Efficiency Affordability

Interview Robert Rickell, GKN Driveline RicardoFeature heading Quarterly Review Q4 2011 Biodiesels Report reveals clean future for first-generation fuels Sun power Solar challenger’s 3000 km epic – with Ricardo backing

A focus on the latest in technology, innovation and sustainability

World Class EfficiencY Emerging market AFFORDABILITY Ricardo’s key role in GM’s breakthrough clean diesel for India A Product of Hard Work

A Product of Hard Work

The world’s fastest The world’sdiesel fastest car, powered diesel by car, the powered byJCB the JCBDieselmax Dieselmax engine engine 350.092mph/563.418kphThe world’s fastest The world’sdiesel fastest car, powered diesel by car, the poweredBonneville byBonnevilleJCB the Salt JCB DieselmaxSaltFlats, Flats, Dieselmax USA USA 23rd - 23rd August engineAugust engine 2006 350.092mph/563.418kph BonnevilleBonneville Salt SaltFlats, Flats, USA USA 23rd - 23rd August August 2006

New generation, NOT re-generation The JCB Ecomax T4 engine meets Tier 4i emissions legislation without the need for a Diesel Particulate NewFilter. This innovative, generation, highly effi cient design will provide NOT OEMs with re-generation improved packaging, signifi cantly lower operating costs and up to 10% better fuel economy compared with Tier 3. With outputs from 74-173hp, peak The JCB Ecomax T4 engine meets Tier 4i emissions legislation without the need for a Diesel Particulate torque up to 553lb/ft and a team of highly experienced Applications Engineers ready to tailor products to your Filter. This innovative, highly effi cient design will provide OEMs with improved packaging, signifi cantly lower requirements, JCB is the clear choice for OEMs and the leader in engine technology for the new generation. operating costs and up to 10% better fuel economy compared with Tier 3. With outputs from 74-173hp, peak torqueFor further up to 553lb/ftinformation and a teamcontact: of highly engine.sales@jcb.com experienced Applications Engineerswww.jcbpowersystems.com ready to tailor products to your requirements, JCB is the clear choice for OEMs and the leader in engine technology for the new generation. For further information contact: [email protected] www.jcbpowersystems.com

16267 Ecomax Ad_eng.indd 1 03/12/2010 13:41

16267 Ecomax Ad_eng.indd 1 03/12/2010 13:41 A Product of Hard Work

A Product of Hard Work

08 News Features Industry news...... 04 Passenger Car US step change in fuel efficiency; Eco GM’s small wonder...... 10 Island Project; hybrids at Le Mans; future Working with General Motors engineers technologies put to the test around the world, Ricardo helped design a sophisticated small diesel that is cost- Ricardo news ...... 24 effective in emerging markets like India. Success on the track; Ricardo Asia Jesse Crosse reports launched; upgrades for rail diesels; acoustic boost for Ricardo Germany Clean Energy & Power Generation Biodiesel q & a comes clean...... 16 Fuel-adaptive optimized calibration Robert Rickell, can give first-generation biodiesels GKN Driveline ...... 08 the potential to provide cleaner future GKN’s global engineering director gives transportation, says a research study led Tony Lewin his views on electric vehicles, by Ricardo 20 hybrids, 4x4s and more Clean Energy & Power Generation The ultimate electric vehicle...... 20 A team from the University of Michigan, advised by Ricardo, travelled 3000 km across Australia on solar power alone in the World Solar Challenge. Anthony Smith hears the story

Ricardo contacts and locations: The task of RQ is to highlight Client confidentiality is of the utmost importance www.ricardo.com/contacts the latest thinking in global to Ricardo, which means that we can only report New generation, NOT re-generation RQ subscriptions: engineering and technology in the on a small fraction of the work carried out by the www.ricardo.com/rq transportation and clean energy company. So we are especially grateful to those The JCB Ecomax T4 engine meets Tier 4i emissions legislation without the need for a Diesel Particulate Sales enquiries: sectors and related industries. Ricardo customers who have kindly agreed to [email protected] We aim to achieve this by presenting an up-to- co-operate with RQ and allow their programmes Filter. This innovative, highly effi cient design will provide OEMs with improved packaging, signifi cantly lower Head office: New generation, NOT re-generation date mix of news, profiles and interviews with top to be highlighted in print: without such help from operating costs and up to 10% better fuel economy compared with Tier 3. With outputs from 74-173hp, peak Ricardo plc, Shoreham-by-Sea, Conceived and produced The JCB Ecomax T4 engine meets Tier 4i emissions legislation without the need for a Diesel Particulate West Sussex, BN43 5FG, for Ricardo by: business leaders, as well as in-depth features on customers it would not be possible to present such torque up to 553lb/ft and a team of highly experienced Applications Engineers ready to tailor products to your United Kingdom TwoTone Media Ltd programmes – both from within Ricardo and other a fascinating insight into the development of new Filter. This innovative, highly effi cient design will provide OEMs with improved packaging, signifi cantly lower leading companies. products, technologies and innovations. requirements, JCB is the clear choice for OEMs and the leader in engine technology for the new generation. Tel: +44 (0)1273 455611 Editor: Tony Lewin operating costs and up to 10% better fuel economy compared with Tier 3. With outputs from 74-173hp, peak Contributors: Jesse Crosse, Tony Lewin RQ magazine is printed on paper For further information contact: [email protected] www.jcbpowersystems.com $" certified as being in compliance torque up to 553lb/ft and a team of highly experienced Applications Engineers ready to tailor products to your and Anthony Smith. "! " # TwoTone Media Ltd contacts: ! ! ! " with the environmental and requirements, JCB is the clear choice for OEMs and the leader in engine technology for the new generation. ### ! social standards of the Forest Anthony Smith: [email protected] % !!# " Stewardship Council. Tony Lewin: [email protected] For further information contact: [email protected] www.jcbpowersystems.com

16267 Ecomax Ad_eng.indd 1 03/12/2010 13:41

16267 Ecomax Ad_eng.indd 1 03/12/2010 13:41 Industry News

Industry news The latest in technology, innovation and sustainability across world industries

Passenger Car

in the first five years of the scheme, US proposes doubling from 2017. Under the present proposals, passenger cars must improve their mpg by 5 percent per year, whilst light trucks and SUVs need only increase their fuel of fuel efficiency mileage by 3.5 percent annually. The Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, representing the majority of producers, said that the regulations presented very aggressive targets and that technological breakthroughs would be required for the most energy-efficient models to be able to sell in sufficient numbers to meet the goal. The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the EPA have estimated that compliance with the new rules will add some $2000 to the price of the typical vehicle. “By setting a course for steady improvements in fuel economy over the long term, the Obama administration is ensuring that American car buyers have their choice of the most efficient vehicles ever produced in our country,” said EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson. “That will save them money, reduce Fuel economy proposals issued by the majority of the region’s automakers, our nation’s oil consumption and cut President Obama’s White House in and importers, including the Detroit Big harmful emissions in the air we breathe. November have split opinion in North Three, but have been criticised by both This is an important addition to the America – but not along the usual lines. Daimler and Volkswagen. landmark clean cars programme that The draft regulations, which call for a Among the concerns voiced are the President Obama initiated to establish doubling of fuel efficiency to over 54 US different consumption-reduction rates fuel economy standards more than two mpg by 2025, have been welcomed by proposed for passenger cars and SUVs years ago.”

Passenger Car Passenger Car

Honda’s electric start Europe’s CO2 leaders and losers

Japanese auto giant Honda has set a summer 2012 on-sale date for Nine automakers have now reached Europe’s target of 130 g/km CO2 its new Fit EV, the battery electric version of the compact hatchback emissions but, according to cleangreencars.co.uk, some are cutting known as Jazz in Europe. California and Oregon will be the first their emissions much faster than others. markets for the $38,675 model, aimed at a commuter clientele and Fiat, at the head of the table with sales-weighted corporate

capable of an impressive 200 km range on its 20 kWh lithium ion average CO2 emissions of just 116 g/km for the first nine months of battery. 2011, posted a 6.5 percent improvement – in contrast to third-place Recharging can be as quick Toyota and fifth-place Mini’s near-flat performance – while Alfa as three hours on a 240 V Romeo trimmed emissions by over 8 percent to take eighth slot. supply, says Honda. All Just outside the top nine 130 g/km marques, Lexus posted a the initial run of Fit massive 22 percent improvement to 130.6 g/km thanks to the EVs will be finished launch of its C-segment CT200h hybrid. The new model vaults in a unique blue the Japanese brand ahead of its luxury competitors BMW (144 pearl paint. g), Mercedes (160 g) and Jaguar (192 g).

