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Home , Digital photography, Editing, Photojournalism

املجلة العربية لبحوث االعالم واالتصال - : العدد 19 - أكتوبر / ديسمرب - 2017

Photojournalism’s ethics in the digital age of“ ”manipulation

Mennat Allah Ehab Salah Eldin Assisstant lecturer – Faculty of Mass Communication – Cairo University

Introduction: Historically, have been altered by the tabloid press by cutting and pasting together prints or combining several negatives on a single print. Often the seams were concealed by painting with airbrushes. A trained eye could spot such manipulations, but with the advent of digital it became possible to manipulate so subtly that the changes were undetectable. Content could be added, deleted or moved around inside the . Several notorious cases of such manipulation occurred, particularly in the industry. Leaders in saw this new capability for seamless manipulation as a threat to the credibility of the photographic image and thus to the profession itself and reacted. (1)

The ease of which photographs can be manipulated with software programs such as Photoshop combined with the increasing demand for photographs by clients and outlets produces a world in which ethical boundaries can be crossed with something as simple as a mouse click. For this reason it is important to examine what those ethical boundaries are and what are doing to ensure that they themselves do not cross those boundaries. Because the area of ethics in photo manipulation is such a grey area, it is up to individual photographers, photo editors and even those that manage media outlets to constantly take a step back and ask themselves if what they are doing is ethical. They should strive to keep the message of the image intact at all costs and work to breakdown the stereotype that photographers and photojournalists often fabricate the truth through the over manipulation of photographs.(2)

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Importance of Research 4. To examine the ethical guidelines According to Sontag (1977) photographic concerning dealing with photos in different content of depict reality more international organization closely than text and therefore help real life 5. To specify Whether there is a common understanding of events & issues in a much worldwide code of ethics for photojournalists better way. Research has shown that the first thing news reader look at on a page Photo Manipulation& Alteration is a and that photographs are highly Digital manipulation of photographs began read. Jackson (2011) suggests that visuals create showing up in and magazine offices story of an event and public construe the impact in the late 1980s while digital slowly & implication of disaster through them. (3) began taking the place of cameras in the early 1990s with such cameras as the 1.5 Manipulated is got interesting in megapixel DCS 100, a joint venture recent years. Digital images can be manipulated between Kodak and in association with more easily with the aid of powerful image the . These two events changed software. Forensic techniques for photography and photojournalism drastically. authenticating the integrity of digital images New technology allowed photographers to and exposing forgeries are urgently needed. instantaneously see the result of pressing the With the aid of powerful software button on their cameras instead of such as Adobe Photoshop and some advanced needing a . Photographers would look digital cameras, forged images can be created at the image on a tiny LCD screen on the back easily by even relatively inexperienced users. of the and determine if the photograph Furthermore, the doctored photographs are was suitable to keep or needed to be taken again. being generated with growing sophistication. For the first time photographers had an instant It is even difficult for experts to distinguish proof of their work. This technology has also authentic images from forgeries relying solely changed how photos are processed in a post on visual inspection. (4) environment. have been replaced by terminals and sophisticated software Goals of study such as Adobe Photoshop. (5) 1. To specify the way digital manipulation of photographs started. When digital processes emerged in the 1980s, 2. To explore how Photojournalist’s work many photojournalists could not foresee the flow were affected by the emergence of this dramatic technological shift in image capture technology that would occur in the 1990s. At first, news 3. To identify the tools used in manipulating photographers continued to shoot film, scanning and altering photos processed film into digital form for distribution

