85 American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 6(2): 85-96, 2012 ISSN 1995-0748

ORIGINAL ARTICLES

An ethnomedicinal survey conducted among the folk medicinal practitioners of three villages in ,

1Protiva Rani Das, 1Md. Tabibul Islam, 1A.S.M. SaleHin Bin Mahmud, 1Mohammad Humayun Kabir, 1Md. Ehasanul Hasan, 1Zubaida Khatun, 1Md. Mahbubur Rahman, 2Md. Nurunnabi, 2Zehedina Khatun, 2Yong-kyu Lee, 1Rownak Jahan, 1Mohammed Rahmatullah

1Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh 2Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, Chungju, Republic of Korea, 380-702

Protiva Rani Das, Md. Tabibul Islam, A.S.M. SaleHin Bin Mahmud, Mohammad Humayun Kabir, Md. Ehasanul Hasan, Zubaida Khatun, Md. Mahbubur Rahman, Md. Nurunnabi, Zehedina Khatun, Yong-kyu Lee, Rownak Jahan, Mohammed Rahmatullah; An ethnomedicinal survey conducted among the folk medicinal practitioners of three villages in Kurigram district, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

Folk medicine is an integral part of the various traditional medicinal practices of Bangladesh. The folk medicinal practitioners, otherwise known as Kavirajes, mainly rely on medicinal plant decoctions, juices, or paste, which are administered topically or orally for treatment of various ailments. Vast numbers of rural and urban people of Bangladesh rely on Kavirajes for treatment of ailments; in fact Kavirajes often are the primary health-care providers, at least to the rural population. The selection of medicinal plant for treatment of a given ailment by a Kaviraj has been found to be quite diverse in a number of previous ethnomedicinal surveys conducted in different regions of the country. This diversity even extends to Kavirajes, who may be practicing in adjacent villages or sometimes, even in the same village. As a result to get a comprehensive viewpoint of medicinal plants and their usages in Bangladesh, it is necessary to conduct ethnomedicinal surveys among the Kavirajes of as many villages and urban areas as possible. The objective of the present study was to conduct an ethnomedicinal survey among the Kavirajes of three villages of Kurigram district in Bangladesh. Interviews were conducted of the Kavirajes with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire and the guided field-walk method. A total of 64 plants distributed into 46 families was found to be used by the four Kavirajes interviewed for treatment of various ailments like respiratory disorders, sexual problems, skin diseases, tuberculosis, urinary tract disorders, tooth or gum disease, anemia, gastrointestinal disorders, bone fracture, eye diseases, pain, fever, paralysis, rheumatism and rheumatic pain, snake bite, helminthiasis, heart disorders, poisoning, chicken pox, kidney or stomach stones, diabetes, ear disorders, hypertension, puerperal fever, edema, jaundice, dog bite, and elephantiasis. The Kavirajes also treated two ailments, which they called meho and promeho. Meho appeared to be urinary problems arising from endocrinological disorders like diabetes, while promeho usually denoted urinary disorders arising from sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea. Whole plants and plant parts like leaves, stems, roots, barks, fruits, flowers, seeds, tubers, gum and rhizomes were used in various formulations. Among the various families of plants used for treatment, the Amaranthaceae and the Euphorbiaceae family contributed 4 plants each, followed by the Combretaceae, Lamiaceae and the Rutaceae family with three plants per family. Ayurvedic influences were observed in the use of several plants in the Kavirajes’ formulations. Indigenous medicinal practices have served as an effective method towards discovery of new and efficacious drugs. From that view point, the plants used by the Kavirajes of three villages of Kurigram district merit potential for further scientific studies, which may lead to discovery of lead compounds and novel drugs.