4 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Industry News

Clean Energy & Power Generation News In brief Eco Island project shapes up Highlighting the latest thinking in automotive geothermal, tidal and waste-to-energy engineering and technology worldwide sources. “The problem when you’re trying to take an island of 142,000 Apple overtakes car firms people off-grid is really the storage Three leading car groups have been overtaken by a fast- solution,” Eco Island founder David accelerating Apple in Interbrand’s 2011 assessment of the Green told The Engineer magazine. world’s leading brands. Toyota and Mercedes hold on to ‘The big problem is about demand 11th and 12th places, respectively, with BMW 15th, Honda and supply balancing, finding this 20th and Volkswagen 47th, three places above Ford and magical solution of not increasing the twelve above its luxury offshoot Audi. Nissan makes its overall flow in the grid but trying to get first appearance in the top 100, at number 90. Hydrogen specialist ITM Power is to to a point where you can take surplus address the challenges of energy generating capacity and store it, hold it High voltage DC revival intermittency and storage in the Isle and release it when you need it,” Green Fast-growing economies such as India, China and Brazil are of Wight’s ambitious plan to achieve added. prompting a revival of interest in DC power transmission energy independence and carbon ITM’s solution will be to fit up to as energy utilities seek to reduce losses over large neutrality by 2020. The island, off the four stations each capable of using transmission distances. The Financial Times reports that south coast of Britain, is large and hilly grid electricity to hydrolyze water and ABB and Siemens are racing to develop circuit breakers that and is a popular tourist resort. produce up to 100 kg of hydrogen a will enable HVDC lines to be extended and expanded. The so-called Eco Island project aims day. This, says ITM Power, is enough to to take the whole island off-grid and power a fleet of 20 vans or 100 cars and Mercedes re-invents the windscreen wiper even for it to become a net exporter has the advantage of being capable of Mercedes’ new SL sports car will feature what the company of energy generated by its solar, wind, being switched on and off very quickly. bills as an astonishing new experience. Through a system of ducts built into the blade, the Magic Vision Control wiper is able to clean the screen without the customary splash High Performance Vehicles & Motorsport of water that disrupts vision and causes glare; the water volume is automatically adjusted for conditions such as the Le Mans: first diesels, now hybrids vehicle’s speed, the ambient temperature and whether the cabriolet roof is open or closed. Following an unbroken sequence of for the 2012 race have yet to be outright wins by diesel-powered cars revealed, though rules already issued Focus safety awards since 2006, a new powertrain variation say that hybrid engines may only add The new Ford Focus has become the first car to receive will be in with a chance of overall victory power to the front axle at speeds of over four EuroNCAP Advanced Awards, giving the model extra in the classic Le Mans 24 hour race 120 km/h. This would appear to negate points towards its overall safety score. The systems next year. Toyota will enter the 2012 one possible hybrid advantage, that of highlighted are Active City Stop, Lane Keeping Aid, Driver event with a new race car powered by stronger traction out of tight corners. Alert and Forward Alert. a gasoline hybrid engine combination, No technical specifications for the the first time a hybrid has entered the Toyota hybrid have been revealed, apart Vehicle noise proposals delayed premier LMP1 category of the race. from the fact that its engine will be Proposals for stricter limits on vehicle noise in Europe In 2011 Swiss team Hope Racing developed in Japan and its chassis in have been postponed, reportedly because of counter- fielded a two-litre car using flywheel Germany. proposals tabled by Germany. New rules would see limits energy storage from Flybrid Systems; Peugeot has promised a diesel based on the type of vehicle, with the limit for heavy trucks the car retired after 13 hours and 115 hybrid for 2013, but Porsche’s plans going down to 80 decibels after two years and 78 after laps. In 1998 a flywheel car by Panoz for its return to Le Mans’ premier class five. Germany’s proposal is for a power-to-weight based was entered but proved too slow at the have not been divulged. The German system with exemptions that would allow sports cars such qualifying sessions and was withdrawn automaker has already had some as Porsches to be driven at up to 100 decibels, according before the race. success in other events with its hybrid to pressure group T&E. Full details of the hybrid regulations 911 GT3 R in the GT class. New-generation tram A once-fashionable seaside resort on Britain’s north- west coast was the venue for the launch of one of the world’s most modern tram designs, Bombardier’s new Flexity 2. Blackpool, home to one of the world’s oldest tram networks, took delivery of its first Flexity 2 trainset in September, coinciding with an upgrade of the track and depot systemsand the raising of the overhead supply to 600 volts. Blackpool chose this option over the alternative of installing the Primove induction loop power transfer system, which does away with the need for a catenary supply.

RQ • Q4 • 2011 5 Industry News

Passenger Car Future Car Challenge reveals technology winners First held in 2010, the RAC Future Car Challenge has already come to be seen as one of the world’s premier events for production and prototype alternative technology vehicles to demonstrate their performance on public roads. The 2011 running of the competition provides an even clearer picture of the real-life energy consumption of the various technologies available in current models or under consideration for tomorrow’s vehicles. The energy consumption recorded at the end of the 92 km route of rural and urban roads and motorways clearly shows that pure electric cars are the most energy efficient over that distance. The most effective vehicle overall was former F1 designer Gordon Murray’s lightweight three-seater T27, the electric version of last year’s gasoline-powered winner: total energy consumption was just 7.0 kWh. This compared with 8.8 best-performing non hybrid, at 44.6 kWh, the Fiat 500 TwinAir Gordon Murray kWh for the second-place Jaguar E-Type prototype converted (52.8) as the best gasoline non-hybrid. With Murray’s T27 still poses at the finish by German windpower specialist Windreich AG as a rolling officially classed as a prototype, the award for the most efficient with the winning electric T27 and advertisement for E-power. The next 24 places all went to production small car went to the Smart Fortwo electric coupé (at gasoline powered T25 pure EVs, with Toyota’s plug-in hybrid Prius the most efficient 9.7 kWh) and that for production regular car to the Nissan Leaf. non-EV at 27.6 kWh and Peugeot’s 3008 Hybrid4 leading the Five Leafs completed the event, achieving between 14.1 and 15.6 diesel models at 37.7. kWh. The prize for the most efficient production, commercial Other notable results included the Peugeot 508 e-HDi as the vehicle went to the fuel-cell powered Mercedes Vito E-Cell.

Passenger Car Commercial Vehicles Mazda pioneers Closed-loop control capacitor KERS will benefit diesel Japanese automaker Mazda has become the first company to develop a regenerative braking system that uses capacitors to durability store the harvested energy. Heavy duty diesel engines will be the first to benefit The i-ELOOP system will begin to appear on production from closed-loop control of diesel injection systems, Mazdas in 2012 and is claimed to reduce real-world fuel according to a report on Automotive World.com. consumption by as much as 10 percent. Capacitors offer Denso is set to beat other injection suppliers to the market numerous advantages over batteries for short-term with its i-ART system, which incorporates pressure sensors energy storage, says the company: they can be charged within the injection nozzle body to allow the monitoring and discharged very rapidly, they store large amounts of of combustion conditions and the control of the injection energy, they are light and they resist deterioration through process in real time. prolonged use. The electricity saved will be With injection pressures now at 2500 bar and set to used to power the climate control approach 3000 bar, and with up to eight injection events per system, the audio and other cycle, commercial vehicle engine makers are having to build electrical loads. in large exceedence allowances in order to make provision for deterioration between major overhauls, which can be at intervals of as much as one million kilometres. The report, quoting Denso engineers, argues that closed-loop control of the injectors will ensure optimum multiple-injection quantity and timing will be realized throughout the vehicle’s lifetime, as the system will automatically compensate for wear and tear and changing conditions. Workshop man-hours and downtime will be reduced, fault code alerts will be fewer and OBD law compliance improved, says Denso.

6 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Motorcycles & Personal Transportation Viewpoint BMW maxi-scooter Getting real about fuel economy promises electric option Kent Niederhofer - president, Ricardo Inc

