.00) respectively, than Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO. But in providing cash during emergency or disaster situations and rehabilitation services imparted by Sungi Development Foundation, the respondent‘s satisfaction level was higher (x = 3.21 and 3.88), respectively than Al-khidmat Foundation and RDSO. The overall mean value of all the emergency relief services showed that respondent‘s satisfaction was higher (x = 3.73/5.00) in case of Al-Khidmat Foundation than Sungi Development Foundation (x = 3.70/5.00) and RDSO (x = 3.50/5.00). This indicates that respondents were satisfied from the emergency relief services provided by Al-khidmat Foundation. This might be due to the factor of high involvement of Islamic faith-based organizations in such services as discussed by Bano and Nair (2007). For determining the statistical difference between the respondent‘s satisfaction level belonging to respective SMO, F- test was applied. The results of F-test showed that there is highly significant difference (P<0.05) between the satisfaction level of respondents of all the three SMOs regarding all of their

170 activities related to provision of relief services to the community in disaster or emergency situations. 4.2.4.5.3 Satisfaction level of respondents about performance of government versus SMOs in providing emergency relief services The respondents were asked question to inquire about their general satisfaction level about the overall performance of state departments and SMOs in providing emergency relief services. The satisfaction level of respondents were measured through five (5) point likert type scale (1 = highly dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = undecided, 4 = satisfied, 5 = highly satisfied). To find out the difference in opinions of the respondents about the performance of Social Movement Organizations (SMOs) and the government (state) departments with regard to provision of emergency relief services, t-test statistics was employed and the results in this regard are presented in Table 4.57 as given below: Table 4.57: Mean, SD and t-test regarding satisfaction of respondents about performance of Government and SMOs about delivery of different emergency relief services Government (n= 450) SMOs (n= 450) t-test Emergency relief services Rank Rank Mean SD Mean SD order order Provide shelter 2.62 0.955 6 3.72 0.971 4 -18.654** Provide basic food necessities 2.94 0.835 4 4.02 0.682 1 -20.514** Provide emergency medical services 3.40 1.118 2 3.88 0.862 2 -7.019** Provide educational facilities 2.89 0.983 5 3.57 0.923 5 -10.167** Provide cash 3.48 1.099 1 2.93 1.044 6 7.444** Rehabilitation services 3.09 1.054 3 3.76 0.807 3 -11.216** Overall Mean 3.07 3.65 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data presented in Table 4.57 showed that the satisfaction level of the respondents regarding provision of emergency relief services by the government agencies/departments in disaster situations was high in case of providing cash having highest mean value (3.48/5.00). This showed that respondents were not fully satisfied with the cash distribution services to the effected community in emergency situations; however they satisfied to some extent with that service being offered by the state departments. The satisfaction level of the respondents was found to be low in providing shelter to the community during disaster situations with least mean value (2.62/5.00). This showed that respondents were dissatisfied with the services like provision of shelter being provided by the government. On the other hand the satisfaction level of the respondents was high with highest mean value (4.02/5.00) in providing basic food necessities by

171 the SMOs to the effected community in disaster or emergency situations. This showed that the respondents were satisfied more with regard to the provision of basic food necessities by the SMOs as compared to the government (state departments). In providing cash to the people by the social organizations during and after disaster or emergency situations, the satisfaction level of the respondents was low with lowest mean value (2.93/5.00). This might be due to the reason that SMOs were least involved in providing cash to the people as cleared from the data tabulated in Table 6.33. The results of the t-test statistics showed that there was highly significant difference between the satisfaction level of the respondents with regard to the provision of emergency relief services provided by the government and social movement organizations. In all the different emergency relief services, the negative sign of t-test value showed that the performance of SMOs in providing these services was better than the government. The reason was that the respondents were satisfied more about the relief services of SMOs than that of government. In providing cash to the effected people the positive sign of t-test value (7.444) showed that the performance of government was found better in this regard than SMOs because the satisfaction level of the respondents was found to be low in this case. This showed that rural community was satisfied more with the services provided by CSOs as compared to the government. 4.2.4.6 Other rural development services As discussed earlier, rural development is multidimensional and multifunctional phenomenon. It covers all aspects of social life. Different actors involve in different rural development activities like access to education, health, agricultural services, clean drinking water, relief services and many other services. All these activities have covered in the preceding sections of the chapter. In the current section, opinions of the respondents were recorded about the delivery of other rural development services i.e. who is mainly responsible for the provision of these services government or SMOs. The data in this regard is tabulated in Table 4.58 as given below:

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Table 4.58: Percentage distribution of respondents according to their opinion about delivery of other rural development services Other rural development services Government SMOs f % f % Engaging in create a spirit of self-help 57 13.2 375 86.8 Gender Empowerment through education and training 87 24.7 265 75.3 Launch advocacy campaigns - - 316 100.0 Provide services to develop rural infrastructure 98 27.3 261 72.7 Arrange walks and protests against state policies - - 249 100.0 Entrepreneurship 48 16.3 246 83.7

The data presented in Table 4.58 showed that in all the other rural development services as given in the above table, a high majority (> 70.0%) of the respondents reported that SMOs were heavily engaged in providing these services to the rural community. Very interesting results were found in case of launching advocacy campaigns and arrange walks and protests against poor state policies in developing rural poor on sustainable basis, where cent percent of the respondents said that only SMOs were involved in these activities. The involvement of community organizations in advocacy is also reported by Banks and Hulme (2012), who concluded that in launching advocacy campaigns for the community regarding their rights CSOs played a critical role. In empowering gender especially women in Pakistan civil society play an important role as reported by majority (75.3%) of the respondents. Regarding creation of self- help motivations among the rural communities, Lewis and Kanji (2009) supported the findings of current research study in which an overwhelming majority of the respondents said that SMOs were largely involved in promoting the notion of self-help. 4.2.4.7 Criteria for delivering services to the community Respondents were asked question to tell the criteria of social organizations and government (state) departments regarding delivery of different community services to the people and the data in this regard is given in Table 4.59 given below: Table 4.59: Criteria of social organizations and government rural development departments for delivering services to the community Rural development institutes Social Poverty Gender based contacts/grouping f % f % f % Social organizations 235 52.2 115 25.6 100 22.2 Government departments 59 13.1 112 24.9 279 62.0

The data presented in Table 6.40 showed that social organizations focus on the criteria of poverty in delivering basic essential services to the rural community according to the opinions of majority (52.2%) of the respondents. On the other hand the situation was found opposite as 173 majority (62.0%) of the respondents said that state departments (government sector) followed the criteria of social contacts and grouping while delivering social services to the community. During discussion one of the respondents said: “there is no rule and justice in government departments, there is no space for poor and powerless people in Pakistani political and administrative culture. A person who have more money and power have better access to community services. Government departments didn’t follow the base of poverty in order to deliver social services to community” The above mentioned comment confirmed the results and findings of the present study showing that government departments followed the criteria of social contacts and groupings instead of poverty. These results showed that in government sector, poverty is the least criteria in order to deliver services to the people. In the research area it was noted that political and social contacts were the main criteria being followed in state rural development related departments. 4.2.5 Rural poverty and inequality Poverty is complex and multidimensional issues of the developing and developed world. According to an estimate about one-fifth of the world‘s population is afflicted by poverty (Khan, 2001). Poverty is more in rural areas than in urban centers (Adeniji, 2010; Maiangwa et al., 2010; Godfray et al., 2010; Ommani, 2008; CPRC, 2004). In the present research, perceptions of the respondents were recorded about poverty. The responses of the people in this regard are summarized as under: Some persons said that poverty is the condition in which a person has less income than expenditures. While some respondents argued that poor is one who didn’t have enough resources to meet his/her basic requirements of living. Majority of the respondents emphasized that poverty is actually the lack of education and skills. Similarly some of the respondents viewed that poor is one who, have no income generation resources. With regard to the qualitative results of the present study about poverty a number of previous research studies confirmed these findings and concluded that poor people are those who don‘t have sufficient income and resources to meet the living essentials (Janjua and Kamal, 2011; Ali et al., 2010; Laderchi et al., 2003; World Bank, 2006a; World Bank, 2000). During data collection it was personally observed during data collection from field that poverty is very much prominent in the area. Majority of the people didn‘t have enough money to buy sufficient food. In some remote villages which were situated at high altitude, had no proper road network,

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100.0% of the people of these villages suffered from poverty. During qualitative discussion it one of the persons said: “poverty in our village is very common. Hardly some people have access to sufficient food and other living necessities. Farming is not the sufficient business to meet our requirements. We are the highly food insecure people” The above captioned qualitative remarks confirmed that in the research area poverty rate is high. The poverty and food insecurity situation in the study area is well illustrated in the following figures 4.15 and 4.16:

Figure 6.15: Residences of majority of the households in the study area (Photo by author)

Figure 4.16: Situation of poverty and food insecurity in the study area (Photo by author)

Figure 4.15 showing the residences of majority of the households in the research area, gave the clear picture of state of poverty in the area. These residences and the households who used to live in these residences were lacking all basic provisions of life. The figure 4.16 clearly 175 depicted the state of food insecurity which is due to the prevailing high poverty rate in the study area. Both of the above given figures confirmed the qualitative comments of the respondents about poverty as one of the key informant said: “if a person didn’t have enough money or resources in order to meet his or her daily food, clothing, and shelter requirements, he or she will be in the state of poverty” 4.2.5.1 Reasons of rural poverty The detailed literature regarding rural poverty and its causes at national and international level has already been given in chapter 2 of the dissertation. Here in this section, the data regarding reasons of poverty which prevails in the study areas as perceived by rural community were collected and discussed. The respondents were asked questions to tell that whether they agree or disagree about different reasons of poverty. The responses of the respondents were recorded on the five point likert type scale (1= Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= Strongly Agree). The mean and SD of different reasons of poverty in the research area is given in Table 4.60 given below: Table 4.60: Mean and SD of reasons of rural poverty

Reasons of rural poverty Mean SD Lack of access to educational opportunities 4.49 0.602 Lack of employment opportunities 4.35 0.853 Lack of good governance policies by the state 4.32 0.756 Economic inequality 4.19 0.769 Lack of awareness regarding latest agricultural practices 4.12 0.627 Low agricultural produce 4.11 0.693 Lack of access to health Facilities 4.06 0.688 Lack of physical assets (Land/Livestock) 4.03 0.803 Poor marketing facilities of agriculture produce 4.02 0.723 Limited access to social safety nets (SSNs) 3.97 0.749 Slow economic growth 3.95 0.761 Large household size 3.90 0.919 Limited road networks 3.86 0.928 Emerging social, political and regional conflicts (violence/terrorism) 3.82 0.964 Large dependency upon non-agricultural income resources 3.79 0.775 Lack of access to loans/microcredit 3.68 0.907

