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CLASSICAL GREEK ONLINE
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CLASSICAL GREEK ONLINE
Written by Winifred P. Lehman and Jonathan Slocum, Austin, TX. The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX
Book Title page i
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CLASSICAL GREEK ONLINE
© 2013 Lehmann and Slocum, Austin, TX All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission from the author.
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Book Title
Table of Contents
Classical Greek Online Error! Bookmark not defined. Series Introduction Error! Bookmark not defined.
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 1 14
Classical Greek Online 14 Lesson 1 14 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 14
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 2 32
Classical Greek Online 32 Lesson 2 32 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 32
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 3 46
Classical Greek Online 47 Lesson 3 47 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 47
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 4 60
Classical Greek Online 60 Lesson 4 61 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 61
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 5 76
Classical Greek Online 76 Lesson 5 76 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 76
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 6 91
Classical Greek Online 91 Lesson 6 91 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 91
Book Title page i
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 7 105
Classical Greek Online 105 Lesson 7 105 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 105
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 8 120
Classical Greek Online 120 Lesson 8 120 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 120
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 9 133
Classical Greek Online 133 Lesson 9 133 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 133
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 10 146 Classical Greek Online 147 ii Lesson 10 147 Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum 147 wlraegaeumLrg.jpg (1634×1607) 158
Classical Greek Online page ii
Series Introduction
Greek has been important in the intellectual life of western civilization, but not to the extent of Latin except for ecclesiastical matters. In years past, Latin was introduced in the first year of High School, followed by Greek in the third year. The prominence of Greek for intellectual matters is evident in designations of subjects central to university study, such as philosophy 'love of wisdom', philology 'love of words or more generally study', theology 'study related to God', psychology 'study related to the soul or psyche', and so on.
A difficulty with Greek that may put off learners is the maintenance of an older form of the alphabet than that used for Latin, English, and many other languages. Moreover, accentuation varies in Greek words, and in early Greek was musical. While today accented syllables are pronounced with stress rather than tones, the older accents are still written [with η added for illustration]: ή for the οκσεῖα 'acute' accent or high pitch, ῆ for the περισπώμενον accent or high-low pitch, and ὴ for the βαρεῖα 'grave' or falling pitch. Furthermore, the sentence structure and number of forms require a great deal of attention. The words of sentences are placed for their emphasis, rather than in accordance with a pattern like that of the English Subject-Verb-Object order; knowledge of the inflections is therefore highly important. Interpretation is also assisted by the use of articles which, like nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs, are inflected. It is essential, then, to learn the basic inflections of these parts of speech.
Note: this set of lessons is for systems/browsers with Unicode® support, including full Greek script (with polytonic letters). Lessons rendered in alternate character sets are available via links (Romanized and Unicode 2) in the left margin, and at the bottom of this page.
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1. The Greek alphabet and pronunciation.
The Greek alphabet was taken over from the Semitic as used in the Phoenician area, which in turn was based on an Egyptian alphabet. These were also used for the numerals, so that the order of the symbols was maintained, if changed at times in sound value. This is true also of the Latin alphabet, which was based ultimately on the Greek alphabet; the 3rd symbol, which represented [g] as in its name gamma, had the sound of [k] in Latin, as in words like car or the proper name Cato. The symbols themselves, especially the small cursives, may also differ in form from those of Latin and English, but on the whole the differences may readily be recognized. The alphabet is as follows:
α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σς τ υ φ χ ψ ω
Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ Υ Φ Χ Ψ
Note that there are two forms of the small letter sigma: the latter (ς) is used where the letter appears last in the word; everywhere iv else, the former is used. The [h] sound before a vowel is signalled by a rough breathing sign [with ο added for illustration]: ὁ; and when there is no initial [h] sound before vowels, the smooth breathing sign is ὀ. The rough breathing may also be used with initial rho: ῥ.
The names of the letters are as follows, in English and then in Greek: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, eta, theta, iota, kappa, lambda, mu, nu, xi, omicron, pi, rho, sigma, tau, upsilon, phi, chi, psi, omega
ἄλφα, βῆτα, γάμμα, δέλτα, ἔψιλόν, ζῆτα, ῆτα, θῆτα, ἰῶτα, κάππα, λάμβδα, μῦ, νῦ, ξεῖ, ὄμικρόν, πεῖ, ῥῶ, σῖγμα, ταῦ, ὔψιλόν, φεῖ, χεῖ, ψεῖ, ὦμέγα
Latin and thereupon English has maintained this order with modifications that are apparent from the different sounds of the letters and the different names. The letter ζ was pronounced like
Classical Greek Online page iv the consonant in adze. The letter ξ was pronounced like the consonant in ax. The letter ψ was pronounced like the final consonants in tops. The letters θ φ χ were originally pronounced like the aspirated initial consonants in English tan, pan, can as opposed to the unaspirated consonants in stan, span, scan; but they are usually pronounced today like the initial consonants in than, fan and the consonant in German ach.
The vowels are pronounced as follows: α like the vowel of bot, ε like that of bet, η like that of bait, ι like that of beet, ο like that of boat, υ like that of bit, ω like that of bought. The five vowels other than η ω may be long or short. Unlike English, there are few silent letters. Sentences, then, are read with every letter pronounced, as in the following sayings of Solon and of Menander:
γηράσκω δ' αἰεὶ πολλὰ διδασκόμενος 'I grow old-indeed-always-many things-learning' 'I grow old always learning many things.'
Σὴν τῶν κρατούντων μάθε φέρειν ἐξουσίαν 'the-of the-masters----learn-to bear-power' 'Learn to submit to the power of the masters.'
2. The vocabulary.
English and Greek belong to the Indo-European language family; their earlier versions separated from each other some four thousand years ago. Words of the same origin are often disguised because of changes that have taken place in both languages. For example, an initial [s] sound before vowels in Greek evolved into [h], as in (cf. English six) Latin sex, Greek heks, written ἕξ (cf. hexagon). The word corresponding to seven is written ἑπτά (cf. heptagon). Moreover the Indo-European consonants represented as bh, dh, gh evolved to ph, th, kh -- φ, θ, χ, as in φράτηρ 'brother'. New sounds have also been introduced in Greek with their own letter in the alphabet, such as η for the vowel corresponding to the [a] in hate, and ξ for the combination [ks] as in six.
The greatest difference, however, may have resulted from a massive change of consonants in Germanic (hence English) well before our era. The change was formulated by the great German scholar, Jakob Grimm, and is known as Grimm's law, which is listed even in smaller dictionaries of English. At this time, p, t,
Classical Greek Online k evolved into sounds that today are represented by f, th, h. Among examples are: father, compare Greek πατήρ, three, compare Greek τρεῖς, hundred, compare Greek ἑκατόν, literally 'one hundred'. And the sounds represented by bh, dh, gh in Indo- European were changed to the sounds that today are represented by b, d, g. These sounds were also changed in Greek, as noted above. Among examples are English brother, compare Greek φράτηρ, door, compare Greek θύρα, goose, compare Greek χήν. At the same time, b, d, g were changed to p, t, k. Among English examples are ten, compare Greek δέκα, kin, compare Greek γένος. (Indo-European had almost no words with b.)
It is interesting to compare such cognate words, but the changes that both languages have undergone often conceal the relationships, as for the numerals for four and five. Some of the others are transparently related, in spite of changes: one, Greek εἷς; two, Greek δύο; three, Greek τρεῖς; four, Greek τέτταρες; five, Greek πέντε; six, Greek ἕξ; seven, Greek ἑπτά; eight, Greek ὀκτώ; nine, Greek ἐννέα; ten, Greek δέκα. Since dictionaries may provide the Greek cognates of English entries, control over the Greek vocabulary can be gained vi by noting them. Etymological dictionaries are of greater assistance.
As noted above, by far the greatest number of similar words are found in academic and ecclesiastical language, where English simply took over the Greek terms through long influence on western culture from these spheres. Words were pronounced in accordance with the English spellings, rather than with their pronunciation in Greek. Some examples are cited here.
The academic terms are in accordance with the influence of Aristotle, who conducted his teaching in the Athenian grove known as the Academy, which was named after the hero Akademos. We have already noted terms ending in -logy, to which others might be added like biology and neurology. The last part attained a status of its own, so that further words like sociology, with its initial part from Latin, could be introduced. Moreover, the last part has a somewhat different function in the word doxology, 'giving words of praise'. Other ecclesiastical terms are clergy, clerical, Eucharist and liturgy. In the political sphere the words democrat and democracy are based on the components
Classical Greek Online page vi for people and power, as also in aristocrat and aristocracy for the best or superior people and power, autocracy for self or absolute power, theocracy for ecclesiastical power. Examination of the etymology or 'true meaning' of such words will assist in gaining control of the Greek vocabulary.
3. The sentence structure of Greek.
As is clear from the earlier quotations, the sentence order of Greek may differ considerably from that of English. In an earlier form of Greek, the verb was placed last in the sentence. But in the sayings of Menander its position is quite different. The different positions are possible because of Greek inflections. In English we generally have to place together phrases like 'power of the masters'. Greek, on the other hand, can move elements around for stylistic purposes -- as here, giving emphasis to special items like 'of the masters'.
In examining a Greek text, one should first identify the verb. Its forms are identifiable through their inflections, with the additional help that nouns are often marked by preceding articles. In the saying of Solon, the ending -ω indicates that the subject is the first person expressed in English with I. As often, no further subject is included. Moreover, the ος ending on the final word indicates that the word must be taken as modifying I. It is useful then to memorize the basic inflections of verbs, as well as those of nouns.
As illustrated by these brief passages, the key to reading Greek is provided by knowledge of its inflections. While these are numerous, memorization of the basic inflections of the article, of nouns and of verbs is generally adequate.
4. The forms of Greek.
4.1 Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, the article.
Thee parts of speech are inflected for four cases, besides a case of address called the vocative. The cases are as follows:
Nominative, the case of the subject; Genitive, the case to indicate possession -- possessive, in grammars of English Dative, the case of the indirect object
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Accusative, the case of the direct object -- objective, in grammars of English
Case forms may also be determined by prepositions.
In English, only the nominative, genitive/possessive and accusative/objective have been maintained, and that only in pronouns: I is nominative, my is genitive, me is accusative. Nouns simply have a nominative and a possessive, as in dog, dog's. Adjectives are not inflected.
Greek nouns are also inflected for --
number, that is, singular and plural; Classical Greek also maintained a dual. three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. a large number of declensions.
Paradigms are given in the various lessons. For illustration here, forms of the article are shown in all three genders, as well as the feminine noun for 'country' of the α-declension and the masculine viii noun for 'word' and the neuter for 'gift' of the ο-declension:
Fem. Masc. Nt. Fem. Masc Nt
Sg. Nom. ἡ ὁ τό χώρα λόγος δῶρον
Sg. Gen. τῆς τοῦ τοῦ χώρας λόγου δώρου
Sg. Dat. τῇ τ τ χώρᾳ λόγῳ δώρῳ
Sg. Acc. τήν τόν τό χώραν λόγον δῶρον
Pl. Nom. αἱ οἱ τά χῶραι λόγοι δῶρα
Pl. Gen. τῶν τῶν τῶν χωρῶν λόγων δώρων
Pl. Dat. ταῖς τοῖς τοῖς χώραις λόγοις δώροις
Pl. Acc τάς τούς τά χώρας λόγους δῶρα
Classical Greek Online page viii Figure 1 Paradigm of the Greek Definite Article
4.2 Verbs.
Like nouns, verbs have many inflections (though not all of the possible combinations below are realized):
Verbs are inflected for voice: active, middle, and passive. The middle indicates action directed at the subject; this is often expressed in the lexical meaning itself. Verbs with a basically middle voice are known as deponents; for example, γίγνομαι means 'become, take place, be produced,' etc. Verbs are inflected for mood: indicative, subjunctive, and optative. Verbs are inflected for tense: present, past (or imperfect), and future. Of these, there are three sets (again, not in all combinations): the basic (or simple), the aorist, and the perfect. The past perfect is also called pluperfect.
In addition there are imperative forms, infinitives, participles, a gerund, and a supine. The imperative forms are rare in written texts.
The present infinitive active may be illustrated by λέγειν 'to say, speak'; the aorist is λέξαι. The present infinitive middle is λέγεσθαι; the aorist is λέξασθαι. The passive infinitive is λέγεσθαι; the aorist is λεγθῆναι. The present participle active is λέγων, λέγουσα, λέγον. The present participle middle and passive is λεγόμενος, λεγομένη, λεγόμενον.
It should be obvious that the verb system of Greek is complex. The basic forms of irregular verbs are generally listed in dictionaries.
4.3 The other parts of speech.
In addition to these parts of speech, Greek includes adverbs, conjunctions, interjections and prepositions. Since their functions are comparable to those of their English counterparts, they will not be discussed here.
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5. Examples of texts.
Proverbs or passages from literary figures are often cited, also in English works. A few will be given here to illustrate the use of forms and patterns of syntax.
Plato: Πάντων μέτρον ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν. 'The human being is the measure of all things.'
Aristotle: ἄνθρωπος φύσει πολιτικ ον ζον. 'The human being is by nature a political animal.'
Sophocles: πολλὰ τὰ δεινὰ κοὐδὲν ἀνθρώπου δεινότερον πέλει. 'There are many wonderful things and nothing is more wonderful than the human x being.'
Archimedes: δός μοι ποῦ στῶ καὶ κινῶ τὴν γε ν. 'Give me a place where I may stand and I will move the earth.'
Menander: ὁ σοφὸς ἐν αὐτ περιφέρει τὴν οὐσίαν. 'The wise man carries his property within him.'
Plato: ὁ δὲ ἀνεξέταστον βίος οὐ βιωτὸς ἀνθρώπῳ. 'The unexamined life is not worth living for a human being.'
Menander: Οὐδεὶς ποιῶν πονερὰ λανθάνει θέον. 'No one can hide his wickedness from god.'
Isocrates: Σοὺς μὲν θεοὺς φοβοῦ, τοὺς δὲ γονέας τίμα,
Classical Greek Online page x τοῖς δὲ νόμοις πείθου. 'Fear the gods, honor the parents, keep the laws.'
Menander: Κάλλιστόν ἐστι κτῆμα παιδεία βροτοῖς. 'Education is the most valuable treasure for mortals.'
Plato: Ἡ ψυχὴ ἀθάνατος ταίνεται οὖσα. 'The soul is apparently immortal.'
Classical Greek Lessons
Note: there are great disparities in capability among personal computers in contemporary use. Unfortunately, support for Unicode® and/or the repertoire of fonts installed on your personal computer cannot be detected by a web server! Accordingly, we have prepared multiple versions of each lesson; this set of lessons is for systems/browsers for systems/browsers with Unicode support, including a complete "polytonic Greek" font. (You may switch to other versions via links below.) Lessons:
1. from Thucydides' History of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, Book 1 2. from Homer's Iliad 3. from Homer's Odyssey 4. from Herodotus' History, Book 1 5. from Herodotus' History, Book 4 6. from Xenophon's Anabasis 7. from Hesiod's Works and Days, Part 1 8. from Plato's Republic, Book 6, Section 13 9. from Aristotle's The Poetics, Book 4: 22-26 10. from Pausanias' Description of Greece, Attica 22: 4-5
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Classical Greek Online: Lesson 1 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-1- X.html
Classical Greek Online Lesson 1
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Unlike Roman tradition, Greek accounts do not depict a heroic origin 14 in the settlement of their country. The opening sections of Thucydides' History of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians provide the best and probably most accurate account of it. Among recent proposals about the entrance of the Greeks into the areas they settled, that of E.J.W. Barber, Prehistoric Textiles (Princeton University Press, 1991) is most convincing. She points out that, among the terms for textiles and weaving, those applying to simple applications like band-weaving are native Indo- European, but those for complex applications like use of the warp- weighted loom are imported. She concludes further that the Greeks picked up the terms for some of the complex applications as they came to the country through the Balkans from the northeast (1991: 260-82). Thucycides' account, which includes the excerpt given here, fully supports the conclusion that the newcomers had a simple civilization. Moreover, it also indicates that they were by no means united like the early Romans. The lack of political unity was maintained until the time of Alexander; one of its most difficult periods was the war from 431-404 B.C. that Thucydides describes so brilliantly.
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Reading and Textual Analysis
In the opening section of Book I, Thucydides complains that he was unable to get much information about the early period. He goes on to state that in the area called Hellas there were no fixed habitations. The settlers simply moved about, raising enough for their own needs. Moreover, they had no mercantile traffic. He stresses the general weakness, as in Section 3 of Book I given here. He also points out that this was the situation at the time of Homer, which was much later than the time of the Trojan war. The rest of Book I describes the gradual increase in prosperity, first of Athens, but also the discord among the groups.
δηλοῖ δέ μοι καὶ τόδε τῶν παλαιῶν ἀσθένειαν οὐχ ἤκιστα.
δηλοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δηλόω> be clear, reveal -- it is clear δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but μοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- also τόδε -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅδε> this -- by this τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the παλαιῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <παλαιός> old, ancient -- ancient ἀσθένειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀσθένεια> weakness -- weakness οὐχ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not ἤκιστα -- adverb; <ἥκιστα> least -- least
πρὸ γὰρ τῶν Σρωικῶν οὐδὲν φαίνεται πρότερον κοινῇ ἐργασαμένη ἡ Ἑλλάς.
πρὸ -- preposition; <πρό> before -- before γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the Σρωικῶν -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <Σρωικός> Trojan -- the times of Troy οὐδὲν -- pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing -- nothing
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φαίνεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <φαίνω> seem -- appears πρότερον -- adverb; <πρότερον> earlier, before -- before κοινῇ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <κοινός> common -- in common ἐργασαμένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of aorist participle of <ἐργάζομαι> work, make -- to have been carried out ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Ἑλλάς -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Ἑλλάς> Greece -- Greece
δοκεῖ δέ μοι, οὐδὲ τοὄνομα τοῦτο ξύμπασά πω εἶχεν, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πρὸ Ἕλληνος τοῦ Δευκαλίωνος καὶ πάνυ οὐδὲ εἶναι ἡ ἐπίκλησις αὕτη.
δοκεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it seems δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed 16 μοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not τοὄνομα -- noun; article <τό> the + noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄνομα> name -- this name τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this ξύμπασά -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <ξύμπας> all together -- in general πω -- adverb; <πω> yet -- yet εἶχεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἴχω> have, be -- did ... exist ἀλλὰ -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the time μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- ... πρὸ -- preposition; <πρό> before -- before Ἕλληνος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos -- Hellenos τοῦ -- article; genitive singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the Δευκαλίωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Δευκαλίων> Deucalion -- (son) of Deucalion Classical Greek Online
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- ... πάνυ -- adverb; <πάνυ> at all -- at all οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- did ... exist ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ἐπίκλησις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἐπίκλησις> name, title -- title αὕτη -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- this
κατὰ ἔθνη δὲ ἄλλα τε καὶ τὸ Πελασγικὸν ἐπὶ πλεῖστον ἀφ' ἑαυτῶν τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν παρέχεσθαι.
κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- from ἔθνη -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe -- tribes δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand ἄλλα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the Πελασγικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Πελασγικός> Pelasgian -- Pelasgian = (Thessalian) ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- by πλεῖστον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πλεῖστος> most -- chiefly ἀφ' -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from ἑαυτῶν -- reflexive pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself -- their own τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ἐπωνυμίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἐπωνυμία> name, designation -- name παρέχεσθαι -- verb; passive infinitive of <παρέχω> provide -- had furnished
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Ἕλληνος δὲ καὶ τῶν παίδων αὐτοῦ ἐν τῇ Υθιῶτιδι ἰσχυσάντων, καὶ ἐπαγομένων αὐτοὺς ἐπ' ὠφελίᾳ ἐς τὰς ἄλλας πόλεις, καθ' ἑκάστους μὲν ἤδη τῇ ὁμιλίᾳ μᾶλλον καλεῖσθαι Ἕλληνας.
Ἕλληνος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos -- Hellenos δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the παίδων -- noun, masculine/feminine; genitive plural of <παῖς> child -- sons αὐτοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- his ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Υθιῶτιδι -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <Υθιῶτις> Phthiotis -- Phthiotis ἰσχυσάντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle aorist of <ἰσχύω> be strong -- had become strong 18 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἐπαγομένων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present participle passive of <ἐπάγω> bring in, invite -- were brought in αὐτοὺς -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- themselves ἐπ' -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for ὠφελίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ὠφελία> aid -- assistance ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to τὰς -- article; accusative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ἄλλας -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <ἄλλος> other -- other πόλεις -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <πόλις> city -- cities καθ' -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- by ἑκάστους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἕκαστος> each, every -- all μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed ἤδη -- adverb; <ἤδη> already -- then
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τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ὁμιλίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ὁμιλία> being together -- association μᾶλλον -- adverb; <μᾶλλον> more and more -- more and more καλεῖσθαι -- verb; infinitive passive of <καλέω> call, summon -- were called Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks
οὐ μέντοι πολλοῦ γε χρόνου ἐδύνατο καὶ ἅπασιν ἐκνικῆσαι.
οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- it was not μέντοι -- particle; <μέντοι> but, however -- however πολλοῦ -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <πολύς> many -- long γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- indeed χρόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <χρόνος> time -- time ἐδύνατο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <δύναμαι> be able -- would καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἅπασιν -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <ἅπας> all -- to all (clans) ἐκνικῆσαι -- verb; infinitive passive of <ἐκνικάω> prevail -- prevail
τεκμηριοῖ δὲ μάλιστα Ὅμερος
τεκμηριοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <τεκμηριόω> prove positively -- demonstrated δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed μάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very -- above all Ὅμερος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ὅμερος> Homer -- Homer
πολλ γὰρ ὕστερον ἔτι καὶ τῶν Σρωικῶν γενόμενος οὐδαμοῦ οὕτω τοὺς ξύμπαντας ὠνόμασεν οὐδ' ἄλλους ἥ τοὺς μετὰ Ἀχιλλέως ἐκ τῆς Υθιώτιδος.
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πολλ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- much γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for ὕστερον -- adverb; <ὕστερον> later -- later ἔτι -- adverb; <ἔτι> still -- still καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the Σρωικῶν -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <Σρωικός> Trojan -- the times of Troy γενόμενος -- deponent verb; nominative singular neuter of present participle middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- being οὐδαμοῦ -- adverb; <οὐδαμοῦ> nowhere -- nowhere οὕτω -- adverb; <οὕτως> so, thus -- at all τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- them ξύμπαντας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ξύμπας> all together -- all together ὠνόμασεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ὀνομάζω> speak of by name -- referred to 20 οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- nor ἄλλους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other ἥ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- than τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ones μετὰ -- preposition; <μετά> after, with -- with Ἀχιλλέως -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles -- Achilles ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- from τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Υθιώτιδος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Υθιῶτις> Phthiotis -- Phthiotis
οἵπερ καὶ πρῶτοι Ἕλληνες ἧσαν, Δαναοὺς δὲ ἐν τοῖς ἔπεσι καὶ Ἀργείους καὶ Ἀχαιοὺς ἀνακαλεῖ.
οἵπερ -- article used as demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the + particle <περ> indeed -- these... indeed
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καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and πρῶτοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πρῶτος> first -- the first Ἕλληνες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks ἧσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am -- were Δαναοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Δαναοί> Danaans -- Danaans δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the ἔπεσι -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἔπος> words, saying - - poem καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and Ἀργείους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀργεῖος> Argive -- (as)Argives καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and Ἀχαιοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- Achaeans ἀνακαλεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἀνακαλέω> designate -- he designates
οὐ μὴν οὐδὲ βαρβάρους εἴρηκε διὰ τὸ μηδὲ Ἕλληνάς πω, ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ.
οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not μὴν -- particle; <μήν> verily -- even οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- but not βαρβάρους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek -- barbarians εἴρηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <εἴρω> speak, say -- he did ...speak of διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- this μηδὲ -- particle; <μηδέ> and not -- not Ἕλληνάς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the Greeks πω -- adverb; <πω> yet -- yet Classical Greek Online
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- as ἐμοὶ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me δοκεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it seems
ἀντίπαλον ἐς ἓν ὄνομα ἀποκεκρίσθαι.
ἀντίπαλον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀντίπαλος> contrast -- (to provide) a contrast ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- with ἓν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <εἷς> one -- a common ὄνομα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄνομα> name -- name ἀποκεκρίσθαι -- verb; perfect infinitive passive of <ἀποκρίνω> separate, answer -- (they had not yet) been separated 22 οἱ δ' οὖν ὡς ἕκαστοι Ἕλληνες κατὰ πόλεις τε ὅσοι ἀλλήλων ξυνίεσαν καὶ ξύμπαντες ὕστερον κληθέντες οὐδὲν πρὸ τῶν Σρωικῶν δι' ἀσθένειαν καὶ ἀμειξίαν ἀλλήλων ἁθρόοι ἔπραξαν.
οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- those δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- actually ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- thus ἕκαστοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἕκαστος> each, every -- themselves Ἕλληνες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- by πόλεις -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <πόλις> city -- cities τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and ὅσοι -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅσος> as many -- as many ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- one another's (speech)
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ξυνίεσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ξυνίημι> bring together, understand -- they understood καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ξύμπαντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <ξύμπας> all together -- together ὕστερον -- adverb; <ὕστερον> later -- later κληθέντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine aorist participle passive of <καλέω> call, summon -- called together οὐδὲν -- pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing -- nothing πρὸ -- preposition; <πρό> before -- before τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the Σρωικῶν -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <Σρωικός> Trojan -- the times of Troy δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of ἀσθένειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀσθένεια> weakness -- weakness καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἀμειξίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀμειξία> lack of intercourse -- lack of intercourse ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- with one another ἁθρόοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἁθρόος> together -- together ἔπραξαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <πράσσω> achieve, manage -- carried out
ἀλλὰ καὶ ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω χρώμενοι ξυνῆλθον.
ἀλλὰ -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- even ταύτην -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- for this τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the στρατείαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <στρατεία> expedition -- expedition
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θαλάσσῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- sea ἤδη -- adverb; <ἤδη> already -- already πλείω -- adjective; accusative singular feminine comparative of <πολύς> many -- considerable χρώμενοι -- deponent verb; nominative plural masculine middle participle of <χράομαι> need, use -- (when) they made... use of ξυνῆλθον -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <συνέρχομαι> unite, come together -- they united
Lesson Text δηλοῖ δέ μοι καὶ τόδε τῶν παλαιῶν ἀσθένειαν οὐχ ἤκιστα. πρὸ γὰρ τῶν Σρωικῶν οὐδὲν φαίνεται πρότερον κοινῇ ἐργασαμένη ἡ Ἑλλάς. δοκεῖ δέ μοι, οὐδὲ τοὄνομα τοῦτο ξύμπασά πω εἶχεν, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πρὸ Ἕλληνος τοῦ Δευκαλίωνος καὶ πάνυ οὐδὲ εἶναι ἡ ἐπίκλησις αὕτη. κατὰ ἔθνη δὲ ἄλλα τε καὶ τὸ Πελασγικὸν ἐπὶ πλεῖστον ἀφ' ἑαυτῶν τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν παρέχεσθαι. Ἕλληνος δὲ καὶ τῶν παίδων αὐτοῦ ἐν τῇ 24 Υθιῶτιδι ἰσχυσάντων, καὶ ἐπαγομένων αὐτοὺς ἐπ' ὠφελίᾳ ἐς τὰς ἄλλας πόλεις, καθ' ἑκάστους μὲν ἤδη τῇ ὁμιλίᾳ μᾶλλον καλεῖσθαι Ἕλληνας. οὐ μέντοι πολλοῦ γε χρόνου ἐδύνατο καὶ ἅπασιν ἐκνικῆσαι. τεκμηριοῖ δὲ μάλιστα Ὅμερος πολλ γὰρ ὕστερον ἔτι καὶ τῶν Σρωικῶν γενόμενος οὐδαμοῦ οὕτω τοὺς ξύμπαντας ὠνόμασεν οὐδ' ἄλλους ἥ τοὺς μετὰ Ἀχιλλέως ἐκ τῆς Υθιώτιδος. οἵπερ καὶ πρῶτοι Ἕλληνες ἧσαν, Δαναοὺς δὲ ἐν τοῖς ἔπεσι καὶ Ἀργείους καὶ Ἀχαιοὺς ἀνακαλεῖ. οὐ μὴν οὐδὲ βαρβάρους εἴρηκε διὰ τὸ μηδὲ Ἕλληνάς πω, ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ. ἀντίπαλον ἐς ἓν ὄνομα ἀποκεκρίσθαι. οἱ δ' οὖν ὡς ἕκαστοι Ἕλληνες κατὰ πόλεις τε ὅσοι ἀλλήλων ξυνίεσαν καὶ ξύμπαντες ὕστερον κληθέντες οὐδὲν πρὸ τῶν Σρωικῶν δι' ἀσθένειαν καὶ ἀμειξίαν ἀλλήλων ἁθρόοι ἔπραξαν. ἀλλὰ καὶ ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω χρώμενοι ξυνῆλθον.
Translation The weakness of ancient times is also clear to me, not least from the following. Before the times of Troy, Hellas appears to have carried out
Classical Greek Online nothing in common. Indeed, it seems to me that it did not yet have this name; before the time of Hellen, son of Deucalion, this title did not even exist. Rather, other tribes had furnished them by their own designations, and chiefly the Pelasgians. But when Hellen and his sons had become strong in Phthiotis, and were brought in for assistance to the other cities, then all were called Hellenes more and more because of this association. It was not for a long time, however that the name would prevail for all clans. Homer especially demonstrated this. Although being much later than the times of Troy, he nowhere at all referred to them all together, nor to others than the followers of Achilles from Phthiotis. They indeed were the first Hellenes, but he designates them in the poems as Danaans and Argives and Achaeans. He did not even speak of Barbarians because, as it seems to me, the Hellenes did not yet exist. They had not yet been separated with a common name to provide a contrast. Those who came together as Hellenes by cities and as they understood one another's speech and were later classed together carried out nothing together before the times of Troy because of weakness and lack of intercourse. But even for this expedition they united only when they already made considerable use of the sea.
Grammar
1. The alphabet and sound system.
1.1. The alphabet.
The Greek alphabet was taken over from the Phoenicians. It in turn was taken over by the Romans, but from a version of the alphabet that differs somewhat from the standard. The names are generally well known, such as the first two from our word alphabet, the third from gamma rays, and so on.
The pronunciations are also straightforward. Those used in the classical period differ somewhat from the pronunciations typically used in instruction today. When they differ, the classical period pronunciations are indicated below using words in parentheses.
Alpha α, Α father
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Beta β, Β bother
Gamma γ, Γ gather
Delta δ, Δ delta
Epsilon ε, Ε debt
Zeta ζ, Ζ zen
Eta η, Η rate (rat)
Theta θ, Θ thin (tin) i.e. with aspiration
Iota ι, Ι sin Kappa κ, Κ cope (scope) i.e. no aspiration 26 Lamba λ, Λ lap
Mu μ, Μ map
Nu ν, Ν nap
Ksi ξ, Ξ tax
Omikron ο, Ο rope
Pi π, Π poke (spoke) i.e., no aspiration
Rho ρ, Ρ rope
σς, soap (note: lower-case form has 2 Sigma variants)
Tau τ, Σ top (stop) i.e. no aspiration
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Upsilon υ, Τ soon (German Suehne) i.e. front rounded
Phi φ, Υ four (pour) i.e. with aspiration
core (German ich or ach) i.e. velar Chi χ, Φ fricative
Psi ψ, Χ tops
Omega ω, Ψ boat (bought)
In addition, a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong may or may not have an initial [h] sound. This is called a breathing. If the [h] sound is present, the breathing is called rough, signalled by a rough breathing sign [with α added for illustration]: ἁ; and when there is no initial [h] sound before a vowel, the smooth breathing sign is ἀ. The rough breathing may also be used with initial rho: ῥ.
Moreover, vowels may have an iota subscript, that is, an [i] sound after the vowel, written as a diacritic beneath the vowel (e.g., ᾳ); while indicated in texts, this is generally left without pronunciation.
1.2. The sound system.
The system is as follows:
Labial Dental Palato-velars s s
Voiceless: π τ κ
Voiced: β δ γ
Aspirated, φ θ χ voiceless:
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Fricative: ς
ν (spelled γ before γ or κ Nasals: μ ν )
Vowels: ι υ
ε ο
α
ῑ ῡ
η ω
ᾱ 28
Diphthongs ει αι οι ευ αυ ηυ ου : υι
Classical Greek had a musical accent. There are three such accents. Vowels marked with oxia (e.g., ά) had high pitch; those with varia (e.g., ὰ) had a low or falling pitch; those marked with perispomeni (e.g., ᾶ) had rising and falling pitch.
The place of the accent is determined chiefly by the quality of the last syllable; exceptions will be noted later. If the last syllable is short and the accent is an oxia, it can fall on the third syllable from the end of a word. If it is short, and the second last vowel is long, it may have perispomeni accent. If it is long, the second last syllable can only have oxia accent. In monosyllables the final vowel has oxia accent if it is short, a perispomeni if long. The varia accent replaces a final oxia accent before words beginning with a consonant.
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2. Greek, a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) language.
The basic word order of Classical Greek is verb-final, as in the following sentence.
ἀλλὰ καὶ ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω χρώμενοι ξυνῆλθον. "But they united even for this expedition when they were already making considerable use of the sea."
Thucydides, however, has a highly complex and personal style, so that he rearranges his sentences to emphasize certain elements. For example, the first sentence here begins with a verb, δηλοῖ, as does the third with δοκεῖ. The reason for the specific order in other sentences may be obvious when they are interpreted; for example, the second clearly emphasizes the final noun Ἑλλάς by placing it last. The texts of later lessons will be simpler; this text was selected because of its importance for information on the state of Greece in earlier times.
3. Modifications of the basic sentence pattern.
As noted in section 2, modifications of the basic sentence pattern are often carried out for stylistic purposes. A further example is the sentence:
Σεκμηριοῖ δὲ μάλιστα Ὅμερος. "Then Homer established this especially."
Both the position of the verb, and that of the subject, serve to indicate the place of emphasis. Similarly, the following sentence, with the object identifying the earliest identified sub-group of the Greeks, has been carefully constructed. Fortunately the ample inflections provide great assistance in the analysis and interpretation of sentences.
4. Nominal inflection.
Nouns, adjectives and the article are inflected for three genders, three numbers, and four cases. Among the numbers that of the dual is infrequent, and will not be presented here. The four cases are the
Classical Greek Online nominative, genitive, dative and accusative. The uses of the ablative, such as for the target in comparative constructions, are largely assumed by the genitive. The principal uses of the cases are readily defined. The nominative is the case of the subject and of nouns after the copula in the predicative nominative. The genitive is the case of possession. The dative is the case of the indirect object. The accusative is the case of the direct object.
Because of the common use of the article, its forms might well be memorized.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg ὁ ἡ τό
Gen sg τοῦ τῆς τοῦ
Dat sg τ τῇ τ 30 Acc sg τόν τήν τό
Nom pl οἱ αἱ τά
Gen pl τῶν τῶν τῶν
Dat pl τοῖς ταῖς τοῖς
Acc pl τούς τάς τά
Examples of the ο-declension, masculine and neuter, and the α- declension, feminine, are given here.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg ὁ λόγος 'word' ἡ στρατιά 'army' τὸ δῶρον 'gift'
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Gen sg τοῦ λόγου τῆς στρατιᾶς τοῦ δώρου
Dat sg τ λόγῳ τῇ στρατιᾷ τ δώρῳ
Acc sg τὸν λόγον τὴν στρατιάν τὸ δῶρον
Nom pl οἱ λόγοι αἰ στρατιαί τὰ δῶρα
Gen pl τῶν λόγων τῶν στρατιῶν τῶν δώρων
Dat pl τοῖς λόγοις ταῖς στρατιαῖς τοῖς δώροις
Acc pl τοὺς λόγους τὰς στρατιάς τὰ δῶρα
5. Verb inflection.
Greek verbs are inflected for three voices, active, middle and passive, for four moods, indicative, subjunctive, optative and imperative, three systems or tenses, present, aorist and perfect, three numbers, singular, dual, plural. The augment 'ε' (epsilon) is used with past tense forms, imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect, but only in the indicative. The perfect stem is often reduplicated. In addition there are infinitives and participles.
In view of its regularity, the verb παιδεύω 'educate' may be used to illustrate the various forms. Here the present and the imperfect indicative active are given. Before vowels, 'ν' (nu) is added to some forms ending in a vowel.
Present Imperfect
1 sg παιδεύω ἐπαίδευον
2 sg παιδεύεις ἐπαίδευες
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3 sg παιδεύει ἐπαίδευε(ν)
1 pl παιδεύομεν ἐπαιδεύομεν
2 pl παιδεύετε ἐπαιδεύετε
3 pl παιδεύουσι(ν) ἐπαίδευον
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 2 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-2- X.html 32
Classical Greek Online Lesson 2
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
The Homeric poems are among the most read, admired and discussed works of literature. They are credited to a poet about whom nothing certain is known, but who apparently lived around 850 B.C. in one of the Asiatic Greek cities, probably Smyrna (Izmir) or Chios. Every Greek schoolboy is said to have known them, as have many in the western world until recent times. Their origin has been the subject of much discussion. By investigating Yugoslav oral poets of his day Milman Parry (1902-35) established the view that they were the results of a long tradition in which bards recited or sang shorter poems or lays that were the basis of longer poems, such as the Homeric epics. Such epics were recited by outstanding poets like Homer, and might later be fixed by written versions. Parry's
Classical Greek Online contributions are readily available in The Making of Homeric Verse The Collected Papers of Milman Parry, ed. Adam Parry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987). According to ancient tradition, the Homeric poems were first written down by Pisistratus in the sixth century B.C. They were later studied, especially by the Alexandrian grammarians, among whom the great critic, Aristarchus of the second century B.C., produced an edition that has been the basis of the poems ever since.
The lines of the Iliad and the Odyssey are composed in dactylic hexameter, with a caesura typical after the fourth member, and a a dactyl [- v v] rather than a spondee [- -] in the fifth. Among characteristics of epic verse are formulae, such as δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς of line 7 below and ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος of line 14, in a different case in line 21. Parry published two long "Studies in the Epic Technique of Oral Verse-Making" (1987: 266-364). Especially the second of these with the sub-title "The Homeric Language as the Language of an Oral Poetry" may be consulted for further details.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The theme of the Iliad is given in the preamble of seven lines. It is the anger of Achilles. This was first directed at Agamemnon as they were besieging the city of Troy. But after the death of his friend, Patroclus, it was directed at his slayer, Hector, the prime warrior of the city. The poem deals with other combat during the intervening three weeks, such as that between Paris, son of Priam, head of Troy, and Menelaus, husband of Helen whom Paris had abducted, thereby causing the attack by the Greeks. The poem concludes with the death of Hector at the hands of Achilles, and his burial.
Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλλῆος
μῆνιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <μῆνις> anger -- anger ἄειδε -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <ἀείδω> sing, chant -- sing θεά -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θεά> goddess -- oh goddess Πηληιάδεω -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πηληιάδης> son of Peleus -- son of Peleus
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Ἀχιλλῆος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles -- of Achilles
οὐλομένην, ἥ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, # Note that final vowels may be elided to provide regular meter (herein, μυρί' and ἄλγε' have lost final α).
οὐλομένην -- participle; accusative singular feminine of present participle middle of <ὀλόω> to destroy -- baneful ἥ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <ὅς> who, which -- that μυρί' -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <μυρίος> countless -- countless Ἀχαιοῖς -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- on the Achaeans ἄλγε' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄλγος> woe -- woes ἔθηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <τίθημι> put, place -- brought 34
πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Αἵδι προίαψεν
πολλὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <πολύς> many -- many δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἰφθίμους -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <ἴφθιμος> valiant -- valiant ψυχὰς -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ψυχή> soul -- souls Αἵδι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Αἵδης> Hades -- to Hades προίαψεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <προιάπτω> send forth -- sent forth
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
ἡρώων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἥρως> hero -- of warriors
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αὐτοὺς -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- those δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἑλώρια -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἑλώριον> spoils, booty -- spoils τεῦχε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <τεύχω> make ready, make -- made κύνεσσιν -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <κύων> dog -- for dogs
οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή,
οἰωνοῖσί -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <οἰωνός> large bird, bird of prey -- for the birds of prey τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and πᾶσι -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- for all the Διὸς -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἐτελείετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect passive of <τελείω> fulfill, complete -- was fulfilled βουλή -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βουλή> will -- the will
ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε
ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- from οὗ -- relative pronoun; genitive singular neuter <ὅς> who, which -- that (time) δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the πρῶτα -- adverb; accusative plural neuter of <πρῶτος> first - - first διαστήτην -- verb; 2nd person dual aorist middle of <δι- ίστημι> separate, strive -- they separated ἐρίσαντε -- verb; 2nd person dual aorist participle of <ἐρίζω> quarrel -- quarreling with one another
Classical Greek Online
Ἀτρείδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.
Ἀτρείδης -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus -- the son of Atreus τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and ἄναξ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ἄναξ> ruler -- ruler ἀνδρῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀνήρ> man -- of men καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and δῖος -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <δῖος> godlike, noble -- noble Ἀχιλλεύς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles -- Achilles
Σίς τ' ἆρ' σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι;
τίς -- interrogative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τίς> who, what -- who 36 τ' -- conjunction; <τε> and -- ... ἆρ' -- interrogative particle; <ἆρα> then -- ... σφωε -- pronoun; accusative dual masculine of <σφωε> those two -- the two of them θεῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <θεός> god -- of the gods ἔριδι -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἔρις> strife -- in strife ξυνέηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <συνίημι> bring together -- brought together μάχεσθαι -- verb; infinitive middle of <μάχομαι> fight, quarrel -- to quarrel
Λητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός; ὁ γὰρ βασιλῆι χολωθεὶς
Λητοῦς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Λητώ> Leto -- of Leto καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and Διὸς -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus
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υἱός -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <υἱός> son -- the son ὁ -- article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for βασιλῆι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <βασιλεύς> king -- the king χολωθεὶς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle passive of <χολόω> anger -- angered at
νοῦσον ἀνὰ στρατὸν ὦρσε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λαοί,
νοῦσον -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <νούσος> sickness -- a sickness ἀνὰ -- preposition; <ἀνά> on -- on στρατὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <στρατός> army -- the army ὦρσε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ὄρνυμι> stir up -- brought about κακήν -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <κακός> evil, poor -- evil ὀλέκοντο -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect passive of <ὀλέκω> kill -- were perishing δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and λαοί -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <λαός> people -- people
οὕνεκα τὸν Φρύσην ἠτίμασεν ἀρητῆρα
οὕνεκα -- conjunction; <οὕνεκα> because -- because τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the Φρύσην -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Φρύσης> Chryses -- Chryses ἠτίμασεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἀτιμάζω> dishonor -- he had dishonored ἀρητῆρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀρητήρ> priest -- priest
Classical Greek Online
Ἀτρείδης· ὁ γὰρ ἤλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν
Ἀτρείδης -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus -- the son of Atreus ὁ -- article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for ἤλθε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔρχομαι> come, go -- came θοὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine; of <θοός> fast - - the fast ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- to νῆας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ναῦς> ship -- ships Ἀχαιῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- of the Achaeans λυσόμενός τε θυγάτρα φέρων τ' ἀπερείσι' ἄποινα, 38 λυσόμενός -- verb; nominative singular masculine of future participle middle of <λύω> loosen, free -- to free τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and θυγάτρα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <θυγάτηρ> daughter -- his daughter φέρων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry -- bearing τ' -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and ἀπερείσι' -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ἀπερείσιος> countless -- countless ἄποινα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄποινα> ransom -- ransom
στέμματ' ἔχων ἐν χερσὶν ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος
στέμματ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <στ εμμα> wreath, garland -- garlands ἔχων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in Classical Greek Online
χερσὶν -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <χείρ> hand -- his hands ἑκηβόλου -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <ἑκηβόλος> far-shooting -- of far-shooting Ἀπόλλωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo -- Apollo
χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, καὶ λίσσετο πάντας Ἀχαιούς
χρυσέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden -- golden ἀνὰ -- preposition; <ἀνά> on -- on σκήπτρῳ -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <σκήπτρον> sceptre -- sceptre καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and λίσσετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <λίσσομαι> pray -- prayed πάντας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all Ἀχαιούς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- Achaeans
Ἀτρείδα δὲ μάλιστα δύω, κοσμήτορε λαῶν·
Ἀτρείδα -- noun, masculine; accusative dual of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus -- sons of Atreus δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but μάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very -- chiefly δύω -- number; dual of <δύο> two -- the two κοσμήτορε -- noun, masculine; accusative dual of <κοσμήτωρ> commander -- commanders λαῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λαός> people -- of the peoples
"Ἀτρείδαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι εὐκνήμιδες Ἀχαιοί,
Ἀτρείδαι -- noun, masculine; vocative plural of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus -- Sons of Atreus
Classical Greek Online
τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἄλλοι -- adjective; vocative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other εὐκνήμιδες -- adjective; vocative plural masculine of <εὐκνῆμις> well-greaved -- well-greaved Ἀχαιοί -- noun, masculine; vocative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- Achaeans
ὑμῖν μὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες
ὑμῖν -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σύ> you -- to you μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- the gods δοῖεν -- verb; 3rd person plural optative aorist of <δίδωμι> give -- may . . .grant Ὀλύμπια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter 40 of <Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian -- Olympian δώματ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <δῶμα> house, home -- homes ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- who have
ἐκπέρσαι Πριάμοιο πόλιν, εὔ δ' οἴκαδ' ἱκέσθαι!
ἐκπέρσαι -- verb; aorist infinitive of <ἐκπέρθω> destroy -- that you destroy Πριάμοιο -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαμος> Priam -- of Priam πόλιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <πόλις> city - - the city εὔ -- adverb; <εὔ> well -- safely δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and οἴκαδ' -- adverb; <οἴκαδε> home -- home ἱκέσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist middle of <ἱκνέομαι> reach -- return
Classical Greek Online
παῖδα δ' ἐμοὶ λύσαιτε φίλην, τὰ δ' ἄποινα δέχεσθαι,
παῖδα -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative singular of <παῖς> child -- child δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἐμοὶ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me λύσαιτε -- verb; 2nd person plural optative aorist of <λύω> loosen, free -- free φίλην -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <φίλος> dear, friendly -- dear τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἄποινα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄποινα> ransom -- ransom δέχεσθαι -- verb; infinitive of <δέχομαι> receive -- receive
ἁζόμενοι Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκηβόλον Ἀπόλλωνα."
ἁζόμενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle middle of <ἅζομαι> stand in awe of -- respect with fear Διὸς -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus υἱὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <υἱός> son -- the son ἑκηβόλον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ἑκηβόλος> far-shooting -- far-shooting Ἀπόλλωνα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo -- Apollo
Lesson Text Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλλῆος οὐλομένην, ἥ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Αἵδι προίαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή, ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Classical Greek Online
Ἀτρείδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. Σίς τ' ἆρ' σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι; Λητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός; ὁ γὰρ βασιλῆι χολωθεὶς νοῦσον ἀνὰ στρατὸν ὦρσε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λαοί, οὕνεκα τὸν Φρύσην ἠτίμασεν ἀρητῆρα Ἀτρείδης· ὁ γὰρ ἤλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν λυσόμενός τε θυγάτρα φέρων τ' ἀπερείσι' ἄποινα, στέμματ' ἔχων ἐν χερσὶν ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, καὶ λίσσετο πάντας Ἀχαιούς Ἀτρείδα δὲ μάλιστα δύω, κοσμήτορε λαῶν· "Ἀτρείδαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι εὐκνήμιδες Ἀχαιοί, ὑμῖν μὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες ἐκπέρσαι Πριάμοιο πόλιν, εὔ δ' οἴκαδ' ἱκέσθαι! παῖδα δ' ἐμοὶ λύσαιτε φίλην, τὰ δ' ἄποινα δέχεσθαι, ἁζόμενοι Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκηβόλον Ἀπόλλωνα."
Translation 42 Sing, oh goddess, of the wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus, the baneful wrath, which brought countless woes on the Achaeans and sent many valiant souls of heroes to Hades; But it made them themselves spoils for dogs and all kinds of birds, while the wish of the god was fulfilled. (Sing) from the time when, quarreling with one another, they first separated, the son of Atreus, ruler of men, and noble Achilles. Who now of the gods brought those two to quarrel in strife? The son of Leto and Zeus! For he, angered at the king, brought about an evil sickness on the army, and the people were perishing, because the son of Atreus had dishonored Chryses, the priest. For he had come to the swift ships of the Achaeans to free his daughter, bearing countless ransom and having in his hands on a golden scepter garlands of far-shooting Apollo. And he requested of all the Achaeans, but chiefly the two sons of Atreus, commanders of the people: "Sons of Atreus and other well- greaved Achaeans, may the gods, who have Olympian homes, grant to you that you destroy the city of Priam and return safely home. But free my dear child to me, and receive the ransom, in awe of far-shooting Apollo, son of Zeus."
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Grammar
6. Conjunctions and Particles.
As these texts exemplify, Greek makes great use of conjunctions and particles. These may have basic meanings, but many of them simply suggest relationships between syntactic units, so that they vary in use and may even not need to be translated.
The most common conjunction is καί, with a basic meaning of 'and' but also 'even' and at times 'but'. Another common conjunction is γάρ, with a basic meaning of 'for' but also 'now', or it may be added simply to strengthen questions.
Particles typically stand right after the first content word in sentences. Among the particles, δέ is very common, as in our texts; it has a basic adversative meaning and may often be translated 'but' or 'on the other hand', but is often redundant. In a different meaning it is attached to names of places that are in the accusative, and then means 'to'. In addition it may be added to pronouns to strengthen their meaning. The particle τε is also very common, and has the meaning 'and'; it is often used after both nouns that are conjoined. Moreover, in epic poetry it is added to other particles or to pronouns without adding to their meaning. The particle μέν often stands in clauses that are followed by other clauses including δέ, where it means something like 'one the one hand'; it may also be combined with other particles, as in μὲν ἄρα, where it means 'and'. The particle δή indicates emphasis, as on the word preceding it. In short, particles often supply meaning much as intonation does in English. The meaning of the content words in sentences may be a guide to interpretation of the particles included in them.
7. Participles.
Participles are often used to function as verbs of modifying clauses. These modifying clauses may correspond to relative clauses, as does ἔχοντες in line 18 of the Iliad text. The relationship to a principal clause may require a further interpretation, as does that of the participle λυσόμενος in line 13 or that of ἀζόμενος in line 21. On the other hand, they may be treated as participles in English, as for example φέρων in line 13. They may also be adjectival; an example
Classical Greek Online is οὐλομένην in line 2. The interpretations will generally be clear from the contexts in which they are found.
8. Nouns in consonantal declension.
Nouns in the consonantal declension often have the final consonant elided before the nominative ending, so that their stem form must be determined from the genitive or other oblique cases. Examples are given here of nouns with stems ending in -δ- and -ρ-.
Masculine Feminine Feminine
Nom ὁ ἡ ἡ
sg παῖς 'child' Ἕλλας 'Hellas' θυγάτηρ 'daughter'
Gen τοῦ παιδός τῆς Ἑλλάδος τῆς θυγατέρος sg 44 Dat τ παιδί τῇ Ἑλλάδι τῇ θυγατέρι sg
Acc τὸν παῖδα τῆν Ἑλλάδα τῆν θυγατέρα sg
Nom οἱ παῖδες αἱ θυγατέρες pl
Gen τῶν τῶν θυγατέρων pl παίδων
Dat τοῖς παῖσι ταῖς θυγατέρσι pl
Acc τοὺς τὰς θυγατέρας pl
Classical Greek Online
παῖδας
9. Personal pronouns.
The first and second personal pronouns have enclitic forms in the oblique cases of the singular, which are given here after the regular forms; they have no accent. The third person forms, for 'he, she, it', are supplied by the intensive pronoun meaning 'self'; the genitive singular forms would have the meanings 'of him, of her, of it', the dative singular forms would have the meanings 'to him, to her, to it', and so on.
1st 2nd 3rd Person Person Person
Masc. Fem. Neut.
Nom ἐγώ σύ αὐτός αὐτή αὐτό sg
Gen ἐμοῦ, μου σοῦ, σου αὐτοῦ αὐτῆς αὐτοῦ sg
Dat sg ἐμοί, μοι σοί, σοι αὐτ αὐτῇ αὐτ
Acc sg ἐμέ, με σέ, σε αὐτόν αὐτήν αὐτό
Nom ἡμεῖς ὑμεῖς αὐτοῖ αὐταῖ αὐτά pl
Gen pl ἡμῶν ὑμῶν αὐτῶν αὐτῶν αὐτῶν
Dat pl ἡμῖν ὑμῖν αὐτοῖς αὐταῖς αὐτοῖς
Acc pl ἡμᾶς ὑμᾶς αὐτούς αὐτάς αὐτά
Classical Greek Online
10. The Present System of verbs.
The present system includes five categories of forms: the present indicative, the imperfect, the subjunctive, the optative, and the imperative. In addition there is an infinitive and also a participle. The first two categories have been given in Lesson 1; the others are given here using the verb [infinitive] παιδεύειν.
Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg παιδεύω παιδεύοιμι
2 sg παιδεύῃς παιδεύοις παίδευε
3 sg παιδεύῃ παιδεύοι παιδευέτω
1 pl παιδεύωμεν παιδεύοιμεν 46
2 pl παιδεύητε παιδεύοιτε παιδεύετε
3 pl παιδεύωσι(ν) παιδεύοιεν παιδευόντων
The participial forms, nominative and genitive singular, are as follows.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg παιδεύων παιδεύουσα παιδεῦον
Gen sg παιδεύοντος παιδευούσης παιδεύοντος
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 3 Source
Classical Greek Online
URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-3- X.html
Classical Greek Online Lesson 3
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Odysseus' ordeals during the ten years on his way home after the sacking of Troy are recited in some three thousand fewer lines than the Iliad. The Odyssey is a relatively straightforward description of his adventures during his travels by sea, and of the peoples he met before he reached his homeland in Ithaca. But the remarkable eleventh book includes a descent into Hades, where Odysseus learns, among other references to heroes of the past, what happened to Agamemnon and Achilles, his fellows at Troy. That is one of the most striking sections of the epic, with a major effect on Dante's Divine Comedy. As the epic ends, Odysseus resumes his position as the major figure in a small rural society, with his chief retainers being the keepers of his swine and his cattle.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The outline of the Odyssey is given in the first ten lines, and the first word indicates its chief theme, "a man."
Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον, ὅς μάλα πολλὰ
ἄνδρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀνήρ> man -- man μοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- me ἔννεπε -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <ἐνέπω> tell, tell of -- tell ... of Μοῦσα -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <Μοῦσα> Muse -- O Muse
Classical Greek Online
πολύτροπον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <πολύτροπος> much-turned, much-traveled -- much- traveled ὅς -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- who μάλα -- adverb; <μάλα> very -- very πολλὰ -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <πολύς> many -- in many ways
πλάγχθη, ἐπεὶ Σροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον ἔπερσεν·
πλάγχθη -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist passive of <πλάζω> wander, toss -- was tossed about ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- after Σροίης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Σροίη> Troy -- Troy ἱερὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἱερός> sacred -- sacred πτολίεθρον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular 48 of <πτολίεθρον> city -- city ἔπερσεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <πέρθω> destroy, sack -- he had sacked
πολλῶν δ' ἀνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω,
πολλῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <πολύς> many -- of many δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- men ἴδεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἴδω> see, know -- he saw ἄστεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄστυ> city -- the cities καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and νόον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <νόος> mind -- (their) mind ἔγνω -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <γιγνώσκω> know, learn -- learned
Classical Greek Online
πολλὰ δ' ὅ γ' ἐν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυμόν,
πολλὰ -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <πολύς> many -- many δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ὅ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he γ' -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ... ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- on πόντῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <πόντος> sea -- the sea πάθεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <πάσχω> suffer - - suffered ἄλγεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄλγος> woe -- woes ὃν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ὅς> his -- his κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in θυμόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυμός> soul, heart -- heart
ἀρνύμενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίρων.
ἀρνύμενος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle middle of <ἄρνυμαι> win -- seeking to save ἥν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- his τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- ... ψυχὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ψυχή> soul -- life καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and νόστον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <νόστος> return -- the return ἑταίρων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἕταιρος> comrade -- of his comrades
ἀλλ' οὐδ' ὣς ἑτάρους ἐρρύσατο, ἱέμενός περ·
ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not even Classical Greek Online
ὣς -- adverb; <ὡς> so, thus -- thus ἑτάρους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural <ἕταρος> comrade -- comrades ἐρρύσατο -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <ῥύομαι> save -- did he save ἱέμενός -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἵεμαι> desire -- desiring περ -- adverb; <πέρ> although -- although
αὐτῶν γὰρ σφετέρῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο,
αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- their γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for σφετέρῃσιν -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <σφέτερος> own -- own ἀτασθαλίῃσιν -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <ἀτασθαλία> folly -- folly ὄλοντο -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ὄλλυμαι> perish - 50 - they perished
νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς Ὑπερίονος Ἠελίοιο
νήπιοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <νήπιος> childish, foolish -- fools οἳ -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- who κατὰ -- adverb; <κατά> completely, down, under -- ... βοῦς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <βοῦς> cow, ox -- cattle Ὑπερίονος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ὑπερίων> Hyperion -- of Hyperion Ἠελίοιο -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἠέλιος> Helios -- Helios
ἤσθιον· αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιμον ἧμαρ.
Classical Greek Online
ἤσθιον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἐσθίω> eat -- devoured αὐτὰρ -- conjunction; <αὐτάρ> but -- but ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he τοῖσιν -- article used as pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- them ἀφείλετο -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <ἀφαιρέω> take away -- took away from νόστιμον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <νόστιμος> returning -- of return ἧμαρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἧμαρ> day -- day
τῶν ἁμόθεν γε, θεά, θύγατερ Διός, εἰπὲ καὶ ἡμῖν.
τῶν -- article used as pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of these things ἁμόθεν -- adverb; <ἁμόθεν> from any point -- beginning at any stage γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- indeed θεά -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θεά> goddess -- O goddess θύγατερ -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θυγάτηρ> daughter -- daughter Διός -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus εἰπὲ -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <λέγω> say -- tell καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἡμῖν -- pronoun; dative plural of <ἐγώ> I -- us
Ἔνθ' ἄλλοι μὲν πάντες, ὅσοι φύγον αἰπὺν ὄλεθρον,
ἔνθ' -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- then ἄλλοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- the others μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed πάντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all
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ὅσοι -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅσος> as many -- whoever φύγον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <φεύγω> escape, flee -- had escaped αἰπὺν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <αἰπύς> deep -- sheer ὄλεθρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ὄλεθρος> destruction -- destruction
οἴκοι ἔσαν, πόλεμόν τε πεφευγότες ἠδὲ θάλασσαν·
οἴκοι -- adverb; <οἴκοι> at home -- at home ἔσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am -- were πόλεμόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πο λεμος> war -- the war τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and πεφευγότες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle of <φεύγω> escape, flee -- having escaped 52 ἠδὲ -- conjunction; <ἠδέ> and, also -- also θάλασσαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- the sea
τὸν δ' οἶον νόστου κεχρημένον ἠδὲ γυναικὸς,
τὸν -- article used as pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- him δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but οἶον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <οἶος> alone -- alone νόστου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <νόστος> return -- return κεχρημένον -- verb; accusative singular masculine of perfect participle middle of <χράομαι> need, use -- longing for ἠδὲ -- conjunction; <ἠδέ> and, also -- also γυναικὸς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γυνή> woman -- wife
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νύμφη πότνι' ἔρυκε Καλυψὼ δῖα θεάων
νύμφη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <νύμφη> nymph -- nymph πότνι' -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πότνια> revered, queenly -- the queenly ἔρυκε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ἐρύκω> hold back -- held back Καλυψὼ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Καλυψώ> Calypso -- Calypso δῖα -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <δῖος> godlike, noble -- splendid θεάων -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <θεά> goddess -- among the goddesses
ἐν σπέσσι γλαφυροῖσι, λιλαιομένη πόσιν εἶναι.
ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in σπέσσι -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <σπέος> cave, grotto -- grotto γλαφυροῖσι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <γλαφυρός> hollow -- hollow λιλαιομένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle middle of <λιλαίομαι> desire -- desiring πόσιν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πόσις> husband -- husband εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- to be
ἀλλ' ὅτε δὴ ἔτος ἦλθε περιπλομένων ἐνιαυτῶν,
ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but ὅτε -- conjunction; <ὅτε> when -- when δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- ... ἔτος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἔτος> year -- the year ἦλθε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔρχομαι> come, go -- came περιπλομένων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present middle participle of <περιπέλομαι> revolve -- revolved
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ἐνιαυτῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἐνιαυτός> year -- years
τ οἱ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ οἶκόνδε νέεσθαι
τ -- article used as pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- for him οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ἐπεκλώσαντο -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist middle of <ἐπικλώθω> spin; decide -- had decided θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- gods οἶκόνδε -- adverb; <οἶκόνδε> to his home -- home νέεσθαι -- verb; infinitive middle of <νέομαι> return -- (he should) return
εἰς Ἰθάκην, οὐδ' ἔνθα πεφυγμένος ἦεν ἀέθλων
εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- to 54 Ἰθάκην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἰθάκη> Ithaca -- Ithaca οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not even ἔνθα -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- there πεφυγμένος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle middle of <φεύγω> escape, flee -- be away from ἦεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἶμι> go -- had he ἀέθλων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀέθλος> battle, woe -- woes
καὶ μετὰ οἷσι φίλοισι. θεοὶ δ' ἐλέαιρον ἅπαντες
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- even μετὰ -- preposition; <μετά> after, with -- with οἷσι -- possessive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> his -- his φίλοισι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <φίλος> dear one, friend -- friends
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θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- gods δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἐλέαιρον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἐλεαίρω> pity -- pitied ἅπαντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἅπας> all -- all
νόσφι Ποσειδάωνος· ὁ δ' ἀσπερχὲς μενέαινεν
νόσφι -- preposition; <νόσφι> apart, afar, except -- except Ποσειδάωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ποσειδάων> Poseidon -- Poseidon ὁ -- article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but ἀσπερχὲς -- adverb; <ἀσπερχές> unceasingly -- unceasingly μενέαινεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <μεναίνω> rage -- raged
ἀντιθέῳ Ὀδυσῆι πάρος ἣν γαῖαν ἱκέσθαι.
ἀντιθέῳ -- adjective; dative singular masculine of <ἀντίθεος> godlike -- godlike Ὀδυσῆι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Ὀδυσεύς> Odysseus -- Odysseus πάρος -- conjunction; <πάρος> until -- until ἣν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- his γαῖαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γαῖα> land - - homeland ἱκέσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist middle of <ἱκνέομαι> reach -- (he) reached
Lesson Text Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον, ὅς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη, ἐπεὶ Σροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον ἔπερσεν·
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πολλῶν δ' ἀνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω, πολλὰ δ' ὅ γ' ἐν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυμόν, ἀρνύμενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίρων. ἀλλ' οὐδ' ὣς ἑτάρους ἐρρύσατο, ἱέμενός περ· αὐτῶν γὰρ σφετέρῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο, νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς Ὑπερίονος Ἠελίοιο ἤσθιον· αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιμον ἧμαρ. τῶν ἁμόθεν γε, θεά, θύγατερ Διός, εἰπὲ καὶ ἡμῖν. Ἔνθ' ἄλλοι μὲν πάντες, ὅσοι φύγον αἰπὺν ὄλεθρον, οἴκοι ἔσαν, πόλεμόν τε πεφευγότες ἠδὲ θάλασσαν· τὸν δ' οἶον νόστου κεχρημένον ἠδὲ γυναικὸς, νύμφη πότνι' ἔρυκε Καλυψὼ δῖα θεάων ἐν σπέσσι γλαφυροῖσι, λιλαιομένη πόσιν εἶναι. ἀλλ' ὅτε δὴ ἔτος ἦλθε περιπλομένων ἐνιαυτῶν, τ οἱ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ οἶκόνδε νέεσθαι εἰς Ἰθάκην, οὐδ' ἔνθα πεφυγμένος ἦεν ἀέθλων 56 καὶ μετὰ οἷσι φίλοισι. θεοὶ δ' ἐλέαιρον ἅπαντες νόσφι Ποσειδάωνος· ὁ δ' ἀσπερχὲς μενέαινεν ἀντιθέῳ Ὀδυσῆι πάρος ἣν γαῖαν ἱκέσθαι.
Translation Tell me, O Muse, of the much-traveled man, who wandered many ways after he had sacked the sacred city of Troy. He saw the cities of many men and learned their mind. Then he suffered woes in his heart on the sea, seeking to save his life and the return of his comrades. But not even so did he save his comrades, although desiring it greatly. They perished through their own folly, fools, who devoured the cattle of Hyperion Helios. But he took away from them the day of return. Of these things tell also to us, o goddess, daughter of Zeus, beginning at any stage. Then all the others indeed, whoever had escaped sheer destruction, were at home having escaped the war and also the sea. But him alone, longing for his return and also his wife, the queenly nymph, Calypso, splendid among the goddesses, held back in her hollow grotto, desiring him to be her husband. But when the year came as the years revolved, in which the gods had decided he should return home to Ithaca, not even
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Grammar
11. Nouns: ι-stems.
Nouns with stems in -ι have endings differing from those of the -ο- and -ᾱ- declensions, except in the accusative singular and genitive plural. Their endings also vary in the epic texts, but the basic inflection is given here with the noun πόλις 'city'.
Nom sg ἡ πόλις Nom pl αἱ πόλεις
Gen sg τῆς πόλεος Gen pl τῶν πολίων
Dat sg τῇ πόλει Dat pl ταῖς πόλισι
Acc sg τῆν πόλιν Acc pl τὰς πόλεις
12. Adjectives of the -ο- and -ᾱ- Declensions.
Many of the most common adjectives fall in these declensions, e.g. κακός 'bad', νέος 'new', φίλος 'dear'. Their endings are those of the nouns in the declensions. It must be noted, however, that feminine singular forms have -η rather than -α unless their stems ending in -ε, -ι, -ρ, as in δικαία 'just'. Some, especially compound adjectives, have only two endings, e.g. βάρβαρος, - ον 'foreign', παράνομος, -ον 'unlawful.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg κακός κακή κακόν
Gen sg κακοῦ κακῆς κακοῦ
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Dat sg κακ κακῇ κακ
Acc sg κακόν κακήν κακόν
Nom pl κακοί κακαί κακά
Gen pl κακῶν κακῶν κακῶν
Dat pl κακοῖς κακᾶις κακοῖς
Acc pl κακούς κακάς κακά
13. The Intensive Pronoun αὐτός and ἄλλος 'other'.
The intensive pronoun, meaning 'self, same', is inflected like adjectives except that the neuter nominative/accusative singular lacks 58 final -ν, e.g. αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό. The forms of ἄλλος are also inflected in the same way. The forms of the third person reflexive pronouns 'his, her, their' are based on these:
Gen Gen ἑαυτοῦ 'his' ἑαυτῆς 'her' ἑαυτῶν 'their' sg pl
Dat sg ἑαυτ ἑαυτῇ Dat pl ἑαυτοῖς
Acc sg ἑαυτόν ἑαυτήν Acc pl ἑαυτούς
14. The Dual.
The dual, a plural-like form signifying "two," is relatively rare, but is found in older verse, as in Homer. It has only two endings, one for the nominative, accusative and vocative, and the other for the genitive and dative. These are illustrated with forms from the -ᾱ-declension, the -ο-declension, and the consonantal declension.
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Nom/Acc/Voc Gen/Dat
τὼ χώρα τοῖν χώραιν 'two countries'
τὼ θεώ τοῖν θεοῖν 'two gods'
τὼ ἄνδρε τοῖν ἀνδροῖν 'two men'
The forms for the first and third person pronouns are:
Nom/Acc/Voc Gen/Dat
νώ νν 'we two'
σφώ σφῴν 'the two of them'
15. The Aorist System.
The aorist system is comparable to the present system, except that it lacks a form corresponding to the present indicative. Its basic meaning was punctual, but its basic set of forms generally may be translated with past tense forms. The subjunctive, optative and imperative are comparable to those of the present system.
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 s ἐπαίδευσα παιδεύσω παιδεύσαι g
2 παιδεύσεια s ἐπαίδευσας παιδεύσῃς παίδευσον g ς
3 ἐπαίδευσε( παιδεύσῃ παιδεύσειε( παιδευσάτω s
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g ν) ν)
1 ἐπαιδεύσαμ παιδεύσωμε παιδεύσαιμ
pl εν ν εν
2 ἐπαιδεύσατ παιδεύσαιτ παιδεύσητε παιδεύσατε pl ε ε
3 παιδεύσωσι παιδεύσεια παιδευσάντ ἐπαίδευσαν pl (ν) ν ων
Infinitiv παιδεῦσαι e 60 Particip παιδεύσας παιδεύσα παιδεύσα ν 'one le σα who
Gen sg παιδεύσαντ παιδεύση παιδεύσαντ educate ος ς ος d'
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 4 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-4- X.html
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Lesson 4
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Herodotus, often referred to as the father of history, provided no information about himself. He is said to have been born about 484 B.C. in Caria, Asia Minor, and died about 430 B.C. in southern Italy. The aim of his history is stated in the first sentence, which is considered one of the greatest ever written; it is broken up here for ease of treatment. In my view, this sentence provided the pattern of the first sentence of Luke's Gospel. In the course of setting out to provide a history of the conflict between the Greeks and the Persians he not only describes the rise of the Persian Empire but also that of Egypt and Greece. His description is based on wide travels that took him throughout the countries on the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea and also into Scythia, the area north of the Black Sea. That area he visited before his travels in Egypt, where he went as far south as Assuan. The nine books of his History include highly interesting accounts such as that of Solon with the Lydian ruler, Croesus, which was formerly included in elementary grade school readers. Recalling Solon's accounts of fortunate men, Croesus repeated Solon's name when he was to be burned at the stake by his Persian conqueror, Cyrus; on his explanation for recalling Solon he was freed. While some of these are considered mythical, his unparalleled accounts provide information about Greece, Asia Minor, and Persia that is not recorded elsewhere.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Section 3 of Book I ascribes the initial enmity between the Greeks and the Persians to the rape of Helen by Paris. The previous section tells of other rapes, including that of Medea by the Greeks, which by his account led Paris to abduct Helen. In a sense then, Herodotus begins his history from the epics of Homer.
Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, # History I.1
Ἡροδότου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἡερόδοτος> Herodotus -- of Herodotus Ἁλικαρνησσέος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἁλικαρνησεύς> Halicarnassian -- the Halicarnassian
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ἱστορίης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἱστορία> inquiry, history -- of the history ἀπόδεξις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀπόδεξις> exposition, publication -- exposition ἥδε -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <ὅδε> this -- this
ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται,
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- so that μήτε -- adverb; <μήτε> and not, neither -- neither τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the γενόμενα -- participle used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of present participle middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- events ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- by ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- by humans τ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the 62 χρόνῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <χρόνος> time - - in time ἐξίτηλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἐξίτηλος> fading, forgotten -- forgotten γένηται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- become
μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται,
μήτε -- adverb; <μήτε> and not, neither -- nor ἔργα -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἔργον> work, deed -- deeds μεγάλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <μεγάλος> great -- great τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and θωμαστά -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <θωμαστός> wonderful -- wonderful τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- those Classical Greek Online
μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand Ἕλλησι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- by Greeks τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- those δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand βαρβάροισι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek -- others than Greeks ἀποδεχθέντα -- verb; nominative plural neuter of aorist participle passive of <ἀποδείκνυμι> propose -- performed ἀκλεᾶ -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἀκλεός> without fame -- without fame γένηται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- may be
τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι.
τά -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- and τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and ἄλλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because ἣν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- the αἰτίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <αἰτία> cause, reason -- reason ἐπολέμησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <πολεμέω> fight, be at war -- they fought ἀλλήλοισι -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- with one another
Δευτέρῃ δὲ λέγουσι γενεῇ μετὰ ταῦτα Ἀλέξανδρον τὸν Πριάμου, ἀκηκοότα ταῦτα, ἐθελῆσαί οἱ ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος δι' ἁρπαγῆς γενέσθαι γυναῖκα, # History I.3
δευτέρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <δεύτερος> second -- in the second
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δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- then λέγουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <λέγω> say -- they say γενεῇ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <γενεή> family, generation, race -- generation μετὰ -- preposition; <μετά> after, with -- after ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- these things Ἀλέξανδρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Ἀλέξανδρος> Alexandros -- Alexandros = Paris τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the (son) Πριάμου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαμος> Priam -- of Priam ἀκηκοότα -- verb; nominative plural neuter of perfect participle of <ἀκούω> hear, listen -- having been heard ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- these things ἐθελῆσαί -- verb; infinitive aorist of <ἐθέλω> wish, want -- 64 wanted οἱ -- reflexive pronoun; dative singular masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for himself ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- out of τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Ἑλλάδος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Ἑλλάς> Greece -- Greece δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- through ἁρπαγῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction -- abduction γενέσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- become γυναῖκα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γυνή> woman -- wife
ἐπιστάμενον πάντως ὅτι οὐ δώσει δίκας.
ἐπιστάμενον -- deponent verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle of <ἐπίσταμαι> know -- knowing
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πάντως -- adverb; <πάντως> altogether -- fully well ὅτι -- conjunction; <ὅτι> because, that -- that οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not δώσει -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive of <δίδωμι> give -- he would...make δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right -- amends
οὔτω δὴ ἁρπάσαντος αὐτοῦ Ἑλένην.
οὔτω -- adverb; <οὔτω> thus -- and so δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed ἁρπάσαντος -- verb; genitive singular masculine of <ἁρπάζω> carry off -- carried off αὐτοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- he Ἑλένην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἑλένη> Helen -- Helen
τοῖσι Ἕλλησι δόξαι πρῶτὸν πέμψαντας ἀγγέλους ἀπαιτέειν τε Ἑλένην καὶ δίκας τῆς ἁρπαγῆς αἰτέειν.
τοῖσι -- article; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the Ἕλλησι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks δόξαι -- verb; aorist infinitive of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it was resolved πρῶτὸν -- adverb; <πρῶτον> first -- first πέμψαντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of aorist participle of <πέμπω> send -- sent ἀγγέλους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ἄγγελος> messenger -- messengers ἀπαιτέειν -- verb; infinitive of <ἀπαιτέω> request -- to demand back τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and Ἑλένην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἑλένη> Helen -- Helen καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
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δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right -- reparations τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ἁρπαγῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction -- abduction αἰτέειν -- verb; infinitive present, of <αἰτέω> request -- to request
τοὺς δέ, προισομένων ταῦτα, προφέρειν σφι Μηδείης τὴν ἁρπαγήν.
τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- these δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but προισομένων -- verb; genitive plural neuter of aorist participle of <προφέρω> bring forth -- when they proposed ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- these things προφέρειν -- verb; infinitive of <προφέρω> bring forth -- (the 66 Trojans) brought up σφι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- they Μηδείης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Μηδεία> Medea -- of Medea τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ἁρπαγήν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction -- abduction
ὡς οὐ δόντες αὐτοὶ δίκας οὐδὲ ἐκδόντες ἀπαιτεόντων βουλοίατό σφι παρ' ἄλλων δίκας γίνεσθαι.
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- so that οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not δόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist participle of <δίδωμι> give -- (they had...) given αὐτοὶ -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- themselves δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right -- satisfaction
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οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and...not ἐκδόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist participle of <ἐκδιδώμι> give up -- having given up ἀπαιτεόντων -- verb; genitive plural neuter of present participle of <ἀπαιτέω> request -- (what was) requested βουλοίατό -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <βούλομαι> wish, request -- they wished (that) σφι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for themselves παρ' -- preposition; <παρά> from, of -- by ἄλλων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- others δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right -- reparations γίνεσθαι -- deponent verb; aorist infinitive of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- be provided
Μέχρι μὲν ὦν τούτου ἁρπαγὰς μούνας εἶναι παρ' ἀλλήλων. # History I.4
μέχρι -- preposition; <μέχρι> until -- up to μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed ὦν -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of <εἰμί> I am -- being τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this point ἁρπαγὰς -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ἁρπαγή> abduction -- abductions μούνας -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <μοῦνος> alone -- only εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- (there) were παρ' -- preposition; <παρά> from, of -- by ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- one another
τὸ δὲ ἀπὸ τούτου Ἕλληνας δὴ μεγάλως αἰτίους γενέσθαι.
τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- in regard to this Classical Greek Online
δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἀπὸ -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this point Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the Greeks δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed μεγάλως -- adverb; <μεγάλως> greatly -- greatly αἰτίους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <αἴτιος> blameworthy -- blameworthy γενέσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- became
προτέρους γὰρ ἄρξαι στρατεύεσθαι ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην ἤ σφέας ἐς τὴν Εὐρώπην.
προτέρους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <πρότερος> first, before -- before γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for 68 ἄρξαι -- verb; infinitive aorist of <ἄρχω> begin -- (they) began στρατεύεσθαι -- verb; infinitive middle of <στρατεύω> take the field, attack -- make war ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- against τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Ἀσίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀσία> Asia -- Asia ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- than σφέας -- reflexive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- they ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- against τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Εὐρώπην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Εὐρώπη> Europe -- Europe
Ἕλληνας δὲ Λακεδαιμονίης εἵνεκεν γυναικὸς στόλον μέγαν συναγεῖραι καὶ ἔπειτα ἐλθόντας ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην τὴν Πριάμου δύναμιν κατελεῖν.
Classical Greek Online
Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the Greeks δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and Λακεδαιμονίης -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Λακεδαιμόνιος> Lacedemonian, Spartan -- Lacedemonian εἵνεκεν -- preposition; <εἵνεκεν> because of -- because of γυναικὸς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γυνή> woman -- woman στόλον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <στόλος> army -- army μέγαν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <μέγας> great -- great συναγεῖραι -- verb; infinitive aorist of <συναγείρω> assemble -- assembled καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- thereupon ἐλθόντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of aorist participle of <ἔρχομαι> come, go -- went ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Ἀσίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀσία> Asia -- Asia τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Πριάμου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαμος> Priam -- of Priam δύναμιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <δύναμις> power -- power κατελεῖν -- verb; infinitive aorist of <καθαιρέω> take down, destroy -- destroyed
ἀπὸ τούτου αἰεὶ ἡγήσασθαι τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν σφίσι εἶναι πολέμιον,
ἀπὸ -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this (time) αἰεὶ -- adverb; <αἰεί> always -- always
Classical Greek Online
ἡγήσασθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist of <ἡγέομαι> lead, regard, rule -- (we have) regarded τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the Ἑλληνικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek -- Greeks σφίσι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- to us εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- to be πολέμιον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πολέμιος> hostile, inimical -- hostile
τὴν γὰρ Ἀσίην καὶ τὰ ἐνοικέοντα ἔθνεα βάρβαρα οἰκηιεῦνται οἱ Πέρσαι, τὴν δὲ Εὐρώπην καὶ τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν ἥγηνται κεχωρίσθαι.
τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for Ἀσίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀσία> Asia -- Asia καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and 70 τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the ἐνοικέοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of present participle of <ἐνοικέω> dwelling in -- inhabiting ἔθνεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe -- nations βάρβαρα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <βάρβαρος> foreign, not Greek -- foreign οἰκηιεῦνται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <οἰκηιεύω> claim -- claim (for themselves) οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the Πέρσαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Πέρσης> Persian -- Persians τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but Εὐρώπην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Εὐρώπη> Europe -- Europe καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
Classical Greek Online
Ἑλληνικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek -- Greeks ἥγηνται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἡγέομαι> lead, regard, rule -- they consider κεχωρίσθαι -- verb; infinitive perfect passive of <χωρίζω> separate -- to be separate
Lesson Text Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι. Δευτέρῃ δὲ λέγουσι γενεῇ μετὰ ταῦτα Ἀλέξανδρον τὸν Πριάμου, ἀκηκοότα ταῦτα, ἐθελῆσαί οἱ ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος δι' ἁρπαγῆς γενέσθαι γυναῖκα, ἐπιστάμενον πάντως ὅτι οὐ δώσει δίκας. οὔτω δὴ ἁρπάσαντος αὐτοῦ Ἑλένην. τοῖσι Ἕλλησι δόξαι πρῶτὸν πέμψαντας ἀγγέλους ἀπαιτέειν τε Ἑλένην καὶ δίκας τῆς ἁρπαγῆς αἰτέειν. τοὺς δέ, προισομένων ταῦτα, προφέρειν σφι Μηδείης τὴν ἁρπαγήν. ὡς οὐ δόντες αὐτοὶ δίκας οὐδὲ ἐκδόντες ἀπαιτεόντων βουλοίατό σφι παρ' ἄλλων δίκας γίνεσθαι. Μέχρι μὲν ὦν τούτου ἁρπαγὰς μούνας εἶναι παρ' ἀλλήλων. τὸ δὲ ἀπὸ τούτου Ἕλληνας δὴ μεγάλως αἰτίους γενέσθαι. προτέρους γὰρ ἄρξαι στρατεύεσθαι ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην ἤ σφέας ἐς τὴν Εὐρώπην. Ἕλληνας δὲ Λακεδαιμονίης εἵνεκεν γυναικὸς στόλον μέγαν συναγεῖραι καὶ ἔπειτα ἐλθόντας ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην τὴν Πριάμου δύναμιν κατελεῖν. ἀπὸ τούτου αἰεὶ ἡγήσασθαι τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν σφίσι εἶναι πολέμιον, τὴν γὰρ Ἀσίην καὶ τὰ ἐνοικέοντα ἔθνεα βάρβαρα οἰκηιεῦνται οἱ Πέρσαι, τὴν δὲ Εὐρώπην καὶ τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν ἥγηνται κεχωρίσθαι.
Translation This is the exposition of the history of Herodotus, the Halicarnassian, (produced) so that neither the events be forgotten by humans in time, nor the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and foreigners may be without fame, and especially the reason why they fought with one another.
Classical Greek Online
Then in the second generation after these things, they say that Paris, the son of Priam, having heard these things, wanted to get for himself a wife out of Greece through rapine, believing full well that he would not make amends. And so indeed he carried off Helen. It was resolved first by the Greeks that messengers that were sent should demand back Helen and request reparations. When they proposed these things, the Trojans brought up the rape of Medea, and they reminded the Greeks that they had not given satisfaction nor given what was requested but asked that reparations be given to them by others. Up to this point there were only robberies from one another. But after this (the Persians say) the Greeks became greatly blameworthy. For they began to make war against Asia before they themselves did against Europe. --- The Greeks for the sake of a Lacedaemonian woman brought together a great army and then coming to Asia destroyed the power of Priam. From this time on we have always regarded the Greeks as hostile us. The Persians claim Asia and the foreign nations living there for themselves and consider Europe and the Greeks to be separate. Grammar 72 16. Nouns ending in -ηρ.
The basic relationship terms, among other nouns, end in -ηρ, and have no -ε- in the genitive and dative singular, and the dative plural. The following are examples.
father daughter man
Nom. sg. ὁ πατήρ ἡ θυγάτηρ ὀ ἀνήρ
Gen. sg. τοῦ πατρός τῆς θυγατρός τοῦ ἀνδρός
Dat. sg. τ πατρί τῇ θυγατρί τ ανδρί
Acc. sg. τὸν πατέρα τῆν θυγατέρα τὸν ἄνδρα
Classical Greek Online
Nom. pl. οἱ πατέρες αἱ θυγατέρες οἱ ἄνδρες
Gen. pl. τῶν πατέρων τῶν θυγατέρων τῶν ἀνδρῶν
Dat. pl. τοῖς πατράσι ταῖς θυγατράσι τοῖς ἀνδράσι
Acc. pl. τοὺς πατέρας τὰς θυγατέρας τοὺς ἄνδρας
17. Irregular nouns.
Some of the more frequent nouns are irregular in inflection; four of them are given here.
woman ship fire Zeus
Nom. ἡ γυνή ἡ ναῦς τὸ πῦρ Ζεύς sg.
Gen. τῆς γυναικός τῆς νεώς τοῦ πυρός Διός sg.
Dat. sg. τῇ γυναικί τῇ νηί τ πυρί Διί
Acc. sg. τῆν γυναῖκα τῆν ναῦν τὸ πῦρ Δία
Nom. αἱ γυναῖκες αἱ νῆες τὰ πυρά pl.
Gen. pl. τῶν τῶν νεῶν τῶν γυναικῶν πυρῶν
Dat. pl. ταῖς ταῖς τοῖς γυναιξί(ν) ναυσί(ν) πυροῖς
Classical Greek Online
Acc. pl. τὰς γυναῖκας τὰς ναῦς τὰ πυρά
18. Demonstrative pronouns.
There are three demonstrative pronouns. ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε points to the present or future, and corresponds to 'this,' 'this one here.' οὕτος, αὔτη, τοῦτο points to the former, and corresponds to 'that.' ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο points to things remote or absent, and corresponds to 'that there.' ὅδε is based on the definite article. The forms of ἐκεῖνος are like those of αὐτός. The forms of ὁ υτος are given here.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο Gen. sg. τούτου ταύτης τούτου 74 Dat. sg. τούτῳ ταύτῃ τούτῳ
Acc. sg. τοῦτον ταύτην τοῦτο
Nom. pl. οὗτοι αὗται ταῦτα
Gen. pl. τούτων τούτων τούτων
Dat. pl. τούτοις ταύταις τούτοις
Acc. pl. τούτους ταύτας ταῦτα
19. The uses of infinitives.
Infinitives are often used after verbs to complement their meaning, as in Iliad 18-19: δοῖεν ... ἐκπέερσαι 'may they grant (you) to destroy...' But in this passage of Herodotus, they also correspond to finite verbs.
Classical Greek Online
In the first sentence of section 3, the infinitive ἐθελήσαι functions in this way to provide the verb for the noun Ἀλέξανδρον 'Alexander wished ...' This clause corresponds to a subordinate clause after the verb λέγουσι 'they say'; relatively frequent, it is known as the Accusative with Infinitive Construction, often labeled AcI.
A further sentence simply has the infinitive with a dative indicating the subject, and in turn is followed by two two AcI constructions: τοῖσι Ἕλλεησι δόξαι 'it was resolved by the Greeks = the Greeks resolved.' Grammars simply label such constructions. Readers of the texts must accept their presence, and interpret them appropriately.
20. The Present system of the Middle and the Passive.
The Greek verb has a full set of Middle and Passive forms corresponding to those of the Active. In the Present System, the forms of the two Voices are the same.
When used as Middle, the forms indicate an action or situation reflecting on the subject; thus the first singular indicative παιδεύομαι means 'I educate (for my sake)'. When used as Passive, the meaning corresponds to that of passives in English, so that the Passive παιδεύομαι means 'I am (being) educated.' The forms must be interpreted from the context.
The forms of the Present System (first, second, and third person, singular and plural) are as follows:
Indicativ Imperfect Subjunct Optative Imperati e ive ve
1 παιδεύο ἐπαιδευό παιδεύω παιδευοί s μαι μην μαι μην
2 παιδεύῃ ἐπαιδεύο παιδεύῃ παιδεύοι παιδεύου s υ ο
3 παιδεύετ ἐπαιδεύε παιδεύητ παιδευοί παιδευέσ
Classical Greek Online s αι το αι το θω
1 παιδευό ἐπαιδευό παιδευώ παιδευοί p μεθα μεθα μεθα μεθα
2 παιδεύε ἐπαιδεύε παιδεύησ παιδεύοι παιδεύεσ p σθε σθε θε σθε θε
3 παιδεύο ἐπαιδεύο παιδεύω παιδεύοι παιδευέσ p νται ντο νται ντο θων
Infinitive: παιδεύεσθαι Participle: παιδευόμενος, παιδευομένη, παιδευόμενον
76 Classical Greek Online: Lesson 5 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-5- X.html
Classical Greek Online Lesson 5
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
In Book 4 of his History, Herodotus relates the expedition of Darius against the Scythians, who were located in the western highlands of the Persian Empire. Darius set out to avenge their earlier invasion of Media. While Herodotus tells of his attempt to punish the Scythians, most of the sections of the book dealing with the Scythians describe their customs. Among these the two sections on their use of cannabis
Classical Greek Online are of great interest, both for their linguistic importance and for their information about the knowledge among the Greeks of this drug. The name for the plant, probably of Scythian origin, is found not only in Greek and Latin, but also in Armenian as kanap', in Albanian as kanep, and in Church Slavonic as konoplja. Found in so many dialects, the word might be reconstructed for Indo-European but for the information given by Herodotus, especially in view of its forms in Germanic.
The forms in the Germanic languages, such as our word hemp, Old Icelandic hampr, and German Hanf include changes in consonants, k > h, b > p, that indicate the word was imported into Germanic before the first consonant shift. The time of its importation is unclear, but on the basis of the changes we may assume that the time was somewhat before our era. There are, however, problems with the assignment, since words may be modified when imported, though scarcely as completely as in the changed Germanic forms. Both for their linguistic and their cultural information, these two sections have been included from among the many of great interest in Herodotus's description of the customs of the Scythians.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Sections 74 and 75 of Book 4 are straightforward. Herodotus describes the appearance of the plant and its uses for clothing. While he mentions that he traveled by ship in the Black Sea, it is unclear whether he went north of it to the homes of the Scythians, or whether he has his information from reports by other travelers or from Scythians themselves. Whatever the basis of his information, his description of the use of the plant for achieving ecstasy and substituting for bathing, as well as the beauty preparations of the women, are clear and credible.
Ἔστι δέ σφι κάνναβις φυομένη ἐν τῇ χώρῃ πλὴν παχύτητος καὶ μεγάθεος τ λίνῳ ἐμφερεστάτη. # Book 4, section 74
ἔστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- there is (they have) δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and σφι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- (for them)
Classical Greek Online
κάνναβις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp φυομένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle middle of <φύω> grow -- growing ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the χώρῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <χώρα> land, country -- country πλὴν -- preposition; <πλήν> except -- except for παχύτητος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <παχύτης> thickness -- thickness καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and μεγάθεος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <μεγάθης> height -- height τ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the λίνῳ -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <λίνον> linen -- linen ἐμφερεστάτη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of superlative of <ἐμφέρης> resembling -- very much like 78 ταύτῃ δὲ πολλ ὑπερφέρει ἡ κάνναβις
ταύτῃ -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- in this (respect) δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed πολλ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- by far ὑπερφέρει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὑπερφέρω> surpass -- surpasses ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the κάνναβις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp
αὕτη καὶ αὐτομάτη καὶ σπειρομένη φύεται, καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς Θρήικες μὲν καὶ εἵματα ποιεῦνται τοίσι λινέοισι ὁμοιότατα·
αὕτη -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- this καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- both
Classical Greek Online
αὐτομάτη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <αὐτόματος> by itself -- by itself καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and σπειρομένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle passive of <σπείρω> sow -- sown φύεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <φύω> grow -- grows καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- out of αὐτῆς -- pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- it Θρήικες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Θρῆ ιξ> Thracian -- (the) Thracians μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- even εἵματα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <εἷμα> clothing - - clothing ποιεῦνται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <ποιέω> make, do -- make τοίσι -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the λινέοισι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <λίνεος> of linen -- linen ὁμοιότατα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter superlative of <ὅμοιος> like, similar -- very much like
οὐδ' ἄν ὅστις μὴ κάρτα τρίβων εἴη αὐτῆς, διαγνοίη λίνου ἥ καννάβιος ἐστί·
οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and...not ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- unless ὅστις -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever -- one μὴ -- particle; <μή> not -- ... κάρτα -- adverb; <κάρτα> very much, extremely -- very τρίβων -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <τρίβω> skilled, experienced -- experienced εἴη -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <εἰμί> I am -- were
Classical Greek Online
αὐτῆς -- pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- in it διαγνοίη -- verb; 3rd person singular optative aorist of <διαγιγνώσκω> discern, distinguish -- he would discern λίνου -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <λίνον> linen -- linen ἥ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or καννάβιος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp ἐστί -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- (whether) it is
ὅς δὲ μὴ εἶδέ κώ τὴν κανναβίδα, λίνεον δοκήσει εἶναι τὸ εἷμα.
