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The Dynamics of the Ancient Tula Wells Cultural Landscape: Environmental and Social History, ca. 1560 to the Present Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Thesis Waktole Tiki Department of International Environment and Development Studies (Noragric) Norwegian University of Life Sciences Ås 2010 Thesis number: 2010:45 ISBN: 978-82-575-0955-2 ISSN : 1503-1667 To my wife Ayelech and our daughters: Darartu, Bontu, Bilise and Hinsene Table of Contents Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................... ii List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... iv Part B: List of Papers .............................................................................................................................. v Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... vi 1. Introduction................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Background and context of the study ........................................................................................... 4 1.2. Objectives of the study ................................................................................................................. 9 1.3. Contextualizing concepts ........................................................................................................... 10 2. Ancient water systems and management institutions ........................................................... 16 2.1. Environmental and social history of ancient water systems ...................................................... 16 2.2. Water management institutions ................................................................................................. 19 2.3. Ancient water systems in Africa ................................................................................................. 21 2.4. Borana water management ........................................................................................................ 23 2.5. Borana water management contrasted with other ancient water systems ................................ 25 3. Environmental and Social History: Theoretical Perspectives ............................................. 26 4. Methodological perspectives ................................................................................................... 31 4.1. Dynamics of tula wells: Implementation of the framework ....................................................... 33 4.2. The Borana indigenous time reckoning systems: Framework for reconstructing environmental and social dynamics of ancient water system .................................................... 36 4.3. Data collections ......................................................................................................................... 37 4.3.1. Key informants interviews ......................................................................................................... 37 4.3.2. Group discussions ...................................................................................................................... 38 4.3.3. Household surveys ..................................................................................................................... 39 4.3.4. Measuring well structures, and labour and livestock census .................................................... 40 5. Synthesis of the main findings ................................................................................................ 40 5.1. Use of indigenous knowledge to develop methodological framework for reconstructing the impact of disasters on the ancient tula wells ....................................................................... 40 5.2. Socio-political perturbations and dynamics of tula wells ......................................................... 42 5.3. Perceptions and narrations of rinderpest epizootic and famine ............................................... 43 5.4. Cultural landscape changes of ancient tula wells ..................................................................... 45 5.5. Human adaptive responses to labour, technological and institutional transformations........... 46 6. Conclusions and the need for further research ..................................................................... 48 6.1. Conclusions................................................................................................................................ 48 6.2. Development implications ......................................................................................................... 50 6.3. Future research ......................................................................................................................... 51 7. Notes .......................................................................................................................................... 52 8. References..................................................................................................................................59 Acknowledgement This study would not have been realized without the contributions of many institutions and individuals. My sincere thanks go to my main supervisor Professor Gufu Oba, whose insightful and meticulous supervision have been with me throughout my study period. I also thank my co-supervisor, Professor Terje Tvedt, for his professional guidance during the writing of the thesis. I thank the Norwegian Educational Loan Fund for covering my stipend and NFR project No.1635/S30 for covering part of my field expenses. My sincere gratitude goes to Hawassa University for granting me generous study leave and partially for covering my field expenses. Without the interactive and friendly working environment of Noragric, life would have been difficult. I am very grateful to Noragric staff for their encouragements and interest in my success. In particular, I thank Professors Nadarajah Shanmugaratnam, Ruth Haug, Trygve Berg, Pål Olav Vedeld, Tor Arve Benjaminsen, and Drs. Randi Kaarhus and Gry Synnevåg. My special thanks to Dr. Randi for her intellectual input during early stage of the study and professor Benjaminsen for his constructive comments on my draft thesis. Frode Sundnes also deserves my heartfelt thanks for facilitating information on my scholarship. I also thank Josie Teurlings and Joanna Boddens-Hosang for their facilitation of whatever administrative service I needed. I thank Vilma Veronica Bischof for her unreserved help and facilitation of my stipend. Noragric librarians, Ingeborg Brandtzæg and Liv Ellingsen deserve my special thanks. They never complained about my frequent and extensive reference requests. I thank my colleagues Simon Pahle, Christin Ormhaug, Lars Kåre Grimsby and other fellow students for their encouragements during the study period. Zeinabu Kalif, Mohamod Ali Guyo and their daughter Adi are thanked for their encouragement, support and creating a family environment for me. Alemayehu Chala, Tulu Degefu, Girma Abera, Dagim Jirata, Bisirat, Tsehaye, Aster Abebe, Fassil Bekele, Hussien Jemma, Abebe Seifu, Dereje Haile, Boja Tesfaye, Gizachew Kebede, Alemayehu Esayas, Samuel Bekele, and Fistum Teklai, are my compatriots, who in one way or another encouraged me to overcome the monotonous life at Ås. The encouragement and moral support of Drs. Moti Jaleta, Adugna Tolera, Ayele Tesema, Ayana Agassa, Tolawaq Kejela, Ajebu Nurfata, Getachew Gebru, and Etana Dabala have been vital for my success in this study. My sincere thanks go to Dr. Andargachew Gedebo for his help with my fieldwork. ii I thank the Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Yabelo Centre, for providing me with a vehicle during the fieldwork in the tula wells region. In particular, I thank Getachew Haile, the centre manager and his administrative staff. Mohamod Said, George Bayisa, and Abbarufa are thanked for making my stay in pastoral settlements enjoyable. My friend Tekalign Kebede deserves my heartfelt thanks for helping me in the fieldwork. I also thank my friend Ketema Tolosa. The Borana informants are thanked for sharing their views without reservation. Among others, I thank Borbor Bule, not only for the information he provided, but also for his crucial role in identifying key informants and creating links. I also thank the following elders: Gosa Wariyo, Afatu Dida, Feqadu Jaldesa, Waqo Halake, Qalicha Qancoro and Biqaa Boru for providing invaluable information. My sincere gratitude goes to Taye Alemayehu, Urgessa Tulu and Abebe Ketema, of Oromia Water Works Design office, for providing information on the current status of water development in Borana. Zenebe and Warana are thanked for helping me in far pastoral areas without fearing the dangers of driving an old vehicle. The role played by my mother in my educational achievement has always been irreplaceable. Being a female farmer in a remote rural village, she encouraged me to be courageous and pursue my education, despite the pressing need for child labour. I am very happy that she has seen the fruits of her labour. I wish her a long life. My father, brothers and sisters deserve my gratitude for encouraging me while I was pursuing my studies abroad. Finally, I am very grateful to my wife, Ayelech Teshome, who took the responsibility of raising our children during