The data presented in Table 4.60 showed that lack of access to ―educational opportunities‖ was the main reason of poverty in the study area having highest mean value (4.49/5.00) among various other reasons. This showed that respondents were agreed that lack of

176 education is the basic cause of rural poverty. Majority of the respondents reported that in the villages lack of education is only the important factor of poverty. They said lack of education leads to low job opportunities. Further, they said at farm level lack of education among farmers is the big hurdle in the adoption of improved/latest agricultural practices. This non-adoption of improved agricultural practices leads to low farm production and increase in poverty in rural areas. They said there is dire need to develop agriculture sector on improved farming technologies in order to reduce rural poverty because Pakistan‘s agricultural sector has great potential to combat against poverty. Similar observations were also quoted by Khan (2002 and Haque (2002). In the present study it was also found that poor governance and poor state policies were also the main root cause of rural poverty in the country having mean value 4.32/5.00. This showed that respondents were agreed that lack of good governance policies by the state at national level enhances poverty level in rural areas of KPK. The data regarding reasons of rural poverty also showed that lack of health facilities in the research area were also one the main reason behind rural poverty having 4.06/5.00 mean value. This indicates that respondents agreed that lack of health facilities enhances poverty level in the study area. During qualitative interviews it was also noted that respondents perceived that not only in study district (Mansehra) in whole the province public sector health facilities are substandard. They said poor health condition of the rural communities is very common in our area which is also one of the rational factors behind high poverty in the villages. Regarding reasons of poverty data tabulated in Table 4.60 showed that economic inequality is also one of the reasons of poverty having mean value 4.19/5.00. This showed that respondents also agreed on that reason of rural poverty. Majority of the respondents reported that prevailing unequal distribution of resources is also the factor behind poverty in the study area. Similarly lack of access to physical assets (land and livestock) was also one the reasons of rural poverty having mean value 4.03/5.00. This showed that respondents in the research area were agreed that lack of access to land and livestock enhances poverty level of rural community. The data presented in table 6.41 also showed that slow economic growth in the country was also among various reasons of rural poverty with mean value 3.95/5.00. Limited access to SSNs was also among various reasons of rural poverty in the research area with mean value 3.97/5.00. These reasons of poverty are also quoted by different researchers like Chaudhry et al., (2006); Bokosi (2006); Kemal (2003) and many others.

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4.2.5.2 Reasons of inequality

In Pakistan high level of inequality prevails between wealthy and poor people and major portion of these poor people reside in rural areas (Asad and Ahmad, 2011). Like other provinces of the country inequality regarding income and land holding among farming community is also prominent in the study province (KPK) (Khattak and Hussain, 2008c). There are many reasons of this high level of inequality present in the country. These reasons were explored in the present research study through five point likert type scale (1= Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= Strongly Agree). The mean and SD of different reasons of poverty in the research area is given in Table 4.61 given below: Table 4.61: Reasons of inequality Reasons of Inequality Mean SD Poverty 4.41 0.691 Low level of skills 4.34 0.668 Unequal distribution of benefits among different segments of society 4.30 0.587 Injustice 4.24 0.830 Lack of professional education 4.23 0.788 Political instability 4.23 0.600 Unequal educational system (Multiple educational system) 4.23 0.804 Instability of country‘s economic system/policies 4.22 0.601 Lack of effective state policies 4.19 0.605 Less assess by the poor to productive assets such as land or livestock 4.12 0.542 Political administrative setup 4.06 0.656 Low agricultural and industrial output 4.04 0.646 Less control over natural resources 3.97 0.613 Division of society into different social classes 3.97 0.848 Lack of involvement of all stakeholders in policy decision making and implementation 3.96 0.748 Limited representation in national and provincial assemblies 3.18 1.176

The data presented in Table 4.61 showed that respondents were agreed that poverty, low level of skills, unequal distribution of benefits among different segments of society, injustice, lack of professional education, political instability, presence of multiple educational system, instability of country‘s economic system/policies, lack of effective state policies, less assess by the poor to productive assets such as land or livestock, political administrative setup and low agricultural and industrial output having mean value 4.41, 4.34, 4.30, 4.24, 4.23, 4.23,4.23, 4.22, 4.19, 4.12, 4.06, and 4.04, respectively. During focus group meetings with the rural community it was noted that all the members agreed that low agricultural output at farm level, illiteracy, high

178 level of corruption, ever increasing inflation, and government economic policies are also the main factors behind the fast growing inequality between rural and urban regions of Pakistan. They said that the existing state policies are only protects the rich and wealthy people. They can get more profit through these policies. Different other research studies also supported the findings of present research study like Akram et al., (2011), Chaudhry and Rehman (2009), Kakwani (2004), Ahmad (2001) etc. This situation of raising rural poverty and social inequality leads to the emergence of social movements as reported by Tariq (2012) who argued that among many reasons and thoughts on the root cause of social movements, poverty and social inequality/injustice is the leading one. 4.2.5.3 Perceived means to reduce rural poverty and inequality Poverty and inequality reduction is vital for promoting equity and also to increase the wellbeing of majority of the population in a social system (Cook, 2011). The presence of widespread economic and social inequalities in the region demands policies and planning at national level in order to achieve the goal of human development on sustainable basis. In this regard, opinions of the respondents were recorded about means and measures to reduce rural poverty and inequality. The data in this regard is presented in Table 4.62 as given below: Table 4.62: Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about means to reduce poverty and inequality Means to reduce poverty and inequality Mean SD Good governance policies of the state 4.76 0.560 Increasing employment opportunities 4.57 0.726 Eradication of corruption 4.49 0.555 Increasing literacy rate 4.48 0.616 Equal distribution of benefits among various sections of society 4.37 0.641 Favourable socio-political environment 4.25 0.837 Welfare of disadvantaged and vulnerable groups 4.17 0.614 Optimum use of human as well as physical resources 4.15 0.654 Regulating Zakat and Ushar system 4.05 0.832 Emphasis should be given to non-farm income 4.01 0.882 Assess and control over assets 3.97 0.729

The data presented in Table 4.62 showed that poverty and inequality can be reduced through good governance policies of the state as majority of the respondents agreed on it having highest mean value (4.76/5.00) among other various means to reduce poverty and inequality. The significance of good governance policies by the state in poverty and inequality reduction in

179 general and rural development in particular was reported by Akram et al., (2011) and Usman (2009). In this context, it is conclude that the best way to reduce poverty and inequality from rural areas was implementation of good governance policies by the state. In this research study respondents were also agreed (x 4.57) that through provision of employment opportunities poverty can be reduced The other means of reducing poverty and inequality as identified in the current research on which majority of the respondents agreed were eradication of corruption, increasing literacy rate, equal distribution of benefits among various sections of society, favourable socio-political environment, welfare of disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, optimum use of human as well as physical resources, regulating Zakat and Ushar system and emphasis should be given to non-farm income having mean value 4.49, 4.48, 4.37, 4.25, 4.17, 4.15, 4.05, and 4.01, respectively. Similar findings were also given by Asad and Ahmad (2011); Chaudhry and Rehman (2009); Usman (2009); Gazdar (2007) and Drosh et al., (2003). 4.2.5.4 Role of SMOs in reducing rural poverty and inequality In the present study, respondents were asked question in order to determine their response about role of SMOs in reduction of poverty and inequality and the data in this regard is presented in figure 4.17 given below:

100 90 80 70 60 % 50 40 30 20 10 0 Yes No Response

Figure 4.17: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about role of SMOs in reducing rural poverty and inequality The data given in figure 4.17 showed that an overwhelming majority (> 90.0%) of the respondents viewed that social movement organizations played an important role in reducing poverty and inequality. The rationale behind their argument was that these social movement

180 organizations engage in raising voice of poor people about their demands through collective action. The rural community perceived that by using the platform of SMOs we can express out views, needs and demands in a better way. During focus group meetings they viewed that in Pakistan CSOs played a significant role in rural poverty reduction. Similar observations were also quoted by Amosu (2011) and Kalim & Salahuddin (2011). Further, it was also investigated that through which means and activities the social movements organizations which I studied (Sungi Development Foundation, Al-Khidmat Foundation and Rural Development Support Organization - RDSO) play any role in reducing poverty and inequality. The responses of the respondents were analyzed by using five point likert type scale (1= Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= Strongly Agree). The mean and SD of different activities of SMOs which play role in poverty and inequality reduction is presented in Table 4.63 given below: Table 4.63: Mean and SD and F-test statistics of activities of SMOs through which they play role in reducing poverty and inequality Al-Khidmat’s Sungi’s villages villages RDSO’s villages Activity Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Through educational activities 3.31 1.019 3.75 0.987 4.39 0.751 Through health related activities 3.43 1.163 3.20 1.106 4.20 0.885 Through skill enhancement programmes 4.42 0.746 2.94 1.521 4.52 0.741 By addressing the issues of corruption 3.10 1.489 1.87 1.067 3.71 1.270 By addressing the issues of good 3.04 1.529 2.15 1.231 3.63 1.327 governance Through involvement in advocacy related 3.92 1.028 3.18 1.174 3.82 1.103 activities

The data presented in Table 4.63 showed that among different activities of Sungi, respondents agreed with highest mean value (x 4.42) that Sungi Development Foundation played role in poverty and inequality reduction through skill enhancement programmes. Similar, results were also found in case of RDSO with highest mean (x 4.52). These results showed that both Sungi and RDSO are engaged in enhancing skills of rural community of the study area, which played role in increasing their daily income and increased chances of employment opportunities for them. During qualitative discussion one of the respondents said: “in proving skill development platform Sungi is on the top in this area. They provide us trainings on different aspects e.g. auto mechanic, electronics mechanic, plumber, agriculture, kitchen