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and publication. Prices of early digital cameras and Photoshop as an everyday tool on their and converting entire news operations to . Digital cameras seemed to new technologies prevented many press introduce a new dynamic for the interaction photographers from adopting digital media. It between photojournalists and reporters. The was 1997 before such publications as The New immediacy or “instant gratification” of digital York Times would experiment with the new cameras changed the field of photojournalism. processes by sending 14 digital cameras with Photographs no longer took hours to prepare, its photojournalists to cover US President Bill they could be ready for evaluation in minutes. Clinton’s second inauguration.(6) Additionally, as the technology increased and Although some of the most infamous instances costs began to drop, digital cameras became the of photo alteration occurred before Photoshop norm for the general population. At small- to was invented, including medium-sized newspapers, it is still common moving Egyptian pyramids to make a horizontal for the photojournalist to have minimal input as image fit a vertical 1982 cover, the widespread to final photo choice or where a photograph is availability of inexpensive, consumer-level placed in the layout. At this level, a editor image-altering technology raised new concerns. who may have little, if any, visual Although there were efforts in the early 1990s training generally makes that determination. (8) to create standards for identifying altered With the introduction of digital technology, images, within just a few years of Photoshop’s professional photojournalists faced several 1989 release, slaying suspect O. J.Simpson’s challenges, having not only to master the new face had been digitally darkened in a mugshot technology, but also to adopt new strategies on the cover of Time magazine, Olympic ice for taking photos, launching them immediately skaters Tonya Harding and Nancy Kerrigan to the , as well as coping with new were appearing to skate together in a merged responsibilities formerly performed by news image on the cover of New York Newsday, and organizations, such as managing personal a newspaper name had being digitally removed archives and digitally editing their own from a photograph by its rival. These digital photos. Some of the effects of on manipulations sparked criticism and analysis photojournalism have been undeniably , in which three discourses were markedly for example, the unprecedented easiness of visible: that there is a tension between reality manipulating photographs. Digitization had and deceit; that technology is culpable; and that much wider ripples than just accelerating image alteration was, if not normal, certainly the speed and efficiency with which news prevalent. (7) photos can be taken, transmitted, selected, As newspapers completely left the layout manipulated, stored, and retrieved. It enabled tools of wax and paste-up in the 1980s, they news organizations to withdraw major outposts moved to the use of page design software which marked their traditional involvement and

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commitment to photojournalism, outsourcing photo is cropped from a panoramic view to them to individual photographers, to invite a enhance its visual aesthetic effects; in telephoto massive invasion of less-skilled or unskilled photography, a photo is cropped to enhance the photographers, and it has made the news primary subject. However, photo is industry a much less friendly and less rewarding challenging due to the following three problems. workplace for professional photojournalists.(9) First, the aesthetic features are not well defined, Photojournalists can sit at computers in the so it is unclear how to preserve the important newsroom instead of being separated to work in visual features in the cropped photo. Second, a darkroom full of chemicals. Photojournalists photo assessment is a subjective task, and thus, also are beginning to feel they are regaining it is difficult to develop a computational model control over their work. As early as the 1930s, that automatically measures the quality of each photographers struggled to be recognized as candidate cropped photo. Third, some existing artists and professionals instead of technicians methods require human-computer interaction to needing to understand cameras, , lighting, obtain an ideal cropped photo.(11) chemistry and equipment to shoot and develop Cropping is a widely accepted form of image photos while someone else, often an editor in manipulation. Certain cropping can increase the newsroom, decided on photo content. Now the impact needed for the image to render the the photojournalist is increasingly acting as a desired effect on the reader. For instance, by picture editor, judging and deleting photos on isolating victims and disregarding a scene of location and in the newsroom. For example, widespread destruction to the left and right of photojournalists eliminate images captured at the victims, the has changed the a scene because of undesirable composition, overall scene into a tightly cropped portion of technical problems or limited storage space on the detection. This isolation does not tell the the camera’s flashcard. As the image reaches the entire story.12Moreover, Cropping is eliminating newsroom, photographers, photo editors and elected outer edges of an image to increase designers delete additional images for various impact of the item or subject that is thereafter reasons. Then more images may be deleted displayed more prominently in the image. But when the visuals are transferred for storage to ethical cropping is contingent upon maintaining a digital image because of legal worries photographic value. Careful cropping, then, will or inadequate space. (10) enhance the virtues of accuracy and integrity Photo cropping refers to the removal of when its potential can be safely realized. (13) an unwanted subject or irrelevant details Dodging and burning is another darkroom from a photo, changing its , or technique transformed to . the improvement of its overall composition. When creating an artificial lightening or Conventional photo cropping has been widely darkening of an image, the situation brings a used. For example, in the industry, a false attitude of a photograph. Burning portions

