Facts and Myths About Snowmobiling and Winter Trails

Facts and Myths About Snowmobiling and Winter Trails Acknowledgements This publication was developed by the American Council of Snowmobile Associations (ACSA) with funding provided by the Recreational Trails Program administered by the U.S. Department of Transportation – Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). It updates a similar booklet originally published by ACSA in 2009. The ACSA provides national leadership and coordination to advance the efforts of all organizations who promote responsible snowmobiling across the United States. Visit www.snowmobileinfo.org for additional information about snowmobiling safety and access.

Writing and photography were provided by Kim Raap/Trails Work Consulting; design, layout and printing were provided by L.B.L. Printing; and the cover photos along with numerous other photos were provided by the International Snowmobile Manufacturers Association (ISMA).

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for the use of information contained in this document.

Notice The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or manufacturers’ names appear in this publication only because they are considered essential to the objective of this product.

The contents of this publication reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the U.S. Department of Transportation.

This publication does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.

The purpose of this publication is educational only, with no other intent but to expand readers’ knowledge about snowmobiling management. It should not be assumed by the reader that all contributors agree with every written word. The authors, contributors, FHWA, Trails Work Consulting, ACSA, ISMA and their members accept no liability resulting from the compliance or noncompliance with the procedures or recommendations given herein, or for the accuracy or completeness of the information contained herein.

Copyright © 2014 American Council of Snowmobile Associations

Printed on Recycled Paper 10% Post-consumer recycled fiber, ECF papermaking, FSC Certification SFI - Good for you, Good for our forests

Photo by Kim Raap Overview of Contents… SNOWMOBILING –

A Provider of Multiple Use Trails and Opportunities ...... 4 There are over 135,000 miles of snowmobile trails in the United States – and the majority of them are open to other recreation uses like cross-country skiing, dog sledding, snowshoeing or winter hiking and bicycling. These trails are funded solely by snowmobilers and shared openly with other recreationists. A Catalyst for Winter Economies ...... 6 Snowmobiling generates over $26 billion in annual spending across the United States. Much of this occurs in rural areas, which helps keep businesses open year-round while also providing jobs and generating tax revenues for governments. Cooperative Partnerships ...... 8 Snowmobilers continually reach out to work with land managers. Their funding and volunteer labor provides trail grooming and clearing, signing, trailhead and trailside facilities, law enforcement, trail monitoring, safety and ethics education, avalanche forecasting, and search and rescue equipment - which ultimately benefits many other recreationists. Soil and Vegetation Compaction ...... 10 Numerous scientific studies have concluded there are no detrimental effects to soil or vegetation from snowmobiling. Given adequate snowfall and responsible operation, all evidence of snowmobile operation generally disappears when the seasons change and snow melts. Emissions and Air Quality ...... 12 Snowmobile engines are dramatically cleaner than they are portrayed and have changed immensely. National Ambient Air Quality Standards have never been exceeded anywhere due to snowmobile use. Snow and Water Quality ...... 14 Extensive scientific studies have looked at water chemistry from snowmelt runoff in busy snowmobiling areas and concluded that levels were well below EPA criteria and well below levels that would adversely impact aquatic habitats. Sound Levels ...... 16 Snowmobile sound levels have been reduced 94% as compared to early models. Snowmobile manufacturers employ state of the art noise reduction technologies and have significantly modified their exhaust system designs over the past several years. Wildlife Impacts ...... 18 Numerous studies have concluded that snowmobile activity has no significant effect on wildlife populations. After years of intensive snowmobile/wildlife monitoring in Yellowstone National Park, researchers concluded that ‘the debate regarding the effects of motorized recreation on wildlife is largely a social issue as opposed to a wildlife management issue.’ Social Conflicts ...... 26 More emphasis needs to be placed on requiring varying user groups to ‘play together in the sandbox’ versus succumbing to pressures to segregate uses. Education should be focused on how to better ‘share the powder’ rather than enacting more area closures. Planning for Multiple Use Winter Recreation ...... 28 Poor parking is the root stressor for winter recreation conflicts and should be addressed first to best manage winter recreation. Snowmobilers require much larger trail networks and off-trail areas than nonmotorized users since they travel much farther on their day trips. ‘Twelve Principles’ for Minimizing Conflicts on Multiple Use Trails ...... 38 Light-handed approaches are essential to provide freedom of choice and desired environments. Page 2 (ISMA photo)

