Aya Fujiwara. Ethnic Elites and : Japanese, Ukrainians, and Scots, 1919-1971. Winnipeg: University of Press, 2012. 288 pp. $31.95, paper, ISBN 978-0-88755-737-8.

Reviewed by Jan Raska

Published on H- (January, 2014)

Commissioned by Jane Nicholas (University of Waterloo/St. Jerome's)

Aya Fujiwara’s Ethnic Elites and Canadian shared within each ethnic community as they Identity is a welcome contribution to the existing searched for a national identity. In choosing to fo‐ literature on ethnicity and multiculturalism in cus her work on the three aforementioned ethnic Canada. In using an approach that is anchored in communities, Fujiwara analyzes their contribu‐ chronology and supported by a comparative and tions to the transformation of Canadian identity. thematic analysis spanning several decades, Fuji‐ She notes that ethnic elites were individuals who wara follows the role of elites from three ethnic emerged from newcomer communities as “inter‐ communities in Canada during the twentieth cen‐ mediaries between and their ethnic tury. A reworked version of her doctoral disserta‐ peoples after they arrived in Canada” (p. 3). Often tion, Fujiwara considers how Japanese, Scottish, as self-appointed representatives of their ethnic and Ukrainian ethnic elites in Canada infuenced communities in Canada, elites possessed a dual national identity as it shifted from Anglo-con‐ identity between their old homeland and Canada. formity (Franco-conformity in ) prior to This transnational identity ultimately “shaped the Second World War towards ethnic pluralism their roles, views, and missions” (p. 4). Fujiwara in the 1960s. As a result, Fujiwara’s work recon‐ argues that leaders within these ethnic communi‐ siders the idea that multiculturalism was the re‐ ties established their power through the manipu‐ sult of sociopolitical events in the 1960s, and es‐ lation of old world and Canadian politics. Similar‐ tablished and promoted by “mainstream” Canadi‐ ly, these individuals attempted to balance their ans. In an attempt to demonstrate how Japanese, work on behalf of their ethnic communities with Scottish, and Ukrainian ethnic elites infuenced their Old World identity in order to construct a the rise of a multicultural Canada, Fujiwara con‐ comfortable life in Canada. siders the “constant manipulation” of political dis‐ Fujiwara freely admits that her arguments courses and historical memories and myths based on Japanese, Scottish, and Ukrainian expe‐ H-Net Reviews riences “cannot necessarily be applied to all eth‐ the promotion of ethnic pluralism was seen as a nic groups in Canada” (p. 5). Yet, it is her hope mechanism in which both groups could achieve that “useful clues” from this study can inform the their desired dual identities. For Japanese elites, reader on how other ethnic groups in Canada es‐ ethnicity was closely tied to race. In her work, Fu‐ tablished and preserved ethnicity. While the Scots jiwara efectively rejects the traditional interpre‐ belonged to mainstream Canada, Ukrainians who tation of the evolution of Canadian identity--from were not of an Anglo-Protestant background, but Anglo conformity to “liberal-democratic ethnic remained white and Christian were preferred in pluralism” as previously delineated by main‐ mainstream society in comparison to Japanese, stream Canada. Instead, Fujiwara demonstrates who were racially visible, from the “Orient,” and that ethnic elites were proponents of multicultur‐ believed in Buddhism or Shintoism. As a result, alism prior to the Second World War. In the post‐ Japanese in Canada were seen as unassimilable. war period, these elites infuenced democratic Japanese and Ukrainian ethnic elites lobbied values and Canadian identity while demanding Canadian ofcials in an efort to gain recognition that mainstream society recognize ethnicity as a as “full-fedged citizens” without discrimination. part of Canadian identity. Beginning in the 1920s, ideological divisions with‐ Fujiwara’s work is organized into six chap‐ in the Japanese and Ukrainian communities split ters. Chapter 1, “Changing Ethnic Profles,” exam‐ ethnic elites into opposing camps. Japanese were ines how segregation and integration infuenced divided between issei (immigration generation) Scottish, Ukrainian, and Japanese ethnic elites’ di‐ who sought the preservation of Japanese ethno‐ alogue with mainstream society. The chapter fo‐ cultural identity and those who supported Canadi‐ cuses on fve factors which determined the Scot‐ anization, and nisei (Canadian-born generation) tish, Ukrainian, and Japanese positions within who predominantly advocated for cultural plural‐ Canadian society prior to the Second World War: ity in Canada. Meanwhile, Ukrainians coalesced racism, homeland politics, immigration, geo‐ around nationalists who sought their homeland’s graphic dispersal, and religion. This chapter ap‐ independence from the Soviet Union and commu‐ propriately conveys that the Scots were frmly en‐ nists who promoted the Soviet Union. According trenched as a part of mainstream Canada. to Fujiwara, ethnic elites within these four camps Ukrainians and Japanese became second-class cit‐ sought to prove that they were the legitimate rep‐ izens and preserved their ethnic identity in an at‐ resentatives of their communities in Canada. Dur‐ tempt to gain greater infuence in Canadian soci‐ ing the interwar period, Japanese and Ukrainians ety. Chapter 2, “The Consolidation of Ethnic sought to fuse their Old World ethnicity with Boundaries and the Rise of the Mosaic,” explores Canadian identity in an attempt to join main‐ the consolidation of ethnic boundaries and the stream society. As a result, Japanese and Ukrain‐ role that ideological divisions, homeland politics, ian ethnic elites coupled homeland symbols and and relations between ethnic elites and Canadian myths with their traditional collective stories to ofcials played in the establishment of ethnic produce a new Canadian identity. While Scots identity and the promotion of a Canadian mosaic. were already an important part of mainstream Although the Scots, Ukrainians, and Japanese all Canadian society, Japanese and Ukrainian ethnic found the promotion of ethnicity to be advanta‐ elites used Old World myths, symbols, and stories geous for their identities, Fujiwara argues that to fuse ethnic and mainstream boundaries, which Ukrainian ethnic elites held the “prerequisites to Fujiwara notes “became indiscernible more organize a more politically distinctive communi‐ quickly than in ofcial Canadian identity (p. 7). ty” in comparison to Scottish and Japanese elites For both Japanese and Ukrainian elites in Canada, (p. 35). This chapter demonstrates that during the