181 gardening, embroidery, office management, computer etc. These trainings help us in earning more income which brings improvement in our livelihoods” Regarding role of RDSO in skill enhancement of local community one of the respondents said: “At local village level RDSO is the oldest platform which provide skills to both the genders according to their needs” The above captioned qualitative remarks confirmed the quantitative results of the present study. On the other hand different results were obtained in case of activities of Al-Khidmat, as respondents agreed with mean (x 3.75) that educational activities Al-Khidmat Foundation played a role in poverty and inequality reduction from the study area. The reason is that lack of education is the major cause of poverty in the research area as identified in the present study (see table 4.60). Many previous research studies also argued that lack of education lead to poverty (Arif and Iqbal, 2008 and Hashmi et al., 2008, Idress et al., 2007b and many more). 4.2.5.5 Role of social movement organizations (SMOs) in addressing the issue of poverty and inequality Every organization which is associated with any social movement is involved in specific type of activities on the basis of their aims and objectives. In this research study attempt was made to determine whether social movement organizations address the issue of poverty and inequality in their campaigns or not. The opinion of the respondents in this regard is given in figure 4.18:

100 90 80 70 60 % 50 40 30 20 10 0 Yes No Response

Figure 4.18: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about involvement of SMOs in addressing the issues of poverty and inequality

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The data presented in figure 4.18 showed that an overwhelming majority (90.0%) of the respondents said that social movement organizations which were being studied in this study were involved in addressing the issues of poverty and inequality in their campaigns. On the other hand only few percentage (10.0%) of the respondents negate this statement and said that these SMOs didn‘t address the real issues of poverty and inequality. They said that every organization has their own benefits and objectives. 4.2.5.6 Involvement of poor people in activities of SMOs Further, the respondents were asked question about the involvement of poor people in the activities of SMOs and the data in this regard is presented in figure 4.19 given below:

90 80 70 60 50 % 40 30 20 10 0 Yes No Response

Figure 4.19: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about involvement of poor people in activities of SMOs The data presented in figure 4.19 showed that a high majority of respondents (> 80.0%) were reported that poor people involved in activities of SMOs. They perceive that these SMOs were raising their voices against injustice and played a significant role in poverty reduction through multipurpose activities as well as in addressing the other social, cultural, economic and environmental issues. On the other hand 16.2% of the respondents said that poor people didn‘t involve in activities of SMOs. They argued that due to the lack of financial and physical capital and resources poor people didn‘t participate in activities organized by SMOs. In view of these results Cleaver (2005) reported that poor and marginalized people don‘t have time, resources and also due to the lack of social networks they hesitate to participate in activities being organized by any organization.

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In managing rural development activities undertaken by social movement organizations, the active involvement of local rural community plays an important role (Rashidpour and Hosseini, 2010). Keeping in view the rate of involvement/participation of poor people in activities of SMOs, in the present research respondents were asked question to rate the participation level of poor people in activities of SMOs and the data in this regard is given in figure 4.20:

40 % 30

0 Low Medium High Participation level

Figure 4.20: Percentage distribution of the respondents according to their opinion about level of participation in activities of SMOs The data presented in figure 4.20 showed that majority (> 50.0%) of the respondents viewed that the participation of poor people in activities of SMOs was low. Only about 11.0% of the respondents were said that the poor people‘s participation in SMOs activities was found to be high. He low participation level of the poor people was due to the fact that these people were in state of poverty and they didn‘t have resources in order to meet their requirements for healthy life. During interviews one of the respondents from village Kharabad said: “I have no other source of income except daily labour, I belong to very poor family. I need to fulfill the daily requirements of my family. The participation in the activities of organizations or movements is just wastage of time for those people who are people like me” The above remark indicated that due to poverty, people didn‘t involve in activities of SMOs. They need only income so that they can easily manage the nutritional, educational and health requirements of their families. In view of the results of the present research Ashfaq et al., (2009) describes that lack of participation or involvement in social activities/decisions by the

184 rural poor was the non-income or non-material dimensions of poverty. High poverty rate hinders the involvement of people in different activities (Combat Poverty Agency, 2003). 4.2.6 Perceived effectiveness of rural development efforts of respective SMOs The effectiveness of rural development efforts of respective SMOs was determined through different rural development related statements or indicators on the basis of self- perception of respondents (rural community). A three (03) point likert type scale (1= Not effective, 2= Least effective, 3= Most effective) was used was this purpose. The data in this regard is tabulated in Table 4.64 as given below: Table 4.64: Mean and SD of the respective SMOs regarding effectiveness of their rural development activities Al-Khidmat’s Statements regarding Rural Sungi’s villages villages RDSO’s villages development Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD F-test Reduction in poverty rate in the area 2.57 0.638 1.78 0.476 2.71 0.482 131.573** Helpful in increasing household‘s income 2.56 0.596 1.69 0.463 2.77 0.455 187.965** Improvement in overall literacy rate in the area 2.47 0.652 1.87 0.353 2.61 0.577 78.281** Improvement in rural infrastructure 2.62 0.552 1.86 0.531 2.69 0.517 112.144** Provision of equitable services to all the people 2.36 0.762 1.57 0.548 2.47 0.576 89.184** Provide quick emergency services at the door steps 2.18 0.519 1.71 0.572 2.29 0.468 51.316** Monitoring and evaluation mechanism in development activities 1.99 0.695 1.66 0.475 2.25 0.655 34.182** Maintain positive relationship with all stakeholders 2.38 0.598 1.93 0.349 2.21 0.411 36.454** Helpful in changing existing state policies regarding rural development 2.41 0.604 2.15 0.515 2.51 0.515 16.859** Raise the awareness level of community about their rights 2.52 0.610 2.21 0.559 2.72 0.451 33.936** Social and economic empowerment of rural women 2.51 0.528 2.07 0.444 2.63 0.499 54.472** Reduces social conflicts among rural community 2.19 0.552 1.84 0.403 2.19 0.429 28.782** Overall mean 2.40 1.86 2.50 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data given in Table 4.64 showed that the perceived effectiveness of rural development activities/services of RDSO is higher (overall x 2.50/3.00) than other two SMOs i.e. Sungi Development Foundation (overall x 2.40/3.00) and Al-Khimdat Foundation (overall

185 x 1.86/3.00). This indicates that the rural development efforts/services rendered by Al-Khimdat Foundation were least effective according to the perception of rural community. In all the cases the rural development practices of RDSO as presented in Table 6.44, the perceived effectiveness was higher. This showed that village based local organizations like RDSO are highly effective in developing rural areas on sustainable basis. In view of these results Mohamed (2010) reported that village level community based organizations have greater potential in bringing sustainable improvements in the livelihoods of rural community. In order to find out the statistical difference between the perceived effectiveness of rural development activities imparted by all the three SMOs, which were under study (Sungi Development Foundation, Al-Khidmat Foundation and RDSO), F-test was applied. The results of the F-test statistics showed that there is highly significant difference between the perceived effectiveness of RD activities of all the three SMOs in their respective working areas. 4.2.7 Perceived effectiveness of rural development activities of SMOs and Government (public sector) Both public sector (state) and civil society are involved in number of activities and striving hard for changing the livelihoods of rural people especially poor, marginalized and neglected masses of rural society as major portion of the poor people reside in rural areas of Pakistan. The effectiveness of RD activities of both of these actors was measured in the present research. A three point likert type scale (1= Not effective, 2= Least effective, 3= Most effective) was used to measure their effectiveness on the basis of different statement regarding rural development. The results in this regard are given below in Table 4.65. Table 4.65: Mean, SD and t-test of the effectiveness of activities of Government and SMOs regarding rural development Government (n= 450) SMOs (n= 450) Statements regarding Rural t-test Rank Rank Development Mean SD Mean SD order order

Reduction in poverty rate in the area 1.70 0.590 4 2.36 0.676 4 -18.286** Helpful in increasing household‘s income 1.69 0.665 5 2.34 0.689 5 -17.553** Improvement in overall literacy rate in the area 1.94 0.545 1 2.32 0.629 6 -10.832** Improvement in rural infrastructure 1.78 0.597 2 2.39 0.653 3 -17.274** Provision of equitable services to all the people 1.56 0.631 7 2.14 0.750 7 -5.085** Provide quick emergency services at the door steps 1.75 0.577 3 2.06 0.577 9 -8.489** Monitoring and evaluation 1.69 0.641 5 1.96 0.660 10 -7.458**

186 mechanism in development activities Maintain positive relationship with all stakeholders 1.61 0.540 6 2.17 0.501 6 -16.020** Helpful in changing existing policies regarding rural development 1.04 0.202 9 2.36 0.565 4 -48.459** Raise the awareness level of community about their rights 1.10 0.323 8 2.48 0.583 1 -42.340** Social and economic empowerment of rural women 1.78 0.572 2 2.40 0.547 2 -21.373** Reduces social conflicts among rural community 1.69 0.579 5 2.08 0.494 8 -11.752** Overall mean 1.61/3/00 2.26/3.00 **Highly Significant (P<0.05) The data presented in Table 4.65 indicate that rural development activities rendered by the state (public sector) were found to be least affective with overall mean value (x 1.61) as compared to the activities undertaken by SMOs with overall mean value (x 2.26). These results showed that activities of SMOs are more effective than that of the activities of the state departments with regard to rural devilment. In view of these results Bhaskar and Geethakutty (2001) reported that rural development efforts of different civil society organizations serve as an effective tool for rural development. On the same lines Clayton et al., (2000) argued that civil society organizations are the powerful actors in overall development of a country. Similar observations were also recorded by Smillie (1992), who concluded that due to the limited role of public sector in rural development, advocacy and development oriented organizations are playing a significant role in sustainable rural development through community empowerment and backing campaigns for social and economic change in the society. The results of the t-test statistics also showed that there is highly significant difference between the perceived effectiveness of RD activities of state versus non-state organizations in the research area. In all the statements regarding rural development the negative value of the t- test showed that the effectiveness of non-state organizations in rural development were more with high mean value as compared to the government. The effectiveness of other rural development services especially human health provided by social organizations in developing countries like Pakistan is comparatively high than that of Government departments (state) as reported by World Health Organization (2005). The significance of efforts in the field of rural development done by different civil society organizations like NGOs was also argued by Lewis and Kanji (2009). As indicated from the results tabulated in Table 3 that the effectiveness of government (state) efforts in improving

187 the literacy level of rural community is lower (x = 1.94/3.00) as compared to the non-state organizations (x = 2.34/3.00). This showed that compared to the non-state institutions, state (government departments) efforts are least effective in delivering educational services to the community in an efficient manner to reduce the illiteracy level. In this situation non-state organizations are playing and contributing their role in capacity building of rural people through education or in other words i.e. improving literacy rate. The same was also concluded by Ulleberg (2009). Regarding contribution of non-state organizations in rural development Lewis (2007) reported that besides state contributions, these organizations are the effective contributors towards rural development.