BMW’s first venture into the world of premium maxi-scooters When compared to the rest of the greenhouse gas pollution standards for was unveiled at the EICMA Milan show in November. The C 600 industrialized world, the United States Model Years 2017-2025 passenger cars Sport and C 600 GT share the same architecture, with a long enjoys relatively low energy prices and light trucks marked a significant wheelbase, medium-sized 15-inch wheels and a 647 cm3 despite its conspicuous consumption. step forward in effective collaboration parallel twin engine inclined 70 degrees forward so as to keep This is particularly apparent for between industry, regulatory agencies the centre of gravity down. consumers who travel internationally; and government. Transmission is via CVT and a chain in an oil bath to the rear with respect to road-going fuel Is this a case of government of the wheel, and ABS braking is standard – along with a clever park prices, they are often stunned when auto industry, by the auto industry, brake that operates when the side stand is deployed. The C paying at the pump. Unlike Europe, for the auto industry, perhaps? Well 600 is substantially the same design as the electric Concept where taxation is used as an effective not quite, but it is very encouraging e scooter shown in September, supporting BMW’s assertion market lever to influence consumer to see the Detroit automakers and that it will shortly launch a volume production luxury maxi- tastes towards smaller and more their suppliers engaging with the EPA scooter with zero emissions and battery power. efficient vehicles, government- to help identify the art of the possible Honda’s recently-shown imposed taxes account for a far and practical in terms of potential Integra, a motorcycle/ smaller percentage of the price for a future fuel-efficient technologies. maxi-scooter crossover, US gallon of fuel . The idea of using Such collaboration has to be, I believe, has an almost identical taxation as a means to influence a more effective way forward for us all parallel twin engine layout buying behaviour – and ultimately than the perhaps rather too adversarial but has larger wheels energy conservation – is more approaches we have seen in the past. and uses a second- than a bit of a political football. Certainly the consensus on a 54.5 mpg generation dual clutch Whether eminently sensible or CAFE standard by 2025 is an indication transmission to not, it is widely recognized that that the science-based collaborative provide automatic any US politician campaigning for approach is far more successful as it operation. a similar, taxation-based approach starts with buy-in from those charged to drive energy independence or with delivering on the promise. a reduction in foreign oil use would A team at Ricardo Inc’s Detroit Passenger Car have an uphill climb with his or her re- Technology Campus was able to play election bid, to say the least. a central role in contributing - by Instead, legislation that imposes drawing on the full range of the Nissan plan fuel economy standards on company’s technological insights and automakers, under the banner of CAFE analytical research capabilities - to the charts 35% (or Corporate Average Fuel Economy) development of policy in this crucial area standards, have been employed to for the US automotive industry. Under economy boost encourage automakers to produce subcontract to Systems Research and and attractively price fuel efficient Applications Corporation in support Unveiling his latest six-year environmental action plan, vehicles – which in turn incentivize of that company’s contact to the EPA, Nissan-Renault president and CEO Carlos Ghosn has consumer purchase decisions at Ricardo led the creation of a data committed the Alliance to becoming world number one in the showroom. But with the twin visualization tool, enabling policymakers zero emission vehicles by the end of 2016, with cumulative issues of national energy security to evaluate the effectiveness of differing sales across the two brands of 1.5 million units. and climate change very much on technology packages and combinations The Green Program 2016 also commits the Nissan brand the political agenda, there appears of these packages in terms of both to an ambitious set of CO2 reduction targets across its to be something of a consensus in their respective potential to reduce factories, offices, dealers and logistics operations, and calls Washington that more needs to be greenhouse gas emissions and their for a 35 percent boost in corporate average fuel economy done to improve the breed in terms effect upon vehicle performance. compared with 2005 figures. of the fuel economy of the country’s As a company that prides itself in Individual model plans are revealed, too, including an future new vehicle fleet. the role it plays in enabling the nation’s all-new front wheel drive hybrid model in the C segment, an Under the headline “We Can’t social and environmental responsibility expansion of the rear-drive hybrid line-up, and the launch Wait: Obama Administration agenda, it is deeply gratifying to see of an all-new plug-in hybrid based on what is described Proposes Historic Fuel Economy the results of our work contributing to as Nissan’s unique technology. A total of four EVs will be Standards to Reduce Dependence the creation of a national fuel economy introduced, including the existing Leaf. on Oil, Save Consumers Money at standard that highlights forward- Nissan will take the lead in the development of an all-new the Pump” November’s White House looking technology paths that improve fuel cell electric model, in collaboration with Alliance partner announcement needed little by fuel economy for consumers, diminish Renault and strategic partner Daimler. On a component way of further explanation. But the US dependency on foreign oil and reduce level, Nissan’s next-generation CVT transmission will be joint proposal by the Environmental greenhouse gas emissions. Ricardo rolled out worldwide to bring cumulative CVT production Protection Agency (EPA) and the US is one of very few organizations that since 1992 to 20 million. Department of Transportation (DOT) is capable of producing informed and to set stronger fuel economy and objective analysis at this level.

RQ • Q4 • 2011 7 Interview

INterview Man of many parts Leading auto industry supplier GKN Driveline hit the headlines recently with its acquisition of Getrag’s AWD and eDrive businesses. Global engineering director Robert Rickell tells Tony Lewin about the potential of electric vehicles and the major opportunities he sees in expanding GKN beyond its traditional areas of couplings and driveshafts

GKN is a major supplier to all the world’s automakers. On certain vehicles with all-wheel drive systems and How do you cope with the ups and downs in global vehicle disconnect technology or our eAxle Hybrid systems, GKN demand, and what are your forecasts for the evolution of Driveline’s contribution could increase by 90 percent. light vehicle demand over the next 20 years? It is not easy. At GKN Driveline we have a flexible work force and Your acquisition of Getrag’s eDrive business could be seen as try to ensure we are specified on the vehicles that continue to a bid for a stake in the growing market for electrified vehicles. be successful. We forecast light vehicle demand could grow to What percentage of global light vehicle production do you 140 million vehicles by 2030. expect to be pure EV by 2020, and what proportion electrified? I have to correct you slightly there: GKN Driveline had acquired How much has your content per vehicle (by value) grown in Getrag’s AWD and eDrive transmissions business and has Key GKN driveline formed a JV with EVO to develop and produce axial-flux components (left to the last decade? right) the increasingly It has increased by around 15 percent. eMotors. We expect pure EV vehicles to be about 3 percent popular e-axle, two- of the total global light vehicle production by 2020. Up to 30 stage power transfer unit, and electronic How much do you expect this content to increase in the percent of the total will have some degree of electrification – differential lock future, and what are the new systems enabling that growth? start/stop systems, micro-hybrid etc, all the way up to pure EV.

With the acquisition of the Getrag unit, will you be positioning GKN as a supplier of the complete powertrain for EVs? Yes, with the addition of the EVO eMotor joint venture.

Do you see GKN’s turnover in electric systems one day exceeding its business in conventional components? Maybe .. but it will take at least 20 years.

Will it be possible to develop e-motors with different characters so as to enable consumers to differentiate between products, as they now do with ICE vehicles? Yes, with very high torque at low speed and in particular as a system in combination with two- or three-speed transmissions.

What potential is there to improve the energy efficiency of EVs, and which components provide the greatest scope for gains? Energy efficiency is currently about 80 percent. There are only limited further improvements possible. The main potential is in the battery technology.

Excluding the battery, how much scope is there for cost reduction in the EV drivetrain? High-volume production will help to reduce cost. GKN Driveline is also working on full integration of eMotor and transmission and reduced dependence on rare earth permanent magnets.

8 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Interview

Man of many parts

With EVs now being developed for longer journeys and higher mass (approximately 70 kg). The difference in fuel speeds, will GKN move into the production of multi-speed consumption of a 2WD and AWD car in disconnect mode is transmissions to go with its motor units? like driving with one more passenger (about 2 percent less Yes, we have already developed two-speed transmissions and efficient). have three customer programmes with this technology. Can your disconnect technology be used within hybrid Will EV architectures move in the direction of wheel motors, drivelines to allow electric-only operation and engine corner modules or electric axles? What are the advantages decoupling for coasting? associated with each of these? Yes. For the different eAxle requirements GKN Driveline have GKN Driveline is closely watching wheel motor activities developed a dog clutch and a friction clutch disconnect system. and the high torque EVO technology is actually perfect for The wet-clutch disconnect will be used in a “multi-mode” this. We still think the technology needs to develop and this transmission for plug-in hybrid vehicles which we are developing won’t happen soon. The major trend and lowest cost solution for various vehicle manufacturers. This transmission combines today is the central motor with transmission, differential and ICE, generator and eMotor and can provide ICE and EV drive as sideshafts. well as parallel or serial hybrid modes.

On conventional vehicles, do you expect electric axles to Where else in the driveline can you see potential be a major growth area? If so, can you give an expected efficiency gains? percentage of overall production? GKN Driveline has already developed more efficient CV joints GKN Driveline has since 2002 been producing a 5 kW electric (offering 1 percent improvement), and optimized AWD

rear axle for a “4WD assist”. So far we have produced more systems with 4 g/km CO2 less emissions. However, the highest than 250,000 units. This year Peugeot has launched the potential is still in internal combustion engine development, 3008 HY4 with a GKN/Bosch 27 kW electric rear axle and with potential efficiency gains of 10 percent. we are working on several new applications. This concept combines AWD, EV and Hybrid performance in one, maximizing To what extent do GKN’s motorsport and Land Systems customer benefit, and can be combined with conventional developments influence passenger car technology? ICE powertrains. This makes it very attractive. By 2014 in There is limited influence. For example, in motorsport we use Europe we will see 200,000 cars per year with this technology. titanium for the driveshafts.... this is unlikely to be seen in We expect long-term growth of 5 percent a year in the AWD passenger cars due to the high cost. market through to 2020. Following the move into electric motors, does GKN plan to Can you apply your torque vectoring axle to the expand into any further areas of automotive systems? front in a FWD car? GKN Driveline will continue to look for opportunities …. Yes, the GKN Driveline modular torque vectoring system can be applied to the front axle as well. However, space constraints and potential interactions with the steering are limiting the Robert Rickell, global engineering director, GKN Driveline; application of torque vectoring in the front. principal engineer, GKN plc »» Previous responsibilities: engineering director for driveshafts, Using your driveline disconnects, how closely can a 4WD car regional engineering director for Europe; joined GKN in 1984 as product match the efficiency of a FWD-only model (assuming rear engineer in Birmingham, UK drive is not triggered)? »» Education: BSc in mechanical engineering, Nottingham University; Spinning losses of the AWD are almost eliminated in Masters from Loughborough University; Fellow of the Royal Academy disconnect mode. You still have the effect of the component of Engineering

RQ • Q4 • 2011 9 Diesel Engines Small

wonderPASSENGER CAR Commissioned by General Motors to design a compact diesel for India, Ricardo worked hand-in-hand with international GM engineering teams in Turin, Italy, as well as India, Korea and Germany, to produce a sophisticated engine which is not only world class in its fuel consumption but which can also be built cost effectively in an emerging market.Jesse Crosse speaks to the multi-national development team

For some years now, improving is a hi-tech engine localized for the at the time was one of the smallest economy and reducing emissions has Indian market: most importantly, it not advanced diesel engine designs ever been the principal focus of attention for only showcases the latest thinking in produced. As early as 2000, Ricardo most powertrain engineers, resulting combustion engine design, but does so was advising customers with small to in a growing wave of downsizing at a realistic price. mid-sized cars in their line-up that they projects and smaller and smaller Ricardo’s experience with small diesel would almost certainly need a sub 1-litre engines. The new General Motors 1.0 engines goes back a long way: in 1999 three-cylinder diesel in the future. XSDE SMARTECH three-cylinder diesel it worked on the development of the By 2006, customers had begun to engine is one such example. Developed original ground-breaking 1.3-litre four- take this idea seriously — and one of initially for the new Chevrolet Beat, it cylinder 16-valve SDE engine, which those customers was General Motors.