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of the image with light longer than the over-all define them as a person. photographers and image directs the viewers’ attention to a specific photo editors, may choose to use photographs area of the photo the photographer deemed as a means to persuade viewers on a specific important. Dodging infers the opposite by not topic. They can do this in either artistic or allowing as much information in a section of inartistic ways. Presenting the photograph in an the image for more detail to show through. (14) artistic way would mean only slightly editing Dodge and Burn – Using tools the photo to enhance features such as contrast, to brighten or darken selected parts of a brightness, saturation, sharpness, etc. so long as photograph. Essentially, the photographer it does not alter the truth the image is meant to knows this manipulation technique is used provide. Any editing of the image beyond what to give artificial prominence to a subject, or a was previously described results in an inartistic particular section of the photograph, although representation of the image or one that was not a common justification for the alteration is that originally created by the photographer. (16) it will help an audience better understand an The digitalization of the photographic process image. And there is a list of commonly accepted has called for some regulatory principles, written manipulation practices which are: “ and unwritten codes of conduct and norms, balance” commonly involves consistently which help to keep up their roles as correcting technical flaws and making aesthetic professionals who produce images that ‘‘do not improvements. The most widely used digital lie’ ’One of the earliest empirical researchers of camera in the photojournalism industry. This digital photo editing in newsrooms was Shiela brings us to two underlying requirements Reaves. In 1992, Reaves conducted a survey for manipulation in an ideal practice: (1) of over 500 visual editors in the United States. the manipulation must make the photo more The respondents received 15 pairs of images accurate and (2) the manipulation must be with different examples of alterations, by which formulaic in which the change must be objective she measured the acceptance of the media and not subject to human recall for fear of professionals. She found that the photographic inviting errors. (15) editors were largely intolerant of any computer alterations, except for the traditional practices Ethics of photojournalism of printing, such as burning and dodging. Ethics can be defined as “a matter of deciding Editors who were familiar with computer what to do given a certain situation” or described editing techniques were less tolerant of digital as values or “the traffic lights of our lives that manipulation than those who were unfamiliar guide what we think, feel and do”. However with computers. In addition, editors who had a person chooses to understand the principles backgrounds as working photojournalists were of ethics is up to them so long as they realize less tolerant toward digital manipulation than that their understanding and beliefs are what those who had never worked as photojournalists.

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(17) from any photograph. While retouching an image to eliminate dust on camera sensors and Although the media are required to reflect all scratches on scanned negatives or a scanned sides of a story, retaining values and beliefs of the print is considered acceptable. (19) target audience is not only expected, but also is indispensable. That’s why Photojournalists and There are 3 main ethical reasoning approaches photo editors often face questions about where which are: Deontology, Teleology, and to draw the line whether a news professional Personality. “Deontological ethics” sets definite would ethically agree on which content should rules, maxims, or principles that journalists or should not be communicated. This lack can follow in order to be ethical. Following of strict guidelines has led to controversial the rules is ethical, and breaking the rules is images appearing in the media and criticisms of unethical. “Teleological ethicists”, however, pay decisions to run graphic images. Sometimes an attention to the end (telos). They consider the image could violate principles of compassion consequences, and speculate about the results and taste but still be run based on other of their actions. Teleologists may weigh results dimensions of social or news value. Regarding based on the aggregated happiness, love, good, ethical decisions of graphic imagery, or other concepts. While “Personalitism” bases there is no clear-cut rule. When dealing with its ethical decision making model on subjective graphic photographs, the context of the news, matters, such as intuitive, spiritual, or emotive self-censorship, personal ethics, and audience actions, or what we call conscience. Merrill expectations are active ingredients in the (1997) considers Aristotle as a representative of selection process. (18) personalitism theorists, whose ethical theory is The credibility of photojournalists is damaged often summarized as the golden mean. (20) every time a reputable news organization is Different Codes addressed the specific use caught lying to the public and some of the most of Adobe Photoshop for altering or correcting blatant and widely recognized situations include photographs. Each case centered on not photo manipulation. The lack of credibility manipulating images and correctly identifying threatens the profession of photojournalists of altered photographs. For example: The Los across the country because the public is losing Angeles Times code requires photographs to be faith in what they view because they no longer used to inform not mislead. Digital photographs believe everything they see. And the Associated are not to confuse the reader. Minor adjustments Press for example abides by a strict code of on color and those photos falling into the artistic ethics, stating the content of a photograph category are labeled as photo illustrations. should not be altered using any photo editing While the National Union of Journalists software or by any other means. Elements Freelance Branch proposed a motion should not be digitally added to or subtracted in February 1998, stating: “No shall