Key words: Medicinal plants, folk medicine, Kurigram, Bangladesh

Introduction

Traditional medicinal practices in the form of Ayurvedic, Unani, homeopathy and folk medicinal system co-exist side by side in Bangladesh and have centuries’ long history of practice. Among the various systems, folk medicinal system is possibly the least complicated and mainly relies on medicinal plants for treatment of various ailments, including complicated ailments like diabetes, hypertension, rheumatism, and heart disorders. The folk medicinal practitioners are known as Kavirajes, and practically every village of the 86,000 villages of the country has at least one practicing Kaviraj. The rural population relies primarily on the Kavirajes for

Corresponding Author: Professor Dr. Mohammed Rahmatullah, Pro-Vice Chancellor, University of Development Alternative House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new) Dhanmondi R/A, Dhaka-1205 Bangladesh Phone: 88-01715032621 Fax: 88-02-8157339 E mail: [email protected] 86 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012 providing primary health-care. Besides villages, Kavirajes also practice in the towns and cities, where particularly the poor slum dwellers of the towns and cities forms their major patient group. The formulations of the Kavirajes as prepared from plants are fairly simple and take the form of decoctions, plain juice or paste of whole plant or plant parts, which are administered either topically or orally, depending on the ailment. Bangladesh is a fairly small country. As such the vegetation cover, although not the same from region to region certainly has some similarities in the type of floral species found throughout the country. Yet when the plant-based formulations of different Kavirajes are analyzed, it has been observed that almost every individual Kaviraj has his or her own repertoire of floral species, which he or she uses for treatment of even the same ailment. This does not reflect uniqueness of the floral species of a given region, although that is also a factor. Rather, it is the individuality of the Kavirajes themselves and their learning processes, which contributes to the wide differences in the variations of the floral species used for treatment of the same or similar diseases. Notably, this difference can be observed between Kavirajes of even adjacent villages or even between two Kavirajes of the same village. Occasionally, this may be a case of specialization, as for instance, two Kavirajes from the same village have experimented with different plant species or learned from different ‘gurus’ and have come to the same conclusion about the ability of two different plants to cure the same disease. Sometimes, this may be the effect of the existence of floral species unique to a given region, as for instance the floral species of the Sundarbans (a mangrove forest) differs widely from the floral species of say the Chittagong Hill Tracts region or Sylhet district of Bangladesh. But on the whole it can be said that a wide divergence exists between Kavirajes as to the selection of floral species and the mode of preparation of the formulations. As a result, if one has to get a comprehensive idea of the medicinal plants used in folk medicine, the ideal route will be to interview as many Kavirajes from as many villages as possible. Getting such an idea is important, not only from the view of documentation of the medicinal plants of Bangladesh, but also from the fact that such observations of indigenous practices, can lead through more appropriate scientific research, to discovery of newer and better drugs for treatment of ailments (Balick and Cox, 1996; Cotton, 1996; Gilani and Rahman, 2005). Towards documentation of folk medicinal practices among the mainstream Bengali-speaking population, i.e. of the Kavirajes, as well as tribal medicinal practices (which may be considered a variant of folk medicinal practices), we had been conduction ethnomedicinal surveys among the Kavirajes and tribal medicinal practitioners for a number of years. An extensive amount of information has been gathered over the years and some has been documented (Nawaz et al., 2009; Rahmatullah et al., 2009a-c; Hasan et al., 2010; Hossan et al., 2010; Mollik et al., 2010a,b; Rahmatullah et al., 2010a-g; Haque et al., 2011; Jahan et al., 2011, Rahmatullah et al., 2012a-d). Overall, the information collected has only strengthened the view that the selection of medicinal plants or floral species for treatment of a disease is highly diversified among the Kavirajes, and so all Kavirajes, if possible must be interviewed. Although in practice this may seem impossible or to take dozens of years, it is still possible to interview Kavirajes from sample villages of every district, the underlying principle being that the greater the sample size, the better will be the information obtained. Towards attaining the afore-mentioned goal, it was the objective of the present study to conduct an ethnomedicinal survey among the Kavirajes of three villages in the two adjoining sub-districts (), namely Bhurungamari and Ulipur in Kurigram district of Bangladesh.