“Autocar India described the fuel consumption as ‘astounding’ and said the Beat has ‘a high level of refinement’ and is ‘remarkably quiet and smooth’ at idle”

10 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Diesel Engines wonder Ricardo responded with a rapid It was January 2007 when initial their processes,” says Beasley. “That demonstration project. “In a matter work started on the project proper. applied to all the major components, of weeks we had a mule running to This involved a lot more than just including the block.” demonstrate how effective an engine removing one cylinder from a four- Loosely based on the previous four- like this could be,” says Ricardo’s XSDE cylinder engine: it meant designing a cylinder engine it would replace, the new Project Director, Matt Beasley. new three-cylinder engine from scratch, XSDE thus emerged as a compelling optimized for localized manufacturing blend of cutting-edge technology and Optimized design in India. This was quite a challenge economic design. As the first sub 1-litre Based on a four-cylinder design, the because of the need to move away from three-cylinder diesel engine to meet mule engine was put together in a a predominantly European supply base India’s BS 4 standard (the equivalent simple, pragmatic way, using a four- and to identify a wide spectrum of low- of EU 4), the block is made from cylinder engine and deactivating one cost suppliers in the region. Even more conventional grey cast iron with a bore cylinder by fitting a purpose-designed challenging was the fact that these and stroke of 69.7 mm x 82 mm, giving three-cylinder crankshaft. “Everyone suppliers would have to be integrated a swept volume of 936 cm3. Common who went into the test cell expected to into the development programme from rail fuel injection operates at an efficient hear an unrefined three-cylinder note the word go. “We needed to engage 1600 bar, and vibration is kept in check but it actually sounded very good and with them and understand what their by a balancer shaft. was a very positive start to the project,” manufacturing capability might be so In terms of performance the engine’s Beasley remembers. that we could design components to suit maximum power is 50 PS at 4000 rev/min

RQ • Q4 • 2011 11 Diesel Engines

View from the top “Integration involves NVH “The Chevrolet Beat has a very small engine bay so it and electronic interfaces but, needs a very small engine.” It is almost that simple but not quite, says Stefano Caprio, global chief engineer mainly, it involves calibration” and global programme manager for the SDE engine , family at GM Powertrain Europe. “Of course the David Valantin downsizing also favours fuel economy.” XSDE chief engineer for There were several challenges, he continues. “The big one was that the vehicle development integration, Ricardo was in Korea, the market is India and the engine development took place in Europe.” The co-ordination of such a programme on a global scale has provided lessons learned that are being applied across the organization. In particular the management of the supply chain was crucial: “Technically, the biggest challenge was moving the supply base. It was difficult to match the skill sets of the suppliers with our needs and in some cases we had to develop those suppliers,” notes Caprio. Vehicle development also presented a new challenge for a three cylinder turbo-diesel in India, as Georg Holtkotte, group leader and project manager external calibration execution, explains: “Balancing the targets with minimum concessions to country-specific driveability, fuel consumption, NVH performance, while not compromising legal requirements such as Bharat 4 emissions, was an interesting experience for my team and me. Specific measures on the engine hardware, for example the — and the unit is flexible too, producing functional and development testing and well matching balance shaft-flywheel system, and on 140 Nm of torque at 1750 rev/min. the prototype manufacturing for the the calibration side, injection rate shaping, became Despite the impressive power output, first three phases. For these phases, necessary to enable the successful integration of this fuel consumption is just 67.73 mpg (4.17 Ricardo established a dedicated engine new engine for the Indian market. A good base was lit/100 km) on the Bharat Stage 4 (BS4) build shop on site, complete with its own always available with the well-known four-cylinder drive cycle. procurement team: in the first instance, E5 SDE combined with an experienced multinational UK or European rapid prototype suppliers team in Germany, UK, India and Italy which led to this From one extreme were used in order to get the first series well perceived application at the end.“ to another of prototype engines underway. It was a While the regulated Indian drive cycle is broadly Work began in earnest early in 2007, huge task requiring good communication similar to the European NEDC with the exception of a immediately after Beasley and his between all parties. significantly lower extra-urban top speed (90 versus chief designer for the XSDE project, 120 km/h), real-world conditions experienced by Jon Oakey, had returned from the Detailed design simplifies customers are very different. “In real-life driving the triumph of taking the land speed record production Indian customer is used to driving in lower engine for diesel cars at Bonneville with the Taking up the story of the next stages speed areas than European customers do,” continues JCB DieselMax. It was a case of going of the development, Ricardo chief Holtkotte. “This in combination with driving at higher from one extreme to the other, from designer Jon Oakey stresses just how altitudes, up to 4000 m, high ambient temperatures engineering two of the most powerful much detailed design work goes into and high humidity made some specific calibration automotive diesel engines in the world simplifying production. “An important efforts necessary which we decided to conduct to one of the smallest and most frugal. decision was to use single grade under realistic conditions in-country to find the best The project would be truly global, led piston selection on the line rather than solution for our customers.” by the GM engineering centre in Turin multigrade selection. This meant we had Like Caprio, Holtkotte also cites the importance and supported by Ricardo, working to re-tolerance the cylinder bore and of co-ordinated management on a global basis for hand-in-hand with international GM piston skirt profiles,” explains Oakey. a programme on the scale of the XSDE: “Various GM engineering teams in Italy, India, Korea Ricardo also helped reconfigure organizations in Korea, India, Italy and Germany, as and Germany. A dedicated project office the manufacturing line, helping to well as Ricardo UK as engineering service provider, at Ricardo’s Shoreham Technical Centre redesign the manufacturing pickups have been involved in this programme. Considering had, at its peak, 30 engineers: at key on the main engine components for the complexity of different time zones, different points of the project these included GM’s compatibility with a four-cylinder engine cultures, and a work-sharing scenario across the and suppliers’ own engineers. Ricardo’s on the same line. Again, there was a globe, it took quite some discipline from all the Technical Centre in Prague also worked series of manufacturing workshops partners involved to bring this project to a successful on the development of the engine. early on, bringing together Ricardo, GM conclusion and a highly competitive final product.” The base engine project ran for Powertrain Europe in Turin, Italy, Adam three years through to mid 2010, with Opel in Germany and GM Detroit, India Ricardo responsible for all the design and Korea. “It was a truly global effort,” and analysis, the test programme, the recalls Oakey.

12 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Diesel Engines

The new GM XSDE 3-cylinder turbo-diesel engine in numbers ›› First sub1-litre 3-cylinder diesel engine at Indian BS4 standards ›› Bore 69.7 mm x Stroke 82 mm (938 cc) ›› 4 valves per cylinder with 1600 bar common rail injection ›› Max. power 42 kW at 4000 rev/min ›› Excellent driveability with 140 Nm torque from 1750 rev/min ›› Low-end peak torque leader for its displacement worldwide at 100 Nm @ 1,250 rev/min ›› Very low vibration level (balancer shaft system)

One of the most important xxxxxxx design aspects of any three- cylinder engine is dealing with balance. The team held a series of concept workshops early in 2007 to decide where the balancer shaft should be located within the engine, taking into account information on a wide range of existing three-cylinder engines. Ricardo looked at all possible positions, from the cylinder head to the sump. “We did a study early on as to where it could package with minimum impact. We looked all around the engine for the neatest solution and eventually settled on a compact location near the crank,” explains Oakey. The shaft was driven by gears, not the cheapest solution but easy to assemble and with a low engineering impact on the rest of the engine. Reducing frictional losses Minimizing parasitic losses is crucial to efficiency: overall friction was addressed by producing the engine with three cylinders instead of four, and by using Compact three- coated pistons fitted with low-tension cylinder diesel is one of the world’s ring packs. Laser-honed bores trap oil smallest, yet its in the bore surface near the top of each sophisticated design bore, but then allow the lower portion to includes a gear- driven balancer shaft be super-smooth, reducing friction. and four valves per A considerable effort went into cylinder

