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Germanium and Indium Germanium and Indium Chapter I of Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Economic and Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply Professional Paper 1802–I U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey Periodic Table of Elements 1A 8A 1 2 hydrogen helium 1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon 6.94 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 sodium magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon 22.99 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 11B 12B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.79 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3 55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 cesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon 132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.5 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222) 87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium (223) (226) (265) (268) (271) (270) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294) 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Lanthanide Series* lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium 138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.2 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Actinide Series** actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium (227) 232 231 238 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262) element names in blue are liquids at room temperature element names in red are gases at room temperature element names in black are solids at room temperature Modified from Los Alamos National Laboratory Chemistry Division; available at http://periodic.lanl.gov/images/periodictable.pdf. Cover. Left, concentrator photovoltaic solar power system that uses germanium-based solar power cells. Photograph courtesy of Arzon Solar, LLC. Right, flat-panel display screens and touchscreens coated with indium oxide. Photograph courtesy of CI Systems, Inc. Germanium and Indium By W.C. Pat Shanks III, Bryn E. Kimball, Amy C. Tolcin, and David E. Guberman Chapter I of Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Economic and Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply Edited by Klaus J. Schulz, John H. DeYoung, Jr., Robert R. Seal II, and Dwight C. Bradley Professional Paper 1802–I U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior RYAN K. ZINKE, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey William H. Werkheiser, Acting Director U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2017 For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit https://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS. For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, visit https://store.usgs.gov/. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner. Suggested citation: Shanks, W.C.P., III, Kimball, B.E., Tolcin, A.C., and Guberman, D.E., 2017, Germanium and indium, chap. I of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. I1– I27, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802I. ISSN 2330-7102 (online) iii Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... I1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................... I1 Background.......................................................................................................................................... I1 Germanium .................................................................................................................................. I2 Indium .......................................................................................................................................... I2 Uses and Applications ....................................................................................................................... I2 Germanium .................................................................................................................................. I2 Indium .......................................................................................................................................... I4 Demand and Availability of Supply .................................................................................................. I4 Substitutes for Germanium and Indium ................................................................................. I4 Strategic and Critical Resource Issues ................................................................................. I5 Geology .......................................................................................................................................................... I5 Geochemistry....................................................................................................................................... I5 Mineralogy ........................................................................................................................................... I5 Deposit Types ...................................................................................................................................... I6 Germanium .................................................................................................................................. I6 Indium ........................................................................................................................................ I11 Mining and Beneficiation Methods ............................................................................................... I11 Resources and Production ....................................................................................................................... I13 Reserves, Other Identified Resources, and Undiscovered Resources ................................... I13 Production .......................................................................................................................................... I13 Prices and Pricing............................................................................................................................. I14 Environmental Considerations ................................................................................................................. I15 Sources and Fate in the Environment ........................................................................................... I15 Mine Waste Characteristics ........................................................................................................... I18 Human Health Concerns .................................................................................................................. I18 Ecological Health Concerns ............................................................................................................ I19 Carbon Footprint................................................................................................................................ I19 Mine Closure...................................................................................................................................... I20 Problems and Future Research ............................................................................................................... I20 References Cited........................................................................................................................................ I20 iv Figures I1. Photograph of a concentrator photovoltaic solar power system ...................................... I3 I2. Pie charts showing major end uses of germanium and indium as a percentage of world consumption in 2012 ................................................................................................... I3 I3. Photographs showing indium-tin oxide, which is a transparent conducting oxide, and examples of flat-panel display screens
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