CHAPTER 2 How Do You Define Citizenship?

"Our differences make us strong."

What You Need to Know • What are the unique characteristics of Aboriginal citizenship? • What are the historical roots of bilingualism in ? • What forms does bilingualism take in Canada today? • How has Canada changed its immigration and Aboriginal policies? • What is multiculturalism, and what forms does it take? • What is the meaning of Canadian citizenship? • How can you create effective inquiry questions? "Well, as the saying goes: 'I am Canadian? What does that mean to me? Lots of different things. For one thing, my family Key Terms speaks French; we moved here from Morocco in the mid- Anishnaabe United Empire 1990s. We are Muslim, and we are happy to see other Muslims Loyalists moving here. Being Canadian might be different for you, republicanism though, because there's no cookie-cutter shape. You can be Metis Holocaust many things and still share this idea—of Canada, and of being residential schools points system multiculturalism Canadian. Our differences make us strong. I like that?' assimilation Official Languages Act —Samira, a grade 9 student in

In many ways, Canada contains the globe within its borders. Built by three founding peoples—the Aboriginal peoples, the English, and the French—Canada has offered citizen- Key Question ship to people from all corners of the world. What does How has the past influenced being Canadian mean to you? Do you think our differ- Canadian citizenship? ences make us strong? Why or why not?

27 [18 CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Citizenship and the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada The Aboriginal peoples were the first inhabitants of the land that is now Canada. Before the arrival of the Europeans, they had established a var- iety of governmental systems. On the West Coast, some hierarchical societies evolved with top-down decision makers. In the East, the Iroquois Confederacy emphasized decision making by consensus and diplomatic relations with neigh- bouring nations. The Confederacy also had its own constitution, which was based on many democratic ideals. In Manitoba and elsewhere, the Anishnaabe-Ojibwe have had a clan system of governance from earli- est times. Clans (groups connected by kinship or blood) help to unite all Anishnaabe-Ojibwe as one nation. This also creates a sense of iden- tity and responsibility among clan members.

WHO ARE THE ABORIGINAL PEOPLES? PP- DID YOU KNOW Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 defines the term "Aboriginal Soon after contact, peoples of Canada" as including the First Nations, Inuit, and Metis Europeans began to peoples of Canada. "First Nations" refers to the original inhabitants of approach First Nations to enter into agreements. the Americas; it does not include the Inuit of the North or the Metis, These early treaties were who are of mixed European and First Nations origin. made to establish peace, trade, alliance, neutrality, and military support. FROM INJUSTICE TO RECOGNIZED RIGHTS Today, Aboriginal peoples have the same rights as other . Most importantly, existing "treaty or other rights" are protected under section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rightsand Freedoms. First among these is the right to self-government. This includes control over areas such as health, education, housing, and economic development. Federal and provincial governments must respect that the right to self-determination is basic to "citizenship" for Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Historically, Aboriginal peoples in Canada were excluded from deci- sion making. They were not invited to the conferences. After Confederation (1867), they were moved onto reserves as European immigrants claimed western lands to farm. The federal government cre- ated a Department of Indian Affairs to "oversee" the Aboriginal peoples. CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP?

The Indian Act, first enacted in 1876, banned ancient cultural prac- tices, such as the western potlatch. This ceremony involved the exchange of gifts and was a kind of economic system. The Blackfoot sun dance and the and Saulteaux thirst dance—both ritual dances—were also banned. A 1927 amendment to the Indian Act also stripped Aboriginal peoples of the right to form political organizations.

Assimilation and Residential Schools At the end of the 19th century, Aboriginal children were taken from their homes and sent to residential schools. Federal authorities wanted them assimilated (absorbed) into mainstream Canadian culture. Approxi- mately 100,000 children attended residential schools over the decades. The Catholic, Anglican, United, and Presbyterian churches ran the resi- dential schools for the federal government. Aboriginal children were not allowed to speak their own language, even though most could not speak English or French. Children were cut off from their families—and from their culture, history, and identity. Government planned for Aboriginal cultures to simply vanish within two generation. This was "progress!' Years later, survivors of residential schools told stories of terrible abuse II.- DID YOU KNOW and neglect. Life in residential schools was harsh. Students worked in The trauma caused by the kitchens, barns, or fields, without pay. At Duck Lake School in Saskatch- residential school system is passed on from generation ewan, for example, half the students died from disease or malnutrition. to generation.The cycle is In 1988, after years of demands from survivors, the Canadian gov- called the"intergenerational" ernment created the Aboriginal Healing Foundation. In the following impact of abuse.You can years, many more survivors shared their stories. They and their com- read about-some of these intergenerational effects at munities demanded compensation for their pain and suffering and loss the Web site below. of culture. Nothing, of course, could compensate them for separation from family and community —THE WEB - -100.-> In 2006, the federal government agreed to compensate all former stu- Take an interactive tour dents of residential schools. The deal committed a total of $1.9 billion. of the residential schools This includes cash settlements for survivors and the establishment of an and their legacy at www.emp.ca/ccw education fund.