RQ • Q4 • 2011 13 Diesel Engines

How cutting-edge software shaped the XSDE

The first step in the process was to produce an FE model of the engine assembly using FEARCE for thermal and structural analysis. Mechanical loadings were provided by ENGDYN and thermal boundary conditions generated from WAVE and VECTIS simulations. “The head and block designs required only minor changes” says senior analyst Helen Ballard. “But the bedplate, crankshaft and balancer shaft required more work due to the change from four to three cylinders.” To minimize the first-order moment, typical of a three-cylinder engine, a balancer shaft and larger crankshaft counterweights were included. Classical calculations were performed to optimize the system balance – a difficult task with the packaging constraints of the four-cylinder-derived crankcase. ADAMS analysis reducing crankcase pumping losses, of this reduction is the gas leakage was then used to assess engine mount vibration against especially as on a three-cylinder design past the turbine and wastegate – both GM targets. there is more ‘inter-bay’ breathing than of which have a proportionally bigger Stress analysis was also performed on the on a four, with more air being pumped impact if the design has just been scaled balancer shaft and a number of different options were from one end to the other. The crankcase down. A variable geometry unit was not considered. Steel versus cast-iron materials and three- ventilation was designed especially a viable option, again because of the piece versus two-piece designs were contemplated for the engine rather than copied small size of the turbo, so improving before a two-piece cast iron shaft was finally decided from previous four-cylinder engines. this aspect of the turbocharger and upon. To minimize engine length the front balancer shaft The system removes oil vapour from minimizing the exhaust manifold and counterweight was integrated into the balancer shaft the air within the engine, preventing EGR system volume was essential for drive gear. FE analysis was also required to optimize contamination of the turbo compressor low speed performance, and the design auxiliary component brackets for weight and stiffness and intercooler; it also reduces the evolved considerably from the first according GM’s minimum frequency targets. generation of hydrocarbon emissions. attempt. “Because the engine is small, package space is tight The camshafts were not carried over The cylinder heads are cast and pre- and we performed a number of iterations to achieve from previous engines but redesigned to machined in Korea and then finished in these aggressive targets,” says Ballard. OptiStruct improve durability, and the fuel system India. Other details involved a complete analysis was used to optimize the engine mountings, was scaled down from a four-cylinder review of structural alignment and resulting in a significant weight saving. engine to ensure commonality in the improving the design of dowels from The timing chain durability was assessed using future. a sliding fit to a precise hole fit. This Ricardo’s VALDYN software. The chain loading was Turbocharging is a particular meant that gaskets could be replaced calculated to be lower than for the four-cylinder engine challenge with a smaller engine because by RTV sealing, reducing the complexity but there had been concerns that the valvetrain and fuel as the size of the turbo reduces, so too of manufacturing. Versions were also pump torques could combine to give a higher loading. usually does its efficiency. A key aspect tried with and without hydraulic power Ricardo’s WAVE suite was used for performance simulation, in particular to establish the optimum boost system for the small capacity engine. The above analysis operations helped ensure high quality design and a smooth running test programme.

14 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Diesel Engines

“Our team has been successful in optimizing the calibration to maximize the performance from this extremely compact sub 1L engine so that it meets the Indian driving style expectations” David Valantin, XSDE chief engineer for integration, Ricardo

assisted steering, the final choice being integration at Ricardo. an electric system in order to further This work started in the help with fuel consumption by removing summer of 2008 and ran load from the engine. through to the start of One of the most crucial details to production in June 2011. By resolve was the move to a new GM this stage Ricardo was working standard fastening system compared with the GM integration team to the previous four-cylinder. “That based at Russelsheim. Calibration and gave us quite a few challenges on the NVH were both carried out at Shoreham, base engine design,” says Oakey. What while the control and electronics were sounds like a minor detail actually has developed by Ricardo’s specialists at the major implications. A switch to ‘M-Point’ Cambridge Technical Centre in the UK. bolts compared to traditional blunt- On-the-road calibration, development ended bolts added around 4 mm to the and validation work was carried out length of every fastener and the hole in Spain, Sweden and Chile. The latter The Shoreham-based The conclusion? The Beat is equipped it has to fit in — and this could in some provides a high-altitude calibration Ricardo design team with the smallest and most frugal diesel (top left) collaborated cases have an impact on something as environment coupled with good roads with GM engineers engine in India and has wowed the press fundamental as the design of a major where it is possible to drive at high from five different there. Autocar India described the fuel casting. Engineers at the Ricardo Detroit loads for sustained periods. Once the countries; in its consumption as ‘astounding’ and said application in the office had already had experience of this core field work had been completed, Chevrolet Beat (below the Beat has ‘a high level of refinement’ kind of migration and they spent some validation was also carried out in and left), the engine and is ‘remarkably quiet and smooth’ time at Shoreham helping to resolve the India, essential in view of the high gives exceptional fuel at idle. economy mechanical puzzle. duty cycles demanded of small cars Praise indeed for a power unit that there, often carrying a full load (and sets new benchmarks in the economy Integration into the vehicle more) of passengers plus luggage class of one of the fastest growing Designing a sophisticated engine which and even a trailer. “Our team has been markets in the world. is not only world class when it comes to successful in optimizing the calibration fuel economy but which can also be built to maximize the performance from this cost effectively in an emerging market extremely compact sub 1-litre engine is a challenge — but it’s not the whole so that it meets the Indian driving style challenge. The engine still has to be expectations,” continues Valantin. integrated into a vehicle – in this case, “It always gives the feeling of a good the Chevrolet Beat. acceleration, for example, even when The XSDE meets BS4, a standard kicking the gas pedal after a speed which is now straightforward to bump at 10 km/h’ in second gear with a achieve with the usual repertoire of fully laden car.” components. In this case, however, it has been achieved without the use of a Back-to-back comparison diesel particulate filter, thus reducing At this stage the engine and complete cost to a minimum. The XSDE is a vehicle were compared back-to-back small engine but one which has to work with major competitors from other reasonably hard; it is able to run with a manufacturers available in the Indian low-cost catalytic converter. market, including the Ford Figo 1.4 “Integration involves NVH and four-cylinder diesel, the Suzuki Swift electronic interfaces but, mainly, 1.three four-cylinder diesel and the it involves calibration,” says David Volkswagen Polo 1.two three-cylinder Valantin, XSDE chief engineer for diesel.

RQ • Q4 • 2011 15 Biodiesel

CLEAN ENERGY & POWER GENERATION Biodiesel: improved fuel consumption, reduced emissions

Fuel-adaptive optimized calibration can give first-generation FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester)-based biodiesels the potential to provide cleaner and more efficient future transportation, according to an in-depth research study led by Ricardo. Anthony Smith reports

Concerns about carbon dioxide emissions formation of its first biofuels consortium, oil and gas company OMV and the and energy security in all parts of the world bringing together stakeholders from Petroleum Authority of Thailand (PTT). have led regulators and governments government and the oil, biofuels and The study focused on comparing the to mandate a significant increase in the automotive industries to address some of performance of a number of blends proportion of biofuels included in regular the key challenges standing in the path of of currently available FAME-based pump blends of gasoline and diesel. greater use of current biofuel technology. biodiesels from a range of different In addition to this, many regions are The first project carried out biogenic sources. The primary selection increasingly making even higher biofuel under the framework of the biofuels of fuels for the study reflected a number blend percentages available to consumers consortium has been an investigation of popular first-generation biodiesel who wish to use these for financial or of the effects on diesel performance, feedstocks having significance in operational reasons or through personal emissions and fuel economy of a range different geographical regions. These concern for the environment. of first-generation biodiesel fuels in were rapeseed methyl ester (RME), palm With first-generation biodiesels in conventional and advanced powertrain methyl ester (PME), and soy methyl particular, there are known engineering technologies. This work, reported for ester (SME). Baseline comparisons issues associated with fuel instability and the first time in October 2011, has been were with the standard European diesel reactivity to air during storage, as well carried out in association with a truly reference fuel (RF06), and blends – as concerns over performance, exhaust international gathering of stakeholders all with RF06 as a base stock – were emissions and fuel economy during use. It including the German biofuels industry investigated ranging from zero to 30 was for these latter reasons in particular association AGQM, the UK government’s percent biodiesel (B0 to B30). that in 2010 Ricardo announced the Department for Transport, Austrian In addition, two further biodiesel

16 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Biodiesel

feedstocks were considered solely as B30 fuels. The first of these was jatropha Biofuel blends tested methyl ester (JME), which is considered RME PME SME JME HVO RF06 Biofuel attractive in terms of the fact that it is %v/v %v/v %v/v %v/v %v/v %v/v content derived from a non-edible plant that Base fuel 100 B0 grows vigorously on otherwise marginal RME10 10 90 B10 land. The second was hydrogenated PME10 10 90 B10 vegetable oil (HVO), a high quality and SME10 10 90 B10 energy-dense fuel, albeit with a less RME5/PME5/SME5 5 5 5 85 B15 attractive well-to-wheels carbon RME10/SME10 10 10 80 B20 footprint due to its more energy-intensive RME10/PME10 10 10 80 B20 production process. In HVO the oils from PME10/SME10 10 10 80 B20 different plants are rehydrogenated RME10/PME10/SME10 10 10 10 70 B30 in order to raise their energy content, HVO30 30 70 B30 resulting in a very clean and high JME30 30 70 B30 energy-content diesel which is closer in performance and chemical make-up Reference fuel and biofuels considered in study to second-generation gas-to-liquid Base European reference fuel RF06 Rapeseed methyl ester RME Palm methyl ester PME Soy methyl ester SME biodiesels, with a high cetane number, no Jatropha methyl ester JME Hydrogenated vegetable oil HVO aromatics and low density.

