A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE RISE OF ADOLF HITLER (WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE, 1913-1933) TANSIF UR REHMAN Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Social Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Ph.D. Area Study Centre for Europe University of Karachi (2018) i APPROVAL CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the present work entitled, “A Sociological Study of the Rise of Adolf Hitler (with special reference, 1913-1933)” has been carried out by Mr. Tansif ur Rehman under my supervision, and is hereby approved for submission to the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Karachi, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Ph.D. (European Studies). The work has been found to comply with the prescribed benchmarks. Prof. Dr. Fateh Muhammad Burfat Supervisor and Vice Chancellor, University of Sindh, Pakistan ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my independent investigation, except where I have indicated my indebtedness to other sources. It has not been accepted in substance or in part for any degree, and is not being submitted concurrently in candidature for any other degree. Tansif ur Rehman Ph.D. Research Scholar Area Study Centre for Europe, University of Karachi. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT History is difficult to write and is never written alone. None of this would have been possible without the guidance and encouragement of my supervisor and mentor, Prof. Dr. Fateh Muhammad Burfat. This thesis represents the culmination of years of work, and writing it has been challenging yet a satisfying experience. I also owe a debt of gratitude to the people who supported me in this endeavor. iv DEDICATION I dedicate this work to all those intellectuals and researchers, who are participating and sharing their knowledge to make this world prosperous regardless of the race, region, and religion. v ABSTRACT The events surrounding Nazi Germany have for long captured the attention of both the academic world and the general public. Many contradictory views have been raised about the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, as some have portrayed him as an all-powerful man, mesmerizing the German masses with his mystical powers; while other view him as a mere captive of impersonal social and historical forces that led him to success. The respective research focuses on critically analyzing the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany in a sociological perspective. The objective of the study is to critically analyze the political, economic, religious, and social factors which facilitated the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany. The respective sociological study is qualitative in its very nature, and the research type is exploratory. As this study employs historical and analytical approach, therefore, primary as well as secondary academic sources have been used, i.e., books, diaries, encyclopedias, essays, memoirs, pamphlets, speeches, journals, newspapers, and websites. Some scholars view that, the charisma of Hitler was based not necessarily on a specific trait of personality, but it was largely dependent on people’s perceptions of him and his responses. Hitler was believed to be the epitome of the German ‘yolk’, as he was the embodiment of the aspirations, desires, and the dire needs of the German nation. vi The charisma of Hitler was based not necessarily on a specific trait of personality, but it was largely dependent more on sociological factors, particularly people’s perceptions of Hitler and how he responded to such perceptions under the dramatic , political, sociocultural, as well as economic changes taking place from 1913 to 1933 in Germany. He was viewed by the public as the selfless exponent of national interest, a fervent protector of Germany’s ‘just’ rights, and above all as the nation’s strength rebuilder. He was regarded as a statesman of unmatched genius by his exponents, and was also seen as a phenomenal military leader, who was distinguished by his bravery as a former front line soldier. Thus, it was perceived that he truly knew and understood the ordinary German. His emotional delivery of an impromptu speech captivated the masses. The Germans were always eager to hear their young, forceful, and mesmerizing leader. The sociological construct of the German society from 1913 to 1933 along with various social factors paved the way for him to rise to his zenith, i.e., first as a strong leader for the Germans, and later as the Chancellor in 1933. Keywords: Adolf Hitler, Rise, Sociological study, Qualitative. vii viii ix ABBREVIATIONS DAP Deutsche Arbeiterpartei DNSAP Deutsche Nationalsozialistische Arbeiterpartei DRK Deutsches Rotes Kreuz ISAs Ideological State Apparatuses KGRNS Kampfgemeinschaft Revolutionarer Nationalsozialisten NNSAP Norges Nasjonalsocialistiske