ὅς -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- he who δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but μὴ -- particle; <μή> not -- not εἶδέ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἶδον> saw -- has 80 seen κώ -- adverb; <κώ> yet -- yet τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the κανναβίδα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp clothing λίνεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <λίνεος> of linen -- of linen δοκήσει -- verb; 3rd person singular future of <δοκέω> seem, think -- will think εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- (it) is τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the εἷμα -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <εἷμα> clothing - - clothing
Σαύτης ὦν οἱ κύθαι τῆς καννάβιος τὸ σπέρμα ἐπεὰν λάβωσι, ὑποδύνουσι ὑπὸ τοὺς πῖλους, καὶ ἔπειτα ἐπιβάλλουσι τὸ σπέρμα ἐπὶ τοὺς διαφανέας λίθους τ πυρί· # Book 4, section 75
ταύτης -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- of this
Classical Greek Online
ὦν -- adverb; <ὦν> indeed -- indeed οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the κύθαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <κύθης> Scythian -- Scythians τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the καννάβιος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the σπέρμα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σπέρμα> seed -- seed ἐπεὰν -- conjunction; <ἐπεάν> when, after -- after λάβωσι -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist subjunctive of <λαμβάνω> receive, capture -- take ὑποδύνουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ὑποδύω> go under -- (and) they go (under) ὑπὸ -- preposition; <ὑπό> under, by -- under τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the πῖλους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <πῖλος> mat -- mats καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- then ἐπιβάλλουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἐπιβάλλω> throw on -- they throw τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the σπέρμα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σπέρμα> seed -- seed ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the διαφανέας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <διαφανής> transparent, red-hot -- red-hot λίθους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones τ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- with the πυρί -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <πῦρ> fire -- fire
τὸ δὲ θυμιᾶται ἐπιβαλλόμενον καὶ ἀτμίδα παρέχεται τοσαύτην ὥστε Ἑλληνικὴ οὐδεμία ἄν μιν πυρίη ἀποκρατήσειε.
Classical Greek Online
τὸ -- article; nominative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- it δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and θυμιᾶται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <θυμιάω> burn with smoke -- burn with smoke ἐπιβαλλόμενον -- verb; accusative singular neuter of present participle passive of <ἐπιβάλλω> throw on -- (so) thrown καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἀτμίδα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀτμίς> steam, vapor -- vapor παρέχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <παρέχω> provide -- it produces τοσαύτην -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <τοσοῦτος> such -- such ὥστε -- adverbial conjunction; <ὥστε> like, so that -- that Ἑλληνικὴ -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek -- Greek οὐδεμία -- pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing -- no ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- ... 82 μιν -- pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <μιν> it -- it πυρίη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <πυρίη> vapor bath -- vapor bath ἀποκρατήσειε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <ἀποκρατέω> exceed -- might exceed
οἱ δὲ κύθαι ἀγάμενοι τῇ πυρίῃ ὠρύονται.
οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and κύθαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <κύθης> Scythian -- Scythians ἀγάμενοι -- deponent verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle middle of <ἄγαμαι> to wonder, admire -- delighted τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- by the πυρίῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <πυρίη> vapor bath -- vapor bath
Classical Greek Online
ὠρύονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <ὠρύομαι> howl -- howl
τοῦτό σφι ἀντὶ λουτροῦ ἐστι.
τοῦτό -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this σφι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for them ἀντὶ -- preposition; <ἀντί> instead of -- instead of λουτροῦ -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <λουτρόν> bathing -- bathing ἐστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is (done)
οὐ γὰρ δὴ λούονται ὕδατι τὸ παράπαν τὸ σῶμα.
οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed λούονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <λούομαι> wash oneself -- they wash ὕδατι -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <ὕδωρ> water -- in water τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the παράπαν -- adverb; <παράπαν> absolutely -- at all τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- their σῶμα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σῶμα> body -- body
αἱ δὲ γυναῖκες αὐτῶν ὕδωρ παραχέουσαι κατασώχουσι περὶ λίθον τρηχὺν τῆς κυπαρίσσου καὶ κέδρου καὶ λιβάνου ξύλου, καὶ ἔπειτα τὸ κατασωχόμενον τοῦτο παχὺ ἐὸν καταπλάσσονται πᾶν τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὸ πρόσωπον·
αἱ -- article; nominative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- the δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
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γυναῖκες -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <γυνή> woman -- women αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- their ὕδωρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὕδωρ> water -- water παραχέουσαι -- verb; nominative plural feminine of present participle of <παραχέω> pour in -- pouring in κατασώχουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <κατασώχω> rub in pieces -- rub περὶ -- preposition; <περί> around -- around λίθον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <λίθος> stone -- stone τρηχὺν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <τρηχύς> rough -- a rough τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of the κυπαρίσσου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <κυπαρίσσος> cypress -- cypress καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and 84 κέδρου -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κέδρος> cedar -- cedar καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and λιβάνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <λίβανος> frankincense, frankincense tree -- frankincense tree ξύλου -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <ξύλον> wood -- wood καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- then τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the κατασωχόμενον -- verb; accusative singular neuter of present participle middle of <κατασώχω> rub in pieces -- rubbed (matter) τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this παχὺ -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <παχύς> thick -- thick ἐὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐός> his, her - - their
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καταπλάσσονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <καταπλάσσω> plaster over -- they plaster over πᾶν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πᾶς> all, every -- entire τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- ... σῶμα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σῶμα> body -- body καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- ... πρόσωπον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <πρόσωπον> face -- face
καὶ ἅμα μὲν εὐωδίη σφέας ἀπὸ τούτου ἴσχει, ἅμα δὲ ἀπαιρέουσαι τῇ δευτέρῃ ἡμέρῃ τὴν καταπλαστὺν γίνονται καθαραὶ καὶ λαμπραί.
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἅμα -- adverb; <ἅμα> at the same time -- at the same time μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand εὐωδίη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <εὐωδίη> fragrant scent -- a fragrant scent σφέας -- reflexive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- them ἀπὸ -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this ἴσχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἴσχω> stay -- remains ἅμα -- adverb; <ἅμα> at the same time -- and at the same time δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand ἀπαιρέουσαι -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <ἀπαιρέω> take off -- (when they) remove τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- their δευτέρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <δεύτερος> second -- on the second ἡμέρῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἡμέρα> day -- day
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τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the καταπλαστὺν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <καταπλαστύς> plaster -- ointment γίνονται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- they become καθαραὶ -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <καθαρός> clean, pure -- clean καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and λαμπραί -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <λαμπρός> shiny -- shining (in appearance)
Lesson Text Ἔστι δέ σφι κάνναβις φυομένη ἐν τῇ χώρῃ πλὴν παχύτητος καὶ μεγάθεος τ λίνῳ ἐμφερεστάτη. ταύτῃ δὲ πολλ ὑπερφέρει ἡ κάνναβις αὕτη καὶ αὐτομάτη καὶ σπειρομένη φύεται, καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς Θρήικες μὲν καὶ εἵματα ποιεῦνται τοίσι λινέοισι ὁμοιότατα· οὐδ' ἄν ὅστις μὴ κάρτα τρίβων εἴη αὐτῆς, διαγνοίη λίνου ἥ καννάβιος ἐστί· ὅς δὲ μὴ εἶδέ κώ τὴν κανναβίδα, λίνεον δοκήσει εἶναι τὸ εἷμα. Σαύτης ὦν 86 οἱ κύθαι τῆς καννάβιος τὸ σπέρμα ἐπεὰν λάβωσι, ὑποδύνουσι ὑπὸ τοὺς πῖλους, καὶ ἔπειτα ἐπιβάλλουσι τὸ σπέρμα ἐπὶ τοὺς διαφανέας λίθους τ πυρί· τὸ δὲ θυμιᾶται ἐπιβαλλόμενον καὶ ἀτμίδα παρέχεται τοσαύτην ὥστε Ἑλληνικὴ οὐδεμία ἄν μιν πυρίη ἀποκρατήσειε. οἱ δὲ κύθαι ἀγάμενοι τῇ πυρίῃ ὠρύονται. τοῦτό σφι ἀντὶ λουτροῦ ἐστι. οὐ γὰρ δὴ λούονται ὕδατι τὸ παράπαν τὸ σῶμα. αἱ δὲ γυναῖκες αὐτῶν ὕδωρ παραχέουσαι κατασώχουσι περὶ λίθον τρηχὺν τῆς κυπαρίσσου καὶ κέδρου καὶ λιβάνου ξύλου, καὶ ἔπειτα τὸ κατασωχόμενον τοῦτο παχὺ ἐὸν καταπλάσσονται πᾶν τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὸ πρόσωπον· καὶ ἅμα μὲν εὐωδίη σφέας ἀπὸ τούτου ἴσχει, ἅμα δὲ ἀπαιρέουσαι τῇ δευτέρῃ ἡμέρῃ τὴν καταπλαστὺν γίνονται καθαραὶ καὶ λαμπραί.
Translation They have hemp growing in their country, very much like flax except for thickness and height. In this respect the hemp surpasses flax by far. This grows by itself and sown, and out of it the Thracians even make clothing very much like linen. And unless anyone were very experienced in it, he
Classical Greek Online would not discern whether it is linen or hemp. But he who has not yet seen hemp clothing will think the clothing is linen. Now the Scythians take the seed of the hemp and they go under their mats and then they throw the seed on the red-hot stones in the fire. So thrown it smoulders, and it produces such vapor that no Greek vapor bath might exceed it. And delighted by the vapor bath, the Scythians howl. This is done by them instead of bathing. But their women pound around a rough stone cypress and cedar and frankincense wood, pouring in water, and then they plaster this thick rubbed matter over their entire body and face. A fragrant scent remains on them from this, and at the same time when they remove the ointment on the second day they become clean and shining in appearance.
Grammar
21. Consonant stems ending in dentals.
In these stems the consonant is dropped in the nominative singular, as well as in the accusative singular of neuters, and in the dative plural.
'foot' 'body'
Nom. sg. ὁ πούς τὸ σῶμα
Gen. sg. τοῦ ποδός τοῦ σώματος
Dat. sg. τ ποδί τ σώματι
Acc. sg. τὸν ποδά τὸ σῶμα
Nom. pl. οἱ ποδές τὰ σώματα
Gen. pl. τῶν ποδῶν τῶν σωμάτων
Dat. pl. τοῖς ποσί τοῖς σώμασι
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Acc. pl. τοὺς ποδάς τὰ σώματα
22. Comparison of adjectives.
In most adjectives comparison is expressed by -τερος in the comparative degree, by -τατος in the superlative degree. The forms then are inflected in accordance with the ο- and α-declensions. Examples in this text are ἐμφερεστάτη and ὁμοιότατα. Some of the common adjectives on the other hand are irregular, for example, κακός 'bad'; κακίων, κάκιστος. Their forms will be listed in dictionaries.
23. Interrogative and indefinite pronouns.
These are declined as follows:
Interrogative Indefinite 88 Masc/Fem Neut | Masc/Fem Neut
'who' 'what' | 'someone' 'something'
Nom. τίς τί | τις τι sg.
Gen. sg. τίνος τίνος | τινός τινός
Dat. sg. τίνι τίνι | τινί τινί
Acc. sg. τίνα τί | τινα τι
Nom. pl. τίνες τίνα | τινες τινα
Gen. pl. τίνων τίνων | τινῶν τινῶν
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Dat. pl. τίσι(ν) τίσι(ν) | τισί(ν) τισί(ν)
Acc. pl. τίνας τίνα | τινας τινα
Indefinite
Masc Fem Neut
'who(ever)' 'who(ever)' 'what(ever)'
Nom. sg. ὄστις ἥτις ὅτι
Gen. sg. ὅτου ἧστινος ὅτου
Dat. sg. ᾧτινι ᾗτινι ᾧτινι
Acc. sg. ὅντινα ἥντινα ὅτι
Nom. pl. οἵτινες αἵτινες ἅτινα
Gen. pl. ὥντινων ὥντινων ὥντινων
Dat. pl. οἵστισι αἷστισι οἷστισι
Acc. pl. οὕστινας ἅστινας ἅτινα
24. The middle and passive voices.
In the present system the forms of the middle (expressing action for one's own sake) and the passive (expressing action directed at the subject) are the same. The forms for the indicative and the imperfect are as follows.
Present Imperfect
Classical Greek Online
1 sg παιδεύομαι ἐπαιδευόμην
2 sg παιδεύῃ ἐπαιδεύου
3 sg παιδεύεται ἐπαιδεύετο
1 pl παιδεύομεθα ἐπαιδευόμεθα
2 pl παιδεύεσθε ἐπαιδεύεσθε
3 pl παιδεύονται ἐπαιδεύονται
25. The subjunctive, optative, and imperative middle and passive forms, the infinitive and participle.
While these forms are not frequent, they are given here so that, if 90 found, they may be recognized. The participial forms, on the other hand, are relatively frequent, as in this text, where a number of them occur, such as φυομένη, ἐπιβαλλόμενον, ἀγάμενοι.
Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1s παιδεύωμαι παιαδευοίμην
2s παιδεύῃ παιδεύοιο παιδευέσθω
3s παιδεύηται παιδεύοιτο παιδεύεσθω
1p παιδευοώμεθα παιδευοίμεθα
2p παιδεύησθε παιδεύοισθε παιδεύεσθε
Classical Greek Online
3p παιδεύωνται παιδεύοιντο παιδευέσθων
Infinitive: παιδεύεσθαι Participle: παιδευόμενος, παιδευομένη, παιδευόμενον
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 6 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-6- X.html
Classical Greek Online Lesson 6
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Xenophon was born about 444 BC, and is said to have lived 90 years. He was a student of Socrates, and wrote the Memorabilia of Socrates to clear him from the charge of irreligion and corruption of the young men of Athens. Banished about the time of Socrates' death in 399, he served variously in military activities, and in 394 BC settled near Olympus, where he remained for twenty years. He then is said to have lived in Corinth, but there is no definite information about that part of his life until his death. In addition to the Anabasis, he wrote the Cyropaedia, a fanciful account of Cyrus the Elder. He is acclaimed for his simple and straightforward style. When Greek was taught for six years in High School and College, the Anabasis was the first long work read by students.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Xenophon's Anabasis is the account of the Greek army's retreat along the Tigris and through the high country of Armenia to Trapezus,
Classical Greek Online and from there to Byzantium. The army had been assisting Cyrus in his attempt to gain the Persian throne after the death of his father Darius, king of Persia from 424-405 BC. His older brother, Artaxerxes, then assumed the throne. Cyrus, known as the Younger to distinguish him from the Elder (d. 529 BC), had been appointed by his father, Darius, to be commander of the maritime parts of Asia Minor. When his brother became king in 404 BC, Cyrus decided to overthrow him. He set out from Sardis in 401 BC with an army that included 13,000 Greek mercenaries. In the plain of Cunaxa, about 60 miles from Babylon, he met the king's army. His troops were victorious, but he himself was killed. The Greek army then set out to escape to the north, after most of their generals were treacherously murdered. Xenophon had been with the army as an observer, but now was elected as one of the generals and became effectively leader of the army. Approximately half of the Anabasis consists of the report of the retreat to the sea; the rest of it deals with the continued effort to go by sea to Byzantium. This episode was selected because of its account of the joy of the Greeks on their escape from their enemies. ἀφικνοῦνται ἐπὶ τὸ ὄρος τῇ πέμπτῇ ἡμέρᾳ. 92 ἀφικνοῦνται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἀφικνέομαι> come to, reach -- they reach ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- to τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the ὄρος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄρος> mountain -- mountain τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- on the πέμπτῇ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <πέμπτος> fifth -- fifth ἡμέρᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἡμέρα> day -- day
ὄνομα δὲ τ ὄρει ἦν Θήχης.
ὄνομα -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ὄνομα> name -- (the) name δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and τ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- for the
Classical Greek Online
ὄρει -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <ὄρος> mountain -- mountain ἦν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἰμί> I am -- was Θήχης -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Θήχης> Theches -- Theches
ἐπεὶ δὲ οἱ πρῶτοι ἐγένοντο ἐπὶ τοῦ ὄρους, κραυγὴ πολλὴ ἐγένετο.
ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- when δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the πρῶτοι -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine of <πρῶτος> first -- first ἐγένοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- arrived ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on τοῦ -- article; genitive singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the ὄρους -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <ὄρος> mountain - - mountain κραυγὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κραυγή> shout -- shout πολλὴ -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πολύς> many -- great ἐγένετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- went up
ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ Ξενοφῶν καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ᾠήθησαν ἔμπροσθεν ἄλλους ἐπιτίθεσθαι πολεμίους.
ἀκούσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ἀκούω> hear, listen -- having heard δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- ... Ξενοφῶν -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon -- Xenophon καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
Classical Greek Online
ὀπισθοφύλακες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ὀπισθοφύλαξ> rear-guard -- rear-guard ᾠήθησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist passive of <οἴομαι> think, imagine -- thought ἔμπροσθεν -- adverb; <ἔμπροσθεν> before, in front -- in front ἄλλους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other ἐπιτίθεσθαι -- verb; infinitive aorist middle of <ἐπιτίθημι> attack -- were attacking πολεμίους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <πολέμιος> enemy -- enemies
εἵποντο γὰρ ὄπισθεν ἐκ τῆς καιομένης χώρας, καὶ αὐτῶν οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ἀπέκτεινάν τέ τινας καὶ ἐζώγρησαν ἐνέδραν ποιησάμενοι, καὶ γέρρα ἔλαβον δασειῶν βοῶν ὠμοβόεια ἀμφὶ τὰ εἴκοσιν.
εἵποντο -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect 94 of <ἕπομαι> follow -- were following γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for ὄπισθεν -- adverb; <ὄπισθεν> behind -- behind ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- from τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the καιομένης -- verb; genitive singular feminine of participle middle of <καίω> burn -- burning χώρας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <χώρα> land, country -- area καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- of them οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ὀπισθοφύλακες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ὀπισθοφύλαξ> rear-guard -- rear-guard ἀπέκτεινάν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἀποκτείνω> kill -- killed τέ -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
Classical Greek Online
τινας -- indefinite pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <τις> someone, something -- some καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἐζώγρησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ζωγρέω> capture alive -- captured alive ἐνέδραν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἐνέδρα> ambush -- an ambush ποιησάμενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist middle participle of <ποιέω> make, do -- by arranging καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and γέρρα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <γέρρον> ox-hide wicker shield -- ox-hide wicker shields ἔλαβον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <λαμβάνω> receive, capture -- had captured δασειῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <δασύς> hairy, shaggy -- shaggy βοῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <βοῦς> cow, ox -- of oxen ὠμοβόεια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ὠμοβόειος> of raw, untanned oxhide -- raw oxhide ἀμφὶ -- preposition; <ἀμφί> around, between -- about τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the εἴκοσιν -- number; accusative plural neuter of <εἴκοσι> twenty -- twenty
ἐπειδὴ δὲ βοὴ πλείων τε ἐγίγνετο καὶ ἐγγύτερον καὶ οἱ ἀεὶ ἐπιόντες ἔθεον δρόμῳ ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀεὶ βοῶντας καὶ πολλ μείζων ἐγίγνετο ἡ βοὴ ὅσῳ δὴ πλείους ἐγίγνοντο,--
ἐπειδὴ -- conjunction; <ἐπειδή> after -- after δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but βοὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βοή> shout -- the shout πλείων -- adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <πολύς> many -- greater τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and ἐγίγνετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- became καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and Classical Greek Online
ἐγγύτερον -- adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <ἐγγύς> near -- nearer καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- those ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- always ἐπιόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἐπίειμι> come near -- coming up ἔθεον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <θέω> run -- ran δρόμῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <δρόμος> run -- at a run, at full speed ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- towards τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- always βοῶντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of present participle of <βοάω> shout -- shouting καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and πολλ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- much μείζων -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of 96 comparative of <μέγας> great -- greater ἐγίγνετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- became ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the βοὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βοή> shout -- shouting ὅσῳ -- relative pronoun; dative singular neuter of <ὅσος> as many -- as δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed πλείους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of comparative of <πολύς> many -- greater ἐγίγνοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- became
ἐδόκει δὴ μεῖζόν τι εἶναι τ Ξενοφῶντι, καὶ ἀναβὰς ἐφ' ἵππον καὶ Λύκιον καὶ τούς ἱππέας ἀναλαβὼν παρεβοήθει.
ἐδόκει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it seemed δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
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μεῖζόν -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of comparative of <μέγας> great -- very important τι -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- something εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- to be τ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- ... Ξενοφῶντι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon -- to Xenophon καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἀναβὰς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ἀναβαίνω> mount, go up -- mounting ἐφ' -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on ἵππον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἵππος> horse -- his horse καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and Λύκιον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Λύκιος> Lycius -- Lycius καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τούς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ἱππέας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ἱππεύς> horseman -- cavalry ἀναλαβὼν -- verb; nominative singular masculine of participle of <ἀναλαμβάνω> take along -- taking along παρεβοήθει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <παραβοηθέω> come up to help -- went up to help
καὶ τάχα δὴ ἀκούουσι βοώντων τῶν στρατιωτῶν Θάλαττα θάλαττα καὶ παρεγγυώντων.
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τάχα -- adverb; <τάχα> presently, soon -- soon δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- ... ἀκούουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἀκούω> hear, listen -- they heard βοώντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle of <βοάω> shout -- shouting τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
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στρατιωτῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <στρατιώτης> soldier -- soldiers θάλαττα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλαττα> sea -- the sea θάλαττα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλαττα> sea -- the sea καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and παρεγγυώντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle of <παρεγγυάω> pass along -- passing it along
ἔνθα δὴ ἔθεον πάντες καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες, καὶ τὰ ὑποζύγια ἠλαύνετο καὶ οἱ ἵπποι.
ἔνθα -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- then δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed ἔθεον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <θέω> run -- ran πάντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and 98 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ὀπισθοφύλακες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ὀπισθοφύλαξ> rear-guard -- rear-guard καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the ὑποζύγια -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ὑποζύγιον> pack animal -- pack animals ἠλαύνετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <ἐλαύνω> set in motion -- broke into a run καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ἵπποι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ἵππος> horse -- horses
ἐπεὶ δὲ ἀφίκοντο πάντες ἐπὶ τὸ ἄκρον, ἐνταῦθα δὴ περιέβαλλον ἀλλήλους καὶ στρατηγοὺς καὶ λοχαγοὺς δακρύοντες.
ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- when δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
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ἀφίκοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἀφικνέομαι> come to, reach -- came to πάντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- to τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the ἄκρον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἄκρον> mountain-top, peak -- peak ἐνταῦθα -- adverb; <ἐνταῦθα> then, there -- there δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed περιέβαλλον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <περιβάλλω> throw around -- they embraced ἀλλήλους -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- one another καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- both στρατηγοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <στρατηγός> general -- generals καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and λοχαγοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λοχαγός> captain -- captains δακρύοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <δακρύω> weep -- weeping
καὶ ἐξαπίνης ὅτου δὴ παρεγγυήσαντος οἱ στρατιώται φέρουσι λίθους καὶ ποιοῦσι κολωνὸν μέγαν.