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cause or allow the publication of a photograph manipulated by staged photo ops or “pseudo” which has been manipulated, unless that news events. Additionally photographers photograph been clearly labeled”. This means should not intentionally contribute to, alter, or unless the image is marked as an illustration seek to alter or influence events being covered. when manipulated then the image should not Finally, Editing should maintain the integrity of be altered in any way to deceive the reader. the photographic images content and context. Most newspapers, organizations and publishing So, it is forbidden for any photojournalist to groups emphasize editorial photos should never manipulate images in any way that can mislead mislead the reader. (21) viewers or misrepresent subjects. (24) Authenticity and sensitivity are often in “Tara” claims in her study that professional play as journalists seek effective storytelling. photojournalist’s ethical values differ from They sometimes become opposing forces the ones of citizen photojournalist’s. In which journalism’s ethical dance of greater good.22 professionals are workers who have a public- For example, The Vietnam war presented many service orientation in performing their work tough ethical situations. ’s “Napalm and provide an essential service to society. Girl” photograph, for which he won the Pulitzer And as journalism and photojournalism were Prize in 1972, is not only a shocking indictment professionalizing at the turn of the 20th century, of America’s war effort, it contains full frontal they developed ethical guidelines to distinguish nudity of a minor. The ultimate decision to their work from that of nonprofessionals. The print the photo on the front page of The New Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) was York Times must not have been easy. Editors at founded in 1909, and its code of ethics was chose to sacrifice the girl’s privacy, established in 1973Photojournalists developed and perhaps to offend their readers in order to the National Press Photographers Association present an unflinching picture of the conflict (NPPA) in 1946 (25).An example for these and ultimately to serve the greater good. (23) associations’ codes is the National Press Authentic photos truthfully and accurately Photographers Association (NPPA) in which it reflect the scene being depicted. In suggests a code of ethics for photojournalists to photojournalistic terms, accuracy refers to the guide their work ethically and this code states integrity of a photograph free of manipulation that each should strive to ensure that the public’s and truthful in meaning as seen through formal business is conducted in public, to defend the of its elements. Moreover, authentic rights of access for all journalists, to work photos provide complete context in which with a voracious appetite for current events photographs that are accurate to the scene do not and contemporary visual media, to respect the depict the outliers at news events or tell only half integrity of the photographic moment, to seek of a story. Authentic photos are not manipulated, a diversity of viewpoints, and work to show it cautions the photographer to avoid being unpopular or unnoticed points of view, and to

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avoid political, civic and business involvements or other employment that compromise or give Not including available and newsworthy vis- the appearance of compromising one’s own uals would seriously undercut the credibility of journalistic independence.(26) any news organization, while including them While citizen journalists are defined as in effect often means risking violating editorial “amateurs as opposed to professionals” control and credibility. Journalists negotiate this who produce news. They are not bound by dilemma by employing various discursive strat- educational guidelines, social organizations, egies for incorporation that seek to ‘normalize’ newsroom pressure, or codes of ethics. Some citizen imagery to suit existing norms and prac- blogging codes of ethics have been proposed. tices .Under such pressures, recent studies indi- And a few bloggers claim to subscribe to codes cate that the ‘professional logic of control’ may of ethics and embrace accuracy, credibility, and be slowly shifting towards a revised logic of etiquette. But without any social organization, ‘adaptability and openness’, which breaks away there is no way to enforce them. Citizen from the professional understandings of objec- photojournalists’ notions of truth are different tivity and truth . At the same time Kari’s study from those of professional photojournalists. has distinguished three main principles that var- Rather than viewing truth as coming from an iously serve to construct citizen footage’s claim official institution, they share a postmodern to reality and morality which are: subjectivi- belief that truth is elusive, emerging from the ty, affectivity (which means that the rhetorical network society’s collective knowledge. (27) power of citizen video comes in large measure Some professional journalists voice their from the way it concentrates and directs raw concern about the faltering quality and feelings and partisanship (which means they are compromised ethics of professional journalism characterized by the fact that they typically re- exacerbated by, among other tendencies, the port as both observers and parties to a contested extensive use of citizens’ reports and pictures, circumstance). (29) while others see a process of embracing In elective democracies, the ideology of attachment and emotions into the journalistic journalism has historically been based on the war reporting culture. Major mainstream public service ideal. For photojournalists this media institutions’ collaboration with citizen means, for example, transmitting honest and journalists may produce a form of trust between ethical news images for their audiences. In public and journalism. However, it is a trust addition, new practices such as digital photo that can be easily broken; journalistic practices editing, fast online publication of photographs and organizations need to engage with citizen and videos and the use of amateur images journalism on the grounds of, on the one hand, are often justified by better public service. acknowledging that ‘someone out there always Photojournalism ethics are closely linked to knows more about a story than you do. (28) the value of objectivity, which in the context