Organizing Politically Even though it was illegal, Aboriginal peoples organized politically. By the 1960s, resistance to government policies was growing. Aboriginal activists spoke out against assimilation. They opposed the government's 00_ CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

1968 "White Paper," which outlined plans to eliminate the special legal DID YOU KNOW • status of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. First Nations increased pressure Land claims are based on on the federal government to settle disputed land claims based on their continuing Aboriginal rights traditional occupancy and treaty rights. and title to land and natural In 1969, Harold Cardinal (1945-2005), a Cree writer and lawyer in resources that have not been dealt with by treaty or , published The Unjust Society. It became a bestseller across other legal means.They are Canada. In it, Cardinal attacked Prime Minister 's "White settled through negotiation Paper" and vision of a "Just Society." Cardinal accused Trudeau of sim- with federal and provincial ply giving assimilation a nicer name. A "buckskin curtain," said Cardinal, or territorial governments. Compensation can include separated Aboriginal peoples and mainstream society in Canada. Cardinal land, protection of language demanded change. He and other Aboriginal leaders did something and culture, cash, and local about it. self-government. Cardinal helped create the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968. Its goal was to give Aboriginal peoples a voice in . The group's suc- cessor was the Assembly of First Nations. Today, the AFN brings together representatives from over 600 bands across Canada. One of the AFN's top priorities is to improve the state of First Nations education. In December 1994, Manitoba Grand Chief Phil Fontaine and Indian Affairs Minister Ron Irwin agreed to reduce the influence of the Depart- ment of Indian Affairs in Manitoba. This agreement marked the start of developing and recognizing self-determination for Manitoba's 62 Indian bands. In 1981, the northern Manitoba First Nations also established the Manitoba Keewatinook Ininew Okimowin (MKO). The organization represents 53,000 citizens and 30 northern Manitoba First Nations. The group addresses northern issues and is working toward a self-governing legislature for Manitoba's northern territory.

Continuing to Meet the Challenges As you read in Chapter 1, Aboriginal peoples have not shared equally in Canada's general prosperity. This injustice is considered by many to be a result of mistreatment. The United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) measures economic status, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other indica- tors of human well-being yearly. Since 1990, Canada has ranked first in the world many times. Compared with mainstream Canada, Aboriginal people live shorter lives, receive less education, make less money, more often live in inadequate housing conditions, experience more health problems, and face much higher rates of imprisonment. CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? 311

FIGURE 2.1 resident Jordin Tootoo (left) was the first Inuit athlete to play in the National Hockey League.The Nunavut territorial government featured Tootoo and four local teenagers on an inspirational poster encouraging young people to stay in school and set goals.

SOURCES

A Declaration of First Nations This declaration is posted on the Assembly of First Nations' Web site.

We the Original Peoples of this land know the We have maintained our Freedom, our Lan- Creator put us here. guages, and our Traditions from time immemorial. The Creator gave us laws that govern all our rela- We continue to exercise the rights and fulfill the tionships to live in harmony with nature and responsibilities and obligations given to us by the mankind. Creator for the land upon which we were placed. The Laws of the Creator defined our rights and The Creator has given us the right to govern our- responsibilities. selves and the right to self-determination. The Creator gave us our spiritual beliefs, our lan- The rights and responsibilities given to us by the guages, our culture, and a place on Mother Earth Creator cannot be altered or taken away by any which provided us with all our needs. other Nation. Source: www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=52 132 CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

DR. LILLIAN were a time when there was actually a hierarchy EVA DYCK of racism, when being Chinese was difficult enough," she has said. She was born Lillian Quan Today, Lillian Dyck exults in her heritage: "I am in 1945. Her father was my mother's daughter. Like her, I am part of the Chinese and her mother circle of women warriors, each of us in our own was Cree. As children liv- way fighting for a better world for our children ing in small towns in Sas- and our children's children." In 2005, she was katchewan and Alberta, appointed to the Canadian Senate. she and her brother strug- gled for acceptance. In grade 9 she was placed in a class for slow learn- Your Play ers, despite her high intelligence. 1. Describe three obstacles in life that Lillian Later, Lillian considered becoming a high school Dyck had to overcome. science teacher. But she withdrew from teacher's 2. Have you ever hidden a part of who you college. She didn't enjoy speaking in public.Then are? Do you think such secrecy is justifiable? she realized she wanted to pursue a career as a Why or why not? scientist. 3. What does "hierarchy of racism" mean to you? Inspired by her mother, Eva, Lillian obtained a 4. Use the Internet or library to find primary master's degree and a doctorate from the Uni- sources (first-hand documents, such as versity of . She overcame her fear of speeches, diaries, interviews, government public_speaking through constant practice. After legislation, broadcasts, etc.) from the 1950s becoming a professor of biological psychiatry, she that reveal what we now consider racist atti- went on to research treatments for conditions tudes. Create a presentation to show how and such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and why these attitudes are no longer tolerated. Alzheimer's. Until she received her doctorate in 1981, Lillian kept her Aboriginal origins hidden."The 1950s

PAUSE, REFLECT, APPLY 1. What does the idea of "citizenship" include 4. a) What has the Assembly of First Nations for the Aboriginal peoples in Canada? identified as a top priority for Canada and 2. How are the rights of Aboriginal peoples the Aboriginal peoples? guaranteed? b) Why is this issue a priority? 3. a) What impact did residential schools have 5. Describe the rights and responsibilities of on Aboriginal cultures? Aboriginal citizens in Canada and the world b) What impact do you think these schools as expressed in the Declaration of First have had on the communities in which •Nations (see Sources, page 31). they were based? CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? cV

Two European Founders KEY QUESTION The first Europeans to settle in Canada were the French, followed by the Why is Canada a bilingual British. The two nations have contributed a great deal to Canada's col- nation? lective past, especially to its bilingual identity.