Arbeiderparti NSBRP Natsional Sotsialisticheskata Bulgarska Rabotnicheska Partiya NSDAP Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei NSDAP/AO Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei Auslands-Organisation NSLB Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund NSNAP Nationaal-Socialistische Nederlandsche Arbeiderspartij PNF Partito Nazionafe Fascista PNSR Partidul National-Socialist din Romania RdK Reichsbund der Kinderreichen RSAs Repressive State Apparatus RSFSR Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic SNSFF Svenska Nationalsocialistiska Frihetsforbundet SSNP Syrian Social Nationalist Party TENO Technische Nothilfe x TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval Certificate ii Declaration iii Acknowledgement iv Dedication v Abstract (English) vi Abstract (Urdu) viii Abbreviations x Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Early years 1 1.2.1 Ancestry 1 1.2.2 Childhood and education 2 1.2.3 Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich 5 1.3 World War I 6 1.4 Treaty of Versailles 7 1.5 Social Theory 10 1.6 Significance of Social Theories in Research 10 1.7 Statement of Research Problem 12 1.7.1 Significance of the Study 12 1.7.2 Significance of the Period (1913 to 1933) 13 1.8 Research Objectives 13 1.9 Literature Review 14 1.9.1 Researches in English 14 1.9.2 Researches in German 26 1.10 Gaps in Previous Researches 31 1.11 Focus of the Study 32 1.12 Research Methodology 33 xi Chapter 2: Sociological and Psychological Theories 2.1 Society and Culture 34 2.2 Culture 35 2.2.1 Defining Culture 37 2.2.2 Role of Culture 41 2.3 Culture Dimensions and Variability 42 2.3.1 Hall’s Theory of Cultural Dimensions 44 2.3.2 Trompenaars’ Theory of Cultural Dimensions 46 2.3.3 Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture Variability 49 2.4 Individualistic and Collectivist cultures 50 2.5 Cultural Differences and Social Development Model 52 2.6 Culture and Identity styles 53 2.7 Identity: Nature and Theoretical Foundations 54 2.7.1 Erikson’s Identity Construct 54 2.7.2 Berzonsky’s Identity Styles Model 55 2.8 Sociological and Psychological Theories 57 2.8.1 Basic Need Theory 57 2.8.2 Causality Orientations Theory 57 2.8.3 Cognitive Evaluation Theory 59 2.8.4 Organismic Integration Theory 59 2.8.5 Self-Concept and Social Identity Theory 59 2.8.6 Self-Determination Theory 61 2.8.7 Social Cognitive Theory 62 2.8.8 Symbolic Interactionism 63 2.9 Deprivation 64 2.9.1 Kinds of Deprivation 64 2.9.2 Various Domains of Deprivation 66 2.9.3 Determinants of Deprivation 67 2.10 Social Change 68 2.10.1 Types of Social Change 68 2.11 Transcendentalism 69 xii Chapter 3: Ideology, Ethnicity and Nationalism 3.1 Ideology 71 3.1.1 Ideology in the Postmodern era 79 3.1.2 Ideological movement 80 3.2 Worldview 82 3.3 Ethnicity 83 3.3.1 Etymology and usage 84 3.3.2 Theoretical basis of Ethnicity 84 3.3.3 Definitional parameters of Ethnicity 86 3.3.4 Studies on Ethnicity 87 3.3.5 Primordialist, Instrumentalist, and Constructivist viewpoint 88 3.3.6 Ethnic group 90 3.3.7 Factors contributing to Ethnicity 91 3.4 Nationalism 92 3.4.1 Etymology 92 3.4.2 Definition 92 3.4.3 History of Nationalism 93 3.4.4 Western view of Nationalism 93 3.4.5 Communist view of Nationalism 97 3.4.6 Forms of Nationalism 98 3.5 Ethnicity and Nationalism 98 3.6 Ethnocentrism 101 3.7 Ethnicity and Politics 101 Chapter 4: Leadership in Germany: A Sociological Context 4.1 Leadership 103 4.1.1 Historical context of Leadership 103 4.1.2 Defining Leadership 104 4.1.3 Perspectives on Leadership 114 xiii 4.1.4 Forms and features of Leadership 116 4.1.5 Functions of Leadership 117 4.1.6 Sources of Leader’s power 117 4.1.7 Chronological emergence of Leadership studies 119 4.2 Leadership as a universal phenomenon 120 4.3 Leadership in an international context 120 4.4 Differentiating Leadership style and Behavior 121 4.5 Leadership styles 122 4.5.1 Autocratic or Authoritarian leadership style 122 4.5.2 Democratic or Participative leadership style 124 4.5.3 Laissez-faire leadership style 125 4.6 Research on Autocratic and Democratic leadership styles 126 4.7 Autocratic vs. Democratic leadership 128 4.8 Political leadership 131 4.9 Charismatic leadership 133 Chapter 5: Hitler’s Struggle 5.1 Entry into politics 136 5.2 National Socialist Programme 139 5.3 Beer Hall Putsch 141 5.4 Mein Kampf 143 5.5 Rebuilding the NSDAP 144 5.6 Hitler’s opposition in NSDAP 145 5.7 Nazi propaganda 146 5.7.1 Newspapers 146 5.7.1.1 Volkischer Beobachter 147 5.7.1.2 Der Sturmer 147 5.7.1.3 Der Angriff 147 5.7.2 Propaganda Material by Joseph Goebbels 147 5.7.2.1 Essays published in Der Angriff 147 5.7.2.2 Pamphlets 148 xiv 5.7.2.3 Speeches 148 5.7.2.4 Goebbels on the practice of propaganda 149 5.7.3 Other propaganda material 149 5.7.4 Material intended for Nazi propagandists 151 5.8 Charismatic leadership of Adolf Hitler 151 Chapter 6: Influences on Hitler & NSDAP, and the Nazi