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CHAPTER -5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The major objective of the present research was to analyze the rural development vision and practices of culturally rooted social movement organizations in North-west Pakistan. The rationale to conduct this study was the prevalence of poverty and inequality in North-west Pakistan where more than half of the population is used to live in rural areas and suffering from high poverty. In order to prevent this huge population from poverty and economic inequality, state (government) departments associated with rural development are striving from the last 60 years. For the said purpose the state launched different rural development cum extension programmes/projects. But all of these plans have gained limited success in delivering development services to the rural community. And majority of the rural people are still facing the problem of poverty and inequality. In this preview, rural development practitioners argued that alone state departments cannot be successful in achieving the targets of rural poverty reduction and food security for overall human development in the country. With this notion, a number of civil society organizations with diverse nature and typology are also working for rural development generally in the whole country and specifically in Khyber Pukhtunkhwa province (North-West Pakistan), which is more food insecure and underdeveloped than Punjab and Sindh provinces. These organizations claim that they deliver the development services to the rural poor people in comparatively efficient and effective manner and address the real needs of poor and marginalized masses to rural society. But their actual practices and efforts with regard to rural development have not been yet explored. Further, the effectiveness of their rural development activities or efforts compared to the efforts of the state has not been determined. The present research was therefore, designed to analyze the rural development practices of those social organizations (incl. religious ones), which are actively involved in different rural development activities and/or also the part of any of the social movement in the form of networks and commonly referred to as Social Movement Organizations. With this major objective, perceptions of rural community about poverty and inequality in the research area and the role of the selected SMOs in reducing poverty and inequality was recorded and analyzed in this study. The effectiveness of rural development services rendered by these organizations was also determined

189 in comparison with the state efforts. The significance/role of rural development activities of SMOs in improving livelihoods of rural poor was also found. The case study approach was followed and District Mansehra of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa province (North-West region) of Pakistan was selected for research. The study was completed in two phases. In the 1st phase, inventory of organizations and local groups was prepared in consultation with the detailed and indepth meetings with the key informants which included representatives of organizations, journalists, local key influential persons, religious leaders etc. The selected organization/groups were categorized into four different groups based on their nature of working. These groups are; (a) Advocacy/lobbying, (b) Services (emergency, relief, charity etc.), (c) Development related and (d) Multidimensional. However, the organizations/groups which were placed in group advocacy/lobbying had no such prominent role in rural development work in the area. With this rationale one organization from each of the remaining three groups were selected. Purposeful sampling design was used for the selection of organization from each group. The main purpose behind their selection was the extent of their involvement as well as their historical background in providing different rural development activities to the community. The names of these organizations were Sungi Development Foundation (multidimensional), Al-Khidmat Foundation (services) and Rural Development Support Organizations – RDSO (development related). In the 2nd phase data regarding objectives, vision, claims and the actual practices with the notion of rural development of the selected organizations were collected from the members/staff/volunteers of the already selected three organizations. The reasons of poverty prevails in rural areas of the study district as perceived by the staff/volunteers/members of the selected organizations were also find out. The self-perceived effectiveness of rural development efforts of the respective organizations was also measured. The data were also collected from the rural community of those villages where the respective organization was working for rural development related activities/tasks. Two villages for each of the three organizations were randomly selected and making a total of 6 villages. From each of the six villages 75 rural people were interviewed, thus making a total sample size of 450 respondents. Both qualitative and

190 quantitative data collection techniques were used for the said purpose. Structured interview schedule and interview guide were used as the data collection instruments. Qualitative data were collected by holding key informant interviews, personal observations and focus group discussions and analysed using content analysis technique. The quantitative data were collected by conducting survey using structured interview schedule and analysed using software known as Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive, inferential and correlational statistics was used for the interpretation of collected data. In this chapter, the conclusions/main findings, and recommendations are being presented. 5.1 Conclusions/Main findings It has already been discussed earlier in chapter 3 (Materials and Methods) that in the present research study, there were two categories of respondents as (1) staff/volunteers/members of SMOs and (2) rural community affiliated with the respective SMO. So, this section is also further divided into two subsections as presented below: 5.1.1 Responses of 1st category of respondents: Staff/volunteers/members of SMOs 5.1.1.1 Organizational profile The major operational area of all the three SMOs was rural territories and in most of the cases all of them used to work at local village level. There exists great diversity in sources of funding of organizations for carrying out their activities. Funding from international donors was the major source of funding of Sungi Development Foundation, while on the other hand charity and donations were major income source of Al-Khidmat Foundation. And RDSO, which is solely a village based organization earned income from its own sources. Regarding status of working of SMOs, it was concluded that a high majority of the members/volunteers of Al- Khidmat and RDSO were of the view that they work on regular basis, but simple majority (41.2%) of the respondents said that the working of Sungi Development Foundation was project based as they mostly rely on funding from international donors. Further, it was concluded that in all the three SMOs majority of the staff/members work on voluntary basis. 5.1.1.2 Objectives, vision and claims of SMOs regarding rural development Regarding main objectives of all the three SMOs it was found that all of them are engaged in variety of social welfare work especially empowering the suppressed and neglected rural community of the study area. But it is interesting to note that Al-Khidmat Foundation have affiliation or attachment with religious political party of Pakistan (Jamat-e-Islami) but both Sungi

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Development Foundation and RDSO have no affiliation with any of the political party or religious sect. Al-Khimat Foundation followed the religious ideologies adopted from Jamat-e- Islami (largest and oldest religious political party of Pakistan). Empowerment of rural poor and their wellbeing is the vision of all the SMOs regarding rural development. These organizations have different claims regarding rural development. Their claims were analyzed on the basis of their networking, working strategy and activities/actions regarding rural development. From these claims it was revealed that there exists diversity across the organizations. Each organization has adopted different working strategies to deliver rural development services (health, education, agriculture etc.) to the end users i.e. rural community. It has been concluded that all the three SMOs are working on the theme of people-centered rural development approach which covers all aspects of sustainable rural development. The staff/volunteers/members of argued that for bringing social change in diverse social, economic and political wellbeing of rural community, which is the basic aim of social movements, SMOs work through articulation of all the stakeholders. They said involvement of all the stakeholders in the process of social change is essential for its promotion. Moreover, they argued that the true sense of collaborative approach of all stakeholders/beneficiaries in the development process is lacking in state-led rural development departments. 5.1.1.3 Actual practices/efforts The organizations are involved in a wide variety of rural development practices/efforts. From the results it has been concluded that Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO were mostly involved in launching skill oriented programmes for rural community in the research area. On the other hand Al-Khidmat Foundation was mostly involved in opening new educational institutions (schools/colleges) in the area for both the genders. They said that both science (worldly) subjects as well as religious subjects (Quran and Sunnah) should be the part of syllabus of all the educational institutions. They argued that there is deficiency of inclusion of learning about Quran and Sunnah (religious education) in the existing syllabus being implemented by the state educational intuitions. Due to this reason, they mostly involve in opening schools/colleges under the platform of Jamiat-e-Islami. Among different rural development efforts health play a role and provision of quality health services is the right of every human being. In the research area SMOs involved in number of different health related rural development practices. From the results, it was concluded that

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Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO were mostly involved in launching awareness campaigns regarding different human health among various health related rural development activities/practices. On the other hand Al-Khidmat Foundation was mostly involved in installing free medical campus for rural community. In rural areas farming is the major economic activity. Majority of the people depend directly or indirectly upon it for their livelihoods. In overall rural development, agriculture development plays a significant role. Due to its importance in rural livelihoods, wide variety of social organizations‘ are involved in different agricultural development related activities. From the data of the present study about the involvement rate of SMOs in agricultural development related activities, it was concluded that Al-Khidmat Foundation and RDSO were mostly involved in human resource development of rural community through trainings related to crop and livestock management. While on the other hand Sungi Development was mostly involved in launching awareness training sessions regarding environmental protection. They perceived that environmental protection is also the pillar of sustainable rural development. Besides health, educational and agricultural activities, the SMOs are also involved in many other rural development oriented activities. Out of these activities advocacy and social mobilization was the main activity rendered by Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO to the rural community. They argued that in social movements advocacy and mobilization of rural community are the important processes. On the other hand provision of basic necessities in emergency as relief services was the main development oriented activity of Al-khidmat foundation in the rural areas. 5.1.1.4 Rural poverty and its causes The survey of the staff/members/volunteers of organizations revealed that the lack of employment generations activities, lack of education and training, lack of awareness regarding latest agricultural practices in the research area are the key factors behind widespread rural poverty in the study area. It is also concluded that poverty has both material and non-material are important dimensions. Among material impacts of rural poverty, lack of access to basic amenities of life is considered as the most important one. And social exclusion, lack of voice and lack of access to basic human rights are considered as the important non-material impacts of rural poverty in the research area.