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of news photography is often synonymous have common ethical principles and standards with the credibility and evidential value in order to ensure fairness in journalism and of news images. The value of autonomy, photojournalism. The prevalent principles which usually refers to free and independent are: independence, truth, accuracy, fairness, work by journalists, is faced with external integrity and serving the public interest. And pressures, as in the context of amateur news they clarified what they mean by each of the photography. Amateurs step into the field of principle as follows: “Independence” means professionals and challenge their monopoly that journalists should be transparent in dealing over photojournalism. For professionals, one with news and images and their sources. (31) solution for maintaining autonomy has been to “El sayed bahnassi’s” study about the criteria strengthen their gatekeeping role. Furthermore, for selecting photos to be published in the internal pressures, such as the above-mentioned Egyptian newspapers has shown that there is no increased self-regulation, in visual decisions big difference in the factors affecting both the may lessen the control that individual decision of photojournalists and newspaper’s photojournalists have over their own work. The editor in selection. And from the main factors notion of immediacy, referring to the need to affecting their decision is the degree of publish photographs and videos immediately importance of current events and their own after something newsworthy happens, has personal and professional values. Others studies revolutionized the concept of time within have proved that selection of photos is affected photojournalism. (30) by the gate keeper’s expectation of what will By analyzing code of ethics in a number of fit more the audience’s taste. Also the editorial Arab and English news organization which policy, editor in chief, time and technical issues are: Arab Information Charter of Honour, all affect the decision of publishing photos in any Federation of Arab Journalists (FAJ), Al-Jazeera of the newspapers. Another study for elsayed News Network, National Press Photographers bahnassi about the role of photos in supporting Association (NPPA), American Society of the editorial policy of the party newspapers, and Newspaper Editors (ASNE), and The New results proved that the editorial policy of the York Times Company. Jenni (2014) found that newspaper affect the kind of topics discussed in the Arab and American media codes of ethics the published photos. (32)

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Conclusion codes to ensure the credibility of their photos. This paper aimed at exploring the emergence Especially when a lot of newspapers began to of new digital technology and how it affected depend on the work of citizen photojournalist’ the industry of photojournalism. The digital age beside their own professional photojournalist’ affected journalism like it affected every aspect photos. in our lives; it dramatically changed how photos This drove the researcher into examining were taken by the traditional cameras. Digital the code of ethics used by news organizations cameras made it much easier to capture a photo to guide their professional and citizen and to see it instantly on the camera once taken photojournalists and photo editors on their work and it allow the photojournalist to have much flow. The study found that after the digitalization more space to capture a lot of photos in any of the photographic process, media organization event he/she covering. began to put some rules to guide how the photos At the same time it made them face new will be taken and edited. As the credibility of the challenges in coping and dealing with this new photojournalists and the photos published were technology and to master how to use it quickly the main concerns in any medium so that they through computers and digital cameras. New don’t lose their audience by publishing fake or tools appeared made it easy to edit and change severely manipulated photo. the details of photos taken by photojournalists. Different codes of ethics appeared by different As a result editing photos became easier than organizations but all were centered around before by launching new software like Adobe taking photo that reflect the real details of the Photoshop, it introduced a lot of tools that event and concerning editing , it should be can be easily used to enhance the quality of edited using the new tools but without altering photos. Dodging and cropping was the most or manipulating it. The code of ethics of used techniques by photo editors and were the Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) was main tools used in manipulation of images. established in 1973 Photojournalists developed And different opinions appeared about how the National Press Photographers Association they should be used and what is acceptable to (NPPA) in 1946. And most importantly a be done by them or not raised a lot of question number of studies have found that found that concerning the ethics of capturing and editing the Arab and American media codes of ethics photos. have common ethical principles and standards Moreover, with the appearance of the in order to ensure fairness in journalism and phenomenon of Citizen Photojournalists, they photojournalism. The prevalent principles were seen as amateurs by the media people and are: independence, truth, accuracy, fairness, that they don’t have any educational guidelines integrity and serving the public interest. for their work. And concerns were raised more than before to limit their work within some

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