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CHAPTER 2 How Do You Define Citizenship?

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CHAPTER 2 How Do You Define Citizenship? CHAPTER 2 How Do You Define Citizenship? "Our differences make us strong." What You Need to Know • What are the unique characteristics of Aboriginal citizenship? • What are the historical roots of bilingualism in Canada? • What forms does bilingualism take in Canada today? • How has Canada changed its immigration and Aboriginal policies? • What is multiculturalism, and what forms does it take? • What is the meaning of Canadian citizenship? • How can you create effective inquiry questions? "Well, as the saying goes: 'I am Canadian? What does that mean to me? Lots of different things. For one thing, my family Key Terms speaks French; we moved here from Morocco in the mid- Anishnaabe United Empire 1990s. We are Muslim, and we are happy to see other Muslims First Nations Loyalists moving here. Being Canadian might be different for you, Inuit republicanism though, because there's no cookie-cutter shape. You can be Metis Holocaust many things and still share this idea—of Canada, and of being residential schools points system multiculturalism Canadian. Our differences make us strong. I like that?' assimilation Official Languages Act —Samira, a grade 9 student in Manitoba In many ways, Canada contains the globe within its borders. Built by three founding peoples—the Aboriginal peoples, the English, and the French—Canada has offered citizen- Key Question ship to people from all corners of the world. What does How has the past influenced being Canadian mean to you? Do you think our differ- Canadian citizenship? ences make us strong? Why or why not? 27 [18 CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Citizenship and the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada The Aboriginal peoples were the first inhabitants of the land that is now Canada. Before the arrival of the Europeans, they had established a var- iety of governmental systems. On the West Coast, some hierarchical societies evolved with top-down decision makers. In the East, the Iroquois Confederacy emphasized decision making by consensus and diplomatic relations with neigh- bouring nations. The Confederacy also had its own constitution, which was based on many democratic ideals. In Manitoba and elsewhere, the Anishnaabe-Ojibwe have had a clan system of governance from earli- est times. Clans (groups connected by kinship or blood) help to unite all Anishnaabe-Ojibwe as one nation. This also creates a sense of iden- tity and responsibility among clan members. WHO ARE THE ABORIGINAL PEOPLES? PP- DID YOU KNOW Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 defines the term "Aboriginal Soon after contact, peoples of Canada" as including the First Nations, Inuit, and Metis Europeans began to peoples of Canada. "First Nations" refers to the original inhabitants of approach First Nations to enter into agreements. the Americas; it does not include the Inuit of the North or the Metis, These early treaties were who are of mixed European and First Nations origin. made to establish peace, trade, alliance, neutrality, and military support. FROM INJUSTICE TO RECOGNIZED RIGHTS Today, Aboriginal peoples have the same rights as other Canadians. Most importantly, existing "treaty or other rights" are protected under section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rightsand Freedoms. First among these is the right to self-government. This includes control over areas such as health, education, housing, and economic development. Federal and provincial governments must respect that the right to self-determination is basic to "citizenship" for Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Historically, Aboriginal peoples in Canada were excluded from deci- sion making. They were not invited to the Confederation conferences. After Confederation (1867), they were moved onto reserves as European immigrants claimed western lands to farm. The federal government cre- ated a Department of Indian Affairs to "oversee" the Aboriginal peoples. CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? The Indian Act, first enacted in 1876, banned ancient cultural prac- tices, such as the western potlatch. This ceremony involved the exchange of gifts and was a kind of economic system. The Blackfoot sun dance and the Cree and Saulteaux thirst dance—both ritual dances—were also banned. A 1927 amendment to the Indian Act also stripped Aboriginal peoples of the right to form political organizations. Assimilation and Residential Schools At the end of the 19th century, Aboriginal children were taken from their homes and sent to residential schools. Federal authorities wanted them assimilated (absorbed) into mainstream Canadian culture. Approxi- mately 100,000 children attended residential schools over the decades. The Catholic, Anglican, United, and Presbyterian churches ran the resi- dential schools for the federal government. Aboriginal children were not allowed to speak their own language, even though most could not speak English or French. Children were cut off from their families—and from their culture, history, and identity. Government planned for Aboriginal cultures to simply vanish within two generation. This was "progress!' Years later, survivors of residential schools told stories of terrible abuse II.