RQ • Q4 • 2011 17 Biodiesel

Experimental approach Palm oil and oilseed fuel economy within the constraints had significant previous research The performance of each of the selected rape crops (above); of regulated emissions limits. In so experience and knowledge of the vehicle below: Global DoE fuels was evaluated in a test engine process schematic doing, the team hoped to be able to characteristics, calibration and control using part of the Ricardo Efficient and, table at assess the potential attractiveness of architecture – and which has current Calibration toolset: a global Design of foot of page, fuel implementing fuel-adaptive optimized legislative relevance, for example, in the consumption Experiments (DoE) based approach improvement results calibration for fuels of this type. rapidly developing markets of India and to prepare a fuel optimized calibration with optimized as Testing was based on a standard Euro China. Performance measurements compared to baseline to demonstrate, for example, the calibration 4 engine as used in a popular European taken during testing and subsequent best achievable performance and C/D class vehicle for which Ricardo simulation included engine speed and torque, fuel flow, intake and exhaust temperatures, cylinder pressure, Experimental Approach: Global DoE process schematic combustion parameters including mass

Vehicle inputs ensure NEDC fraction burned, fuel rail pressure, pilot simulated is realistic and main injection timing, and VNT Vehicle Modelling NEDC cycle generated position. Emissions measurements (C/D class vehicle from 200 point DoE; included regulated gaseous emissions, Engine P&E predicted on Mapping 200 steady state points run, Model represents engine P&E standardized calibration soot, unregulated gases, aldehydes and Data calibration parameters written on fuel studied to open ECU ketones, particle size distributions and number concentration, and particulate Model prediction of DoE Range Setting DoE Test Execution DoE Model Creation NEDC cycle matter analyses. emissions, FC etc Engine The team started by running tests Mapping Test data quality DoE Model Data to determine the engine’s response to Engine parameter swings selected to checking - repeat poor Quality Check encompass true operational range quality/incomplete (Statistical calibration parameter changes for each data points Analysis) Calibration of the fuels. This data was then used to parameters define ECU calibration parameter ranges • Injection timing • Pilot timing for a global DoE testing sequence. DoE Model • VNT position DoE Model Validation Global DoE response models were built • Rail pressure Optimization • Mass air ﬂow (MAF) (for the engine) for each of the test NEDC FC Optimized calibration base improvement fuels across around 200 speed and load Engineering targets are set for NOx and maps & corresponding potential Selected keypoint emissions, FC response maps points, prior to running optimization soot at minimum BSFC. New models are emissions predicted by created for the test fuel, an ‘optimized’ Vs baseline with applied the optimized modes are routines to achieve target NEDC NOx calibration generated and P&E predicted. run on the enginbe to Optimized calibration on reference fuel constraints and PM levels with best possible fuel (N0x,Pm) conﬁrm model validity became the baseline calibration consumption. This effectively yields a new set of calibration data specifically optimized for each fuel. This is NEDC Fuel Consumption NEDC Fuel Consumption Difference between Prediction - Baseline Prediction - Optimized Baseline and Optimized essentially the same process used to Calibration (L/100km) Calibration (L/100km) Calibrations (%) generate a production light duty diesel RF-06 5.50 5.50 0.00% calibration, albeit with fewer DoE points. RME10 5.52 5.32 -3.67% The overall process can be considered analogous to having an advanced engine PME10 5.44 5.42 -0.25% control system capable of closed loop SME10 5.45 5.49 0.70% adaption of the calibration based on RME5/PME5/SME5 5.62 5.60 -0.40% combustion response. RME10/SME10 5.66 5.66 0.06% “In the first part of the testing RME10/PME10 5.63 5.61 -0.45% work we focused on comparing the PME10/SME10 5.62 5.61 -0.11% performance of the base reference RME10/PME10/SME10 5.64 5.62 -0.37% fuel (B0) with B10, B15, B20 and HVO30 5.46 5.35 -1.93% B30 blends of the RME, PME and SME 5.63 1.15% JME30 5.69 biodiesels,” explains Jon Andersson,

18 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Biodiesel

4.00% 3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 0.00% -1.00% -2.00%

to RF06(%) -3.00% Fuel Type -4.00%

Fuel Consumption Beneﬁt Relative Consumption Beneﬁt Relative Fuel RF-06 RME10 PME10 SME10 HVO30 JME30

RME10SME10RME10PME10PME10SME10 RME5PME5SME5 RME10PME10SME10

manager of aftertreatment and slightly – albeit still within regulatory Soy bean harvest known considerations of fuel storage chemical analysis and chief engineer limits – to 0.225 g/km. (right, and main stability that were outside the scope picture on pages in the biofuels project. “Using this Compared to the base B0 fuel run 16-17); above: of the study, the use of fuel-optimized approach we could examine the effect on the baseline calibration, there fuel consumption calibration for first generation FAME- of different blend levels and assess the was improved fuel consumption with changes relative based biodiesels can be attractive in to base fuel presence of linearity in the performance almost all biofuel blends running on for optimized terms of both their emissions and their and emissions results generated. We their optimized calibrations. The most calibrations (above) fuel economy. If this form of calibration show that all FAME could also investigate what mix effects improved fuel economy was with RME10 blends above B10 can demonstrate similar benefits there might be where different biofuel which demonstrated a 3.7 percent were unable to on performance, emissions and fuel feedstocks are used within the same improvement in predicted NEDC fuel out-perform the consumption across a range of engines, base fuel. Typical fuel blend. For example, does a mixed consumption. The only two exceptions, fuel consumption it may well prove to be a cost-effective blend of a range of FAME stocks give a where predicted NEDC fuel consumption penalties were 2-3% approach for Euro 6. Given that vehicles different outcome to that of a similar was measurably worse, were SME10 and for B20 and above, certified to Euro 6 will be equipped with but B10 fuels, and overall blend level of based on a single JME30, with respectively 0.7 and 1.1 HVO30, were better diesel particulate filters and selective biofuel component?” percent higher fuel consumption than than base fuel catalytic reduction systems, there will the baseline fuel and calibration. potentially be opportunities to allow Emissions using baseline When compared with an optimized higher levels of engine-out NOx and soot calibration calibration for all fuels – including B0 within the calibration in order to even Across the board, operation on all of - it was not possible to improve upon further optimize fuel economy. the FAME blends analysed, as well as on baseline fuel consumption with FAME Such fuel economy benefits are HVO30, did not negatively impact the blends higher than B10. However, likely to significantly offset – if not engine’s ability to meet Euro 4 limits. the results for the B10 FAME blends completely cover – the additional costs At FAME blends in excess of B10, NOx demonstrate better fuel consumption of the sensor systems required for increased but did not put the engine than achievable with a fuel-optimized the genuinely fuel-adaptive optimized outside the regulatory window as all calibration operating on the baseline fuel. closed-loop calibration that would be fuels’ emissions were still below the While further work would be required to required for a practical commercial homologation target of 0.25 g/km. As assess the robustness of this finding, the implementation. Clearly, much further expected, soot generally improved with results indicated that this would amount work would be necessary to confirm the FAME use as this fuel introduces oxygen to a greater than 3 percent improvement validity of the results of this research to localized rich zones and hence enables in the case of RME10. across a range of engines and vehicles, greater oxidation of soot particles. “The results obtained were generally as well as under conditions such as cold Fuel consumption on the baseline very encouraging in terms of addressing start and true transient operation. But calibration generally deteriorates with emissions and fuel consumption if successful, FAME-based biodiesels FAME content, as might be expected concerns over first-generation FAME- could well endure in the market in due to its lower energy content and based biodiesels,” explains Andersson. the medium to long term rather than possibly poorer combustion. No obvious “Our additional investigations both merely providing a stepping stone trends were found in engine-out CO and of linearity effects of emissions with to second-generation biofuels. With HC emissions, but both were marginally blend level and on the generation of their generally less energy-intensive increased compared to the reference fuel. unregulated emissions also showed no production processes, they could well issues of concern. Moreover, we found provide an attractive solution provided Fuel-optimized calibration that with five of the biofuel blends it that feedstocks can be produced in a In developing the fuel-optimized was actually possible to optimize the sustainable manner and outstanding calibrations, optimization was set calibration to obtain higher peak power issues of storage stability can be for the minimum achievable fuel and torque from a fuel with lower energy suitably addressed. consumption at NOx of 0.2 g/km content than the base fuel.“ (against the regulatory PM limit of 0.25) For more information and and soot of 0.02 g/km (against a limit Future prospects participation in future consortium of 0.025). With SME10 it was found that The research project has clearly based research in this area, contact the NOx target needed to be relaxed demonstrated that, notwithstanding [email protected].