CITIZENSHIP AND The first French settlement dates back to 1534, when explorer Jacques Cartier claimed areas around the St. Lawrence River. established 0- DID YOU KNOW • settlements in Acadia (now and ) and In 1666, Jean Talon conduct- ed the first census (official . In Quebec, individuals such as Jean Talon, a chief administra- analysis of the population) tor, and Marguerite d'Youville, the founder of the Sisters of Charity, in North America. He found made important contributions to society. 3,215 citizens in .

The Origins of French-Language Rights In 1759, New France was defeated by the British in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. To maintain the loyalty of French-speaking colonists, the British granted Quebec language, religious, and legal rights. When Canada was created in 1867, the Act, its constitution, recognized French-language rights in Parliament and in Quebec. In the 20th century, recognition of Canada's French–English linguistic heritage was extended with the issuing of

m dual-language postage stamps (1927) m dual-language currency (1937) m simultaneous translations of House of Commons debates (1959) m dual-language labels for consumer products (1974).

Canada adopted federal bilingual policies Under Prime Minister Lester Pearson in 1963. At the same time, several groups in Quebec were working for separation from Canada. Two roads to independence emerged. The Front de Liberation du Québec (FLQ) advocated terror- ism. The Parti Quebecois (PQ) used legal democratic methods. In 1969, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau oversaw passage of the Official Languages Act. This Act proclaimed French and 's two official languages—and made the federal public service and judicial sys- tems bilingual. ▪

W: CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

In the same year, New Brunswick became Canada's only officially bilingual province. One out of three New Brunswickers is francophone. In 1982, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms further guar- anteed pre-existing language and education rights for official-language minorities. Section 23 of the Charter guarantees that parents for whom English or French is an original language, or the language they were schooled in, have the right to have their children educated in that lan- guage even if they are a minority within their community.

Bilingualism and the Founding of Manitoba When Manitoba joined Canada in 1870,50 percent of its population was francophone. Most of the people in the Red River Settlement (located near present-day Winnipeg) were francophone Metis. The Metis considered the Red River community to be their homeland. Many saw the Canadian government's plans for their homeland as a grave threat to their way of life. Under the leadership of a determined young Metis lawyer named , the Metis demanded that their rights be recognized. Because of this, Manitoba joined Confederation with guarantees in place for francophones and for the Metis:

guaranteed language rights for speakers of French and English (official bilingualism) two systems of education—Protestant and English-speaking, and Catholic and French-speaking Metis land rights.

FIGURE 2.2 Louis Riel fought for provincial status and the EVERYVING I'VE sEARD ABOUT MONSIEUR VJE'RE NOT NECESSARILY OPPOSED TO McDOUGALL LEADS .4 JOINING CANADA, BUT WE WANT rights of the people who lived ME TO DOUBT Mr R/EL, I'M TO DO IT ON OUR TERMS. T'AT 'E SHARES SYMPATHETIC, BUT Mr at Red River. In Louis Riel: A T'IS VISION OF McDOUGALL 15 THE Comic-Strip Biography, by WHAT OUR MAN THE CANRINAN FUTURE GOVERNMENT HAS Chester Brown, Riel tells a SHOULD CHOSEN. BE. representative of the new Ottawa-appointed lieutenant governor that the Metis are willing to join Canada on their own terms. What does the second panel of the cartoon say about Riel's vision of Canada? CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP?•

—THE WEB --0140.->— Visit the official Web site of Manitoba's franco- phones at www.emp/ccw and examine the map of The Official Web Site of Manitoba' francophone Manitoba. (a/WO / /1 What do you notice about many of the place names?

Francais

FIGURE 2.3 The federal government operates Web sites for francophone com- munities across Canada.These provide information in French and English about community histories, population statistics, and cultural events.

These protections, however, were not upheld. Twenty years after the Manitoba Act, which created the province of Manitoba, English-speaking immigration—mostly from —had reduced the francophone population in the province to only 10 percent. Official bilingualism was abolished. French Catholics lost the right to run their own French- speaking schools (see the Face Off feature in Chapter 3, page 65). Today, Manitoba's 50,000 francophones account for 5 percent of the DID YOU KNOW In only three provinces— population. In the 1990s, the Manitoba government handed back the Manitoba, New Brunswick, management of francophone schools to francophones. It was one way and Quebec—new laws to "enhance the vitality of Canada's official-languages communities." must be written in both Francophones also have the right to communicate with the federal gov- English and French. Manitoba also places bilin- ernment, and to access other government services, in French. However, gual road signs along certain Manitoba is not officially bilingual. routes.

LITERACY COACH

Prior Knowledge/New Knowledge You may have picked up some knowledge of Quebec language laws in the media or by hearing talk about bilingualism. Before reading the paragraphs on the next page, make a table with two columns. Label the left column Prior Knowledge and the right column New Knowledge. In the left-hand column, write down what you currently know about language laws in Quebec (or the use of French in Quebec). In the right-hand column, summarize the new information you learned after reading these paragraphs. r3 6- CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Bill 101 and Quebec Language Rights The province of Quebec took a different approach to language. In 1976, the Parti Quebecois, led by founder René Levesque, came to power. In order to make Quebec "as French as Ontario is English," the PQ passed Bill 101. Bill 101 made French the official language of Quebec. The use of any other language in the workplace and on outdoor signs was strictly reg- ulated. Today, only children with at least one parent educated in an English school in Quebec can be educated in English. Immigrants must send their children to French-language schools. Although this law may sound rigid, its intention is to protect a minority language—French— in an English-dominated country.