Materials and Methods

The present survey was conducted in three villages, namely Baghbhandar and in Bhurungamari and Kumarpara in of Kurigram district, Bangladesh. Altogether, the three villages had 4 practicing Kavirajes. Mohammed Rahim Uddin and Md. Suleiman Hossain were from Baghbhandar village, and Md. Rezaul Haq was from Sonahat village in Bhurungamari Upazila, while Md. Mazid Miah was from Kumarpara village in Ulipur Upazila. Informed consent was initially obtained from all Kavirajes to publish their names and any information given to be disseminated both nationally and internationally. Interviews were conducted in the Bengali language, which was spoken by both Kavirajes and interviewers alike. Notably, the Kavirajes practiced among the mainstream Bengali-speaking population. Interviews were conducted with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire and the guided field-walk method of Martin (1995) and Maundu (1995). In this method, the Kavirajes took the interviewers on guided field-walks through areas from where they usually collected their medicinal plants, pointed out the plants and described their uses. The villages had no adjacent forest areas, and apart from a few cultivated species, the rest were collected from fallow land or from roadsides, where they grew as weeds. Plant specimens were photographed, collected and dried and brought back for complete identification at the Bangladesh National Herbarium at Dhaka. Voucher specimens were deposited at the Medicinal Plant Collection Wing of the University of Development Alternative.

87 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012

Results and Discussion

The four Kavirajes of the three villages surveyed used a total of 64 plants distributed into 46 families in their various formulations for treatment of a diverse variety of ailments. The Amaranthaceae and the Euphorbiaceae family contributed four plants each, while the Combretaceae, Lamiaceae, and the Rutaceae family provided three plants each. The various ailments treated by the Kavirajes included respiratory disorders, sexual problems, skin diseases, tuberculosis, urinary tract disorders, tooth or gum disease, anemia, gastrointestinal disorders, bone fracture, eye diseases, pain, fever, paralysis, rheumatism and rheumatic pain, snake bite, helminthiasis, heart disorders, poisoning, chicken pox, kidney or stomach stones, diabetes, ear disorders, hypertension, puerperal fever, edema, jaundice, dog bite, and elephantiasis. Additionally, the Kavirajes treated two disease conditions, which they termed as meho and promeho. It appeared that both are urinary problems, but while meho seemed to arise from endocrinological disorders like diabetes, promeho denoted urinary problems arising from sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea. The results are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Medicinal plants and formulations used by Kavirajes of three villages in Kurigram district, Bangladesh. Serial Scientific Name Family Name Local Name Utilized Part Ailment(s) and formulation(s) Number 1 Hygrophila Acanthaceae Kule khara, Taal Seed Meho (usually denotes urinary auriculata makhna problems arising from (Schumach.) Heine endocrinological disorders like diabetes). Seeds of fruits are soaked in a glass of water followed by drinking the water. 2 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae Har baksha Leaf Coughs, mucus. ½ cup of juice obtained from macerated leaves is taken with sugar twice daily. Rheumatic pain, fever. Leaves of Murraya koenigii, Justicia adhatoda and Azadirachta indica are boiled in water. One cup of the water is taken thrice daily for 7 days. 3 Aloe barbadensis Aloaceae Ghritokumari Leaf To increase libido, meho, to Mill. improve texture of skin, blisters due to burns, tuberculosis. One glass of juice obtained from macerated leaves is mixed with water and sugar is taken in the morning for meho and to increase libido. Leaf juice is rubbed on the skin to improve skin texture. Leaf juice is applied to blisters. Leaves are cooked and eaten as vegetable for tuberculosis. 4 Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae Ubuth nangra, Root Burning sensations during L. Afang urination, kidney stone. ½ cup of juice obtained from macerated root is taken twice daily. 5 Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthaceae Kata khuria Root, bark, Stoppage of urination and L. stem defecation. Juice obtained from macerated root is orally taken. Tooth diseases. Bark is boiled in water followed by gargling with the water. Tooth ache, bleeding from gums. Stem is used to brush teeth and gums. 6 Amaranthus tricolor Amaranthaceae Laal shak Whole plant Anemia, meho. Whole plants are L. cooked and eaten as vegetable. 7 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae Gai khuria Leaf, stem, root Malnutrition in pregnant mother. Leaves and stems are cooked with other leafy vegetables and taken. Boils. Roots are applied to boils to exude pus. 8 Lannea Anacardiaceae Jiga gach Bark Chronic dysentery. ½ cup of coromandelica juice obtained from macerated (Houtt.) Merr. barks of Lannea coromandelica, 88 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012