- DID YOU KNOW and neglect. Life in residential schools was harsh. Students worked in The trauma caused by the kitchens, barns, or fields, without pay. At Duck Lake School in Saskatch- residential school system is passed on from generation ewan, for example, half the students died from disease or malnutrition. to generation.The cycle is In 1988, after years of demands from survivors, the Canadian gov- called the"intergenerational" ernment created the Aboriginal Healing Foundation. In the following impact of abuse.You can years, many more survivors shared their stories. They and their com- read about-some of these intergenerational effects at munities demanded compensation for their pain and suffering and loss the Web site below. of culture. Nothing, of course, could compensate them for separation from family and community —THE WEB - -100.-> In 2006, the federal government agreed to compensate all former stu- Take an interactive tour dents of residential schools. The deal committed a total of $1.9 billion. of the residential schools This includes cash settlements for survivors and the establishment of an and their legacy at www.emp.ca/ccw education fund. Organizing Politically Even though it was illegal, Aboriginal peoples organized politically. By the 1960s, resistance to government policies was growing. Aboriginal activists spoke out against assimilation. They opposed the government's 00_ CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD 1968 "White Paper," which outlined plans to eliminate the special legal DID YOU KNOW • status of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. First Nations increased pressure Land claims are based on on the federal government to settle disputed land claims based on their continuing Aboriginal rights traditional occupancy and treaty rights. and title to land and natural In 1969, Harold Cardinal (1945-2005), a Cree writer and lawyer in resources that have not been dealt with by treaty or Alberta, published The Unjust Society. It became a bestseller across other legal means.They are Canada. In it, Cardinal attacked Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's "White settled through negotiation Paper" and vision of a "Just Society." Cardinal accused Trudeau of sim- with federal and provincial ply giving assimilation a nicer name. A "buckskin curtain," said Cardinal, or territorial governments. Compensation can include separated Aboriginal peoples and mainstream society in Canada. Cardinal land, protection of language demanded change. He and other Aboriginal leaders did something and culture, cash, and local about it. self-government. Cardinal helped create the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968. Its goal was to give Aboriginal peoples a voice in Ottawa. The group's suc- cessor was the Assembly of First Nations. Today, the AFN brings together representatives from over 600 bands across Canada. One of the AFN's top priorities is to improve the state of First Nations education. In December 1994, Manitoba Grand Chief Phil Fontaine and Indian Affairs Minister Ron Irwin agreed to reduce the influence of the Depart- ment of Indian Affairs in Manitoba. This agreement marked the start of developing and recognizing self-determination for Manitoba's 62 Indian bands. In 1981, the northern Manitoba First Nations also established the Manitoba Keewatinook Ininew Okimowin (MKO). The organization represents 53,000 citizens and 30 northern Manitoba First Nations. The group addresses northern issues and is working toward a self-governing legislature for Manitoba's northern territory. Continuing to Meet the Challenges As you read in Chapter 1, Aboriginal peoples have not shared equally in Canada's general prosperity. This injustice is considered by many to be a result of mistreatment. The United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) measures economic status, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other indica- tors of human well-being yearly. Since 1990, Canada has ranked first in the world many times. Compared with mainstream Canada, Aboriginal people live shorter lives, receive less education, make less money, more often live in inadequate housing conditions, experience more health problems, and face much higher rates of imprisonment. CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? 311 FIGURE 2.1 Nunavut resident Jordin Tootoo (left) was the first Inuit athlete to play in the National Hockey League.The Nunavut territorial government featured Tootoo and four local teenagers on an inspirational poster encouraging young people to stay in school and set goals. SOURCES A Declaration of First Nations This declaration is posted on the Assembly of First Nations' Web site. We the Original Peoples of this land know the We have maintained our Freedom, our Lan- Creator put us here. guages, and our Traditions from time immemorial. The Creator gave us laws that govern all our rela- We continue to exercise the rights and fulfill the tionships to live in harmony with nature and responsibilities and obligations given to us by the mankind. Creator for the land upon which we were placed. The Laws of the Creator defined our rights and The Creator has given us the right to govern our- responsibilities.
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