French Canadian Citizens French Canadians have been an integral part of Canadian culture and society. They have contributed to politics, arts, education, sports, enter- tainment, and philosophy. Canada's first French-speaking prime min- ister was Wilfrid Laurier. He was succeeded by leaders such as Louis St. Laurent, Pierre Trudeau (architect of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms), and Jean Chretien. French Canadian artists—painters, nov- elists, filmmakers, hockey legends, and performers—have thrilled millions of fans around the world and created interest in Canada.

CITIZENSHIP AND BRITISH CANADIANS The United Empire Loyalists were the first large-scale wave of English- speaking immigrants to arrive in Canada. They came to Nova Scotia and (Ontario) in the years following the American Revolution (1775-1783). The Loyalists, 40,000 strong, voted with their feet. That means they rejected revolution and republicanism (government with- out a king or queen). In doing so, they became refugees. These men and women formed the backbone of early English Canada. They believed in "peace, order, and good government." This phrase describes Canada's governing philosophy in the 1867 constitution. Canada's Parliament, judicial system, and many street and place names have English roots. The May 24 holiday, for example, celebrates Queen Victoria's birthday. The English monarchy has been a part of CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? 37'

FIGURE 2.4 Poking fun at Canada and its neighbour to the south is also part of the .Television programs like the Royal Canadian Air Farce, This Hour Has 22 Minutes, and the Rick Mercer Report often lampoon (make fun of) the differences— and similarities—between Canadians and Americans. Here, Rick Mercer (right) enjoys a bike ride with federal NDP leader Jack Layton.

Canada since Confederation. It still adorns Canadian money and is commemorated in the royal anthem, "God Save the Queen." Canadians are also familiar with the Royal Canadian Mail, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Royal Canadian Mint, and royal commissions. Some movement away from the British influence has occurred. The Canadian flag was adopted in 1965, Canada Post was created in 1969, and "0 Canada" was proclaimed the national anthem in 1980. 0,- DID YOU KNOW 44 Some Metis were of Scottish descent.The Scottish-Cree language, Bungi, combines Tens of thousands of Scots ( is now part of the United Cree and a Scottish dialect Kingdom) immigrated to Canada to escape hardship and unemploy- from the Orkneys (70 islands ment at home. Some took their place in Canadian history. Rebel leader about 10 km north of Scotland's mainland). , clergyman John Strachan, inventors Sandford Fleming and Alexander Graham Bell, and prime ministers John A. Macdonald and Alexander Mackenzie were all Scottish immigrants. It, DID YOU KNOW A In 1812, Thomas Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, brought some of the earliest Scottish immigrant Sandford Scottish settlers to Manitoba. The settlement evolved into the present- Fleming (1827-1915),a rail- day cities of Winnipeg and Selkirk, just north of Winnipeg. The influence way engineer, designed the of Scots culture is still evident in Winnipeg. Many streets are named after first Canadian postage Scots Canadian families, for example, Bannatyne, McDermot, and stamp, issued in 1851. He also invented the worldwide McPhillips. Every year, Selkirk hosts a Highland Gathering, one of the system of 24 standard time largest Scottish festivals in the world. zones. ETW CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

0- DID YOU KNOW -411 At the quarantine station of Grosse-Ile in the St. Traditionally, the people of depended on the potato as their sta- Lawrence River, near ple food. In the 1840s, faced with mass starvation when the potato crops Quebec City, 5,294 Irish failed, hundreds of thousands sailed for Canada. The crowded ships immigrants died of were called "coffin ships" because many immigrants died on board or or dysentery.They were buried in mass graves in the shortly after arriving in Canada. Most of those who survived the Atlantic summer of 1847. crossing settled in Ontario and Quebec.

PAUSE, REFLECT, APPLY

1. Create a timeline to outline the development Scottish Canadian writer Hugh MacLennan of French language rights in Canada. (1907-1990) observed that four immigrant 2. By the 1970s, Quebec's birth rate, traditionally groups that helped found Canada—the the highest in Canada, had become the lowest. French, Loyalists, Scots, and Irish—had all Using this information, explain what you suffered defeats at home or in their adopted think are some of the reasons for the passage land. He wrote that this tradition of being on of Bill 101 by the Parti Quebecois government the "losing side" has had a psychological in 1977. impact on the Canadian character, or identity: List six examples of the English presence in Canadians try not to offend, they are humble, Canada. they seek approval, they do what they are told. Create a list of push—pull factors for these Do Canadians act like "losers"? Support or immigrant groups: (a) United Empire reject MacLennan's argument by using evidence Loyalists, (b) Scottish, and (c) Irish. from your experiences, this text, or both.

Canadian Immigration KEY QUESTION Why has the concept of In 2005, immigration accounted for more than 50 percent of Canada's Canadian citizenship population growth. Canada's immigrants continue to come mainly from changed? Asia and the Middle East. One in six Canadians is a member of a visi- ble minority.