Mangifera indica and Terminalia arjuna is taken 2-3 times daily for 7 days. 9 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Aam Bark, floral Dysentery, passing of blood clusters with urine. Juice obtained from crushed bark is mixed with lime water. ½ cup of the mixture is taken 2-3 times daily for dysentery. Alternately, juice obtained from macerated floral clusters is mixed with lime water and ½ cup of the mixture is taken 2-3 times daily. One cup of juice obtained from crushed bark is taken 3 times daily for passing of blood with urine. Chronic dysentery. ½ cup of juice obtained from macerated barks of Lannea coromandelica, Mangifera indica and Terminalia arjuna is taken 2-3 times daily for 7 days. 10 Annona reticulata L. Annonaceae Naowa gach Leaf Head lice. Squeezed leaves are boiled in water followed by washing the head with the water. 11 Araujia sericifera Apocynaceae Mot Whole plant Bone fracture, sprain. Paste Brot. made from whole plants of Cissus quadrangularis and Araujia sericifera and rhizomes of Curcuma longa ia applied to fracture area or sprained area. 12 Tabernaemontana Apocynaceae Kori phool Flower Conjunctivitis, redness in eyes. divaricata (L.) R. Br. 2-3 drops of juice obtained from ex Roem. & Schult. squeezed flowers is applied twice daily to eyes. 13 Colocasia esculenta Araceae Jongi kochu Tuber Rheumatic pain, paralysis. (L.) Schott Tubers are fried in mustard oil and taken as vegetable. 14 Scindapsus officinalis Araceae Bhador Stem Rheumatism. One cup juice (Roxb.) Schott obtained from crushed stems is taken every morning. 15 Areca catechu L. Arecaceae Supari Root Bleeding from gums, swelling of gums, tingling sensation in gums, foul odor in mouth. Roots of Areca catechu and bark of Azadirachta indica are boiled in water. The water is used for gargling 2-3 times daily for 3 weeks. 16 Calotropis gigantea Asclepiadaceae Akondo Leaf Snake bite. Sap that oozes from (L.) Ait.f. torn leaves is applied to snake- bitten area to determine extent of snake venom in blood. 17 Eclipta prostrata L. Asteraceae Kalo keshori Whole plant Hair loss. Juice obtained from shak macerated whole plant is applied to scalp. 18 Basella rubra L. Basellaceae Laal puin shak Leaf, stem Excessive bleeding following childbirth. ½ cup containing fruit of Musa paradisiaca along with juice obtained from leaves and stems of Basella rubra and sugar is taken twice daily. 19 Bombax ceiba L. Bombacaceae Shimul Root Meho, promeho (usually denotes sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea), to increase libido. ½ cup of juice obtained from macerated root is taken with sugar for meho and promeho. Juice obtained from macerated roots is taken to increase libido. 20 Ananas comosus (L.) Bromeliaceae Anarosh Young leaf Helminthiasis. Juice obtained Merr. from the base of young leaves is 89 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012

taken with sugar for 3-4 days (half cup twice daily). 21 Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae Arjun Leaf, bark Heart disease, pain in heart, (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight blood coming from mouth. Juice & Arn. obtained from macerated leaves and bark is taken for heart diseases. For pain in heart accompanied by blood coming from mouth, one cup of juice obtained from macerated bark is taken with sugar twice daily. Chronic dysentery. ½ cup of juice obtained from macerated barks of Lannea coromandelica, Mangifera indica and Terminalia arjuna is taken 2-3 times daily for 7 days. 22 Terminalia belerica Combretaceae Bohera Fruit Coughs, spleen disorders, (Gaertn.) Roxb. gastrointestinal disorders. Fruits of Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia belerica and Terminalia chebula are soaked overnight in water followed by drinking the water the following morning on an empty stomach. To clear bowels, flatulence, dysentery. Fruits are soaked overnight in water followed by drinking the water the following morning on an empty stomach. 23 Terminalia chebula Combretaceae Horitoki Fruit Coughs, spleen disorders, Retz. gastrointestinal disorders. Fruits of Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia belerica and Terminalia chebula are soaked overnight in water followed by drinking the water the following morning on an empty stomach. Flatulence, constipation, helminthiasis. Three powdered fruits are taken twice daily for 7 days. 24 Ipomoea aquatica Convolvulaceae Kolmi shak Whole plant Antidote to poisoning. Juice Forssk. obtained from macerated whole plant is orally administered. Chicken pox. Two teaspoonfuls of juice obtained from macerated whole plant is mixed with warm milk and taken. 25 Kalanchoe pinnata Crassulaceae Pathorkuchi Leaf Formation of stones in the (Lam.) Pers. stomach. One cup of juice obtained from crushed leaves is taken with mishri (crystalline sugar) daily. Headache. Crushed leaves are applied to scalp or forehead. 26 Coccinia grandis (L.) Cucurbitaceae Telakucha Leaf Diabetes, loss of appetite, J. Voigt flatulence. ½ cup of juice obtained from macerated leaves is taken twice daily. 27 Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae Kellar boi Tuber Infections, constipation. Paste of tubers is applied to infections. ½ cup juice obtained from crushed tuber is taken for constipation. 28 Dillenia indica L. Dilleniaceae Chalta Leaf Dysentery, promeho. One cup of juice obtained from squeezed young leaves is taken twice daily for 7 days. 29 Euphorbia tirucalli L. Euphorbiaceae Trishul Stem Lower back pain, joint pain. Stems are boiled in water followed by applying the warm water to affected areas. Malnutrition in pregnant mother. Stems are fried and eaten. 90 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012