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The staff/volunteers/members of respective SMOs had different perceptions regarding means to reduce poverty from the study area. In this context, the staff/volunteers of Sungi Development Foundation perceived that poverty from rural areas can be reduced through social and economic empowerment of poor and marginalized rural community and provision of basic necessities of life to all the community members on equality basis. Similarly, the volunteers/members of Al-Khidmat Foundation perceived that poverty from rural localities can be reduced through capacity building (imparting education and training) of rural community, providing services for material and non-material well-being of rural community and by ensuring social justice. On the other hand the volunteers of RDSO perceived that providing awareness among rural community about their rights, and provision of welfare services to the poor and marginalized masses of rural society, poverty can be reduced from these areas. 5.1.1.5 Effectiveness of rural development practices/efforts of SMOs The effectiveness of rural development practices/efforts of SMOs was determined on the basis of self-perception of their staff/member/volunteers. From the data it is concluded that among different educational activities, the effectiveness of awareness campaigns to ensure enrollment of both genders in all the educational institutions was the most effective educational rural development activity of Sungi Development Foundation in the research area. Out of the educational activities of Al-Khidmat Foundation, they perceived that opening of new schools/colleges in order to enhance the literacy level of rural people keeping in view the education of both science and religious subjects (Quran and Sunnah) was their highly effective rural development activity with highest mean (x ) value (3.00). On the other hand the volunteers/workers of RDSO argued that providing skill oriented programmes for enhancing skill level of rural people was their most effective educational rural development activity. They said this programme enabled rural community to earn more income to support their livelihoods. Regarding effectiveness of different health related activities of SMOs it was concluded that the staff/volunteers of Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO perceived that awareness raising campaigns regarding human health was their most effective activity to attain the objective of sustainable rural development. On the other hand the perceived effectiveness of ambulances services launched by Al-Khidmat Foundation among other health related RD practices was at the top with highest mean value. Their staff argued that Al-Khidmat Foundation had a country wide network of free ambulance service especially to the poor and needy people. They said we

194 provide this service in far flung areas of the country during all the occasions in general and in emergency/disaster situations in specific. In rural livelihoods agricultural development holds prominent position. Major portion of rural population associated with agricultural related activities. The wellbeing of this huge proportion of population is directly connected with the development of this sector. Besides state agricultural extension wing, SMOs are also involved in agricultural related activities. Regarding perceived effectiveness of agriculture related rural development practices/efforts/activities of the SMOs whose rural development practices/efforts were studied in the current research study, it was concluded that provision of farm inputs e.g. seed, fertilizer, micro-nutrients, pesticides/insecticides/fungicides etc. was the highly effective activity rendered by Sungi Development Foundation in the study area. Among agriculture related RD practices of Al- Khidmat Foundation the effectiveness of awareness training sessions to protect natural environment was at the top with highest mean value (x 1.82). They perceived that protecting environment is one of the main pillars of sustainable rural development. On the other hand ensuring and facilitation in providing healthy seed and other farm inputs at the door steps of farmers in a village was most effective agricultural related rural development activity rendered by RDSO. Among other rural development practices/services/efforts done by Sungi Development Foundation, the perceived effectiveness of activities related to advocacy and social mobilization of rural community was at the top with highest mean value (x 2.82/3.00). Similarly, the effectiveness of advocacy and social mobilization of rural community as rural development activity rendered by RDSO was highest i.e. good with maximum mean (x ) (3.00). On the other hand the effectiveness of providing basic necessities of life to the community especially during emergency or disaster situations as relief services was also good and highest with maximum mean value (3.00). 5.1.1.6 Interaction/linkages Regarding interaction and linkages between different organizations, local groups as well as state rural development related departments it is concluded that in Sungi Development Foundation high level of interaction was found local village level organizations /committees as well as with the state-led social welfare department. This showed that Sungi Development Foundation had strong interaction and horizontal linkages with village level local

195 groups/organizations/committees to ensure maximum participation/involvement of local community in the rural development process. This also concluded that they had strong vertical linkages with the state owned social welfare department to provide welfare services to the rural dwellers. Similarly, RDSO had a very high level of horizontal interaction and linkages (x 5.00) with other village level groups and organizations as well as with village level committees. But, they had medium level vertical linkages with state rural development related departments. On the other hand Al-Khidmat Foundation had high level (x 4.53) of horizontal linkages/interaction with local informal groups and medium level interaction with allied state rural development departments (vertical linkages) but the intensity of interaction was low in case of Al-Khidmat Foundation than RDSO. 5.1.2 Responses of 2nd category of respondents: Rural Community 5.1.2.1 Socio-economic characteristics Majority of the respondents had age range between 36-50 years and had primary level (5 years of schooling) of education. This indicates that lack of higher education is prominent in the research area. Due to which people of this area has limited job opportunities in the public and private sector which enhances poverty and food insecurity situation in the area. It is also concluded that people belong to different castes. Syed, Gujar, Awan and Mughal were the most prominent castes present in the research area. Majority of the respondents in the research area were land owners and had small agricultural land holdings. This small size of land is insufficient to earn income to fulfill/meet the basic requirements of rural livelihoods. Due to this majority of the respondents in the study area adopt both farming and non-farming occupation. It is concluded that labour was the main source of cash income for majority of the respondents and they used to live in joint family system. Regarding involvement of social organizations and local groups for rural development, an overwhelming majority of respondents reported that in their respective villages a number of local, national as well as international organizations are working. But the rate of involvement of respondents in the activities of social organizations and local groups was medium. There exists highly significant difference in the rate of involvement of local rural community (respondents) in their respective rural development oriented activities. All these organizations and groups had strong linkages and interaction with the local, national as well as international organizations

196 and/or groups to form a network of organizations and start movement to address the common issues of rural community. 5.1.2.2 Rural development services The SMOs are involved in different rural development activities and efforts. It was concluded that out of these activities, the rate of involvement of Sungi Development Foundation was higher in education, advocacy and microcredit schemes. The involvement rate of Al- Khidmat Foundation was high in rural development activities like education and provision of emergency relief services to the community. And the involvement rate was high in activities like agricultural, skill enhancement trainings, rural infrastructure development and advocacy of community about their rights being launched by RDSO. The mean distance of the nearest health center as reported by the respondents was 2.2KMs and the mean time to reach the nearest health center as reported by them was 40.5 Minutes. Regarding opinion of the respondents about cost of health services provided by Government and SMOs, majority of the respondents were of the view that health services provided by Government and SMOs were cheap. But regarding quality of these services, it was concluded that the quality of health services provided by SMOs was better as compared to the state (government) owned health centers/hospitals. Regarding different health related activities, it was concluded that Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO was mostly involved in launching awareness campaigns regarding health care of humans at village level. But in case of health activities of Al-Khidmat Foundation, providing free medical facility to needy people was their main activity. There exists high variation within the SMOs regarding satisfaction level of respondents about health care activities of the respective SMO. It was also concluded that respondent‘s satisfaction level about health services rendered by SMOs was higher compared to the state (government) health department. The mean distance of the nearest school/college as reported by the respondents was about 1.6 KMs and the mean time to reach the school was about 31 Minutes for boys and about 40 Minutes for girls. It is concluded that high level of gender disparity was found with respect to education in the research area. The cost of educational services provided by Government and social organizations was viewed as cheap as reported by majority of the respondents. The quality of educational services provided by SMOs was found to be better than state educational departments according to the majority of the respondents. Among different educational services

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Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO were mostly involved in promoting skill enhancement programmes for rural people. But Al-Khidmat Foundation was mostly involved in provision of free schooling to poor/needy students of the area. From the t-test statistics it was concluded that the performance of SMOs with regard to delivery of educational rural development services was better as compared to the state departments as the satisfaction level of the respondents was higher about the performance of SMOs in relation to educational services. It was concluded that large majority of the respondents said that they most get agriculture related services from social organizations as compared to the state agricultural extension department. Regarding role of agricultural services in improving rural livelihoods an overwhelming majority of the respondents said that the agricultural services played an important role in improving their overall agricultural productivity and ultimately rural livelihoods. Among different reasons which are responsible for improving the overall agricultural productivity of respondents and their livelihoods, the quality of agricultural services was at the top as majority of the respondents said. But in case of trainings related to crops majority of the respondents said that timely availability of these services played a key role in improving the status of their livelihoods. Regarding opinion of the respondents about reasons due to which different agricultural services didn‘t improve their overall agricultural productivity and livelihoods, delay in availability of the services was at the top. But in case of trainings related to crops, majority of respondents said that these trainings were not upto the standard. Furthermore, it is also concluded that respondent‘s satisfaction level is higher about agricultural services provided by SMOs compared to the state agricultural extension and other related departments. In emergency situations, provision of different relief services to the community was the prime responsibility of the state but among these services providing cash to the effected community by the state was at the top with highest mean value. But among relief services provided by local/national as well as foreign donor funded organizations ―providing basic food necessities‖ to the effected people was at the top having highest mean value. The t-test value showed a highly negative significant difference between the satisfaction level of the respondents about the performance of state and SMOs about delivery of different relief services during emergency and disaster situations. It was also concluded from that state rural development related departments followed the criteria of social contacts/grouping but the social movement organizations followed the criteria of poverty in delivering rural development services to the

198 community as reported by majority of the respondents. It is further concluded on the basis of F- test statistics that there exit a significant difference between the opinions of rural community regarding their satisfaction about delivery of different rural development related activities launched by all the three SMOs (Sungi development foundation, Al-Khidmat foundation and RDSO). 5.1.2.3 Rural poverty, inequality and its causes It is concluded from the qualitative views of majority of the respondents that a person who didn‘t have education and skills and have not enough resources in order to meet his/her daily requirements is considered as poor. Lack of access to educational opportunities and lack of employment opportunities were the main and key reasons of growing poverty in the region. Regarding respondent‘s perception about inequality, majority of the respondents said that injustice in providing basic facilities of life and welfare services to the community is perceived to be the inequality. Among different reasons of prevailing inequality in the region, poverty and low level of skills in the community was at the top according to the perceptions of rural community. It is further concluded that poverty and inequality are closely associated and interlinked with each other as poverty is one of the single most important factor of widespread inequality in the study area as perceived by the respondents. According to the perceptions of respondents (rural community), good governance by the state is the best strategy to reduce poverty and inequality. 5.1.2.4 Role of SMOs in reducing poverty and inequality Regarding role of SMOs in reducing rural poverty and inequality, it is concluded that SMOs played an important role in reduction of poverty and inequality through different activities as reported by an overwhelming majority of the respondents. Out of these activities of SMOs skill enhancement training progarmmes of Sungi Development Foundation and RDSO were at top. But in Al-Khidmat Foundation their involvement in imparting education to the community was perceived as their major activity which play role in reducing rural poverty and inequality in the area. In addressing the issues to rural poverty and inequality, a high majority of respondents said that SMOs address the issues of poverty and inequality in their activities. But the rate of involvement of poor people in activities of SMOs was found to be low due to many reasons. Out of these reasons, poverty, lack of resources and time were the main factors behind the low involvement rate of poor people. It is concluded from the F-test statistics that there was highly