HISTORY OF IMMIGRATION Immigration has played a huge role in Canada's history. At the beginning of the 20th century, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians, Scandi- navians, Americans, and Eastern Europeans came to claim and work the lands of the vast prairies. Only white Europeans were recruited by the CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? 3Vti

- 1 1-

r,4t-

110- DID YOU KNOW 48 In June 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper apologized to for the head tax and expressed FIGURE 2.5 The Iron Road is a modern Canadian opera that memorializes the work of his "deepest sorrow" for the thousands of Chinese Canadians on the Canadian Pacific Railway. exclusion of Chinese immi- grants from 1923 until 1947. government and considered desirable. Non-whites were often turned away, unless cheap labour was needed. ON- DID YOU KNOW A Fifteen thousand Chinese men came to Canada in the 1880s to build Three hundred seventy-five the Canadian Pacific Railway. All were denied citizenship. Other immi- Sikh emigrants on board the Komagata Maru in May1914 grants from Asia had a difficult time entering the country. Regulations were barred from entry into were devised to keep numbers low—even if they were British subjects Canada at despite living in Commonwealth countries: the fact that they all had valid British passports.The • Only 400 Japanese immigrants a year were allowed until 1920. ship was sent back to India. • Chinese immigrants faced a "head tax" of $50 a person in 1885, an amount that was increased to $500 per person by 1904. 110- DID YOU KNOW A • Would-be immigrants from India were required to arrive on In 1939,907 Jewish passen- ships that followed a "continuous" or direct route to Canada. No gers who fled Nazi persecu- shipping companies followed such a route. tion on the ocean liner • Thousands of free black people were among Loyalists who settled St. Louis were not granted promised entry at their in Nova Scotia. Before the American Civil War (1861-1865), destination of Cuba. Canada runaway slaves found refuge in Upper Canada. However, during and the did massive waves of immigration in the first half of the 20th century, not respond to their appeals people of colour were deliberately excluded. So too were many for help. About half of the passengers died in the Jewish people, including those fleeing persecution in Europe in Holocaust after the ship the 1930s. returned to Europe. 140 CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

P. DID YOU KNOW -4111I • Full citizenship was not granted to certain ethnic groups. In The father of hockey star , where most lived, immi- Paul Kariya was born in a grants from China, Japan, and India didnot win the right to vote British Columbia internment until the late 1940s. Once groups were excluded from the voting camp for Japanese Canad- list, they could also be excluded from certain professions, since ians during World War II. the right to vote was a precondition for employment in areas such as law, medicine, and pharmacy. • Twenty-three thousand were placed in internment camps in the-inferior of British Columbia during World War IL They were legally defined as "enemy aliens." After the war, almost 4,000 were forcibly repatriated to Japan. Of these, more than half were Canadian born and two-thirds were Canadian citizens.

THE CREATION OF CANADIAN CITIZENSHIP In 1947, the Liberal government of Prime Minister Mackenzie King cre- ated the legal concept of Canadian citizenship. Until then, Canadians had been defined as British subjects living in Canada or as immigrants. Some immigrants could now qualify for full citizenship after they had resided in the country for five years.

SOURCES Speech by Prime Minister W.L.M. King The policy of the government is to foster the growth [M]uch has been said about discrimination.I wish of the by the encouragement to make it quite clear that Canada is perfectly with- of immigration.... in her rights in selecting the persons whom we [A]s respects immigration from Europe, the regard as desirable future citizens. It is not a "fun- emphasis for the present should be on the admis- damental human right"of any alien to enter Canada. sion of the relatives of persons who are already in It is a privilege. It is a matter of domestic policy.... Canada, and on assisting in the resettlement of dis- There will, I am sure, be general agreement with placed persons and refugees.... the view that the people of Canada do not wish, as Selection officers will ... consider applicants for a result of mass immigration,to make a fundamen- entry into Canada, examine them on a basis of suit- tal alteration in the character of our population. ability and physical fitness,and make arrangements Large-scale immigration from the orient [Asia] would for their orderly movement and placement.... In change the fundamental composition of the Canad- taking these steps, the government is seeking to ian population.... ensure that the displaced persons admitted to Can- Source: House of Commons Debates, May 1,1947, ada are of a type likely to make good citizens.... pp. 2644-2646; www.a bherita g e.ca/a I berta ns/ speeches/king_1.html CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? ZTII

A COLOUR-BLIND POLICY By the 1960s, some of the old prejudices that had shaped Canadian immigration and citizenship were fading. In 1962, Conservative Minister of Immigration Ellen Fairdough-Canada's first female Cabinet min- ister-eliminated.Most of the entrance regulations that discriminated on the basis of race and country of origin. Most immigrants to Canada, however, continued to be Europeans (see Figure 2.6). • In 1976, Canada created different admission categories. It streamlined the process for sponsoring (supporting) family members and created a points system for independent applicants. The system awarded appli- DID YOU KNOW A cants points for knowing English or French and for level of education Canada accepted 60,000 and job skills. The separate category for refugees was also created. Vietnamese refugees in Removing racial regulations and introducing the new points system 1979-1980, in the aftermath of the Vietnam War led for the first time to major immigration from Africa, Asia, the (1965-1973). It also accept- Caribbean, and Latin America. Newcomers settled mainly in Vancouver, ed some 30,000 young , and , making those cities vibrant centres of multi- Americans who fled to culturalism. By the end of the 20th century, Canada had also become a Canada to avoid being forced to fight during the major refugee-receiving country, admitting thousands of refugees from war, which Canada did not Bosnia, Kosovo, Rwanda, and other places. support.