Snowmobiling… A Provider of Multiple Use Trails and Opportunities

ISMA Photo

Snowmobiling friends to enjoy Snowmobile trails including cross-country is a favorite winter pastime wintertime companionship are funded solely by skiers, backcountry for over two million people while experiencing snowmobile users through: skiers, snowshoers, dog in the United States. splendid scenery sledders, winter hikers  Snowmobile Snowmobiling also helps like no other season and bicyclists, and in registrations, provide a large number of offers; opportunities some areas, winter ATV recreation opportunities for challenge, physical  Snowmobile trail or riders. All of this typically for other trail users exertion and stress user permits, comes at no cost to the since the majority of relief while recreating other winter trail users.  Snowmobile gasoline the 135,000 miles of in the great outdoors; Additionally, many tax rebates, and snowmobile trails in the and opportunities to snowmobile trails are also U.S. are open for multiple connect with nature in  An immense number used by hikers, bicyclists, uses and help provide the solitude of secluded of hours snowmobilers equestrian riders, OHV important winter access, winter backcountry. These volunteer each year to riders, and a host of other services, and trailheads. opportunities combine clear, maintain, sign recreationists during to help teach respect and groom trails. the summer season. and conservation of Contributions from Snowmobiling provides the environment, while snowmobilers help public opportunities for also instilling a strong The efforts by land managers accomplish families and appreciation for private snowmobilers often their goals for providing and public lands. provide a myriad of winter recreation opportunities for other opportunities – at little or winter recreationists, no cost to the agencies. Did you know… The majority of the 135,000 miles of snowmobile trails are open for multiple uses.

4 Snowmobiling occurs on private and public lands across the northern tier of the country. It involves many different riding styles which include on-trail riding, cross- country riding off trails in Page 3 – replace bottom right powder and gentle open (VermontVacation.com photo) areas, boon-docking in forested areas, and hill climbing in mountainous regions. This wide range of riding styles requires an equally wide variety of recreation settings ranging from gentle on- and off-trail opportunities Photos by: (Clockwise from top left) Togwotee Winter Classic, Wyoming for families to challenging Stage Stop by Chris Havener,VermontVacation.com, ISMA off-trail opportunities for experienced and expert areas where they may Snowmobile technology and are consequently riders. have skied or snowshoed has dramatically improved significantly cleaner and when they were more to the point where quieter than early models. mobile. Snowmobiles also today’s snowmobiles As a result, multiple use A growing trend is that provide opportunities for bear little resemblance to trail sharing is more viable – particularly with the disabled individuals and snowmobiles produced than ever before. aging population – more the elderly to experience ten or twenty years ago. elderly and people with the great outdoors in the They are tightly regulated disabilities are using winter in a way that would by the U.S. Environmental snowmobiles to access not otherwise be possible. Protection Agency (EPA)

Hybrid motorized / nonmotorized recreation is growing in popularity. Many backcountry skiers and snowboarders have embraced snowmobiling as a means to gain access farther into the backcountry or closer to nonmotorized opportunities at Wilderness boundaries. These ‘hybrid users’ value the ability snowmobiles give them to get 10 or 20 miles away from their vehicles – which is substantially farther than they could ski into the backcountry on day trips. These cross-over motorized / nonmotorized recreationists represent the ultimate ‘multiple use’ of public lands.

Photo by Shad Hamilton 5 Snowmobiling… A CATALYST FOR WINTER ECONOMICS

$100 or $200 – and even their most technologically advanced gear costs Snowmobilers are also thousands of dollars less ISMA Photo caring neighbors. They than $6,000 to $14,000 for raise over $3 million for snowmobiles. Additionally, Snowmobiling generates old. Approximately 70% of charity each year – and daily trip costs for over $26 billion in annual all active snowmobilers are this is above and beyond nonmotorized recreationists spending across the United male; 30% are female. the fundraising and other are next to nil compared to States and is responsible volunteer work they do to snowmobilers’ trip costs. for over 100,000 fulltime provide public snowmobile jobs in North America. Its There are 1.4 million trails. overall economic impact registered snowmobiles Many States have is particularly important in in the U.S. The average commissioned studies to many rural communities snowmobiler rides their Snowmobiling requires a determine their specific where snowmobiling- snowmobile 1,200 miles substantial investment of economic impacts from related tourism helps per year and spends $4,000 tens of thousands of dollars snowmobiling. A complete provide income and jobs each year on snowmobile- for a snowmobile, clothing, listing of available economic during what otherwise related recreation. The trailer, and a tow vehicle. studies can be found at would be an off-season. average annual household It also requires substantial www.snowmobileinfo. This helps many businesses income for snowmobilers is daily trip costs for fuel, org/research-studies- keep their doors open and $68,000. oil, repair parts, user fees, snowmobiling-impact- people employed year- and other associated trip economics.html. round. This spending also expenditures like food and Economic benefits generates important tax About 53% of often times lodging. vary based upon revenues for governments. snowmobilers usually ratios of local/resident trailer their snowmobiles snowmobile riders to go riding. The other In comparison, it is much (lower total spending) According to the 47% either snowmobile less expensive to participate versus levels of non- International Snowmobile directly from their primary in nonmotorized recreation. resident and non-area Manufacturers Association residence or have a Cross-country skiers and riders (higher total trip (ISMA Snowmobiling Fact vacation home where snowshoers can get started expenditures). A sampling Book 2013), the average they keep and use their in their sport for as little as of state survey results snowmobiler is 43 years snowmobiles. includes:

