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MODERN MATHEMATICS 1900 to 1950 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com MODERN MATHEMATICS 1900 to 1950 Michael J. Bradley, Ph.D. www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Modern Mathematics: 1900 to 1950 Copyright © 2006 by Michael J. Bradley, Ph.D. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Chelsea House An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bradley, Michael J. (Michael John), 1956– Modern mathematics : 1900 to 1950 / Michael J. Bradley. p. cm.—(Pioneers in mathematics) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-5426-6 (acid-free paper) 1. Mathematicians—Biography. 2. Mathematics—History—20th century. I. Title. QA28.B736 2006 510.92'2—dc22 2005036152 Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at http://www.chelseahouse.com Text design by Mary Susan Ryan-Flynn Cover design by Dorothy Preston Illustrations by Jeremy Eagle Printed in the United States of America MP FOF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com CONTENTS Preface vii Acknowledgments ix Introduction xi CHAPTER 1 David Hilbert (1862–1943): Problems for a New Century 1 Early Years 2 Invariant Theory 3 Algebraic Number Theory 4 Geometry 6 Mathematical Problems for the Twentieth Century 7 Analysis and Theoretical Physics 8 Foundations of Mathematics and the Infinite 10 Wars and Retirement 12 Conclusion 13 Further Reading 14 CHAPTER 2 Grace Chisholm Young (1868–1944): Mathematical Partnership 15 Early Life and Education 16 Partners in Life and in Mathematics 17 Independent Work on Infinite Derivatives 21 Final Years of Her Career 22 Conclusion 23 Further Reading 24 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com CHAPTER 3 Wacław Sierpi ´nski (1882–1969): Number Theory and the Polish School of Mathematics 25 Early Work in Number Theory 26 Research on Set Theory 29 Polish School of Mathematics 32 Further Research in Number Theory 34 Conclusion 38 Further Reading 38 CHAPTER 4 Amalie Emmy Noether (1882–1935): Abstract Algebraist 41 Early Years 42 Invariant Theory 43 Struggle for Faculty Appointment 45 Ideal Theory 46 International Influence 47 Noncommutative Algebras 48 Honors and Recognitions 49 Last Years in America 49 Conclusion 50 Further Reading 51 CHAPTER 5 Srinivasa Iyengar Ramanujan (1887–1920): Indian Number Theorist 53 Societal Influences 54 The Notebook Years, 1904–1914 56 Years in England, 1914–1919 60 Return to India, 1919–1920 64 Conclusion 65 Further Reading 66 CHAPTER 6 Norbert Wiener (1894–1964): Father of Cybernetics 69 Child Prodigy 70 Harmonic Analysis 72 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Research during the War Years 76 Cybernetics 78 Conclusion 80 Further Reading 81 CHAPTER 7 John von Neumann (1903–1957): Mathematics for Science and Technology 83 Early Research in Set Theory 84 Quantum Theory 86 Game Theory 87 Operator Theory 89 Atomic Weapons and Nuclear Energy 89 Computer Architecture and Numerical Analysis 91 Automata Theory 94 Conclusion 95 Further Reading 96 CHAPTER 8 Grace Murray Hopper (1906–1992): Computer Software Innovator 99 Early Life and Education 100 Programming and Debugging the Mark Series of Computers 101 Compilers and COBOL Programming 105 Return to Active Duty in the Navy 108 Conclusion 110 Further Reading 111 CHAPTER 9 Alan Turing (1912–1954): Father of Modern Computing 113 Education and the Central Limit Theorem 114 Introduction of the Turing Machine 115 Deciphering German Naval Codes 119 ACE and MADAM Computer Projects 120 Turing Test for Artificial Intelligence 123 Mathematical Ideas in Biological Growth 124 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Conclusion 125 Further Reading 126 CHAPTER 10 Paul Erdös (1913–1996): Traveling Research Partner 127 Brilliant Childhood 128 First Research Papers 129 Joint Research Collaborations 130 Traveling Mathematician 132 Diverse Mathematical Contributions 133 Eccentric Genius 135 Conclusion 138 Further Reading 138 Glossary 141 Further Reading 153 Associations 159 Index 160 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com PREFACE athematics is a human endeavor. Behind its numbers, equa- Mtions, formulas, and theorems are the stories of the people who expanded the frontiers of humanity’s mathematical knowledge. Some were child prodigies while others developed their aptitudes for mathematics later in life. They were rich and poor, male and female, well educated and self-taught. They worked as professors, clerks, farmers, engineers, astronomers, nurses, and philosophers. The diversity