Period of Immigration

Before 1961 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2001*

Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %

Total immigrants 894,465 100.0 745,565 100.0 936,275 100.0 1,041,495 100.0 1,830,680 100.0

United States 34,805 3.9 46,880 6.3 62,835 6.7 41,965 4.0 51440 /8

Europe 809,330 90.5 515,675 69.2 338,520 36.2 266,185 25.6 357,845 19.5

Asia 28,850 3.2 90,420 12.1 311,960 33.3 491,720 47.2 1,066,230 58.2

Africa 4,635 05 23,830 3.2 54,655 5.8 59,715 5.7 139,770 7.6

Caribbean, Central and South America 12,895 1.4 59,895 8.0 154,395 16.5 171,495 16.5 200,010 10.9

Oceania and other countries 3,950 0.4 8,865 1.2 13,910 1.5 10,415 1.0 15,385 0.8

* Includes data up to May 15,2001

FIGURE 2.6 Place of birth by period of immigration, Canada, 2001. Source: Statistics Canada, www12.statcan.ca/english/ census01/products/analytic/companion/etoimm/tables/canada/period.cfm CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Immigration: Open Borders or Lockdown?

Should Canada welcome as many immigrants as An immigration tsunami is heading for North it does—about 200,000 annually? Many people America. say yes. Immigrants are eager to contribute to the — Paul Fromm, white supremacist, well-being of the country. They often bring with speaking in Texas, USA, March 12, 2005 them valuable skills in medicine; law, research, Another argument against widespread immi- engineering, and the humanities. They enrich gration is that it might also result in problems such Canada culturally and economically. as terrorism. This argument says that countries Those who support immigration also applaud have a right and a duty to control their borders, Canada's acceptance of refugees. Canada abides • and that dangerous people should be kept out. by the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating If that means accepting fewer immigrants, that is to the Status of Refugees.This document states that • a reasonable compromise. nations have a duty to accept those from the world community who have a "well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, What Do You Think? nationality, membership of a particular social 1. In your opinion, is immigration good or bad group or political opinion" (article 1A). for Canada? Explain why. In 2005, immigration accounted for more than 2. How would you go about evaluating the 50 percent of Canada's population growth. argument that the threat of terrorism means Because of a declining birth rate in many parts that fewer immigrants should be accepted of Canada, immigrants are seen by many as con- into Canada? What information would you tributing vitally to the country's labour, industrial, need? and consumer markets. 3. Are there any measures that the Canadian government could undertake to increase Canada still needs the skills,talents and enthusiasm the country's birth rate? Propose some, and of newcomers to build our country, together with those who have come before them. explain how they might work. — , "A Newcomer's Introduction to Canada," www.cic.gc.ca/ 100- DID YOU KNOW english/newcomer/guide/section-07.html#6 In 2004, Canadians adopted 1,955 children from abroad. Adoptions from China accounted for 51 percent of all Others argue that Canada should not accept international adoptions. so many immigrants when some Canadians are still without jobs. They say that even those immi- grants with a professional background still have to retrain in Canada, a costly proposition. It is also expensive for Canada to fund all the support services associated with immigration, such as wel- fare payments and EAL (English as an additional language) classes. CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP?

FIGURE 2.7 Students at a Winnipeg elementary school laugh as a Lion Dancer performs on Chinese New Year, February 8, 2005.The traditional Lion Dance is said to bring good fortune in the New Year.

PAUSE, REFLECT, APPLY 1. Explain three ways in which the entry of 3. Examine Figure 2.6 on page 41. What area of certain groups of immigrants to Canada was the world provided the largest number of limited in the late 19th and early 20th immigrants to Canada in the period before centuries. How might these limitations have 1961? In the period 1991-2001? What is the reflected the values of the times? percentage in each case? 2. a) Summarize Prime Minister King's view of 4. Describe Canada's current immigration Canadian citizenship in the Sources feature policy. on page 40. 5. Why has the concept of Canadian citizenship b) Do you agree or disagree with this view? undergone changes since the beginning of the c) In what ways is the policy a political 20th century? mixture of generosity and racism?

Citizenship and Multiculturalism KEY QUESTION In 1971, Canada became the first country in the world to adopt multi- What are the benefits of culturalism as an official policy Multiculturalism ensures that all citizens multiculturalism? can keep their identity, heritage, and language once in Canada. Immi- grants can take pride in their ancestry and also feel a sense of belonging. 1144 CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

• Through multiculturalism, programs and services are provided to many different groups that preserve heritage, and individuals are helped to participate fully in Canadian society.

CELEBRATING DIVERSITY As citizens of the world, Canadians celebrate diversity in a number of ways. Some of these are described below.

Human Rights Day On December 10, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This document has become a standard for defending and promoting human rights. Every year on December 10, people around the world are reminded that "all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights" (article 1 of the Declaration). By marking this day, Canadians are also reminded of their guaranteed rights and freedoms, and of the way of life that Canadians value.

National Aboriginal Day The Canadian government has declared June 21 National Aboriginal Day. This day celebrates the cultures and contributions of First Nations, Inuit, and Metis in Canada. Celebrating National Aboriginal Day is a way to learn more about the heritage of the Aboriginal peoples, and a way to foster understanding and acceptance of different perspectives. National Aboriginal Day was first proclaimed in 1996. (See the CivicStar feature in Chapter 5, pages 109-110.)