199 significant difference between the perceived effectiveness of RD activities of all the three SMOs in their respective working villages. Finally, it is concluded that rural development services of SMOs were more effective for sustainable rural development as compared to the state rural development efforts. 5.1.2.5 Theoretical Implications of Research The major focus of the present research study was to explore the vision and practices concerning rural development of those Social Movement Organizations (SMOs) which are deeply rooted in the local and traditional culture of study area. The results/findings of the current study contribute in the existing literature about the complexities/dynamics of civil society especially SMOs in following ways:  In the context of Pakistan, local communities/ groups originate and start their activities as a social movement, but after some period of time they transform into organization and involve in different activities to carry on working on the agenda of social movement. Such transformation is regarded as ―fluid‖ nature of social movements. The present research contributes to the existing contemporary theoretical and conceptual debate on fluid nature of social movements (see Earle, 2004; Hilhorst, 2003; Feweraker, 2001). The other view point is that resources in the form of money/funds as well as time play a significant role in transforming social movements into organizations or simply into NGOs. The major funding sources of two out of three SMOs which were studied in the present research were external sources in the form of donor funded projects or donations. Moreover, this also has been proved from the findings of the study that poor/vulnerable people tend to be least interested and showed minimum involvement in activities of SMOs due to limited access to resources especially in the form of time and money. These research findings of the current study contribute to the existing literature regarding Resource Mobilization and Political Opportunity theory of social movements (see Ahmadi, 2011; Ganz, 2010; Earle, 2007).  The present research also contributes and helps in developing links with grassroots social movement organizations as in the local context, such organizations directly represent the deprived/vulnerable sections of the rural society. In the context of Pakistan, the self-help local groups like RDSO help in supporting the development of social movements. Furthermore, this research supports the concept of rational and significance of local

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grassroots level social organizations like Sungi Development Foundation, Al-khidmat Foundation and RDSO to organize and to mobilize rural communities to bring collective action through social movements (see Sattanathan, 2011; Andrews and Biggs, 2006).  The complex nature of civil society including SMOs as analyzed in the current study suggests/motivates the development practitioners to study the SMOs in holistic perspectives including the role of horizontal and vertical network of organizations as well as mobilization process among the members of networks. Theoretically this also proves that the network/coordination of groups/organizations plays a significant role in mobilizing and strengthening the activities of SMOs.  While analyzing the effectiveness of rural development efforts of SMOs, this had been proved that the efforts of SMOs in developing rural community on sustainable basis were efficient as compared to the state-led rural development departments. This philosophy contributes in the current literature concerning the role of SMOs in providing advocacy to rural communities regarding their rights besides service delivery to the community (see Snow and Soule, 2010; Shaheed 2011; Naz et al., 2013).  The SMOs which were studied in the present study followed the idea of collective identity rather individual identity to address the issues of poverty and inequality. This relates to the theoretical debate on collective identity (De la Porta and Diani, 2006; Diani, 2000).

5.2 Recommendations 5.2.1 For state departments 1. Agricultural extension strategy must extend beyond agriculture sector, recognizing the importance of on-farm and off-farm agricultural activities due to the small cultivable land holdings in the research area 2. State rural development related departments should work in collaboration with the local village level organizations and independent local farmer groups 3. Need based rural development services delivery mechanism for poor and deprived community should be established at the grassroots level 4. State-led rural development departments should initiate skill development programmes for resource poor farmers by involving private sector and civil society

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5.2.2 For multidimensional NGOs like Sungi Development Foundation 1. The capacity building of staff/members of farmer/producer‘s organizations should be built up on recent advances in agriculture and rural development sector 2. They should work keeping in mind the socio-cultural, socio-economic and socio-political environment of the area 3. They must work through in collaboration with the state-led rural development and other allied departments and agencies

5.2.3 For local/neighborhood organizations like RDSO 1. Horizontal (with all local village level organizations/informal groups/village committees) as well as vertical linkages (state departments) should be developed 2. Local/neighborhood organizations should provide crop and livestock oriented extension services well in time in order to enhance extended role of agricultural extension generally in improving agricultural growth and specifically rural livelihoods

5.2.4 For faith based/religious organizations like Al-Khidmat Foundation 1. FBOs/religious organizations must work in collaboration with the other national and local village level CSOs in order to develop a comprehensive rural development strategy 2. Community-led accountability mechanism involving all stakeholders should be launched for effective monitoring and evaluation of rural development plans or initiatives 3. A comprehensive and holistic rural development programme should be initiated covering all aspects of rural life (education, health, agriculture, infrastructure development, farm and non-farm income generation activities and disaster management)

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APPENDIX - I Interview Schedule for Staff of Organizations Date of Interview: ______1. Name of the organization: ______2. Name of the respondent: ______3. Position in the organization: ______4. Length of service (In years): ______5. What are the Operational areas of your organization?

1= Rural 2= Urban 3= Both Rural and Urban 6. At what level your organization works?

S. No. Level Scale Never (0) Sometime (1) Most of the time (2) All the time (3) 1. Village/UC ______2. District ______3. Provincial ______4. National ______5. International ______7. What are your main sources of funding for your organization?

S. No. Sources of funding Scale 0 1 2 3 1 Own sources* ______2 Charity** ______3 Donations ______4 Funding from Govt. agencies ______5 Funding from private agencies ______6 Funding from international agencies ______7 Any other (Pl. specify) Scale: 0= Never, 1= Sometimes, 2= Mostly, 3= Always * Membership fee, Registration fee, Monthly contribution from members etc. **Zakat, sudkat, donations etc. 8. What is the frequency of working of your organization?

S. No. Frequency of working Response 1 Sometimes (In emergency) ______2 Often (Seasonal ) ______3 Always (Throughout the year) ______

9. What is the status of working of organization? 1= Project based 2= Regular 3= Both 10. What is the status of your staff? 1= Volunteer, 2= Semi-Volunteer/Semi-Paid, 3= Paid as regular staff 4= Paid as contractual staff, 5= Volunteer, Regular as well as contractual staff 6= Majority volunteers some paid staff, 7= Any other

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11. What are the objectives of your organization? ______12. Please explain what is rural development in your opinion and its importance? (Your vision) ______13. What are the claims of your organization regarding rural development?

Yes No 1. Wide network ______2. Develop rural people on sustained basis ______3. Ensure community participation without discrimination ______4. Representing needs/demands of the local people ______5. Work within socio-economic culture of society ______6. Spirit of self help ______7. Provide welfare services to every marginalized/ poor member of society ______8. Provide skill development platform ______9. Discourage gender discrimination ______10. Maximum voluntary staff ______11. Gross root Network/penetration at village community level ______12. Advocacy and capacity building ______13. Political participation of women ______14. Any other (pl. specify) ______14. What is the overall structure of your organization? Pl. describe. ______15. In your opinion, who are poor and what are their significant characteristics/features? Please describe ______16. In your opinion how can poverty be alleviated from the rural area to develop the area (Your

believes regarding rural development)?

______

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17. In your opinion what are the causes/reasons of rural poverty and inequality?

S. No. Causes/reasons 1 2 3 4 5 1. Lack of access to educational facilities ______2. Lack of access to training facilities ______3. Lack of control over natural resources ______4. Lack of access to health Facilities ______5. Low agri. produce ______6. Lack of access to agricultural information sources ______7. Lack of awareness regarding latest agricultural ______practices 8. Poor road infrastructure network ______9. Poor marketing facilities of agriculture produce ______10. Poor access to clean drinking water ______11. Poor access to sanitation facilities ______12. Small land holdings ______13. Lack of employment opportunities ______14. Lack of access to loans/microcredits ______15. Lack of access to Social safety Nets (SSNs) ______16. Deterioration of the natural resource ______17. Lack of participation by the local community in ______development work 18. Emerging social, political and regional conflicts ______(violence/terrorism) 19. Overall national economic policies ______1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree 18. In your opinion what are the material impacts of rural poverty and inequality?

S. No. Material impacts 1 2 3 4 5 1. Less income ______2. Lack of access to basic necessities of life (education, ______health, water, sanitation, roads, shelter etc.) 3. Irregular income ______4. Hunger/ malnutrition ______1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree 19. In your opinion what are the non-material impacts of rural poverty and inequality?

S. No. Non material impacts 1 2 3 4 5 1. Lack of voice in society ______2. Lack of access to resources ______3. Lack of dignity or self-respect ______4. Lack of access to basic human rights ______5. Exclusion from society ______6. Vulnerability to natural shocks ______7. Vulnerability to economic shocks ______1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree

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20. What are the actual practices of your organization regarding rural development?

S. No. Actual practices 1 Education 1 2 3 1.1 Open new schools ______1.2 Ensure enrollment of both genders ______1.3 Provide free schooling to needy students ______1.4 Provide school uniform to needy students ______1.5 Provide free books and stationary to needy students ______1.6 Support to existing schools ______1.7 Launch skill oriented programmes for rural people ______1.8 Any other (Pl. specify) ______2 Health 2.1 Open basic health centers in rural area ______2.2 Install free medical camps ______2.3 Provide free medicines and medical facility to needy people ______2.4 Provide free medical training to rural female ______2.5 Launch awareness campaigns regarding human health ______2.6 Ambulance services ______2.7 Blood camps ______2.8 Medical laboratory at discount rate ______2.9 Any other (Pl. specify) ______3 Agriculture 1 2 3 3.1 Provide agricultural advisory services to farmers ______3.2 Provide free farm inputs ______3.3 Provide farm inputs on credit ______3.4 Provide tube wells/water pumps for irrigation purpose at farms ______3.5 Provide training to farmers regarding crop and livestock ______management practices 3.6 Provide services regarding marketing of agricultural produce ______3.7 Launch awareness training sessions regarding protection of natural ______environment 3.8 Any other (Pl. specify) ______4 Miscellaneous 1 2 3 4.1 Engaging in create a spirit of self-help ______4.2 Provide basic necessities in emergency as relief services ______4.3 Gender Empowerment through education and training ______4.4 Advocacy and social mobilization ______4.5 Provide services to develop rural infrastructure ______4.6 Provide small loans without interest ______4.7 Entrepreneurship ______4.8 Orphan care ______4.9 Provision of drinking water for community ______4.10 Any other (Pl. specify) ______Scale: 1= Never, 2= Sometime, 3= Most of the time 21. What is the working strategy of your organization in providing services for rural development?

______

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22. How does working strategy of your organization differ from other Govt. departments working for rural development? ______23. What is the participation level of citizens/members in rural development related activities of social organizations? 1= Low 2= Medium 3= High 24. On which issues your organization interact with other organizations or groups? Please also mention the name of the group or organization.

S. No. Issue Name of the organization/group 1 2 3 4 5 25. On which issues your organization/group interact with the state rural development departments? Pl. describe.

S. No. Issue Name of the department 1 2 3 4 5 26. What are the main working areas of your organization? Districts: ______

Tehsils of district Mansehra: ______UCs/Villages if known: ______27. Does your organization collaborated/collaborating with?