30 Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Shile Gum Dysentery. 5-7 drops of gum is orally taken with sugar. 31 Phyllanthus emblica Euphorbiaceae Amloki Fruit Blood purifier, anemia, hair L. loss. Fruits are eaten. Coughs, spleen disorders, gastrointestinal disorders. Fruits of Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia belerica and Terminalia chebula are soaked overnight in water followed by drinking the water the following morning on an empty stomach. 32 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Laal henda Seed Constipation, stomach pain. One spoonful of seed oil is taken twice daily for 7 days for constipation. Oil is applied to navel area to ease stomach pain. 33 Tamarindus indica L. Fabaceae Tentul Leaf Skin infections that show no signs of healing. Leaves are boiled in water followed by washing the infected area with the water. Burning sensations during urination. One spoonful of juice obtained from squeezed young leaves is taken twice daily for 15 days. 34 Leucas aspera Lamiaceae Kan shisha, Leaf, young Severe pain. Juice obtained from (Willd.) Link Dome kolosh stem squeezed leaves or young stems is orally taken. 35 Ocimum gratissimum Lamiaceae Bhanti gach Leaf, root Fever with pain. Leaves of L. Ocimum gratissimum and Azadirachta indica are boiled in water. ½ cup of the water is taken twice daily. 36 Ocimum tenuiflorum Lamiaceae Tulshi Leaf Asthma, tuberculosis. Half cup L. of juice obtained from squeezed leaves is warmed and taken with 5-7 drops of honey for 3-4 weeks. Coughs, mucus, itches. Paste of leaves is orally taken. Foul odor in mouth. Leaves are chewed. 37 Litsea monopetala Lauraceae Khar jora Leaf Burning sensations during (Roxb.) Pers. urination. ½ cup juice obtained from squeezed leaves is taken twice daily. 38 Asparagus racemosus Liliaceae Shotomul Root Meho. ½ cup of juice obtained Willd. from macerated roots is taken on an empty stomach twice daily for 7 days. 39 Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Mehedi Leaf Skin infections. Paste of leaves of Lawsonia inermis and Azadirachta indica is applied for 7 days. Skin infections. Paste of leaves of Citrus aurantiifolia and Lawsonia inermis is applied. Blood coming out of mouth. Juice obtained from macerated leaves is taken with honey. Itches. Leaves are boiled in water followed by topical application of water to itches. Pus in ears. Juice obtained from macerated leaves is warmed and 2 drops applied to ears for 7 days. 40 Punica granatum L. Lythraceae Dalim Young leaf, Dysentery. Pills prepared from a flower paste of young leaves or flowers of Punica granatum and fruits of Aegle marmelos are taken 2-3 times daily. 41 Azadirachta indica A. Meliaceae Jaat neem Leaf, bark Fever, pain, itches, rheumatic 91 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012