Black History Month In 1995, Canada's Parliament recognized February as Black History Month. Today, approximately 2 percent of Canada's population identi- fy themselves as . Their contributions, past and present, are recognized and celebrated. American immigrant and anti-slavery advocate Mary Ann Shadd was Canada's first female newspaper editor in the mid-1800s. Baseball pitcher Ferguson Jenkins—the only Canadian in the Cooperstown, New York, Baseball Hall of Fame—is the descendant of CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? 451

FIGURE 2.8 Canadian gold medal wrestler Daniel lga li hits the road to build a school in his home village in Nigeria, accompanied by two Canadian teenagers.

pre—Civil War refugees who settled in the same Chatham, Ontario, area where Mary Ann Shadd lived. At the 1996 Olympics, Donovan Bailey became "the world's fastest man" when he won the gold medal in the 100 metre race. Bailey, who came to Canada at age 13 from Jamaica, took up business and charity work at the end of his running career. He has been a spokesperson for Big Brothers Big Sisters of Canada. In 2005, award-winning journalist and broadcaster Michaelle Jean became Canada's 27th governor general, the first black person to hold this title. Jean fled Haiti with her family in 1968, when that country was ruled by a dictator. She grew up in the province of Quebec. Athletes Jarome Iginla, a hockey star, and Olympic wrestling cham- pion Daniel Igali are proud of their Nigerian heritage. After his Olympic victory, Igali went on to raise $200,000 to replace the one-room school in his impoverished Nigerian hometown of Eniwari. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) matched the funds. In 2005, Igali entered provincial politics as a Liberal candidate.

Asian Heritage Month To acknowledge the rich history of Asian Canadians and their contri- butions to Canada, Parliament in 2001 designated May as Asian Heritage Month. Some famous Asian Canadians: P46 CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

• Adrienne Poy was born to Chinese parents in Hong Kong in 1939. At age three, she and her family came to Canada as refu- gees. In 1999, after a long career as one of Canada's first female television broadcasters, Adrienne Poy Clarkson was appoint- ed governor general of Canada. She was only the second woman and the first person of colour to hold the position. E Ujjal Dosanjh, who arrived in Canada at age 21, was born in a small village in Punjab, India. In Canada, Dosanjh estab- lished himself as a civil rights activist and lawyer. He became Canada's first Indo-Canadian provincial premier (British Columbia, 2000) and first Indo-Canadian federal cabinet minister (minister of health, 2004). • Canadian actor Sandra Oh, who appeared in the 2004 Academy Award—nominated film Sideways, was born in

FIGURE 2.9 Award-winning Ottawa to Korean immigrants. She also appears in the tele- Canadian film and television star vision series Grey's Anatomy. Sandra Oh m The grandparents of David Suzuki and Vicky Sunohara came from different parts of Japan to Canada early in the 20th century. Today, broadcaster and author Dr. David Suzuki is recognized as a world leader in the study of sus- tainable ecology; Vicky Sunohara has been a star player on Canada's women's hockey team.

0 DISCUSSION POINT International Day for the Elimination According to the Ethnic of Racial Discrimination Diversity Survey, released in September 2003, almost The International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination is half of black Canadians observed on March 21. On that day, in 1960, South African police killed surveyed said they had experienced some form of 69 men and women who were demonstrating against apartheid, the discrimination or unfair government policy that enforced discrimination against non-whites. treatment in the past five Proclaiming the day in 1966, the United Nations called on the international years. Why might a country community to increase its efforts to eliminate all forms of racial discrim- that has tried to eliminate racism still experience it to ination. Canada was one of the first countries to support the proclamation. this degree? CANADIANS REACHING OUT Canadians have a tradition of reaching out to the global community that dates back more than 60 years. In Chapter 1, you learned about Canada's role in founding the UN as World War II was ending. In 1952, future Canadian Prime Minister Lester Pearson became president of the UN CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? 47.1

General Assembly. Four years later, as Canada's minister of external affairs, Pearson proposed the creation of the UN's first peacekeeping force. Since that time, many Canadians have reached out to the global community by working for human rights and peace, and by assisting with aid and development.

Tommy Douglas Tommy Douglas worked tirelessly to introduce universal health care to Saskatchewan. As premier of that province from 1944 to 1961, Douglas faced down powerful doctors' organizations. He was condemned as a dangerous "communist" and "socialist," both in Canada and in the United States. Despite this, Douglas achieved his goal, and not only in Saskatchewan. In the 1960s, Prime Minister Lester Pearson adapted Douglas's health care plan for all of Canada. Today, it has become part of the Canadian identity. (See also the CivicStaf fe6ture on Tommy Douglas in Chapter 12, page 251.) Rosalie Silberman Abella Rosalie Silberman's parents survived four years in Nazi concentration camps, but they lost their two-year-old son and most of their relatives in the Holocaust. Rosalie was born after World War II, in a displaced per- sons' camp in Germany. She arrived in Canada in 1950, at age four, as a Jewish refugee. As a lawyer, she became a leading spokesperson for human rights in Canada and around the world. In 1984, she created the term "employment equity" as the commisioner for the federal Royal Commission on Equality in Employment. In 2004, Rosalie Silberman Abella became the first Jewish woman ever to be appointed a justice of the Supreme Court of Canada.