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἐξαπίνης -- adverb; <ἐξαπίνης> on a sudden -- all of a sudden ὅτου -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <ὅτος> someone -- someone δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed παρεγγυήσαντος -- verb; genitive singular masculine of aorist participle of <παρεγγυάω> pass along -- when ... suggested it οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the στρατιώται -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <στρατιώτης> soldier -- soldiers
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φέρουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry -- bring λίθους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ποιοῦσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ποιέω> make, do -- make κολωνὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <κολωνός> heap -- heap μέγαν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <μέγας> great -- large
Lesson Text ἀφικνοῦνται ἐπὶ τὸ ὄρος τῇ πέμπτῇ ἡμέρᾳ. ὄνομα δὲ τ ὄρει ἦν Θήχης. ἐπεὶ δὲ οἱ πρῶτοι ἐγένοντο ἐπὶ τοῦ ὄρους, κραυγὴ πολλὴ ἐγένετο. ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ Ξενοφῶν καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ᾠήθησαν ἔμπροσθεν ἄλλους ἐπιτίθεσθαι πολεμίους. εἵποντο γὰρ ὄπισθεν ἐκ τῆς καιομένης χώρας, καὶ αὐτῶν οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ἀπέκτεινάν τέ 100 τινας καὶ ἐζώγρησαν ἐνέδραν ποιησάμενοι, καὶ γέρρα ἔλαβον δασειῶν βοῶν ὠμοβόεια ἀμφὶ τὰ εἴκοσιν. ἐπειδὴ δὲ βοὴ πλείων τε ἐγίγνετο καὶ ἐγγύτερον καὶ οἱ ἀεὶ ἐπιόντες ἔθεον δρόμῳ ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀεὶ βοῶντας καὶ πολλ μείζων ἐγίγνετο ἡ βοὴ ὅσῳ δὴ πλείους ἐγίγνοντο,-- ἐδόκει δὴ μεῖζόν τι εἶναι τ Ξενοφῶντι, καὶ ἀναβὰς ἐφ' ἵππον καὶ Λύκιον καὶ τούς ἱππέας ἀναλαβὼν παρεβοήθει. καὶ τάχα δὴ ἀκούουσι βοώντων τῶν στρατιωτῶν Θάλαττα θάλαττα καὶ παρεγγυώντων. ἔνθα δὴ ἔθεον πάντες καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες, καὶ τὰ ὑποζύγια ἠλαύνετο καὶ οἱ ἵπποι. ἐπεὶ δὲ ἀφίκοντο πάντες ἐπὶ τὸ ἄκρον, ἐνταῦθα δὴ περιέβαλλον ἀλλήλους καὶ στρατηγοὺς καὶ λοχαγοὺς δακρύοντες. καὶ ἐξαπίνης ὅτου δὴ παρεγγυήσαντος οἱ στρατιώται φέρουσι λίθους καὶ ποιοῦσι κολωνὸν μέγαν.
Translation On the fifth day they reached the mountain; and the name of the mountain was Theches. When the first group arrived on the mountain, a great shout went up. Now when Xenophon and the rear-guard heard it, they thought that other enemies were attacking from the burning area; Classical Greek Online the rear-guard had killed some of them and captured others alive by setting an ambush, and had also captured about twenty shaggy, raw wicker ox-hide shields. But as the shout became louder and nearer, and those coming up began to run at full speed toward those ahead that were shouting, and as the shout became much greater as they became greater, it seemed to Xenophon that there was something very important. So he mounted his horse, taking also Lycius and the cavalry, and went ahead to help. Soon they heard the soldiers shouting: "The Sea! The Sea!" and passing it along. Then all the rear-guard ran and the pack animals broke into a run and also the horses. And when they came to the peak, then they embraced one another, both the generals and the captains, weeping. And all of a sudden, when someone suggested it, the soldiers bring stones and make a great heap.
Grammar
26. Survey of noun declensions.
The ο- and α- declensions have been given in section 4, and subsequent sections of the grammar, 11 and 16, have provided examples of consonantal declension and that of some irregular nouns. Here additional sub-classes of the consonantal declension are listed.
Grammars provide the sub-classes according to the consonants of the stem. There may be modifications from sub-group to sub-group, but if the inflection of the word for salt is memorized, such forms may be identified. Examples are given here also for stems ending in velars, dentals, and other elements; as the selection indicates, nouns in the consonantal declension vary in gender: ἡ αἴξ 'goat', τὸ σῶμα 'body', ὁ ἁλ ς 'salt', ὁ Ἕλλην 'Greek', ὁ σῦς 'pig'.
velars dentals
Nom. sg. ἡ αἴξ τό σῶμα
Gen. sg. τῆς αἰγός τοῦ σώματος
Dat. sg. τῇ αἰγί τ σώματι
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Acc. sg. τῆν αἶγα τό σῶμα
Nom. pl. αἱ αἷγες τά σώματα
Gen. pl. τῶν αἰγῶν τῶν σωμάτων
Dat. pl. τοῖς αἰξί τοῖς σώμασι
Acc. pl. τάς αἷγας τά σώματα
-λ, -ρ -ν -υ
Nom. sg. ὁ ἅλς ὁ Ἕλλην ὁ σῦς 102 Gen. sg. τοῦ ἁλός τοῦ Ἕλληνος τοῦ συός
Dat. sg. τ ἁλί τ Ἕλλενι τ συί
Acc. sg. τόν ἅλα τόν Ἕλληνα τόν σῦν
Nom. pl. οἱ ἅλες οἱ Ἕλληνες οἱ σύες
Gen. pl. τῶν ἁλῶν τῶν Ἕλλήνων τῶν συῶν
Dat. pl. τοῖς ἁλσί τοῖς Ἕλλήσι τοῖς συσί
Acc. pl. τούς ἅλας τούς Ἕλληνας τούς σῦς
27. Suffixes applied to stems to indicate location.
The following suffixes are used to produce adverbs on noun stems with specific meanings:
Classical Greek Online
-θεν 'whence', as in οἴκοθεν 'from home', χαμᾶθεν 'from the ground' -ι, -θι 'where', as in οἴκοι 'at home', χαμαί 'on the ground'; but -σι(ν) if the noun in question is a plural, as in Ἀθήνησι 'at Athens' -δε, -σε, ζε 'whither', as in Ἀθήναζε 'to Athens', χαμᾶζε 'to the ground'
28. Use of the augment.
The augment is used on past tenses in the indicative, that is, the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect. Verbs beginning with a consonant prefix ἐ-, as in the imperfect ἐπαίδευον 'I educated', the aorist ἐπαίδευσα 'I have educated', the pluperfect ἐπεπαιδεύκειν 'I had educated'. Verbs beginning with a vowel or diphthong combine the augment with that vowel or diphthong, usually resulting in its lengthening, as in the imperfect ἦγον 'I led' from ἄγω, ηὔξανον 'I increased' from αὐξάνω.
Compound verbs place the augment on the verb, after the initial prefix, for example ἐν-έβαλλον from ἐμβάλλω 'throw into', ἐπ- έβαλλον from ἐπι-βάλλω 'throw on'. In the early texts, the augment may be omitted, as in the aorist form ποίησαν 'they made' from ποιέω.
29. Deponents.
As in Latin, a number of verbs have their forms in the middle while corresponding to active verbs in English. Many of them indicate state, and do not take objects. They can be recognized from dictionary entries. Examples are:
γίγνομαι 'become' δέχομαι 'receive' ἐργάζομαι 'work' ἀπο-κρίνομαι 'reply' λογίζομαι 'reason' μιμέομαι 'imitate'
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These have a active meaning in the aorist middle form, but passive meaning in the passive form of the aorist.
Others have the passive form of the aorist. Many of them denote motion, feeling or mental action. Examples are:
ἔραμαι 'love' ἥδομαι 'rejoice' έν-θυμέομαι 'consider' δια-νοέομαι 'intend'
30. The middle forms of the aorist.
In the aorist the passive has different forms from those of the middle. Here the middle forms will be given.
Indicative Subjunctiv Optative Imperative e 104 1 ἐπαιδευσάμ παιδεύσωμ παιδευσαίμ s ην αι ην g
2 ἐπαιδεύσω παιδεύσῃ παιδεύσαιο παίδευσαι s g
3 ἐπαιδεύσατ παιδεύσητα παιδεύσαιτ παιδευσάσ s ο ι ο θω g
1 ἐπαιδευσάμ παιδευσώμ παιδευσαίμ pl εθα εθα εθα
2 ἐπαιδεύσασ παιδεύσησ παιδεύσαισ παιδεύσασ
Classical Greek Online pl θε θε θε θε
3 ἐπαιδεύσαν παιδεύσων παιδεύσαιν παιδευσάσ pl το ται το θων
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 7 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-7- X.html
Classical Greek Online Lesson 7
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Hesiod, the author of Works and Days, lived in the second section of the eighth century B.C. Reports of his life are sketchy, but he clearly was a poet in the Homeric tradition. In addition to fragments that have been preserved, his other major poem is the Theogony of 1020 lines. It sketches the 'births of the gods', beginning with those of the nine Muses from the union of Zeus and Mnemosyne or Memory, and ending with the union of Kalypso and Odysseus that resulted in two children. His language and subject matter is clearly less elegant than that of Homer, but it has maintained its interest for providing information on everyday life and for information on the views of the Greek peoples of his time.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Hesiod's Works and Days is a poem in the eastern tradition of wisdom literature. Addressed to his brother, Perses, who is pictured as a ne'er-do-well, it consists of four parts in its 828 lines, each of
Classical Greek Online approximately 200 lines. The first part tells Perses that work is essential. It contains the lines excerpted here, which are of especial interest in sketching the ages of man that correspond in part to the periods determined by archeologists of our day, with the bronze age leading to the iron age, and so on. The second part provides instructions on how to achieve prosperity through righteous actions and proper dealings with others. The third part outlines the work that is necessary for success in farming, such as the type of work that is essential in the four seasons. The last part indicates the proper time for activities, such as sailing to market one's produce, marriage, and also for everyday activities, such as urinating and copulating. And last of all it is essential to be aware of the good and bad days of the month for all of one's activities.
There is considerable agreement on the text of Works and Days; the lines here correspond to those of Hesiod: Works and Days, ed. M. L. West (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), which differ in a few respects from the text of the Loeb Classical Library prepared by Hugh G. Evelyn-White with credit to W. H. D. Rouse (1914, frequently reprinted). The differences are noted in the commentary. 106 χρύσεον μὲν πρώτιστα γένος μερόπων ἀνθρώπων # (line 109)
χρύσεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden -- golden μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed πρώτιστα -- adverb; <πρώτιστα> first of all -- first of all γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race μερόπων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <μέροψ> endowed with speech -- of speaking ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- humans
ἀθάνατοι ποίησαν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες.
ἀθάνατοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἀθάνατος> immortal -- (the) immortals ποίησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
Classical Greek Online
Ὀλύμπια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian -- Olympian δώματ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <δῶμα> house, home -- homes ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having
οἳ μὲν ἐπὶ Κρόνου ἦσαν, ὅτ' οὐραν ἐμβασίλευεν.
οἳ -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- who μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- ... ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- at the time Κρόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Κρόνος> Cronos -- of Cronos ἦσαν -- verb; 3rd person singular plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am -- existed ὅτ' -- conjunction; <ὅτε> when -- when οὐραν -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <οὐρανός> heaven -- in heaven ἐμβασίλευεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ἐμβασιλεύω> be king in -- was king (in)
ὥστε θεοὶ δ' ἔζωον ἀκηδέα θυμὸν ἔχοντες
ὥστε -- adverbial conjunction; <ὥστε> like, so that -- like θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- gods δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἔζωον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ζώω> live -- they lived ἀκηδέα -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ἀκήδης> without sorrow -- without sorrow θυμὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυμός> soul, heart -- heart ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having
νόσφιν ἄτερ τε πόνων καὶ οἰζύος·
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νόσφιν -- adverb; <νόσφι> apart, afar, except -- apart ἄτερ -- preposition; <ἄτερ> without -- without τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and πόνων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <πόνος> grief -- grief καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and οἰζύος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <οἰζύς> misery, suffering -- suffering
αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δὴ τοῦτο γένος κατὰ γαῖα κάλυψεν # (line 121; for κάλυψεν West omits the augment, as was done in ἐμ- βασίλευεν above, and maintains the full form of γαῖα; others elide the final vowel of γαῖα and include the augment, e.g. γαῖ' ἐκάλυψε, where the -ν is also omitted. The line is repeated before the paragraphs on the third and fourth races.)
αὐτὰρ -- conjunction; <αὐτάρ> but -- but ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- after δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed 108 τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race κατὰ -- adverb; <κατά> completely, down, under -- under γαῖα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <γαῖα> land -- the earth κάλυψεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <καλύπτω> cover -- covered
δεύτερον αὖτε γένος πολὺ χειρότερον μετόπισθεν # (line 127)
δεύτερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <δεύτερος> second -- second αὖτε -- adverb; <αὖτε> then, again -- then γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race πολὺ -- adverb; <πολύς> many -- much
Classical Greek Online
χειρότερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter comparative of <κακός> evil, poor -- inferior μετόπισθεν -- adverb; <μετόπισθε> afterwards -- somewhat later
ἀργύρεον ποίησαν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες, # (For δώματ' West elides the -α before a form whose root begins with a vowel.)
ἀργύρεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἀργύρεος> silver -- of silver ποίησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made Ὀλύμπια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian -- Olympian δώματ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <δῶμα> house, home -- homes ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having
χρυσέῳ οὔτε φυὴν ἐναλίγκιον οὔτε νόημα.
χρυσέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden -- the golden οὔτε -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- neither φυὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <φύη> stature -- in stature ἐναλίγκιον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐναλίγκιος> resembling, like -- like οὔτε -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- nor νόημα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <νόημα> thought, understanding -- in understanding
Ζεὺς δὲ πατὴρ τρίτον ἄλλο γένος μερόπων ἀνθρώπων # (line 143)
Ζεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- Zeus δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
Classical Greek Online
πατὴρ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <πατήρ> father -- father τρίτον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <τρίτος> third -- third ἄλλο -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race μερόπων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <μέροψ> endowed with speech -- endowed with speech ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- of humans
χάλκειον ποίησ' οὐκ ἀργυρέῳ οὐδὲν ὁμοῖον,
χάλκειον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <χάλκειος> of bronze -- bronze ποίησ' -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made 110 οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not ἀργυρέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <ἀργύρεος> silver -- to the silver (race) οὐδὲν -- adverb; <οὐδέν> in no way -- in no way ὁμοῖον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ὅμοιος> like, similar -- like
ἐκ μελιᾶν, δεινόν τε καὶ ὄβριμον· οἷσιν Ἄρηος
ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- out of μελιᾶν -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <μελία> the ash tree -- ash wood δεινόν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <δεινός> terrible -- terrible τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ὄβριμον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ὄβριμος> strong -- strong οἷσιν -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- to them Classical Greek Online
Ἄρηος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἄρης> Ares - - of Ares
ἔργ' ἔμελε στονόεντα καὶ ὕβριες· οὐδέ τι σῖτον
ἔργ' -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἔργον> work, deed -- works ἔμελε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <μέλω> to care, to be an object of care -- were loved στονόεντα -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <στονόεις> sad, wretched -- wretched καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ὕβριες -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ὕβρις> violence -- violent acts οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not τι -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- any σῖτον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <σῖτος> corn, bread -- bread
ἤσθιον, ἀλλ' ἀδάμαντος ἔχον κρατερόφρονα θυμόν
ἤσθιον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἐσθίω> eat -- they did ...eat ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but ἀδάμαντος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ἀδάμας> steel -- of steel ἔχον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἔχω> have -- they had κρατερόφρονα -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <κρατερόφρων> stout-hearted, dauntless -- a dauntless θυμόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυμός> soul, heart -- heart
αὔτις ἔτ' ἄλλο τέταρτον ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ # (line 158)
αὔτις -- adverb; <αὔτις> again -- again ἔτ' -- adverb; <ἔτι> still -- yet
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ἄλλο -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- another τέταρτον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <τέταρτος> fourth -- a fourth ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on χθονὶ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <χθών> earth -- the earth πουλυβοτείρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <πουλυβότειρα> all nourishing, fruitful -- fruitful
Ζεὺς Κρονίδης ποίησε, δικαιότερον καὶ ἄρειον,
Ζεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- Zeus Κρονίδης -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <Κρονίδης> son of Kronos -- the son of Kronos ποίησε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made δικαιότερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of 112 comparative of <δίκαιος> just, righteous -- more righteous καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἄρειον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of comparative of <ἄγαθος> good -- better
ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων θεῖον γένος, οἵ καλέονται
ἀνδρῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀνήρ> man -- of men ἡρώων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἥρως> hero -- (of) heroes θεῖον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <θεῖος> divine, godlike -- godlike γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race οἵ -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- who καλέονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <καλέω> call, summon -- are called
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ἡμίθεοι, προτέρη γενεὴ κατ' ἀπείρονα γαῖαν.
ἡμίθεοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἡμίθεος> demi-god -- demi-gods προτέρη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πρότερος> first, before -- prior (to ours) γενεὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <γενεή> family, generation, race -- a race κατ' -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- on ἀπείρονα -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <ἀπείρων> boundless -- the boundless γαῖαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γαῖα> land - - earth
νῦν γὰρ δὴ γένος ἐστὶ σιδήρεον· οὐδέ ποτ' ἧμαρ # (line 176)
νῦν -- adverb; <νῦν> now -- now γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- and δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed γένος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <γένος> race -- the race ἐστὶ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is σιδήρεον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <σιδήρεος> of iron -- of iron οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and ... not ποτ' -- adverb; <ποτέ> at some time, ever -- ever ἧμαρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἧμαρ> day -- by day
παύονται καμάτου καὶ οἰζύος, οὐδέ τι νύκτωρ
παύονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <παύω> stop, cease -- they do ...stop καμάτου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <κάματος> toil, labor -- laboring καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and οἰζύος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <οἰζύς> misery, suffering -- suffering
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οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and . . . not τι -- adverb; <τι> in any way -- at all νύκτωρ -- adverb; <νύκτωρ> by night -- by night
φθειρόμενοι χαλεπὰς δὲ θεοὶ δώσουσι μερίμνας
φθειρόμενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of participle middle of <φθείρω> perish -- perishing χαλεπὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <χαλεπός> difficult -- difficult δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- the gods δώσουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural future of <δίδωμι> give -- will give μερίμνας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <μέριμνα> care, anxious thought -- anxieties
ἀλλ' ἔμπης καὶ τοῖσι μεμείχεται ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν 114
ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but ἔμπης -- adverb; <ἔμπης> nevertheless -- nevertheless καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- also τοῖσι -- article; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- for them μεμείχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive of <μίγνυμι> mix -- will be mixed ἐσθλὰ -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of <ἐσθλόν> good -- good things κακοῖσιν -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <κακός> evil, poor -- with evils
Lesson Text χρύσεον μὲν πρώτιστα γένος μερόπων ἀνθρώπων ἀθάνατοι ποίησαν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες. οἳ μὲν ἐπὶ Κρόνου ἦσαν, ὅτ' οὐραν ἐμβασίλευεν. ὥστε θεοὶ δ' ἔζωον ἀκηδέα θυμὸν ἔχοντες νόσφιν ἄτερ τε πόνων καὶ οἰζύος·
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αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δὴ τοῦτο γένος κατὰ γαῖα κάλυψεν δεύτερον αὖτε γένος πολὺ χειρότερον μετόπισθεν ἀργύρεον ποίησαν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες, χρυσέῳ οὔτε φυὴν ἐναλίγκιον οὔτε νόημα. Ζεὺς δὲ πατὴρ τρίτον ἄλλο γένος μερόπων ἀνθρώπων χάλκειον ποίησ' οὐκ ἀργυρέῳ οὐδὲν ὁμοῖον, ἐκ μελιᾶν, δεινόν τε καὶ ὄβριμον· οἷσιν Ἄρηος ἔργ' ἔμελε στονόεντα καὶ ὕβριες· οὐδέ τι σῖτον ἤσθιον, ἀλλ' ἀδάμαντος ἔχον κρατερόφρονα θυμόν αὔτις ἔτ' ἄλλο τέταρτον ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ Ζεὺς Κρονίδης ποίησε, δικαιότερον καὶ ἄρειον, ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων θεῖον γένος, οἵ καλέονται ἡμίθεοι, προτέρη γενεὴ κατ' ἀπείρονα γαῖαν. νῦν γὰρ δὴ γένος ἐστὶ σιδήρεον· οὐδέ ποτ' ἧμαρ παύονται καμάτου καὶ οἰζύος, οὐδέ τι νύκτωρ φθειρόμενοι χαλεπὰς δὲ θεοὶ δώσουσι μερίμνας ἀλλ' ἔμπης καὶ τοῖσι μεμείχεται ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν
Translation First of all the immortal gods, who live on Olympus, made a golden race of mortal men who lived in the time of Cronos when he was king in heaven. And they lived like gods having a life without sorrow, remote and without grief and suffering. ... But somewhat later after the earth covered this generation, those having Olympian homes made a second generation, silver, inferior, like the golden neither in stature nor in understanding. ... Father Zeus made a third, different race of humans endowed with speech, bronze out of the ash tree, in no way like the silver race, terrible and strong. The wretched works and violent acts of Ares were loved by them, and did not eat any bread, but they inflexibly maintained a dauntless spirit. ... Yet again Zeus, the son of Cronos, made another, the fourth, on the fruitful earth, that was more righteons and better, a godlike race of men, heroes, who are called demigods, the race prior to ours, on the boundless earth. ... And now indeed the race is of iron, and they do not stop laboring and suffering by day, and not at all from perishing by night. Indeed the gods give them difficult anxieties. But nevertheless, also for them, good will be mixed with evils.
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Grammar
31. Inflection of adjectives and participles.
Section 12 provided the inflection of the most common adjectives, Here that of adjectives with consonantal stems is given for the adjective ἄκων 'unwilling'; it applies also to present participles.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. ἄκων ἄκουσα ἄκον
Gen. sg. ἄκοντος ἀκούσης ἀκοντος
Dat. sg. ἄκοντι ἀκούσῃ ἄκοντι
Acc. sg. ἄκοντα ἄκουσαν ἄκον
116
Nom. pl. ἄκοντες ἄκουσαι ἄκοντα
Gen. pl. ἀκόντων ἀκουσῶν ἀκόντων
Dat. pl. ἄκουσι(ν) ἀκούσαις ἄκουσι(ν)
Acc. pl. ἄκοντας ἀκούσας ἄκοντα
The frequent adjective, πᾶς 'all, whole' is also inflected in this way; the nominative and genitive singular are given as an illustration.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν
Gen. sg. παντός πάσης παντός
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The nominative forms of other consonantal adjectives are given in dictionaries; the other cases may be identified with the help of the forms given above.
32. Two frequently occurring adjectives.
The forms of two frequently ocurring adjectives are given here in view of their common occurrence, μέγας 'great' and πολύς 'much'.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. μέγας μεγάλη μέγα
Gen. sg. μεγάλου μεγάλης μεγάλου
Dat. sg. μεγάλῳ μεγάλῃ μεγάλῳ
Acc. sg. μέγαν μεγάλην μέγα
Nom. pl. μεγάλοι μεγάλαι μεγάλα
Gen. pl. μεγάλων μεγάλων μεγάλων
Dat. pl. μεγάλοις μεγάλαις μεγάλοις
Acc. pl. μεγάλους μεγάλας μεγάλα
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. πολύς πολλή πόλυ
Gen. sg. πολλοῦ πολλῆς πολλοῦ
Dat. sg. πολλ πολλῇ πολλῴ
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Acc. sg. πολύν πολλήν πολύ
Nom. pl. πολλοί πολλαί πολλά
Gen. pl. πολλῶν πολλῶν πολλῶν
Dat. pl. πολλοῖς πολλαῖς πολλοῖς
Acc. pl. πολλούς πολλάς πολλά
33. Less frequent patterns of adjectival comparison.
The most frequent type of comparison with the suffixes -τερος, - τατος was given in section 22. Some common adjectives have different suffixes, as noted there for κακός, with its comparative in κακίων 'worse'and superlative κάκιστος. 118 Similarly, καλός 'beautiful' has the forms καλλίων and κάλλιστος, ἐχθρός 'hostile' has the forms έχθίων, ἔχθιστος.
Other adjectives have different roots in the comparative and superlative forms. Some have several types of comparison, with differing connotations for the various types.