Juss. pain. Leaves and barks are boiled in water. One cup of the water is taken in the morning till cure. Fever with pain. Leaves of Ocimum gratissimum and Azadirachta indica are boiled in water. ½ cup of the water is taken twice daily. Skin infections. Paste of leaves of Lawsonia inermis and Azadirachta indica is applied for 7 days. Rheumatic pain, fever. Leaves of Murraya koenigii, Justicia adhatoda and Azadirachta indica are boiled in water. One cup of the water is taken thrice daily for 7 days. Bleeding from gums, swelling of gums, tingling sensation in gums, foul odor in mouth. Roots of Areca catechu and bark of Azadirachta indica are boiled in water. The water is used for gargling 2-3 times daily for 3 weeks. 42 Tinospora cordifolia Menispermaceae Guloncho Leaf, stem Rheumatic pain, loss of appetite, (Willd.) Hook.f. & helminthiasis, chicken pox. One Thoms. cup of juice obtained from macerated stems is taken twice daily for rheumatic pain. Fried leaves are taken for loss of appetite. Juice obtained from squeezed leaves is orally taken for helminthiasis and topically applied for chicken pox. 43 Ficus hispida L.f. Moraceae Dumur Fruit Diabetes. 2 spoonfuls of powdered fruit are taken twice daily. 44 Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Sojina Leaf, fruit Hypertension. 2-3 spoonfuls of Lam. juice obtained from squeezed leaves are taken before meal. Swelling of gums. Leaves are chewed. Malnutrition. Leaves and fruits are cooked and eaten as vegetable. 45 Musa paradisiaca L. Musaceae Aanti kola Fruit Excessive bleeding following childbirth. ½ cup containing fruit of Musa paradisiaca along with juice obtained from leaves and stems of Basella rubra and sugar is taken twice daily. 46 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Peyara Young leaf, Dysentery, puerperal fever immature fruit (sutika, shet prodor). Young leaves or immature fruits of Psidium guajava are mixed with fruits of Aegle marmelos and turned into a paste. Pills made from the paster are taken 2-3 times daily for dysentery. Juice obtained from macerated leaves of Psidium guajava and Punica granatum is warmed and ½ cup is taken twice daily for puerperal fever. 47 Syzygium cumini (L.) Myrtaceae Jaam Leaf, bark, Diabetes, reducing blood sugar, Skeels seed chronic dysentery. One teaspoonful of powdered seed is taken twice daily for diabetes and to reduce blood sugar. One cup of juice obtained from macerated leaves and barks is taken for 3-4 days for chronic 92 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012

dysentery. 48 Boerhaavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Punornova Leaf Edema. Leaves are cooked and eaten as vegetable. Alternately, ½ cup juice obtained from squeezed leaves is taken twice daily for 7 days. 49 Rhynchostylis retusa Orchidaceae Kornomul Leaf Ear ache, rheumatic pain. Juice Blume obtained from macerated leaves is first warmed and then cooled followed by applying to ears. Leaf juice is topically applied to areas affected by rheumatic pain. 50 Averrhoa carambola Oxalidaceae Kamranga Leaf, bark, fruit Stoppage of menstruation. One L. cup of juice obtained from crushed leaves, bark and young fruit is taken twice daily. 51 Plumbago zeylanica Plumbaginaceae Shet oporachito Leaf, root Abortifacient, jaundice. Juice L. obtained from 3-4 squeezed leaves is taken to induce abortion. Roots are tied to hand during jaundice. 52 Paederia foetida L. Rubiaceae Bon vadai Leaf Dysentery. Half cup of juice obtained from squeezed leaves is warmed and taken twice daily. 53 Aegle marmelos (L.) Rutaceae Bel Fruit, leaf, bark Dysentery. Pills prepared from a Corr. paste of young leaves or flowers of Punica granatum and fruits of Aegle marmelos are taken 2-3 times daily. Dysentery. Young leaves or immature fruits of Psidium guajava are mixed with fruits of Aegle marmelos and turned into a paste. Pills made from the paster are taken 2-3 times daily for dysentery. To remove odor of sweat. Juice obtained from macerated leaves is mixed with water and the water rubbed on the body. Vomiting in children. Bark is mixed with water followed by warming. The water is then orally administered to children. 54 Citrus aurantiifolia Rutaceae Lebu Leaf, fruit Flatulence, indigestion. Two (Christm.) Swingle teaspoonful of fruit juice is taken with a small amount of baking soda. Skin infections. Paste of leaves of Citrus aurantiifolia and Lawsonia inermis is applied. 55 Murraya koenigii (L.) Rutaceae Norsingh Leaf, bark Rheumatic pain, fever. Leaves Spreng of Murraya koenigii, Justicia adhatoda and Azadirachta indica are boiled in water. One cup of the water is taken thrice daily for 7 days. Skin infections. Powdered bark is taken twice daily for 7 days. 56 Mimusops elengi L. Sapotaceae Bokul phool Bark Coughs, helminthiasis. ½ cup of juice obtained from macerated bark is taken twice daily for 7 days. Toothache, swelling of gums. Bark is chewed. 57 Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae Chini champa, Leaf Meho. ½ cup of juice obtained Chini pata from squeezed leaves is taken for 15 days. 58 Datura metel L. Solanaceae Kalo dhutura Leaf, root Dog bite, elephantiasis, helminthiasis. Juice obtained from macerated roots is given for dog bites. Paste of leaves is applied as poultice for elephantiasis. 2-3 drops of leaf 93 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012