S. No. Donors/organizations Response Yes (1) No (2) 1 European, American based Muslim organizations ______2 European, American other than Muslims ______3 Multilateral (UNO, FAO, ILO etc.) ______4 Asian/Islamic (IDB, ADB, Islamic relief etc.) ______

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If no why, (a) ______

(b) ______

28. In future, if your organization finds such chance, would you like to collaborate with?

(b) ______

(c) ______29. In your opinion what is the effectiveness of your organization regarding following rural development activities? Pl. rate on the following scale.

S. No. Rural Development activities Response Rate 1 Education Yes No 1 2 3 1.1 Open new schools ______1.2 Ensure enrollment of both genders ______1.3 Provide free schooling to needy students ______1.4 Provide school uniform to needy students ______1.5 Provide free books and stationary to needy students ______1.6 Support to existing schools ______1.7 Launch skill oriented programmes for rural people ______1.8 Any other (Pl. specify) ______2 Health 2.1 Open basic health centers in rural area ______2.2 Install free medical camps ______2.3 Provide free medicines and medical facility to needy ______people 2.4 Provide free medical training to rural female ______2.5 Launch awareness campaigns regarding human health ______2.6 Ambulance services ______2.7 Blood camps ______2.8 Medical laboratory at discount rate ______2.9 Any other (Pl. specify) ______3 Agriculture 3.1 Provide agricultural advisory services to farmers ______3.2 Provide free farm inputs ______3.3 Provide farm inputs on credit ______

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3.4 Provide tube wells/water pumps for irrigation purpose ______at farms 3.5 Provide training to farmers regarding crop and ______livestock management practices 3.6 Provide services regarding marketing of agricultural ______produce 3.7 Launch awareness training sessions regarding ______protection of natural environment 3.8 Any other (Pl. specify) ______4 Miscellaneous 4.1 Engaging in create a spirit of self-help ______4.2 Provide basic necessities in emergency as relief ______services 4.3 Gender Empowerment through education and training ______4.4 Advocacy and social mobilization ______4.5 Provide services to develop rural infrastructure ______4.6 Provide small loans without interest ______4.7 Entrepreneurship ______4.8 Orphan care ______4.9 Provision of drinking water for community ______4.10 Any other (Pl. specify) ______Scale: 1= Poor, 2= Average, 3= good 30. Level of interaction with other allied organizations and state department working for rural development

S. No. Interaction with Response Rate Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 1. Informal local groups ______2. Local village level ______organizations/committees 3. National level organizations ______4. International organizations ______5. State agriculture extension department ______6. State rural development department ______7. State Social welfare department ______8. Govt. Health department ______9. State Agri. Marketing department ______10. State Education department ______11. District Forest and Wildlife department ______12. Any other (Pl. Specify) ______Scale: 1= V. Low, 2= Low, 3= Average, 4=High, 5= V. High 31. What are the means and tools being used by your organization/group for mobilizing community as mobilizing mechanism against some common community interests? ______

______

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32. Would you like to tell something else concerning your organization? ______

______

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APPENDIX – II

Interview Schedule for Rural Community Covering Letter

Hello, My name is Muhammad Luqman. I am here on behalf of Institute of Agri. Extension and Rural

Development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. I am doing Ph.D. research on rural

development practices of culturally rooted social organizations in North West Pakistan with special focus on District Mansehra. The interview is not mandatory but your answers to these questions are

important for my Ph.D. research. Your views count and it will help us to generate research findings and take it up to the Government in future. It will also be an opportunity for you to share your experiences regarding rural development services being provided by the state and local social

organizations. I select you as respondent for the present research study randomly and I would like to talk with you for about one (01) hour to collect information present in this interview schedule. All the answers provided by you will be kept confidential.

If there are questions I ask which you don‘t want to answer, please let me know about that question, I will skill that one and will move to the next one.

Interview Date: ______Schedule No: ______

Union Council: ______Village: ______

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I- Socio-Economic characteristics

1. Relationship with head of household: Father = 1, Son = 2, Brother = 3, Grandfather= 4 Any Other (Pl. Specify) ______2. What is your age: 1 = 18 – 35 Years, 2 = 36-50 Years, 3 = 51 – 70 Years, 4 = 70 + Years 3. What is your cast/khel: ______4. What is your level of Education: 1= Illiterate, 2= Primary, 3= Middle, 4= Secondary, 5= Intermediate, 6= Bachelor or above 7= Vocational 8= Others (Pl. Specify) ______5. What is your status regarding land holding: 1= Landless labourer, 2= Land owner, 3=Tenant, 4= Nil In case of land owners pl. specify size of landholding: ______(in kanals) 6. What is the type of your family: 1= Nuclear, 2 = Joint 7. What is your main occupation: 1= Farming 2= Non Farming (Pl. specify) ……… 3 Both 8. What are major sources of cash income of respondent’s household. Please rank top three of the following 1= Crop Sale/farming, 2= Business, 3= Livestock, 4= Forest, 5= Labour, Rank 6= Salary, 7= Pension, 8= Remittances, 9= Any other (specify)

II –Participation in social organizations activities and provision of services

1. Is any social organization working in your village regarding development of rural area? 1= Yes 2= No 2. In case of yes what is the name of that organization? ______. 3. Is any local traditional group working in your village regarding development of rural area? 1= Yes 2= No 4. In case of yes what is the name of that group? ______. 5. Whether these local groups have linkages with organizations 1= Yes 2= No In case of yes what are the name of these organizations? ______.

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6. What is your participation level/intensity of participation in rural development related activities of local social organization? 1= Low 2= Medium 3= High

7. What is your participation level/intensity of participation in rural development related activities of local traditional groups? 1= Low 2= Medium 3= High 8. What are the main rural development activities being undertaken by the above mentioned local social organization and at what extent?

S. No. Activity 1 2 3 1. Educational ______2. Health related ______3. Agricultural ______4. Skill enhancement trainings ______5. Rural infrastructure development ______6. Advocacy regarding rights ______7. Entrepreneurship ______8. Microcredit schemes ______9. Emergency relief services ______10. Any other (Pl. specify) ______Scale: 1-3:1= Never, 2= Occasionally, 3= Frequently 9. Basic services 3.1: Health 3.1.1: From where you mostly get health related facilities? 1 = Govt. Clinic, 2 = Private clinic, 3 = Medical camps of SOs 4 = Any other (Pl. specify) ______3.1.2: How far is the nearest health center: (write distance in Kilo meters): ______3.1.3: How much time it takes you to reach the nearest heath care center (write in minutes): ______3.1.4: During the last year, how many times did you use the health services from the government health centers? (write in numbers): ______3.1.5: During the last year, how many times did you use the health services from the health centers established by the social organizations? (write in numbers): ______3.1.6: What is your opinion about the cost and quality of health services provided by the government health centers?

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Cost Quality 1 = Costly, 2 = Cheap, 3= Free of cost 1 = Good, 2 = Average, 3= Poor 3.1.7: What is your opinion about the cost and quality of health services provided by social organizations? Cost Quality 1 = Costly, 2 = Cheap, 3= Free of cost 1 = Good, 2 = Average, 3= Poor 3.1.8: Who is responsible for running the health related facilities being used by you during the last one year? 1 = Government, 2 = Private, 4 = NGOs, 4 = Religious organization, 5= Any other (Pl. specify) ______111 didn‘t know 3.1.9: What are the main health care related facilities being launched by ------(write the name of respective organizations) category and what extent. Pl. rate on the likert scale: S. No. Health related facilities Never Occasionally Frequently (1) (2) (3) a) Open basic health centers/clinics in rural area ______b) Install free medical campus ______c) Provide free medical facility to needy people ______d) Provide free medical training facility to rural ______female e) Launch awareness campaigns regarding health care ______f) Any other (Pl. specify) ______3.1.10: Are you satisfied with the quality of health services provided by ------(write the name of respective department/organizations) on the basis of your recent use? 1 = Yes, 2 = No, 3 = neither yes, nor no 3.1.11: If Yes, what is your satisfaction level with regard to quality of health services on the basis of your recent use? Pl. rate on the following likert scale 1 = Highly dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Satisfied, 5 = Highly satisfied 3.1.12: How do you rate your general satisfaction level regarding the performance of government health departments and social organizations regarding different health care related facilities/activities? Pl. rate on the following likert scale 1 = Highly dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Satisfied, 5 = Highly satisfied S. No. Health related facilities Government SOs a) Open basic health centers/clinics in rural area ______b) Install free medical campus ______c) Provide free medical facility to needy people ______d) Provide free medical training to rural female ______e) Launch awareness campaigns regarding health care ______f) Any other (Pl. specify)

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3.2: Education

3.2.1: From where you mostly get educational facilities? (only one response) 1 = Government, 2 = Private 3.2.2: How far is the school/college: (write distance in Kilo meters): ______3.2.3: How much time it takes you to reach your children in the nearest school/college: (write in minutes for boys): ______and for girls: ______. 3.2.4: How regularly do your children attend school/college: 1 = Frequently, 2 = Occasionally, 3 = Rarely, 4 = Never 3.2.5: What is your opinion about the cost and quality of educational services provided by the government? Cost Quality 1 = Costly, 2 = Cheap, 3= Free of cost 1 = Good, 2 = Average, 3= Poor 3.2.6: What is your opinion about the cost of educational services provided by social organizations? Cost Quality 1 = Costly, 2 = Cheap, 3= Free of cost 1 = Good, 2 = Average, 3= Poor 3.2.7: What are the main educational facilities/activities being launched by ------(write the name of organization) category and what extent. Pl. rate on the likert scale: S. No. Educational facilities Never Occasionally Frequently (1) (2) (3) a) Opening of schools/training centers ______b) Provide free schooling to needy students ______c) Provide free uniform or books and stationary to ______needy students d) Support to existing schools /training centers ______e) Launch skill oriented programmes for rural people ______f) Any other (Pl. specify) ______3.2.8:Who is responsible for running the educational institution from where your children receiving education? 1= Government, 2 = local social organization, 3 = INGO, 4 = Charity, 5 = Trust, 6 = Religious organizations 7 = Community 8 = Madrassa 9= Private 10= Religious organization + Madrassa 11= Any other (Pl. specify): ______