RQ • Q4 • 2011 19 Solar Power Ultimate EV

CLEAN ENERGY & POWER GENERATION

Three thousand kilometres at over 80 km/h and with all its energy drawn from available sunlight – electric vehicle engineering challenges don’t come any more extreme than those faced by the University of Michigan’s solar car team and their Ricardo advisers, as Anthony Smith reports

Australia’s famous Stuart Highway is The inaugural World Solar Challenge not a road for the faint hearted. Three took place in here in 1987 and was won thousand kilometres of unrelenting by General Motors’ Sunraycer vehicle tarmac stretch from the tropical in a competition largely between the extreme of the Northern Territories major automakers. Today, the event at Darwin across the deserts of the is hosted on a regular biennial basis Red Centre via Alice Springs, down to with competitors drawn primarily from the coastal South Australian capital university-led teams drawing upon of Adelaide. On this most Australian commercial sponsorship and in-kind of transport arteries, multi-vehicle industrial support. road trains – some of the heaviest The University of Michigan has road-going trucks the world over – are competed in the World Solar Challenge a rather more common sight than since 1990 and in the intervening period anything remotely as fuel efficient it has become the most successful US as a city car. So why is this seemingly team in the competition. In entering the hostile route used by the world’s most 2011 event, the team was determined prestigious solar electric vehicle event, from the outset to create a vehicle the World Solar Challenge? The answer capable of making a very serious lies in the one commodity the Stuart attempt at winning overall. This is Highway has in abundance: sunlight. no small undertaking as the team’s

20 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Solar Power Ultimate EV

business director, chemical engineering engineering and operation. The University of help with and we worked with them to student Chris Hilger explains: “The 2011 “Although carried out on a pro-bono Michigan team review and monitor the engineering solar car, supported vehicle represented a total project value basis and with Ricardo engineers by Ricardo, was process. But ultimately it was down to in the region of $2 million, of which contributing a good proportion of rewarded with them to get the work done.” approximately $600,000 was raised their own time, we established our a podium place One of the most significant aspects in Australia’s as cash. But it wasn’t simply a case of support to the University team on prestigious World on which Ricardo was able to assist was securing the finance: we had to come a professional basis as if it were a Solar Challenge on vehicle weight, as Hilger explains: up with a strategy as to how to attract commercial customer project,” explains “Coming into this year’s challenge we exactly the required mix of resources Carl Jenkins, Ricardo Inc director for the were aware that we were behind the to enable us to deliver a competitive vehicle, hybrid and intelligent transport top two competitors in terms of vehicle vehicle.” systems product group. “This not only weight, so we knew that we needed Ricardo came to the assistance ensured that the engineering challenge a very robust strategy for weight of the University of Michigan team in was addressed as efficiently as possible, optimization. The Ricardo engineers two respects, firstly as a commercial but it also provided the students with showed us how to go about tackling this sponsor of the project and, much more very valuable educational exposure particular challenge from first principles, importantly in terms of enabling the to the disciplines of working on a analysing the entire vehicle and students to achieve their goal of a commercial engineering project. Our establishing a weight reduction target truly competitive vehicle, the company role was to support and supervise – we for every single component. This was key also agreed to act as a technical would offer guidance and advice on each to ensuring a balanced weight saving consultant for all aspects of vehicle of the areas that the students needed contribution from all vehicle systems.”

RQ • Q4 • 2011 21 Solar Power

”The 2011 vehicle represented a total project value in the region of $2 million, of which approximately $600,000 was raised as cash. But it wasn’t simply a case of securing the finance: we had to come up with a strategy as to how to attract exactly the required mix of resources to enable us to deliver a competitive vehicle” Chris Hilger, World Solar Challenge business director

The results of this work were At the periodic unpredictable factors is the weather. hour and seventeen minutes behind extremely impressive, with a total planned rest, The nature of the Stuart Highway is the second-placed car, three scrutineering and vehicle weight saving from the 2009 maintenance stops that it traverses the continent from the hours behind the winner to the 2011 car of 91 kg (200 lbs) or on the highway, the tropical north to the coastal region of and a full day ahead of almost 29 percent. team would direct the the south. Crossing the central deserts, the fourth placed vehicle, their podium vehicle body cover Significant help was also provided with its PV array so too, there are issues of wind and of the finish performance can be seen as in terms of the battery management as to capture the very Australian hazard of bush fires. nothing less than extremely impressive. system and pack engineering. The maximum possible In an event held in a single stage over sunlight energy storage capacity limit imposed such a great distance and such widely Long term benefits by the competition organizers is 21 kg varying conditions, the ability to adapt The commitment and hard work of of lithium-ion cells (approximately the strategy of managing a very limited the University of Michigan team came 6 kWh) to be charged from a maximum amount of stored energy over the whole with considerable personal sacrifice 6 m2 surface area of photovoltaic cells. route becomes extremely important. as they each had to take at least one The University was able to arrange this One of the sixteen-strong University academic semester out from their to provide a peak rating of 1300 W. team at the event was a full-time academic studies in order to participate. “The aim has to be to obtain the most meteorologist who was able to download However, as preparation for a career efficient cells and the greatest energy the latest weather forecasts in real in engineering and technology it could density of the battery pack,” continues time as the race progressed. Using this not have been better. Hilger and a team Hilger. information and driving optimization colleague are also using the intervening algorithms developed in consultation period between the completion of the Strategy is paramount with Ricardo, the team was able to adapt Solar Challenge and resumption of their While engineering development is an its strategy to make the very best use of studies by working as interns at the enabler for a successful solar vehicle, the prevailing weather conditions. Ricardo Detroit Technology Campus. race strategy is of almost equal Having engineered a highly For Ricardo, too, the benefits are importance. The solar challenge rules competitive vehicle offering a very also very significant, says Jenkins: “Our allow competitors to start with their strong challenge, the team had a engineers work on a large number of batteries fully charged and finish with stroke of bad luck on the final day when diverse vehicle engineering projects, in Adelaide with a fully depleted pack. excessive cross winds caused damage but a solar car provided them with a There are also numerous scheduled to a fairing that led to an unscheduled completely fresh challenge and change of stops for scrutineering checkpoints. But emergency repair stop of around one scene. For time-served engineers living perhaps one of the biggest and most hour. Given that they finished just one and breathing commercial projects, it

22 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Solar Power

was fantastic to be faced with the sheer enthusiasm of the students. “The Solar Car Challenge is a good competition for Ricardo to be involved in,” continues Jenkins. “The competition requires a strong focus on those aspects of modern vehicle development that are increasingly important to our work – these include systems development, weight reduction, battery technology and operating strategies. There were some very good lessons for us in seeing how the university team worked. None of the students was compelled to become involved: they rose to the challenge with complete enthusiasm and focus. “It’s very easy sometimes for “..we would offer guidance and advice on each of the experienced engineers to focus on commercial delivery and to forget why areas that the students needed help with and we worked we all came into this profession in the first place,” he concludes. “It was with them to review and monitor the engineering thus an extremely rewarding and very process. But ultimately it was down to them to get the motivational project for all of us.”

work done” Carl Jenkins, Ricardo Inc Pictures courtesy Evan Dougherty, University of Michigan The UoM solar car in numbers:

Weight 145 kg without driver (320 lbs) Battery Lithium Ion Solar Cells Silicon Cells Tyres Michelin, low rolling resistance tyres CDA <0.1, ultra aerodynamic Anticipated Top Speed 169 Km/h (105 mph) Nominal Power Output <2 hp Maximum Power Output 12.3 hp Fuel Type Solar Chassis & Body Carbon fibre Motor In-hub, brushless electric DC motor (approximately 98% efficient) Dimensions 4.9 m x 1.5 m x 1.1 m high (16’x 5’x 3.5’)

RQ • Q4 • 2011 23 Ricardo News

Ricardo news Latest developments from around the global Ricardo organization

High Performance Vehicles & Motorsport Motorsport transmissions enjoy 2011 success Ricardo chalked up a record year of the Peugeot diesel engine. The Greaves shares the same internal parts as the competition success in the 2011 season In the Le Mans Series, the Greaves Motorsport Zytek- unit deployed in the Nissan GT500 car Nissan Z11SN thanks to the on-track performances of Motorsport team was also successful, equipped with its that won this year’s Japanese Super GT customers of motorsport transmission and winning the LMP2 team and drivers’ Ricardo transmission Championship, in which both the drivers’ driveline products designed, engineered titles as well as topping its class in at Le Mans 2011 and team titles were taken by Masataka and manufactured by the company. the 24 Heures du Mans 2011. Greaves Yanagida and Ronnie Quintarelli in their S Peugeot Sport took the Motorsport uses the Ricardo transverse Road MOLA Nissan GT R. Intercontinental Le Mans Cup LMP1 LMP gearbox in its Zytek chassis. Alongside these successes, the end of manufacturers’ title for the second year In the GT1, JRM racing’s Michael this year also marks a ten-year milestone running, with its new 908 car featuring Krumm and Lucas Luhr were crowned for the high-performance transmission a transmission designed and developed 2011 FIA GT1 World Drivers’ Champions products team in supplying Ricardo in close collaboration between Peugeot for their performance in the astonishing designed and manufactured gearboxes and Ricardo engineers. This unit GT-R by NISMO (Nissan Motorsport), to the entire grid in both the World Series provides a high-performance and which features a Ricardo 6-speed by Renault (formerly World Series by lightweight solution that is able to cope transverse GT1 gearbox. This high- Nissan) and the Firestone Indy Lights with the massive power and torque of performance Ricardo transmission championships.

Clean Energy & Power Generation through to a V12 configuration, with rated the D Series engine family will be engineered powers ranging from 180 to 440 kW. The from the outset to be US Tier 3 compliant Indian generator set engine family is intended for generator with a clear upgrade path protection to Tier development set applications – in particular the high- 4 compliance without significant hardware demand 250 kVA and 500 kVA segments change. Greaves Cotton Ltd – one of India’s leading in India – and will provide Greaves with the The project will be completed in close and most well-diversified engineering best in class engine for both manufacturing collaboration between Ricardo engineers companies – has appointed Ricardo to and operating costs. It will also be the first working at both the company’s UK and support it in the development of a new family time that Greaves has introduced high Indian facilities, together with the engineers of generator set engines conforming to pressure common rail fuel injection on and resources of the Greaves technical future international emissions regulations. engines in this segment, providing a base centre in Pune, India. Work on the project The new D Series diesel engine family engine capable of meeting world emission will commence immediately with start of will extend from an in-line six-cylinder unit standards. This is reflected in the fact that production planned for 2013.