juice mixed with milk is orally administered for helminthiasis. 59 Abroma augusta L.f. Sterculiaceae Olot kombol Leaf, bark Meho, promeho. Juice obtained from crushed leaves and bark is mixed with one glass of milk and taken daily. 60 Centella asiatica (L.) Umbelliferae Thankuni Whole plant Flatulence, indigestion, hair Urb. loss. Juice obtained from macerated whole plant is taken (1/2 cup) twice daily for 7 days as remedy for flatulence and/or indigestion. 5-6 spoonfuls of juice obtained from macerated whole plant sre taken with sugar and milk to stop hair loss. 61 Nyctanthes arbor- Verbenaceae Sheuli, Shefali Leaf Chronic fever. ½ cup of juice tristis L. obtained from squeezed leaves is taken in the morning and evening for 7 days. 62 Cissus Vitaceae Harjora Whole plant Bone fracture, sprain. Paste quadrangularis L. made from whole plants of Cissus quadrangularis and Araujia sericifera and rhizomes of Curcuma longa ia applied to fracture area or sprained area. 63 Diplazium sylvaticum Woodsiaceae Bish dhenkia Whole plant Pain. Whole plants are boiled in (Bory) Sw. water. The water is then applied topically to painful areas. Chicken pox. Whole body is brushed with the plant. Meho. Juice obtained from macerated whole plant is taken. 64 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Holud Rhizome Bone fracture, sprain. Paste made from whole plants of Cissus quadrangularis and Araujia sericifera and rhizomes of Curcuma longa ia applied to fracture area or sprained area.