of their backgrounds testifies that mathematical tal- ent is independent of nationality, ethnicity, religion, class, gender, or disability. Pioneers in Mathematics is a five-volume set that profiles the lives of 50 individuals, each of whom played a role in the develop- ment and the advancement of mathematics. The overall profiles do not represent the 50 most notable mathematicians; rather, they are a collection of individuals whose life stories and significant con- tributions to mathematics will interest and inform middle school and high school students. Collectively, they represent the diverse talents of the millions of people, both anonymous and well known, who developed new techniques, discovered innovative ideas, and extended known mathematical theories while facing challenges and overcoming obstacles. Each book in the set presents the lives and accomplishments of 10 mathematicians who lived during an historical period. The Birth of Mathematics profiles individuals from ancient Greece, India, Arabia, and medieval Italy who lived from 700 b.c.e. to 1300 c.e. The Age of Genius features mathematicians from Iran, France, England, Germany, Switzerland, and America who lived between vii www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com viii Modern Mathematics the 14th and 18th centuries. The Foundations of Mathematics presents 19th-century mathematicians from various European countries. Modern Mathematics and Mathematics Frontiers profile a variety of international mathematicians who worked in the early 20th and the late 20th century, respectively. The 50 chapters of Pioneers in Mathematics tell pieces of the story of humankind’s attempt to understand the world in terms of numbers, patterns, and equations. Some of the individuals profiled contributed innovative ideas that gave birth to new branches of mathematics. Others solved problems that had puzzled mathemati- cians for centuries. Some wrote books that influenced the teaching of mathematics for hundreds of years. Still others were among the first of their race, gender, or nationality to achieve recognition for their mathematical accomplishments. Each one was an innovator who broke new ground and enabled their successors to progress even further. From the introduction of the base-10 number system to the development of logarithms, calculus, and computers, most sig- nificant ideas in mathematics developed gradually, with countless individuals making important contributions. Many mathematical ideas developed independently in different civilizations separated by geography and time. Within the same civilization the name of the scholar who developed a particular innovation often became lost as his idea was incorporated into the writings of a later math- ematician. For these reasons it is not always possible to identify accurately any one individual as the first person to have discovered a particular theorem or to have introduced a certain idea. But then mathematics was not created by one person or for one person; it is a human endeavor. www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com ACKNOWLEDGMENTS n author does not write in isolation. I owe a debt of thanks to Aso many people who helped in a myriad of ways during the creation of this work. To Jim Tanton, who introduced me to this fascinating project. To Jodie Rhodes, my agent, who put me in touch with Facts On File and handled the contractual paperwork. To Frank K. Darmstadt, my editor, who kept me on track throughout the course of this project. To M. V. Moorthy, who thoroughly researched the material for the chapter on Srinivasa Iyengar Ramanujan. To Larry Gillooly, Suzanne Scholz, and Warren Kay, who assisted with the translations of Latin, French, and German titles. To Harry D’Souza, Alina Rudnicka-Kelly, and Kashi Bilwakesh, who provided valuable comments and additional information for several chapters. To John Tabak, Kit Moser, Tucker McElroy, and Tobi Zausner, who shared helpful suggestions for locating sources of photographs and illustrations. To Steve Scherwatzky, who helped me to become a better writer by critiquing early drafts of many chapters. To Melissa Cullen-DuPont, who provided valuable assistance with the artwork. To my wife, Arleen, who helped to find photographs and pro- vided constant love and support. To the many relatives, colleagues, students, and friends who inquired and really cared about my progress on this project. ix www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com x Modern Mathematics
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