2 H-Net Reviews interwar period Japanese did not hold a position wards democracy, freedom, human rights, and cit‐ from which to negotiate with Canadian society. In izenship with the emergence of the Cold War in the late 1930s, nationalist Ukrainians and issei Ja‐ 1946, the introduction of the Canadian Citizenship panese promoted the notion of a Canadian mosaic Act in 1947, and the Universal Declaration of Hu‐ in which both groups could maintain their dual man Rights in 1948. Fujiwara concludes that the identities. Chapter 3, “Increasing Tensions and the postwar period was exemplifed by the emer‐ Wartime Mosaic,” discusses how the Second gence of a “pan-Canadian identity around democ‐ World War reinforced the ethnoracial hierarchy racy and citizenship” (p. 130). Both Ukrainians that existed in Canada, thereby increasing the di‐ and Japanese considered the enactment of the vide between ethnic groups who were seen as sus‐ Canadian Citizenship Act in 1947 as ofcial recog‐ pect, and their contribution to nation-building. nition of their status as equal citizens. However, During this period, Scots were largely “invisible” Canadian ofcials continued to largely ignore eth‐ as members of mainstream Canadian society and nic issues unless they directly infuenced Canadi‐ as important contributors to the Allied war efort. an foreign policy or the country’s image abroad. With the cooperation of the federal government, Canadian ofcials neglected eforts on the part of Ukrainian nationalists were incorporated into the Ukrainian nationalists lobbying for an indepen‐ war efort through the establishment of the dent Ukraine. Conversely, the wartime loss of Ukrainian Canadian Committee. This cooperation property, internment, deportation, and lack of the permitted Ukrainian nationalists to demonstrate franchise demonstrated to Canadian ofcials that their loyalty to Canada, strengthened their posi‐ postwar legislation increasingly had to counter tion within the broader Ukrainian community, past racism. This chapter demonstrates that both and guaranteed that the promotion of Ukrainian Ukrainian and Japanese elites pressured the Cana‐ independence in Europe remained a vital compo‐ dian government to redefne Canadian citizenship nent of Ukrainian ethnic consciousness in Canada. and democracy, ultimately linking them to ethnic Meanwhile, Japanese community members were pluralism. Chapter 5, “The Canadianization and labeled as enemy aliens and their community or‐ Ethnicization of Myths, Collective Memories, and ganizations were dismantled and members in‐ Symbols,” discusses how Scots, Ukrainians, and Ja‐ terned. In this chapter, Fujiwara explains that the panese incorporated postwar debates surround‐ Second World War provided Ukrainian national‐ ing citizenship and democracy into their collec‐ ists with an opportunity to further their lobbying tive group myths and symbols. This process “eth‐ eforts for equal rights and to promote ethnic plu‐ nicized past events in Canada and consolidated ralism within Canadian society. Nisei Japanese their ethnic boundaries” (p.131). By examining condemned their wartime internment and racism homeland, Canadian, and regional myths and towards their community by continuing their ef‐ symbols, Fujiwara demonstrates that Scottish, forts to secure the franchise as an important Ukrainian, and Japanese elites helped to success‐ democratic ideal. Conversely, Japanese could no fully establish a Canadian identity that was de‐ longer openly support their old homeland. In this fned by ethnicity. Fujiwara argues that in com‐ period, Scottish identity remained “fuid and de‐ parison, Ukrainian nationalists best exemplifed fned by choice” since Scottish Canadians were the interwoven ethnic and regional identities by members of mainstream society and actively par‐ focusing on the Canadian Prairies. In this period, ticipated in the Allied war efort (p. 103). all three ethnic groups brought further awareness Chapter 4, “Democratic and Multicultural Citi‐ of their ethnic identity to mainstream Canada by zenship,” focuses on how postwar Canadian iden‐ producing Scottish-, Ukrainian-, and Japanese- tity was shaped by changes in public attitudes to‐ Canadian histories that demonstrated they were