Meho and promeho are frequently referred diseases by the Kavirajes of Bangladesh. An exact equivalent in terms of allopathic medicine is difficult to determine. Both terms are in use in classical Ayurveda and have been defined as a particular set of a patient’s condition, but which mostly results in urinary disorders. Thus meho can include cardiovascular disorders along with diabetes, and promeho can include wasting away of a patient’s body along with a sexually transmitted disease. Leaves constituted the major plant part used, forming 38.6% of total uses. Whole plants and stems were used 8% of the time, while roots, barks, and fruits were used, respectively 10.2, 12.5 and 11.4% of the time. Other plant parts used included flowers, seeds, tubers, rhizomes and gum. In most of our ethnomedicinal studies among the Kavirajes of Bangladesh, we have observed that leaves constituted the major plant part used for treatment of ailments. Whether this is because leaves form the most common part of the plant or whether leaves contain the major bio-active components within a plant remains to be scientifically determined. The formulations used by the Kavirajes were simple. Apart from a few isolated instances, in most formulations, a single plant was used. However, the plant or various parts from the same plant could be used and administered differently for treatment of diverse ailments. As an example of the first, seeds of Hygrophila auriculata were used to treat only meho. On the other hand, the leaves of Aloe barbadensis were used for treatment of decreased libido, meho, to improve texture of skin, to treat blisters arising from burns, and for treatment of tuberculosis. While one glass of juice obtained from macerated leaves was administered orally with sugar for treatment of decreased libido and meho, leaf juice was topically applied for treatment of blisters and to improve skin texture. For treatment of tuberculosis, leaves were advised to be cooked and eaten as vegetable. Leaves of this plant have a soft gel-like pulp within the hard outer portion. This soft pulp, when rubbed onto the skin results in a smooth texture of the skin. Notably, the soft pulp of the leaves from this plant are now in use in various skin formulations in India and Bangladesh as well as in other countries of the world, the objective being to improve skin texture. The pulp is also an ingredient in various shampoos manufactured in countries of the Indian sub-continent as well as in Western countries. An example of multiple plants used in a single formulation was the combination of leaves of Justicia adhatoda, Murraya koenigii and Azadirachta indica for treatment of rheumatic pain or fever. In this case, the leaves of all three plants were boiled in water and the water taken orally. Justicia adhatoda leaves were used by themselves for treatment of coughs and mucus. Notably there are scientific reports about the plant containing alkaloids with positive effects on inflammatory diseases (Chakraborty and Brantner, 2001); extract of the plant 94 Am. Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 6(2): 85-96, 2012 also has been shown to have anti-tussive effect (Dhuley, 1999), and a bronchodilator alkaloid (vasicinone) has been isolated from the plant (Amin and Mehta, 1959). A common home remedy in Bangladesh is to orally partake of the juice obtained from macerated leaves of this plant as treatment particularly for chronic coughs and mucus. Another example of the use of multiple plants for treatment of an ailment was the use of barks of Lannea coromandelica, Mangifera indica and Terminalia arjuna. In this treatment method, juice obtained from macerated barks of the three plants was administered orally as treatment of chronic dysentery. Interestingly, in Ayurveda, the Sanskrit name for Lannea coromandelica is ‘jhingini’, and the plant is used for treatment of ulcerative stomatitis and diarrhea. Terminalia arjuna (Sanskrit name: arjuna), although its major Ayurvedic use is against cardiovascular disorders, is known to be used in Ayurvedic medicines for treatment of diarrhea and dysentery. Notably, the plant was also used for treatment of heart diseases and pain in heart by the Kavirajes of the present survey. There is strong scientific validation for the use of Terminalia arjuna (especially bark) in cardiovascular disorders, as documented in a number of scientific studies. These reports include protective effects of plant bark against Doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (Singh et al., 2008); significant inotropic and hypotensive effect of bark, also increases coronary artery flow and protects myocardium against ischemic damage, reviewed by Dwivedi (2007); protection of rabbit heart by bark against ischemic-reperfusion injury (Gauthaman et al., 2005); cardioprotective effect of alcoholic extract of bark in an in vivo model of myocardial ischemic-reperfusion injury (Karthikeyan et al., 2003); efficacy of the plant in chronic stable angina (Dwivedi and Gupta, 2002; Bharani et al., 2002); beneficial effects of bark of the plant in isolated ischemic-reperfused rat heart (Gauthaman et al., 2001); beneficial effects in coronary artery disease (significant reductions in anginal frequency) (Dwivedi and Jauhari, 1997). Similar scientific validation can be seen also for the plant Cissus quadrangularis (Udupa and Prasad, 1962; Chopra et al., 1976), which was used by the Kavirajes for treatment of bone fracture. Ayurvedic influences were also evident in the use by the Kavirajes of fruits from three plants, namely that of Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia belerica and Terminalia chebula in combination for treatment of coughs, spleen disorders, and gastrointestinal disorders. In combination, the dried and powdered fruit(s) of the three plants is known in Ayurveda as ‘Triphala’, and is used for a multitude of disorders, including gastrointestinal disorders. Triphala is considered in Ayurveda to be a rejuvenating product and is used not only to delay age- related ailments but a host of diseases as well as a tonic and a colon cleanser and a natural laxative. The Kavirajes had treatment against a number of diseases like rheumatism, diabetes, and hypertension, which are difficult to treat or cannot be cured with allopathic medicine. Diabetes treatment included formulations from three plants, namely, Coccinia grandis, Ficus hispida, and Syzygium cumini. Blood sugar lowering effects have been reported for Coccinia grandis (Munasinghe et al., 2011). A number of reports also attests to the anti-diabetic efficacy of Syzygium cumini (Singh and Gupta, 2007; Mandal et al., 2008; Bopp et al., 2009). Taken together, the various scientific reports suggest that the plants used by the Kavirajes for treatment of various diseases merit further scientific studies for their potential in the discovery of new drugs.

References

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