άγαθ ος 'good' ἀμείνων ἄριστος 'clever, brave'
βελτίων βέλτιστος 'virtuous'
κρείττων κράτιστος 'strong, superior'
κακός 'bad' χείρων χείριστος 'less good'
ἥττων ἥκιστος 'weaker'
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μέγας 'great' μείζων μέγιστος
μικρός 'small' μικρότερος μικρότατος
ἐλάττων ἐλαχ ιστος (also applies to ὀλίγος)
ὀλίγος 'little' μείων ---
πολύς 'much' πλείων πλεῖστος
34. Aorist of the passive.
As noted in section 30, the aorist in the passive differs from that in the middle.
Indicative Subjunctiv Optative Imperative e
1 ἐπαιδεύθην παιδευθῶ παιδευθείην s g
2 ἐπαιδεύθης παιδευθῇς παιδευθείης παιδεύθητι s g
3 ἐπαιδεύθη παιδευθῇ παιδευθείη παιδευθήτ s ω g
1 ἐπαιδεύθημ παιδευθῶμ παιδευθείημ pl εν εν εν
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2 ἐπαιδεύθητ παιδευθῆτ παιδευθείητ παιδεύθητε pl ε ε ε
3 ἐπαιδεύθησ παιδευθῶσ παιδευθείησ παιδευθέντ pl αν ι αν ων
35. Infinitives and participles of the aorist middle and passive.
Middle Passive
Infinitive παιδεύσασθαι παιδευθήσεσθαι 'to educate' 'to be educated'
Participle παιδευσάμενος, -η, - παιδευθείς, -θεῖσα, - ον θέν 'one who educated' 'be educated' 120
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 8 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-8- X.html
Classical Greek Online Lesson 8
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Plato is probably the most influential Greek philosopher, as well as one of the greatest in the western world. Born in 429 or 428 B.C., he
Classical Greek Online died in 347 B.C. At the age of twenty he became a follower of Socrates, and remained with him until his death in 399 B.C. After that time he traveled in Egypt, Sicily and lower Italy. He then founded a philosophical school in the Academus grove, from which it is known as the Academy. He produced many dialogues, of which The Laws and the Republic are the most extensive. Socrates conducts the dialogues in which the ideas are discussed. Western philosophers and editors have achieved distinction through their attention to his works, among them Jowett for his translation of the Republic.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The Republic is Plato's major work. In it he discusses, through the mouth of Socrates, the bases of an ideal state. The major ideas deal with human improvement and with the love of truth, as well as the supremacy of mind. The state or city is essential because, without it, individuals cannot be provided with the necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. Moreover, education is highly important for achieving an ideal state. The four cardinal virtues must be observed, and the three classes must have the desired virtues. The rulers must be wise; the soldiers must be brave and aware of what is to be feared; all others as well must apply moderation and temperance. The health of the state is based on justice, which requires that each class carry out its proper functions. These ideas are presented in the first five books. In the sixth book the prerequisites of higher education are discussed; in the seventh, specialization in the mathematical sciences and dialectic. The eighth book deals with the four types of states that differ from the ideal:
1. Timocracy, where honor is the basic principle; 2. Oligarchy, where emphasis is on wealth; 3. Democracy, where emphasis is on liberty, often on doing what one likes; 4. Tyranny, where there is slavery to appetite.
The ninth book deals with the difference between the just and the unjust life. The tenth book is a kind of conclusion that emphasizes the importance of righteousness and sobriety.
Choice among the many excellent sections of the Republic is difficult; this passage from Book VI, section XIII, provides insight into the ideal man; it has affected authors from Boethius through Dante to Matthew Arnold.
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Οὐδὲ γάρ που, ὦ Ἀδείμαντε, σχολὴ τ γε ὡς ἀληθῶς πρὸς τοῖς οἶσι τὴν διάνοιαν ἔχοντι κάτω βλέπειν εἰς ἀνθρώπων πραγματείας.
οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for που -- adverb; <που> anywhere, perhaps -- anywhere ὦ -- exclamation; <ῶ> Oh -- Oh Ἀδείμαντε -- noun, masculine; vocative singular of <Αδείμαντος> Adeimontus -- Adeimontus σχολὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <σχολή> leisure -- there is ... leisure τ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- for the one γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- at all ὡς -- adverb; <ὡς> so, thus -- thus ἀληθῶς -- adverb; <ἀληθῶς> really, truly -- truly πρὸς -- preposition; <πρός> to -- on τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the 122 οἶσι -- participle used as substantive; dative plural neuter of present participle of <εἰμί> I am -- (beings) eternal verities τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- (the) his διάνοιαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular <διάνοια> thought, mind -- mind ἔχοντι -- verb; dative singular masculine present participle of <ἔχω> have -- (who) has κάτω -- adverb; <κάτω> downward -- downward βλέπειν -- verb; infinitive of <βλέπω> see -- to look εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- at ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- of human beings πραγματείας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <πραγματεία> hard work, affairs -- the affairs
καὶ μαχόμενον αὐτοῖς φθόνου τε καὶ δυσμενείας ἐμπίπλασθαι,
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
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μαχόμενον -- deponent verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle of <μάχομαι> fight, quarrel -- quarreling αὐτοῖς -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- with them φθόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <φθόνος> envy, ill-will -- with ill-will τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and δυσμενείας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <δυσμένεια> enmity, hate -- hate ἐμπίπλασθαι -- verb; infinitive passive of <ἐμπίπλημι> fill -- to be filled
ἀλλ' εἰς τεταγμένα ἅττα καὶ κατὰ ταῦτὰ ἀεὶ ἔχοντα ὁρῶντας καὶ θεωμένους οὔτ' ἀδικοῦντα οὔτ' ἀδικούμενα ὑπ' ἀλλήλων, κόσμῳ δὲ πάντα καὶ κατὰ λόγον ἔχοντα, ταῦτα μιμεῖσθαί τε καὶ ὅ τι μάλιστα ἀφομοιοῦσθαι.
ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- towards τεταγμένα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of passive participle of <τάσσω> arrange, put in order -- has been arranged, i.e. is eternal ἅττα -- pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever -- what καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in accordance with ταῦτὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the + pronoun <αὐτός> oneself, he -- the things ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- constant ἔχοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔχω> have -- (being) that are ὁρῶντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of participle of <ὁράω> see -- he keeps his eyes fixed καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and θεωμένους -- deponent verb; accusative plural masculine of middle participle of <θεάομαι> see -- sees οὔτ' -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- neither Classical Greek Online
ἀδικοῦντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἀδικέω> wrong -- wrong οὔτ' -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- nor ἀδικούμενα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of passive participle of <ἀδικέω> wrong -- wronged ὑπ' -- preposition; <ὑπό> under, by -- by ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- by one another κόσμῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσμος> beauty, order, world -- order δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and πάντα -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural neuter of <πᾶς> all, every -- everything καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in accordance with λόγον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <λόγος> word, reason -- reason ἔχοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle 124 of <ἔχω> have -- that is ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- things μιμεῖσθαί -- deponent verb; infinitive middle of <μιμέομαι> imitate -- he will imitate τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ὅ -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- what τι -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- that μάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very -- as much as possible ἀφομοιοῦσθαι -- verb; passive infinitive of <ἀφομοιο ω> to make like -- become like
ἤ οἴει τινὰ μηχανὴν εἶναι, ὅτῳ τις ὁμιλεῖ ἀγάμενος, μὴ μιμεῖσθαι ἐκεῖνο;
ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or
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οἴει -- deponent verb; 2nd person singular present middle of <οἶμαι> think -- do you think τινὰ -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- it μηχανὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <μηχανή> instrument -- possible εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- to be ὅτῳ -- relative pronoun; dative singular neuter of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever -- with something τις -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις> someone, something -- (if) someone ὁμιλεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with -- busies himself ἀγάμενος -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of middle participle of <ἄγαμαι> to wonder, admire -- admiringly μὴ -- particle; <μή> not -- not μιμεῖσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive middle of <μιμέομαι> imitate -- (would) ...imitate ἐκεῖνο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ἐκεῖνος> that -- that
Ἀδύνατον, ἔφη.
ἀδύνατον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἀδύνατος> impossible -- (it is) impossible ἔφη -- verb; 2nd person singular imperfect of <φημί> say -- he said
Θείῳ δὴ καὶ κοσμίῳ ὅ γε φιλόσοφος ὁμιλῶν κόσμιός τε καὶ θεῖος εἰς δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ γίγνεται.
θείῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <θεῖος> deity, divinity -- the divine δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and κοσμίῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσμιος> decorum, order -- order
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ὅ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ... φιλόσοφος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <φιλόσοφος> wise man -- wise man ὁμιλῶν -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with -- who busies himself with κόσμιός -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <κόσμιος> orderly -- orderly τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and θεῖος -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <θεῖος> divine, godlike -- divine εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- to δυνατὸν -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <δυνατός> possible -- the extent possible ἀνθρώπῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- for a human γίγνεται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present 126 of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- will become
διαβολὴ δ' ἐν πᾶσι πολλή.
διαβολὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <διαβολή> false accusation, calumny -- calumny δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in πᾶσι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <πᾶς> all, every -- everything πολλή -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πολύς> many -- (is) plentiful
Παντάπασι μὲν οὖν.
παντάπασι -- adverb; <παντάπασι> absolutely -- absolutely μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- to be sure
Classical Greek Online
Ἄν οὖν τις, εἶπον, αὐτῳ ἀνάγκη γένεται ἅ ἐκεῖ ὁρᾷ μελετῆσαι εἰς ἀνθρώπων ἤθη καὶ ἰδίᾳ καὶ δημοσίᾳ τίθεναι, καὶ μὴ μόνον ἑαυτὸν πλάττειν,
ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- supposing οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- then τις -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <τις> someone, something -- someone εἶπον -- verb; 1st person singular aorist of <λέγω> say -- I said αὐτῳ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- for him ἀνάγκη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀνάγκη> force, compulsion -- force γένεται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- is applied ἅ -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- which ἐκεῖ -- adverb; <ἐκεῖ> there -- there ὁρᾷ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὁράω> see -- he sees μελετῆσαι -- verb; aorist infinitive of <μελετάω> care for, practice -- to practice εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- ... ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- of humans ἤθη -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἦθος> custom, character -- the manners καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- both ἰδίᾳ -- adverb; <ἰδίᾳ> privately -- privately καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and δημοσίᾳ -- adverb; <δημοσίᾳ> in public -- in public τίθεναι -- verb; infinitive of <τίθημι> put, place -- arranging καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and μὴ -- particle; <μή> not -- not μόνον -- adverb; <μόνον> alone -- alone ἑαυτὸν -- reflexive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself -- himself
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πλάττειν -- verb; infinitive of <πλάττω> mould, shape -- moulding
ἆρα κακὸν δημιουργὸν αὐτὸν οἴει γενήσεσθαι σωφροσύνης τε καὶ δικαιοσύνης καὶ ξυμπάσης τῆς δημοτικῆς ἀρετῆς;
ἆρα -- interrogative particle; <ἆρα> then -- then κακὸν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <κακός> evil, poor -- a poor δημιουργὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <δημιουργός> craftsman -- craftsman αὐτὸν -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- he οἴει -- deponent verb; 2nd person singular present middle of <οἶμαι> think -- do you consider γενήσεσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive future middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- will become σωφροσύνης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <σωφροσύνη> moderation, discretion -- of discretion 128 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and δικαιοσύνης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <δικαιοσύνη> justice, righteousness -- of justice καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ξυμπάσης -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <ξύμπας> all together -- of all kinds τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the δημοτικῆς -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <δημοτικός> of the people, in common use -- common ἀρετῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἀρετῆ> virtue -- virtue
Ἥκιστά γε, ἧ δ' ὅς.
ἥκιστά -- adverb; <ἥκιστα> least -- not at all γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- indeed ἧ -- adverb; <ἧ> verily -- in truth δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- ...
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ὅς -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- he (said)
Lesson Text Οὐδὲ γάρ που, ὦ Ἀδείμαντε, σχολὴ τ γε ὡς ἀληθῶς πρὸς τοῖς οἶσι τὴν διάνοιαν ἔχοντι κάτω βλέπειν εἰς ἀνθρώπων πραγματείας. καὶ μαχόμενον αὐτοῖς φθόνου τε καὶ δυσμενείας ἐμπίπλασθαι, ἀλλ' εἰς τεταγμένα ἅττα καὶ κατὰ ταῦτὰ ἀεὶ ἔχοντα ὁρῶντας καὶ θεωμένους οὔτ' ἀδικοῦντα οὔτ' ἀδικούμενα ὑπ' ἀλλήλων, κόσμῳ δὲ πάντα καὶ κατὰ λόγον ἔχοντα, ταῦτα μιμεῖσθαί τε καὶ ὅ τι μάλιστα ἀφομοιοῦσθαι. ἤ οἴει τινὰ μηχανὴν εἶναι, ὅτῳ τις ὁμιλεῖ ἀγάμενος, μὴ μιμεῖσθαι ἐκεῖνο; Ἀδύνατον, ἔφη. Θείῳ δὴ καὶ κοσμίῳ ὅ γε φιλόσοφος ὁμιλῶν κόσμιός τε καὶ θεῖος εἰς δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ γίγνεται. διαβολὴ δ' ἐν πᾶσι πολλή. Παντάπασι μὲν οὖν. Ἄν οὖν τις, εἶπον, αὐτῳ ἀνάγκη γένεται ἅ ἐκεῖ ὁρᾷ μελετῆσαι εἰς ἀνθρώπων ἤθη καὶ ἰδίᾳ καὶ δημοσίᾳ τίθεναι, καὶ μὴ μόνον ἑαυτὸν πλάττειν, ἆρα κακὸν δημιουργὸν αὐτὸν οἴει γενήσεσθαι σωφροσύνης τε καὶ δικαιοσύνης καὶ ξυμπάσης τῆς δημοτικῆς ἀρετῆς; Ἥκιστά γε, ἧ δ' ὅς.
Translation "For there is no leisure at all anywhere, Oh Adeimontus, for the one who truly has his mind on the eternal verities to look downward at the affairs of human beings, and quarreling with them to be filled with ill-will and hate. But he keeps his eyes fixed on what is eternal and on the things that are constant, and sees neither what is wrong nor wronged by one another; and he will imitate everything that is in accordance with reason, and become like that as much as possible. Or do you think it to be possible if someone busies himself with something admiringly not to imitate that?" He said it is impossible. "Then the wise man who busies himself with the divine and with order will become orderly and divine to the extent possible for a human. But calumny is plentiful in everything." "Absolutely, to be sure." "Suppose then, I said, some force is applied to him to practice arranging both privately and in public the manners of humans which he sees there, and not moulding himself alone. Then do you consider that he will become a poor craftsman with regard to
Classical Greek Online discretion and justice and all kinds of common virtues?" "Not at all, in truth," he said.
Grammar
36. Tense formation.
To identify verbal forms, it is useful to note the principal parts. Illustrations are provided here, first with the so-called pure verbs, that is, those for which the stems are not modified by the endings. Examples are: παιδεύω 'educate', τιμάω 'honor', ποιέω 'make'.
Present παιδεύω τιμάω ποιέω
Future παιδεύσω τιμήσω ποιήσω
Aorist active ἐπαίδευσα ἐτίμησα ἐποιήσα
Perfect active πεπαίδευκα τετίμηκα πεποίηκα 130
Perfect middle πεπαίδευμαι τετίμημαι πεποίημαι
Aorist passive ἐπαιδεύθην ἐτιμήθην ἐποιήθην
37. Tense formation of obstruent stems.
In stems ending in obstruent consonants, that is, those ending in stops or fricatives, the consonant of the stem is modified before the tense markers. Examples are given here for πείθω 'persade', πράττω 'do', ἄγω 'lead', and γράφω 'write'.
Present πείθω πράττω ἄγω γράφω
Future πείσω πράξω ἄξω γράψα
Aorist ἔπεισα ἔπραξα ἤγαγον ἔγραψα active
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Perfect πέπεικα πέπραχα ἦχα γέγραφα active
Perfect πέπεισμαι πέπραγμαι ἤγμαι γέγραμμαι middle
Aorist ἐπείσθην ἐπράχθην ἤχθην ἐγράφθην passive
38. Tense formation of resonant stems.
Stems ending in resonants may fail to have the future/aorist marker. Examples are φαίνω 'appear', ἀγγέλλω 'announce', and σπείρω 'sow'.
Present φαίνω ἀγγέλλω σπείρω
Future φανῶ ἀγγελῶ σπερῶ
Aorist active ἔφηνα ἤγγειλα ἔσπειρα
Perfect active πέφαγκα ἤγγελκα ἔσπαρκα
Perfect middle πέφασμαι ἤγγελμαι ἔσπαρμαι
Aorist passive ἐφάνθην ἠγγέλθην ἔσπάρθην
39. The tense formations of some frequent but irregular verbs.
Some verb forms are quite irregular. Some forms of ἔχω 'have' are based on its ancient root *σεχ-. The forms of φέρω 'bear' are based on several roots. The forms of λέγω, φημί, ἀγορεύω 'say, speak' are also based on various roots.
Present ἔχω φέρω λέγω (etc.)
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Future ἕξω οἴσω έρῶ
Aorist active ἔσχον ἤνεγκον εἶπον
Perfect active ἔσχηκα ἐνήνοχα εἴρηκα
Perfect middle ἔσχημαι ἐνήνεγμαι εἴρημαι
Aorist passive ἔσχομην ἠνέχθην ἐρρήθην
40. The Middle and Passive Perfect.
The forms are the same in the two voices. The subjunctive and optative have forms of the verb 'to be' after the participle (not repeated in the optative, below). They are as follows:
Indicative Preterite Subjunctive Opt. 132 1 πεπαίδευμαι ἐπεπαιδεύμην πεπαιδευμέν εἴην s ος ω
2 πεπαίδευσαι έπεπαίδευσο --- ἦς εἴης s
3 πεπαίδευται ἐπεπαίδευτο --- ἦ εἴη s
1 πεπαιδεύμεθ ἐπεπαιδεύμεθ πεπαιδευμέν εἴημε p α α οι ὦμεν ν
2 πεπαίδευσθε ἐπεπαιδεύσθε --- ἦτε εἴτηε p
3 πεπαίδευντα ἐπεπαίδευντο --- ὦσι εἴησι
Classical Greek Online p ι ν
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 9 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-9- X.html
Classical Greek Online Lesson 9
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Aristotle was born in Macedonia in 384 BC. In 367 BC he went to Athens to study with Plato. Plato had a high regard for him, calling him the "intellect of his school." He stayed in Athens until the death of Plato in 347 BC, and after several residences elsewhere he was invited in 342 BC by Philip of Macedonia to instruct his son, Alexander, who was then 13. In 335 BC Aristotle returned to Athens where the state gave him the Lyceum. In the walks surrounding it he gave lectures on philosophy to many scholars while walking up and down, for which the school was named Peripatetic. He remained head of the school until 323 BC, when he left Athens for Euboea, where he died in 322 BC. His treatises and lectures on philosophy have always been highly regarded.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The Poetics is the last work of Aristotle. It is not as widely cited as his Metaphysics, nor his Nicomachean Ethics, but was selected here to illustrate his interest also in the arts. He is considered to be the first literary critic. For him, the arts represent essential truths apprehended by the mind. He proceeds to analyze works of literature, as for their style and for the construction of their plot. Style of poetry is to be
Classical Greek Online judged by the employment of meter and selection of vocabulary. For a plot, unity is essential, and among other things the type of hero. In his first sentence Aristotle states the aim for the treatise as depicting the essence of poetry, its various types, and the requirements for successful plots. Among the types are epic poetry, tragedy and comedy, and dithyrambic poetry as well as most flute- and harp- playing. For all of these he demands mimesis, or imitation of life. And he accounts for interest in them because humans have an instinct for representation and because they enjoy representations. The Poetics is relatively short, but also very compact, as the selection here illustrates. The selection below is from book IV: 22-26.
Ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἶον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη.
ἀρχὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀρχή> beginning, first principle -- first principle μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- truly καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and 134 οἶον -- adverb; <οἶον> so to say -- so to say ψυχὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ψυχή> soul - - the soul ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the μῦθος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <μῦθος> speech, plot -- plot τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of ... τραγῳδίας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <τραγῳδία> tragedy -- tragedy δεύτερον -- adverb; <δεύτερον> second -- the second δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- ta ἤθη -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἦθος> custom, character -- character
παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς.
παραπλήσιον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <παραπλήσιος> such-like -- the same
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γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- it is καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- also ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- in τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- ... γραφικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γραφικῆ> painting -- painting
εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας εἰκόνα.
εἰ -- conjunction; <εἰ> if -- if γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for τις -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις> someone, something -- someone ἐναλείψειε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <ἐναλείψω> paint, smear -- painted τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- with the καλλίστοις -- adjective; dative plural neuter of superlative of <καλός> good, beautiful -- best φαρμάκοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <φάρμακον> paint, color -- colors χύδην -- adverb; <χύδην> at random, promiscuously -- at random οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not ἂν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- ... ὁμοίως -- adverb; <ὁμοίως> similarly -- as much εὐφράνειεν -- verb; 3rd person singular optative aorist of <εὐφραίνω> delight, please -- it would ...delight καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- as λευκογραφήσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <λευκο-γραφέω> paint in white on a black background -- painting . . . in white on a black background εἰκόνα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <εἰκών> image, portrait -- an image
ἔστιν τε μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων. Classical Greek Online
ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- it is τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and μίμησις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <μίμησις> representation -- a representation πράξεως -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <πράξις> action in actual life -- of action in actual life καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of ταύτην -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- that μάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very -- most of all τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the πραττόντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present participle of <πράττω> achieve, manage -- of those in action Σρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια. 136 τρίτον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <τρίτος> third -- the third (element) δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the διάνοια -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <διάνοια> thought, mind -- thought
τοῦτο δέ ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα.
τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the λέγειν -- verb; infinitive of <λέγω> say -- to say δύνασθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive of <δύναμαι> be able -- the ability τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- (the) what is
Classical Greek Online
ἐνόντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔνειμι> to be in, to be possible -- possible καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- (the) what is ἁρμόττοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of present participle of <ἁρμόττω> fit together -- fitting
ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ τῆς ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν.
ὅπερ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅσπερ> it -- it ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- in τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason -- the words τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of the πολιτικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <πολιτική> politics -- politics καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of the ῥητορικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ῥητορική> rhetoric -- rhetorician ἔργον -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἔργον> work, deed -- (in the) activities ἐστίν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is (provided)
οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.
οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed ἀρχαῖοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἀρχαιος> old -- old (writers) πολιτικῶς -- adverb; <πολιτικῶς> like statesmen -- like statesmen
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ἐποίουν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ποιέω> make, do -- made λέγοντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of present participle of <λέγω> say -- (those speaking) the characters speak οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand νῦν -- adverb; <νῦν> now -- current (writers) ῥητορικῶς -- adverb; <ῥητορικῶς> like rhetoricians -- like rhetoricians
Ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἤ προαιρεῖται ἤ φεύγει.
ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ἦθος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἦθος> custom, character -- character 138 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- and τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the τοιοῦτον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <τοιοῦτος> such -- that ὃ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- which δηλοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δηλόω> be clear, reveal -- reveals τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the προαίρεσιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <προαίρεσις> choice -- choice ὁποῖά -- interrogative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὁπος> what sort of -- what sort of thing τις -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις> someone, something -- one ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- among οἷς -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural neuter of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- those where οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not ἔστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- it is
Classical Greek Online
δῆλον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <δῆλος> clear, obvious -- clear ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or προαιρεῖται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <προαιρέω> choose -- chooses ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or φεύγει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <φεύγω> escape, flee -- avoids
διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν οἵς μηδ' ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἥ φεύγει ὁ λέγων.
διόπερ -- adverb; <διόπερ> therefore, so -- so οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not ἔχουσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἔχω> have -- (those) ... have ἦθος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἦθος> custom, character -- character τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- (in) the λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason -- words ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in οἵς -- relative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- which μηδ' -- particle; <μηδέ> and not -- not ὅλως -- adverb; <ὅλως> wholly -- wholly ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- it is ... (clear) ὅ -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- what τι -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- ... προαιρεῖται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <προαιρέω> choose -- chooses ἥ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or φεύγει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <φεύγω> escape, flee -- avoids ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
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λέγων -- participle used as substantive; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <λέγω> say -- (speaking one) speaker
Σέταρτον δὲ τῶν ἐν λόγῳ ἡ λέξις.
τέταρτον -- adverb; of <τέταρτος> fourth -- fourth δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and τῶν -- article used as pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the (elements) ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in λόγῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <λόγος> word, reason -- the literary items ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the λέξις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <λέξις> style - - style
λέγω δὲ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρεται, λέξιν τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίαν ἑρμηνείαν. 140
λέγω -- verb; 1st person singular present of <λέγω> say -- I mean (that) δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and ὥσπερ -- conjunction; <ὥσπερ> as -- as πρότερον -- adverb; <πρότερον> earlier, before -- earlier εἴρεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <εἴρω> speak, say -- has been said λέξιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <λέξις> style - - style τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- (is) the διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- by means of τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ὀνομασίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ὀνομασία> language -- language ἑρμηνείαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἑρμηνεία> interpretation -- interpretation
Classical Greek Online
ὅ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.
ὅ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- this καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ἐμμέτρων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <ἔμμετρος> metrical -- poetry καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason -- (words) prose ἔχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- has τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the αὐτὴν -- pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- same δύναμιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <δύναμις> power -- force
Lesson Text Ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἶον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη. παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς. εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας εἰκόνα. ἔστιν τε μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων. Σρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια. τοῦτο δέ ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα. ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ τῆς ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν. οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς. Ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἤ προαιρεῖται ἤ φεύγει. διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν οἵς μηδ' ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἥ φεύγει ὁ λέγων. Σέταρτον δὲ τῶν ἐν λόγῳ ἡ λέξις. λέγω δὲ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρεται, λέξιν τὴν διὰ
Classical Greek Online
τῆς ὀνομασίαν ἑρμηνείαν. ὅ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.
Translation The plot is truly the first principle and so to say the soul of tragedy; and the second is character. It is the same also in painting. For if someone painted with the best colors at random, it would not delight as much as painting an image in white on a black background. For it is a representation of action in actual life, and because of that most of all of those in action. The third element is thought. This is the ability to say what is possible and what is fitting. It is provided in the words and the activities of the statesman and of the rhetorician. For the old writers made the characters speak like statesmen and the new writers like rhetoricians. Now character is that which reveals choice, i.e. what sort of thing one chooses or avoids among those where it is not clear. So those have no character in the words, in which it is not wholly clear what the speaker chooses or avoids. 142 The fourth of the elements in the literary items is style. And I mean, as has been said earlier, that style is the means of interpretation through meaning. And this has the same force for poetry and prose.
Grammar
41. Verbs in -μι; the present and imperfect active system.
A small number of frequent verbs have different endings and formations from those of the general verbs. Among these are τίθημι 'put', ἵημι 'send', ἵστημι, and δίδωμι 'give'. The present forms of τίθημι are given here to illustrate their forms. The forms of the others are comparable, though δίδωμι has ο-vowels corresponding to the ε-vowels of the three other verbs.
Present Imperfect
1 sg τίθημι ἐτίθην
Classical Greek Online
2 sg τίθης ἐτίθεις
3 sg τίθησι(ν) ἐτίθει
1 pl τίθεμεν ἐτίθεμεν
2 pl τίθετε ἐτίθετε
3 pl τιθέασι(ν) ἐτίθεσαν
Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg τιθῶ τιθείην
2 sg τιθῇς τιθείης τίθει
3 sg τιθῇ τιθείη τιθέτω
1 pl τιθῶμεν τιθεῖμεν
2 pl τιθῆτε τιθεῖτε τίθετε
3 pl τιθῶσι(ν) τιθεῖεν τιθέντων
42. Forms of the aorist active. Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg ἔθηκα θῶ θείην
2 sg ἔθηκας θῇς θείης θές
Classical Greek Online
3 sg ἔθηκε(ν) θῇ θείη θέτω
1 pl ἔθεμεν θῶμεν θεῖμεν
2 pl ἔθετε θῆτε θεῖητε θέτε
3 pl ἔθεσαν θῶσι(ν) θεῖεν θέντων
43. Forms of the Present and Imperfect system of εἰμί 'am'.
Present Imperfect
1 sg εἰμί ἦν
2 sg εἶ ἦσθα 144 3 sg ἐστί(ν) ἦν
1 pl ἐσμέν ἦμεν
2 pl ἐστέ ἦτε
3 pl εἰσί(ν) ἦσαν
Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg ὦ εἴην
2 sg ᾖς εἴης ἴσθι
3 sg ᾖ εἴη ἔστω
Classical Greek Online
1 pl ὦμεν εἴημεν
2 pl ἤτε εἴητε ἔστε
3 pl ὦσι(ν) εἴησαν ἔστων
44. Forms of οἶδα 'I know'.
οἶδα is a perfect with present meaning. It is based on a root meaning 'see', so that the perfect has developed in meaning from 'I have seen' to 'I know'. The forms representing present and past time are given here.
Present Past
1 sg οἶδα 'I know' ᾔδη 'I knew'
2 sg οἶσθα 'thou knowest' ᾔδησθα 'thou knewest'
3 sg οἶδε(ν) 'he/she knows' ᾔδει 'he/she knew'
1 pl ἴσμεν 'we know' ᾔδμεν 'we knew'
2 pl ἴστε 'you know' ᾔδετε 'you knew'
3 pl ἴσασι(ν) 'they know' ᾔδεσαν 'they knew'
45. Particles.
As you have noted in the texts, particles are numerous in Greek texts. Moreover, they are often left untranslated. They may modify meaning much as intonation does in English; if then translated with their meaning given in dictionaries, such as 'indeed, to be sure' and so on,
Classical Greek Online the English sentence is turgid. In combinations, such as καὶ δέ, καὶ merely adds emphasis. Particles then must be treated in relation to one another and to the entire sentence.
There are two negative particles, also called adverbs, οὺ (οὔτε, οὐκ, etc.), and μή, which is required in sentences expressing a desire and is used in conditions.
There are several interrogative particles, of which ἧ and ἆρα are the most frequent. Other particles are listed here in alphabetical order.
ἀλλά 'on the other hand, but, on the contrary' ἅμα 'at the same time, at once' ἄρα 'therefore, then' (note the different accentuation from the interrogative particle) γάρ 'for' γέ 'indeed, certainly' δέ 'but, however' (often used as a connective, and need not be translated) 146 δή 'already, now' (or used to add emphasis) ἦ 'truly, really' ἤ 'or' (often doubled with the meanings 'either ...or') καί 'and' or, as used for emphasis, 'even' μέν 'indeed' (may be used with δέ to indicate a correlation, and not translated) οὐδέ 'and not' οὖν 'indeed, certainly; therefore' οὔτε ... οὔτε, μήτε ... μήτε 'neither ... nor' πέρ 'even, indeed' τέ 'and'; τέ ... τέ 'both ... and'; τέ ... καί 'not only ... but also'
Classical Greek Online: Lesson 10 Source URL:http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-10- X.html
Classical Greek Online
Classical Greek Online Lesson 10
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Little is known of Pausanias. He was apparently born in Lydia. On the basis of references in his work, as to contemporary Roman emperors, it is concluded that he lived from approximately 120-180 AD. He traveled widely throughout the eastern Mediterranean area, including Italy. While aware of his limitations as a writer and interests, we are grateful to him for his information on the highlights of Greek civilization before many of them were damaged or destroyed.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Pausanias's Description of Greece reports his travels in Attica, the Peloponnese and central Greece. As in the selection below, he provides a straightforward account of sites, especially the most famous for their art or architecture, amplified by accounts of people. He is not highly regarded for his style, nor for the insight that distinguishes the histories of Herodotus and Thucycides. But his descriptions inform us of the state of the magnificent products of the important period of Greek civilization, such as that of the Parthenon before it was blown up by an explosion of munitions in the 17th century. The description is very detailed, extending through ten books. In addition to its content, the selection here, Attica xxii: 4-5, may illustrate that the language conforms to the standards of the classical period.
καί ἐς δέ τὴν ἀκρόπολίν ἐστιν ἔσοδος μία.
καί -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ἀκρόπολίν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀκρόπολις> Acropolis -- Acropolis
Classical Greek Online
ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- there is ἔσοδος -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἔσοδος> entrance -- entrance μία -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <εἷς> one -- (only) one
ἑτέραν δὲ οὐ παρέχεται, πᾶσα ἀπότομος οὖσα καὶ τεῖχος ἔχουσα ἐχυρόν.
ἑτέραν -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <ἕτερος> other -- another δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not παρέχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <παρέχω> provide -- it does... provide πᾶσα -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πᾶς> all, every -- everywhere ἀπότομος -- adjective; nominative singular feminine 148 of <ἀπότομος> precipitous -- precipitous οὖσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <εἰμί> I am -- being καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and τεῖχος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <τεῖχος> wall -- wall ἔχουσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having ἐχυρόν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐχυρός> strong, secure -- strong
τὰ δὲ προπύλαια λίθου λευκοῦ τὴν ὀροφὴν ἔχει καὶ κόσμῳ καὶ μεγέθει τῶν λίθων μέχρι γε καὶ ἐμοῦ προεῖχε.
τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and προπύλαια -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <προπύλαια> gateway -- gateway λίθου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <λίθος> stone -- marble
Classical Greek Online
λευκοῦ -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <λευκός> white -- of white τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ὀροφὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ὀροφή> roof -- a roof ἔχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- has καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and κόσμῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσμος> beauty, order, world -- in beauty καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and μεγέθει -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <μέγεθος> size -- size τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the λίθων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones μέχρι -- preposition; <μέχρι> until -- until γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ... καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- ... ἐμοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- my time προεῖχε -- verb; singular present of <προείχω> to be superior, excel -- is unexcelled
τὰς μὲν οὖν εἰκόνας τῶν ἱππέων οὐκ ἔχω σαφῶς εἰπεῖν, εἴτε οἱ παῖδές εἰσιν οἱ Ξενοφῶντος εἴτε ἄλλως ἐς εὐπρέπειαν πεποιημέναι.
τὰς -- article; accusative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- (regarding) the μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- indeed εἰκόνας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural; of <εἰκών> image, portrait -- statues τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- of the ἱππέων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἱππεύς> horseman -- horsemen οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not
Classical Greek Online
ἔχω -- verb; 1st person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- I can σαφῶς -- adverb; <σαφῶς> truly -- truly εἰπεῖν -- verb; aorist infinitive of <λέγω> say -- say εἴτε -- conjunction; <εἴτε> whether...or -- whether οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the παῖδές -- noun, masculine/feminine; nominative plural of <παῖς> child -- sons εἰσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <εἰμί> I am -- they are οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the Ξενοφῶντος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon -- of Xenophon εἴτε -- conjunction; <εἴτε> whether...or -- or ἄλλως -- adverb; <ἄλλως> otherwise, especially -- otherwise ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- for εὐπρέπειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <εὐπρέπεια> appearance, beauty -- beauty 150 πεποιημέναι -- verb; participle perfect middle of <ποιέω> make, do -- produced
τῶν δὲ προπυλαίων ἐν δεξίᾳ Νίκης ἐστὶν Ἀπτέρου ναός.
τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand προπυλαίων -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <προπύλαια> gateway -- gateway ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- on δεξίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <δεξιά> the right hand -- the right Νίκης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Νίκη> Victory - - Victory ἐστὶν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is Ἀπτέρου -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Ἄπτερος> Wingless -- of Wingless ναός -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ναός> temple -- the temple
Classical Greek Online
ἐντεῦθεν ἡ θάλασσά ἐστι σύνοπτος, καὶ ταύτῃ ῥίψας Αἰγεὺς ἑαυτὸν ὡς λέγουσιν ἐτελεύτησεν.
ἐντεῦθεν -- adverb; <ἐντεῦθεν> from there -- from there ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the θάλασσά -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- sea ἐστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is σύνοπτος -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <σύνοπτος> visible -- visible καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and ταύτῃ -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- there ῥίψας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ῥίπτω> throw down -- threw . . . down Αἰγεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Αἰγεύς> Aegeus -- Aegeus ἑαυτὸν -- reflexive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself -- himself ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- as λέγουσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <λέγω> say -- they say ἐτελεύτησεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <τελευτέω> finish, die -- died
ἀνήγετο μὲν γὰρ ἡ ναῦς μέλασιν ἱστίοις ἡ τοὺς παῖδας φέρουσα ἐς Κρήτην.
ἀνήγετο -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <ἀνάγομαι> put out to sea -- put out to sea μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ναῦς -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ναῦς> ship -- ship μέλασιν -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <μέλαν> black -- with black ἱστίοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἱστίον> sail -- sails ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the Classical Greek Online
τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the παῖδας -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative plural of <παῖς> child -- children φέρουσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of participle of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry -- carrying ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to Κρήτην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Κρήτη> Crete -- Crete
Θησεὺς δὲ -- ἔπλει γὰρ τόλμης τι ἔχων ἐς τὸν Μίνω καλούμενον ταῦρον
Θησεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Θησεύς> Theseus -- Theseus δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand ἔπλει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <πλέω> sail -- was sailing γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed 152 τόλμης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <τόλμα> courage, venture -- of a venture τι -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- something ἔχων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- against τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the Μίνω -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Μίνος> Minos -- of Minos καλούμενον -- verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle passive of <καλέω> call, summon -- so called ταῦρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ταῦρος> bull -- bull
πρὸς τὸν πατέρα προεῖπε χρήσεσθαι τοῖς ἱστίοις λευκοῖς, ἤν ὀπίσω πλέῃ τοῦ ταύρου κρατήσας.
πρὸς -- preposition; <πρός> to -- to Classical Greek Online
τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- his πατέρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πατήρ> father -- father προεῖπε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <προ- λέγω> say beforehand -- had said . . . beforehand χρήσεσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive middle of <χράομαι> need, use -- (he would) use τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the ἱστίοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἱστίον> sail -- sails λευκοῖς -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <λευκός> white -- with white ἤν -- conjunction; <ἤν> if -- if ὀπίσω -- adverb; <ὀπίσω> back -- back πλέῃ -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <πλέω> sail -- he would sail τοῦ -- article; genitive singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ταύρου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ταῦρος> bull -- bull κρατήσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer - - having conquered
τούτων λήθην ἔσχεν Ἀριάδνην ἀφῃρημένος.
τούτων -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- these (things) λήθην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <λήθη> forgetting -- (him) to forget ἔσχεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔχω> have -- caused Ἀριάδνην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀριάδνη> Ariadne -- Ariadne ἀφῃρημένος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of passive participle of <ἀφαιρέω> take away -- having lost
ἐνταῦθα Αἰγεὺς ὡς εἶδεν ἱστίοις μέλασι τὴν ναῦν κομιζομένην, οἷα τὸν παῖδα τεθνάναι δοκῶν, ἀφεὶς αὐτὸν διαφθείρεται.
ἐνταῦθα -- adverb; <ἐνταῦθα> then, there -- then Classical Greek Online
Αἰγεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Αἰγεύς> Aegeus -- Aegeus ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- when εἶδεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἶδον> saw -- saw ἱστίοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἱστίον> sail -- sails μέλασι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <μέλαν> black -- with black τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the ναῦν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ναῦς> ship -- ship κομιζομένην -- verb; accusative singular feminine of passive participle of <κομίζω> provide for -- traveling οἷα -- relative pronoun; accusative neuter plural of <οἷος> like, such that -- that τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- his παῖδα -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative singular of <παῖς> child -- son τεθνάναι -- verb; infinitive perfect of <θνήσκω> die -- had 154 died δοκῶν -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of <δοκέω> seem, think -- thinking ἀφεὶς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive -- throwing ...down αὐτὸν -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- himself διαφθείρεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <διαφθείρω> destroy, kill -- killed himself
Lesson Text καί ἐς δέ τὴν ἀκρόπολίν ἐστιν ἔσοδος μία. ἑτέραν δὲ οὐ παρέχεται, πᾶσα ἀπότομος οὖσα καὶ τεῖχος ἔχουσα ἐχυρόν. τὰ δὲ προπύλαια λίθου λευκοῦ τὴν ὀροφὴν ἔχει καὶ κόσμῳ καὶ μεγέθει τῶν λίθων μέχρι γε καὶ ἐμοῦ προεῖχε. τὰς μὲν οὖν εἰκόνας τῶν ἱππέων οὐκ ἔχω σαφῶς εἰπεῖν, εἴτε οἱ παῖδές εἰσιν οἱ Ξενοφῶντος εἴτε ἄλλως ἐς εὐπρέπειαν πεποιημέναι. τῶν δὲ προπυλαίων ἐν δεξίᾳ Νίκης ἐστὶν Ἀπτέρου ναός. ἐντεῦθεν ἡ θάλασσά ἐστι σύνοπτος, καὶ ταύτῃ ῥίψας
Classical Greek Online
Αἰγεὺς ἑαυτὸν ὡς λέγουσιν ἐτελεύτησεν. ἀνήγετο μὲν γὰρ ἡ ναῦς μέλασιν ἱστίοις ἡ τοὺς παῖδας φέρουσα ἐς Κρήτην. Θησεὺς δὲ -- ἔπλει γὰρ τόλμης τι ἔχων ἐς τὸν Μίνω καλούμενον ταῦρον πρὸς τὸν πατέρα προεῖπε χρήσεσθαι τοῖς ἱστίοις λευκοῖς, ἤν ὀπίσω πλέῃ τοῦ ταύρου κρατήσας. τούτων λήθην ἔσχεν Ἀριάδνην ἀφῃρημένος. ἐνταῦθα Αἰγεὺς ὡς εἶδεν ἱστίοις μέλασι τὴν ναῦν κομιζομένην, οἷα τὸν παῖδα τεθνάναι δοκῶν, ἀφεὶς αὐτὸν διαφθείρεται.
Translation There is only one entry to the Acropolis. It does not provide another, being precipitous everywhere and having a strong wall. And the gateway has a roof of white marble, and is unexcelled for the beauty and size of its stones to my day. Regarding the statues of the horsemen, I cannot truly say whether they are the sons of Xenophon or whether they were produced especially for beauty. And on the right of the gateway is the temple of Wingless Victory. From here the sea is visible, and here, as they say, Aegeus throwing himself down died. For the ship carrying the children to Crete put out to sea with black sails. But Theseus, was sailing on something of a venture against the bull of Minos, so called. He had said to his father beforehand that he would sail back with white sails, having conquered the bull. But having lost Ariadne caused him to forget these things. Then Aegeus, when from this point he saw the ship traveling with black sails, thinking that his son had died, throwing himself down killed himself.
References
46. Texts.
Editors have worked with Greek texts since the Alexandrian period, when the texts of Homer were essentially fixed. Western scholars have continued the tradition as in the Teubner publications, those published by the Clarendon Press, and so on. If one examines an edited text with extensive introduction and commentary, such as Hesiod: Works and Days, M. L. West, ed. xiii, 399 pp. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), the information provided is enormous. The author states that he "perused" over six hundred texts when producing his book. As noted in the comments to the selection
Classical Greek Online included here, the differences between his text and others, however, are slight.
Unless a text with extensive commentary is desired, readers of the Greek texts will do well to use the editions of the Loeb Classical Library, which have the added advantage of including translations. They are readily available from the Harvard University Press (Cambridge, MA 02138). The texts have been widely read in schools and universities, such as those of Xenophon, Plato and Homer have been published with introductions and commentaries, often also with glossaries. Or commentaries may be published separately, such as A Commentary on Herodotus by W. W. How and J. Wells, 2 vols., 456 and 445 pp. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1912, often reprinted). References may be found in catalogues of libraries and publishers, and increasingly on web sites.
47. Grammars.
Similarly, grammars of Greek are based on long attention. The fullest grammar is that of Eduard Schwyzer, Griechische Grammatik, I-III. Munich: Beck, 1939-53. For ready reference, most readers will find 156 useful a shorter grammar, such as that of Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar (1920), revised by Gordon M. Messing, Harvard University Press (1956).
For a historical treatment, see the Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin by Carl Darling Buck (Chicago: University Press, 1933). A successor is the New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, by Andrew L. Sihler (Oxford: University Press, 1995); it is written like a novel -- no references, no bibliography.
48. Dictionaries.
Dictionaries of various extent are readily available. An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, founded upon the seventh edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon: 1989) provides good coverage for texts of every type.
49. Specialized handbooks.
Catalogues in libraries and lists of publishers are excellent sources for handbooks dealing with all aspects of Greek culture and history. A
Classical Greek Online highly interesting work for information on oral epic and especially Homer is The Making of Homeric Verse, the Collected Papers of Milman Parry, Adam Parry, ed. (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). While no Mycenaean texts have been included here, chiefly because of their brevity, readers may wish to consult Documents in Mycenaean Greek, by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick (Cambridge: University Press, 1956). The sub-title reads: Three hundred selected tablets from Knossos, Pylos and Mycenae with commentary and vocabulary. A History of Greece to 322 B.C. by N.G.L. Hammond (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986, 3rd ed.) provides broad coverage, dealing also with dialects, literature, art and thought. A Smaller Classical Dictionary, ed. E. H. Blakeney (New York: Dutton, 1928) provides compact entries on persons, places and things in the Roman and Greek world. One should not overlook the essays in encyclopedias, such as those in the celebrated 13th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica. These deal with various aspects of culture and history.
50. The Legacy of the Greek World.
The legacy of the Greek world on western civilization is evident in all aspects of political and cultural life. Democratic government had its start there. The works of Thucydides, Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle among others provided many of the principles as well as intellectual support for civil arrangements.
In literature the Homeric poems have been a constant inspiration, as translations, commentaries and references indicate. The great tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, as well as the author of comedies, Aristophanes, are similarly admired, as well as lyric poets like Pindar. The influence of Greek art and architecture, whether produced by unknown artists or sculptors like Phidias, is visible on government buildings throughout the western world.
While Greek religion maintains interest for mythology and literature, the wide adoption of Christianity is evident in the maintenance of the New Testament and the majority of early commentary, as of St. Augustine, through the Greek language. The three creeds, the Apostle's, the Nicaean, the Athanasian, were all formulated in Greek. And while Roman culture has been influential in these fields as well, it owes much to the heritage of the earlier Greek culture, as in matters like the alphabet. The Greeks may have adopted it and other items from other cultures, but they reshaped them and passed them on in improved form to lands much larger than their small area. As a result
Classical Greek Online especially of Alexander's conquests, Greek civilization and culture influenced the entire Mediterranean and surrounding areas, with lasting effects on far larger areas.
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