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3.2.9: Are you satisfied with the quality of educational services provided by government on the basis of your recent use? S. No. Educational Service Response (1 = Yes, 2 = No, 3 = neither yes, nor no) a) Number of teaching staff b) Competency of teaching staff c) Infrastructure of school/college / training centers d) Quality of equipment (e.g. books, computers, chairs etc.) e) Syllabus of school/college /training centers 3.2.10: In case of Yes, what is your satisfaction level with regard to quality of educational services provided by government on the basis of your recent use? Pl. rate on the following likert scale 1 = Highly dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Satisfied, 5 = Highly satisfied 3.2.11: What is your satisfaction level with regard to quality of educational services provided by social organizations on the basis of your recent use? Pl. rate on the following likert scale 1 = Highly dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Satisfied, 5 = Highly satisfied 3.2.12: How do you rate your general satisfaction level regarding the performance of government educational departments and social organizations related to different educational activities/facilities? Pl. rate on the following likert scale 1 = Highly dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Satisfied, 5 = Highly satisfied S. No. Educational facilities Government SOs a) Opening of schools /training centers ______b) Provide free schooling to needy students ______c) Provide free uniform or books and stationary to ______needy students d) Support to existing schools /training centers ______e) Launch skill oriented programmes for rural people ______f) Any other (Pl. specify) ______

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3.2: Agricultural services (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Have you Who What is the Did you Did these In case of no or any provide nature and receive services improve response in column other this kind of these your overall 4 and 5what are household support? organization services agri. the reasons: member 1 = or group in time productivity and 1= Not upto receive Governm who provide 1 = Yes livelihood? standard any of the ent these 2 = No 1 = Yes 2= Delay in support in 2 = Social services? 2 = No availability the past org./grou (religious, In case of yes: 3 = Poor quality year? p secular or Why? 4= Any other 1 = Yes, 2 ethnic) 1= Good quality (specify) = No services 2= Timely Agricultural availability services 3= Competency of staff 4= Any other (specify) Extension and education Distribution of seeds/farm inputs Trainings related to crops Trainings related to livestock Poultry Forestry services Fruit saplings Tree saplings Vaccination for livestock Awareness campaigns regarding latest agricultural technologies

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3.2.1: How do you rate your general satisfaction level regarding the performance of government agricultural departments and social organizations concerning different agriculture related activities? Pl. rate on the following likert scale 1 = Highly dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Satisfied, 5 = Highly satisfied S. No. Performance Government SOs a) Extension and education b) Distribution of seeds/farm inputs c) Trainings related to crops d) Trainings related to livestock e) Poultry f) Forestry services g) Fruit saplings h) Tree saplings i) Vaccination for livestock j) Awareness campaigns regarding latest agricultural technologies 3.2.2: Who mostly receive services? 1= Male members only 2= Female members only 3= Both male and female 3.2.3: In case of only male members, what are the reasons. Pl. explain ______3.2.4: In your opinion, what is the criteria being followed by social organizations and government departments for receiving benefits/ services? 1. Poverty (need based), 2. Gender based, 3. Social contacts/grouping, 4. Any other (pl. specify) ______3.3: Supply of drinking water 3.3.1: What is your main source of drinking water? (only one response) 1= Tube well, 2= Dug well, 3= Water from spring, 4= Rainwater, 5= water tanker, 6= Piped water inside house 7 = Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal), 8= Water pump, 9= bottled water, 10= water plant of social organizations 11= Pubic water plant installed by the Govt. 12 = Any other (Pl. specify): ______3.3.2: If drinking water not available in household, how much time does it takes to collect water from the nearest point? ______(Pl. write in minutes) 3.3.3: Who is mainly responsible for maintaining your source of drinking water? (Only one response)

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1= Government, 2= Social organization/group (pl. specify): ______3.3.4: What is the status of availability your main source of drinking water: 1 = Available all the time, 2 = Available most of the time, 3= Sometimes available, 4 = Often not available 3.4: Emergency relief services 3.4.1: Who is mainly responsible for providing of relief services during emergency e.g. floods, earthquake etc.? (Only one response) 1= Government, 2= Social organization/group (pl. specify): ______3.4.2: What kind of emergency relief services being provided by government and social organizations on the basis of your last experience? Pl. rate on the likert scale: Scale: 1-3:1= Never, 2= Occasionally, 3= Frequently Government Social Organizations (local as well as foreign) S. No. Services Response Services Response 1 2 3 1 2 3 a) Provide shelter ______Provide shelter ______b) Provide basic food ______Provide basic food ______necessities necessities c) Provide emergency ______Provide emergency ______medical services medical services d) Provide educational ______Provide educational ______facilities facilities e) Provide cash ______Provide cash ______f) Rehabilitation ______Rehabilitation services ______services g) Any other (Pl. ______Any other (Pl. specify) ______specify) 3.4.3: In providing emergency relief services, what the last experience was and when that experience was happened? ______

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3.4.3: How do you rate your general satisfaction level regarding the performance of government and social organizations with regard to provision of relief and rehabilitation services in emergency situation? Pl. rate on the following likert scale 1 = Highly dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Satisfied, 5 = Highly satisfied S. No. Services Government Social Organizations 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 a) Provide shelter ______b) Provide basic food ______necessities c) Provide emergency ______medical services d) Provide educational ______facilities e) Provide cash ______f) Rehabilitation services ______g) Any other (Pl. specify) ______

3.4: Miscellaneous rural development services Rural Does you In case of yes, who Did you receive Did these services development participate/receive mainly provide these services in play any role in services these services these services? time improving overall 1= Yes 1 = Government 1 = Yes livelihoods? 2= No 2 = Social 2 = No 1 = Yes organization/group 2 = No Engaging in create a spirit of self- help Gender Empowerment through education and training Launch advocacy campaigns

Provide services to develop rural infrastructure Arrange walks and protests against state policies Entrepreneurship Any other (Pl. specify)

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10. Perceptions about rural poverty and inequality 4.1: How do you perceive rural poverty? In your opinion who is poor? ______4.2: In your opinion what are main reasons of poverty? Pl. rate on the following likert scale: Scale: 1-5: 1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree S. No. Reasons of rural poverty 1 2 3 4 5 1. Lack of access to educational opportunities ______2. Lack of access to health Facilities ______3. Low agricultural produce ______4. Lack of awareness regarding latest agricultural ______practices 5. Poor marketing facilities of agriculture produce ______6. Lack of physical assets (Land/Livestock) ______7. Lack of employment opportunities ______8. Lack of access to loans/microcredit ______9. Emerging social, political and regional conflicts ______(violence/terrorism) 10. Lack of good governance policies by the state ______11. Economic inequality ______12. Slow economic growth ______13. Large household size ______14. Limited road networks ______15. Large dependency upon non-agricultural income ______resources 16. Limited access to social safety nets (SSNs) ______17. Any other (pl. specify) 4.3: In your opinion what is inequality? ______4.4: In your opinion what are main reasons of inequality in your area? Pl. rate on the following likert scale: Scale: 1-5:1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree S. No. Reasons of rural poverty 1 2 3 4 5 1. Poverty ______2. Less assess by the poor to productive assets such ______as land or livestock 3. Less control over natural resources ______4. Lack of effective state policies ______5. Unequal distribution of benefits among different ______segments of society 6. Instability of country‘s economic system/policies ______7. Lack of professional education ______

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8. Political instability ______9. Political administrative setup ______10. Low level of skills ______11. Low agricultural and industrial output ______12. Lack of involvement of all stakeholders in policy ______decision making and implementation 13. Injustice ______14. Unequal education system (Multiple education ______system) 15. Division of society into different social classes ______16. Limited representation in national and provincial ______assemblies 17. Any other (pl. specify)

4.5: In your opinion, how can rural poverty and inequality can be reduced? Pl. rate on the following likert scale: Scale: 1-5:1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree

S. No. Means to reduce rural poverty and inequality 1 2 3 4 5 1. Good governance ______2. Eradication of corruption ______3. Equal distribution of benefits among various ______sections of society 4. Optimum use of human as well as physical ______resources 5. Welfare of disadvantaged and vulnerable groups ______6. Increasing literacy rate ______7. Favourable socio-political environment ______8. Increasing employment opportunities ______9. Emphasis should be given to non-farm income ______10. Assess and control over assets ______11. Regulating Zakat and Ushar system ______12. Any other (pl. specify) ______4.6: Does the local social organizations play a role in reducing rural poverty and inequality? 1= Yes 2= No 4.7: In case of Yes, how these organizations play role in reducing poverty and inequality from rural areas? Pl. rate on the following likert scale: Scale: 1-5:1= S. Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4=Agree, 5= S. Agree S. No. Activities of organization 1 2 3 4 5 1. Through Educational activities ______2. Through Health related activities ______3. Through Skill enhancement programmes ______4. By addressing the issues of corruption ______5. By addressing the issues of good governance ______6. Through involvement in advocacy related ______activities 7. Any other (pl. specify) ______

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4.8: In case of No. please explain what are the reasons? ______4.9: Does the local Social organization address the issues of rural poverty and inequality? 1= Yes 2= No 4.10: In your opinion what is the difference between agenda of local social organizations or local groups and state departments in addressing the issues related to rural poverty and inequality in the region? Pl. describe. ______4.11: Does local Social organizations involve poor people in their campaigns and activities to achieve specific goals or objectives? 1= Yes 2= No 4.12: In case of yes, what is their extent of involvement: 1= Low, 2= Medium, 3= High 4.13: In case of no, what are the reasons, pl. Explain; ______11. Effectiveness of rural development activities 5.1: At what level, different activities of social organizations and state departments, effective in rural development? Please rate on the following likert scale Scale: 1= Not effective, 2= Least effective 3= Most effective State rural Social S. No. Indicators of rural development development Organizations Departments 1 2 3 1 2 3 1. Reduction in poverty rate in the area ______2. Helpful in increasing household‘s income ______3. Improvement in overall literacy rate in the area ______4. Improvement in rural infrastructure ______5. Provision of equitable services to all the people ______6. Provision of quick emergency services at the ______door steps 7. Monitoring and evaluation mechanism in ______development activities 8. Maintain positive relationships with different ______stakeholders 9. Helpful in changing existing state policies ______regarding rural development 10. Raise the awareness level of community about ______their rights 11. Social and economic empowerment of rural ______women 12. Reduces social conflicts among rural ______community

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5.2: In your opinion, how the working strategies of local social organization differ from the state departments?

Working strategy State departments SMOs

Approach being used to address the rural development issues

Use of cultural norms and values

Organizational structure

Criteria for addressing issues of poverty and inequality

Any other (pl. specify)

At the end if you want to tell your name please (optional): ______

Thank you for giving me time to answer the questions mentioned in the interview schedule. I assure

you that your answers will kept confidential and will only be used for research purpose.

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