24 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Ricardo News

Clean Energy & Power Generation Company News EV battery technology Ricardo Asia launched increases range Ricardo has announced the formation of Ricardo Asia as a A new battery for electric cars, offering Professor Neville Jackson. “The new new strategic business entity a greater than 35 percent improvement battery will improve the potential for in the Asia-Pacific region. in range compared to existing more widespread vehicle electrification, The new business will technologies at the same weight, a process that has the potential to be headed by Gary Tan, has been successfully developed in significantly reduce global dependence an automotive executive a project led by advanced battery on fossil fuels and minimize carbon who has enjoyed a long manufacturer Axeon, and involving dioxide emissions.” and distinguished career Ricardo and Allied Vehicles. The project included subjecting the encompassing senior The battery uses Nickel Cobalt battery to automotive environmental leadership roles in the developing automotive markets Manganese (NCM) electrochemistry validation testing and the results of the Asia-Pacific region. These have included which theoretically requires 50 percent of this have been incorporated into successful periods as the president Asia-Pacific less volume and 30 percent less the final design to ensure a robust for Brose Automotive and as regional technical and mass when compared to Lithium Iron solution. An advanced demonstrator marketing director of Autoliv. Prior to this, he worked Phosphate chemistry at cell level. A key has been deployed into a test vehicle, with Robert Bosch in both commercial and project goal of the project was to confirm that increasing its range, functionality roles within the ASEAN region. “Gary Tan has extremely these cell level benefits are maintained and performance. The project has impressive track record of senior business leadership at the battery pack level, once overall confirmed that it is feasible to replace experience and commercial success gained in multiple packaging, cell retention, cooling and Lithium Iron Phosphate technology industry sectors across the Asia-Pacific region,” said interconnects, Battery Management with NCM and that the majority of cell Ricardo plc CEO Dave Shemmans. “I believe that he System (BMS) components and overall level benefits also apply at battery pack is an ideal person to drive the next phase of growth system functionality are taken into level. The demonstrator pack uses NCM of Ricardo’s business in the commercially important account. “pouch” cells, which is a relatively new developing markets of this region.” “This project has allowed us to supply technology for electric vehicles. The A Malaysian national, Gary Tan was awarded a and develop our expertise in advanced cells have been innovatively packaged in degree in aerospace engineering from Iowa State battery management,” said Ricardo modular building blocks which support a University in the US and spent his early career with chief technology and innovation officer, range of thermal management options. Boeing in Australia. The breadth and extent of his international business experience is extremely impressive; an accomplished linguist, he speaks seven languages and has lived and worked in North America, India, Singapore, Australia, Thailand and China as well as in his native Malaysia. He takes over responsibility as president of Ricardo Shanghai from interim president, Ashley Fernihough, who returns to his full time role as Ricardo UK commercial director. The Ricardo Shanghai Technical Centre will form the nucleus of the new Ricardo Asia organization, which will be charged with spearheading growth across the Asia-Pacific region, initially focusing on the Korean, Malaysian and Chinese markets. Tan will be supported in his new role by two recently appointed vice presidents, Richard Lively and Dr Alastair Bacon. Richard Lively is currently vice president, engines, at Ricardo Shanghai. A career engine specialist, he joined Ricardo from Cummins Engines where he was responsible for the Darlington Passenger Car (UK) Technical Centre, developing mid-range products for the EU markets. Lively is no stranger to working in Ricardo to assist JAC with advanced diesel China, having spent two years as general manager of Ricardo and Anhui Jianghuai new engine. It will be aimed at meeting Cummins East Asia R&D in Wuhan, where he carried Automobile Group Co Ltd (JAC) of robustly the requirements of Euro 5 overall managerial responsibility for this subsidiary. China have announced that they have emissions regulations, reflecting the Dr Alastair Bacon joined Ricardo Shanghai as vice signed a contract that will see the importance of emissions compliance president, driveline and transmission systems, from two companies work together in the in Chinese and international markets. Prodrive, where he was general manager, China, development of a new 2.0 litre turbo- The engineering team will also aim to having established the company’s office in the country diesel for JAC’s expanding product ensure that the new engine delivers in 2006. Before this, Bacon held positions with range. Ricardo engineers based in both the highly competitive performance, Prodrive as the general manager of the company’s Thai Shanghai as well as the company’s UK packaging, refinement and durability engineering division based in Bangkok, and as head of technical centres, will work with their targets established for application in programmes for Prodrive Australia. counterparts at JAC to develop the JAC’s future vehicle range.

RQ • Q4 • 2011 25 Ricardo News

Rail Potential in-service upgrades for rail diesels Ricardo is to collaborate with LH Group in the UK on a research and development programme that aims to pave the way for significant efficiency improvements for railway diesel engines. LH Group carries out the periodic overhaul of the power equipment for much of the UK’s diesel multiple unit (DMU) fleet – vehicles that are owned by the major rolling stock leasing organizations and are operated by the train xxxxx operating companies that hold the various service franchises. In order to assess the opportunities for in-service vehicle upgrades, The project will focus on powertrain with basic vehicle driveline and coast-down the company aims to work with Ricardo to upgrades offering the prospect of reducing data, a detailed map of engine speed and load investigate the potential operating cost lifetime rolling stock costs and operational will be generated for subsequent evaluation. improvements that could be made to existing energy consumption. The initial work will focus “This is a major programme that will bring rolling stock power systems. on the Cummins NT855 engine, which is used long term benefits to operators,” explains “Rolling stock operating cost is a crucial in many DMU applications in the UK. Geoff Childs, LH Group engineering director. consideration for both train leasing and Following this work, three routes served by “It brings together technological expertise operating companies, not least due to the DMUs will be selected for detailed evaluation that will undoubtedly provide end users extended vehicle life expectations of the rail of vehicle power systems. These routes will be with operating benefits. We are anxious to industry,” said Ricardo director of rail vehicle chosen to provide a broad sample of the rail investigate the potential operating cost technology, Jim Buchanan. “Mid-life upgrades operating conditions that exist in the UK for improvements that could be made to existing offer the opportunity to explore measures to this class of vehicle, including both high speed rolling stock power systems. For that reason improve performance, reliability and the overall and suburban sections with their contrasting we have selected Ricardo to partner us in the customer experience, and most crucially of station frequencies, as well as a wide range of early stages of this work, drawing upon its all in a commercial railway environment, to track gradients. Using on-board acoustic data extensive experience of diesel power systems optimize the underlying cost of operations for recording equipment fitted to the power cars of for rail as well as road-going and off-highway both vehicle owners and operators.” rolling stock on these selected routes, together applications.”

Passenger Cars New acoustic test facility for Ricardo Germany Ricardo has launched a new acoustic test centre in Germany, providing extensive facilities for both full vehicle and engine acoustic testing. The addition of the new facility means that Ricardo is able to provide a full range of design and analytical NVH services at its Schwäbisch Gmünd technical centre in southern Germany, supported by test-based development carried out locally at the new Remseck centre close to Stuttgart. Facilities available at Remseck include a large vehicle semi-anechoic chassis dynamometer test rig with a capacity of 2x350 kW, and an engine acoustic test cell for complete drive trains of up to 500 kW. In addition, the Remseck centre includes a vehicle workshop and preparation area as well as offices and meeting rooms.

26 RQ • Q4 • 2011 Ricardo plc

Ricardo Seminars & Events Related to the automobile and clean energy industries

Advanced technology seminars, “An excellent workshops and training courses Seminar programme: discussion Ricardo is recognised worldwide as a leading Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals and course, authority in the development of the latest 8-9 February 2012 power systems for automotive and clean energy great exibility applications. Two one-day seminars covering the fundamentals of gasoline and diesel engine combustion and and time for While best known for our engineering and consulting technology. The seminars are aimed at engineers and discussion.” programmes, an increasingly popular service is scientists who wish to gain a broad based knowledge our regular series of seminars and training courses of engine technology, and who wish to broaden their through which aspects of the company’s knowledge understanding of engine combustion, emissions and and expertise can be shared with customers. These related issues. events are typically hosted at Ricardo Technical Centres and are led by some of our most experienced Introduction to Hybrids / Batteries for Hybrids engineers and research scientists. 14-15 March 2012 We constantly strive to develop new seminars and A two-day seminar discussing recent developments courses re ecting the very latest thinking and most in battery technology for hybrids, plug-ins and topical areas of power systems technology and electric vehicles. Covers the latest in electric motive product development. We also strictly limit delegate technology and an overview of recent trends and numbers in order to create an environment conducive advances in battery pack technology, the key enabler to discussion of aspects of particular interest to of the electri cation of the vehicle network. participants. Modestly priced, our Ricardo seminars Automotive Transmissions Fundamentals and courses provide exceptional value for money but 25-26 April 2012 are consequently in high demand. A two-day seminar covering the fundamentals of Our current programme of seminars is listed to the automotive transmission technology. The seminar right. Most of these will be hosted at the Shoreham will cover the main types of automotive transmission Technical Centre, further presentations may also be and is aimed at engineers who wish to gain a made at other Ricardo facilities or at customer sites broad understanding of transmission technology, subject to demand. applications and future trends.

For more information about our current seminar programme or to discuss individual company-speci c training requirement, please contact: [email protected]

Delivering Value Through Innovation & Technology www.ricardo.com FOR WORLD CLASS PRODUCTS CHOOSE A WORLD CLASS DEVELOPMENT PARTNER With a Global capability in advanced propulsion systems and enabling technologies, trust Ricardo to make your hybrid and electric vehicle programmes a reality

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