3 H-Net Reviews not just Canadians. Chapter 6, “Ethnic Movements ticulturalism in 1971, the boundaries between and the Road to Multiculturalism,” explores the ethnic groups and mainstream society largely di‐ evolution of multiculturalism in Canada from minished as both sets of elites supported ofcial “ethnic elites’ eyes” and argues that the role of multiculturalism as a fundamental aspect of ethnic elites was vital in the formation of an of‐ Canadian identity. During the postwar period, cial multiculturalism policy in 1971 (p. 156). Dur‐ Ukrainian nationalists more consistently main‐ ing this process, Ukrainian nationalists’ view of tained their community than Ukrainian commu‐ an ethnically pluralistic Canadian identity over‐ nists or issei and nisei Japanese. In comparison shadowed other ethnic elites’ interpretations. Fu‐ with Ukrainians and Japanese, Fujiwara deter‐ jiwara contextualizes this period by noting that mines that Scots in Canada did not have to be‐ the federal government’s enactment of the Bill of come members of their community’s elite because Rights in 1960 prohibited ethnoracial, sexual, and they had already become prominent individuals religious discrimination. This chapter briefy within mainstream society. Fujiwara concludes mentions the rise of French nationalism during that while many Ukrainian and Japanese elites Quebec’s Quiet Revolution in which French Cana‐ were forced to organize their communities, Scots dians demanded linguistic and cultural equality did not feel the need to compete for leadership of with British Canadians. These calls for equality their ethnic community. Scots in Canada did not led to the establishment of the Royal Commission use their ethnicity as a political strength, but on Bilingualism and Biculturalism in 1963 in an rather to assert their claim as inventors of Canadi‐ attempt by the federal government to resolve ten‐ an democratic values. Ultimately, multicultural‐ sions between English and . Fu‐ ism permitted Ukrainian nationalists and Japa‐ jiwara argues that during this period, Ukrainian nese elites to preserve their ethnic identities with‐ nationalists were at the forefront of lobbying ef‐ out ethnoracial discrimination or legal difculties. forts to establish multiculturalism as a federal Ethnic Elites and Canadian Identity is based policy. This was due in part to the integration of on a large array of archival sources and published high-ranking in university primary and secondary sources, including collec‐ and college positions, and as federal ofcials who tions located at Library and Archives Canada, could promote their ’s collective Public Archives of , the Beaton Insti‐ rights and advocate for an independent Ukraine. tute, Cape Breton University, Acadia University Ukrainian communists and Japanese focused Archives and Special Collections, University of their eforts on promoting human rights in Cana‐ Archives, and the Presbyterian da and abroad, while cultural identity was valued Church in Canada Archives. For her study, Fuji‐ as an expression of their identity. wara also consulted several ethnic newspapers, Ethnic Elites and Canadian Identity convinc‐ including New Canadian, Nisei Afairs, Tairiku ingly determines that ethnic elites were vital in jiho (Continental Times), Tairiku nippo (Continen‐ the establishment of a “pan-Canadian identity” tal Daily), Ukrainskyi holos (Ukrainian Voice), based on ethnic pluralism. In particular, this Ukrainian Canadian, and Zakhidni visty (Western study notes that Ukrainian and Japanese ethnic News). In addition, House of Commons and Sen‐ elites were instrumental in narrowing the space ate Debates, and briefs submitted on behalf of Ja‐ between mainstream British ideas of pluralism panese and Ukrainian community organizations and democracy. Similarly, these same ethnic elites to the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Bi‐ were able to amend their own viewpoints to re‐ culturalism informed this study. Although Ethnic fect those found in mainstream Canadian society. Elites and Canadian Identity briefy discusses per‐ With the introduction of the federal policy of mul‐ tinent immigration and citizenship legislation

4 H-Net Reviews over the span of fve decades, readers would be better served by a more fuid discussion of the evolution of legislation brought forth by succes‐ sive Canadian governments from the 1920s to the 1970s. Similarly, a more in-depth overview of Scottish, Ukrainian, and Japanese community in‐ stitutions and publications would provide the reader with a better understanding of the compo‐ sition, agenda, and infuence of ethnic organiza‐ tions within their respective communities and the broader Canadian society. In conclusion, Aya Fuji‐ wara’s work successfully examines the role of Ja‐ panese, Scottish, and Ukrainian ethnic elites in the establishment of a new Canadian identity, and persuasively illustrates that these ethnic elites be‐ gan to work towards a multicultural Canada be‐ ginning in the interwar period. The contributions of Japanese, Scottish, and Ukrainian ethnic elites led to the establishment of a federal multicultural‐ ism policy in 1971.

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Citation: Jan Raska. Review of Fujiwara, Aya. Ethnic Elites and Canadian identity: Japanese, Ukrainians, and Scots, 1919-1971. H-Canada, H-Net Reviews. January, 2014.

URL: https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=38435

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