Romeo Dallaire to- DID YOU KNOW 44 You, too, can reach out by Retired General Romeo Dallaire was born in Holland and arrived in taking part in volunteer Montreal at age one. He later joined the Canadian military and was work that relates to the local or global community. active in many peacekeeping missions. Dallaire accepted the leadership Every act of positive of the United Nations mission in Rwanda in 1994. This mission was a involvement makes you a turning point for him. to stop the ongoing genocide, combat soldiers better citizen of Canada and as well as peacekeepers were needed, yet the UN would not supply them. the world. Consider the ideas presented in this Following this gruelling mission, Dallaire became a strong internation- chapter's Study Hall under al spokesperson for equal treatment of all peoples. the heading Be Active. CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

PAUSE, REFLECT, APPLY 1. Describe the accomplishments of one representative for each of the following groups: black Canadians, Japanese Canadians, , Chinese Canadians, Indo-Canadians, and Jewish Canadians. 2. a) In what sense does Canada contain "the globe within its borders"? b) How does Canada reach out to the globe?

In this chapter, you have explored these concepts:

1. Canada has three founding peoples—the Aboriginal peoples, the French, and the British. 2. The concept of Canadian citizenship has evolved since Confederation. 3. In the past,full citizenship was denied to some groups because of ethnic origin or religion. 4. Canada's pluralistic identity has been shaped through extensive immi- gration during the 20th century. 5. Multicultural policies ensure that all citizens can keep their identity, heritage, and language once in Canada. 6. Canadian citizenship involves certain fixed rights, but may be viewed differently by different groups of people.

SKILLS 0 How to Form Inquiry Questions TOOLKIT

What are you curious about? What do you ask ques- m matter to you tions about? From early childhood, this is how we m be specific and focused learn naturally. Listen to a two-year-old's endless m be answerable questions.The child asks one question and gets an m be reasonable answer, which leads to another question, and m lead to other questions. another.This is the inquiry method at work,and it is fuelled by questions. Inquiring can have monumental results. In the An inquiry question must meet several criteria. 16th century, the Polish monk Nicolaus Copernicus In order to be effective, it should questioned the relationship among the Earth, the CHAPTER 2 HOW DO YOU DEFINE CITIZENSHIP? 491

other planets in our solar system, and the sun. works to bring about positive change in the corn- Eventually, his investigations proved that the Earth munity.To do that, you need to be able to identify and planets revolve around the sun. Because pow- and explore issues that concern you, and ask ques- erful, educated people believed the universe tions about them. The inquiry method is ideal for revolved around the Earth,Copernicus's inquiry got this purpose—and it may also lead you to act in him into trouble. It also opened up the science of ways that benefit your community. cosmology (the study of the universe). Some successful businesses also use an inquiry Skill Practice method. Using company resources, employee groups 1. a) Develop inquiry questions on the follow- formulate inquiry questions, for example, "Are we ing topics: (i) your school's rules, (ii) school operating as efficiently as possible?" The employees video surveillance, (iii) your student council. follow a process like that in Figure 2.10.They gather b) Compare your questions with those of information, share ideas, and ask new questions that other students. Does short discussion help refine the original question."How can we serve lead you to change your questions? our customers more efficiently?" Employees in these c) Decide what information sources to use kinds of businesses go beyond following orders. to answer one of your questions. They define and solve problems, work as a group, 2. Use the inquiry method to determine three and influence the company. They become agents issues that matter to you. Record your ques- of change. tions and responses and return to them during You can use inquiry questions to achieve similar your study of Canada in the Contemporary results. In this course, for example, you are exam- World. ining ways to be an active citizen—someone who

A question is asked ("Are we operating as efficiently as possible?")

The process is repeated.

0 Information is gathered

The original question is refined ("How can we serve our customers more efficiently?") New ideas lead to new questions

FIGURE 2.10 ▪

i50 CANADA IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

STUDY HALL

Be Informed Be Active 1. a) Find out more about Canadian citizenship by 5. Create a national day for some group that you inviting one or more of the following people think has not been given sufficient attention. to your class to speak about their views of Write a brief history of this group, outline its citizenship: contributions to Canada, and suggest some M representative of First Nations events for the day. Present your idea to the class, using a combination of posters, speakers, R World War II veteran displays, music, announcements, or videos. survivor of the Holocaust 6. In this chapter you read about citizens who have • representative from Greenpeace made contributions to the global community • immigration lawyer assisting refugees. by undertaking specific projects. Read about b) -Once a selection has been finalized, develop Dr. Chandrasekhar Sankurathri, a Canadian who questions to ask your visitor. lost his entire family in the terrorist bombing of Air India Flight 182 in 1985. Learn how he 2. Read about the United Nations Convention on transformed grief into social action.Then the Rights of the Child (1989) at www.emp.ca/ explore a list of other projects described at ccw. In a written report, argue whether or not www.emp.ca/ccw. Select one project to Canada is meeting its obligations toward its research and possibly support. As a follow-up non-adult citizens. activity, write a brief report on how the project 3. To review your knowledge of Canadian citizen- expanded your own view of global citizenship. ship, take the test found at www.emp.ca/ccw. 7. Exercise some aspect of citizenship by becom- ing involved in an activity such as one of the Be Purposeful following: 4. In 2001, the Aboriginal Justice Implementation • Volunteer to teach EAL students. Commission recommended an affirmative m Volunteer to work at a food bank. action program that would allow Aboriginal people to be employed in the justice system at • Join a human rights and anti-discrimination a rate equal to their representation in the organization such as Amnesty International. Manitoba population (12 percent). a Join an anti-poverty organization such as a) Present reasons for this type of program. Oxfam or Habitat for Humanity International. b) Explain how such a program might work. c) Find out what other groups in Canada have been targeted for affirmative action in the past. How did they benefit? d) In your opinion, is affirmative action a good way to achieve greater equality in Canadian citizenship? Explain.