6 Alaska: The economic over 6,455 full time jobs South Dakota: The winter recreationists (Utah impact of snowmobiling in are created (Michigan State snowmobiling industry State University 2001). the Anchorage and Mat-Su University 1998). generates $131.6 million Snowmobiling… Washington: The Borough was found to be in annual economic impact annual economic impact over $35 million annually while supporting over 1,400 of snowmobiling in A CATALYST FOR (Anchorage Economic Minnesota: The jobs; $58 million is related Washington is $92.7 Development Corp. 2000). snowmobile industry to snowmobile retailers and million (Washington State WINTER ECONOMICS generates substantial tax distributors and over $15 University 2001). revenues at the state and million is generated by trip- IDAHO: The winter economy local level. Over $51 million related spending for lodging, of Valley County Idaho, which in taxes were paid at the local meals and gaming. (University Wyoming: The annual includes the communities and State level directly related of South Dakota 2011) economic impact of of McCall and Cascade, to snowmobiling activity snowmobiling in Wyoming heavily depends upon the (University of Minnesota is $175.8 million, which $7.5 million spent annually Tourism Center 2005). Utah: Total annual supports 1,300 jobs and by snowmobile visitors expenditures resulting from generates $7.4 million (University of Idaho 2006). snowmobiling are about annually in state and local New York: The economic $52.6 million; 31% of Utah government revenue. impact of snowmobiling riders have college or Gasoline was cited as Iowa: Snowmobiling in New York State was technical training and an the largest trip cost for generated $65.4 million in estimated to be over $860 additional 31% have a B.A. snowmobilers, followed by annual economic activity, million annually, with the or Graduate degree; and lodging costs. (University of resulting in 899 jobs (Iowa average rider spending more about 87% of Utah riders Wyoming 2013) State University 2005). than $3,000 per year on have not experienced any snowmobile-related activities. conflicts with other types of (SUNY Potsdam 2012). ISMA Photo Michigan: The average snowmobiler spends $4,218 annually on snowmobiling Pennsylvania: activity, equipment, and The annual economic vacationing within the state impact of snowmobiling of Michigan. Additionally, in Pennsylvania was over $1 billion in economic estimated to be impact is generated and approximately $161 million per year (Lebanon Valley College of Pennsylvania 2000). Fact: Snowmobiling generates over $26 billion in annual spending across the United States, and much of this spending occurs in rural areas.

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Top Photos and Bottom  
 
 
  
  


Right by Kim Raap Snowmobiling… COOPERATIVE PARTNERSHIPS

Bottom Left
Photo by
Snowmobilers have
Bridger-Teton

National Forest developed cooperative

Avalanche
Center
partnerships that provide

many multiple use winter trails. They are also heavily involved Examples of equipment provided for partners by snowmobilers: (clockwise from top right) with local community Trail grooming equipment, safety shelter, weather monitoring equipment for avalanche service projects. Through forecasting, snow ambulance for search and rescue their funding and volunteer labor efforts, snowmobilers provide  Law enforcement Snowmobilers work Snowmobile multiple use winter closely with land Manufacturers  Avalanche forecasting, recreation opportunities managers. The national Association (ISMA). education, and and management that snowmobile community These three ‘cooperators’ weather monitoring includes: entered into a service- represent the organized equipment wide Memorandum of snowmobiling public/  Safety and ethics Understanding (MOU) with industry and are  Trail grooming education the USDA Forest Service recognized leaders in in 2005 to help promote establishing snowmobile  Trail signing  Search and rescue cooperative partnerships. ethics, safety standards, equipment  Trail clearing and The snowmobile groups volunteerism, and maintenance  Trailhead and trailside who signed this MOU fostering appropriate land use management on  Trail monitoring facilities included the American Council of Snowmobile federal and non-federal  Land use planning Associations (ACSA), the lands. input International Association of Snowmobile Administrators (IASA), and the International

8 This MOU noted a need to Key provisions of the  Promote Tread Lightly!  Encourage local actively promote public- MOU outline that ethics by providing Forest Service officials private partnerships that snowmobile groups/ training and instruction to participate with encourage responsible cooperators will: to its members. snowmobile clubs use of public lands by  Provide technical and associations in visitors participating in assistance to land the development of Key provisions of the snowmobile travel and managers and mutually beneficial MOU outline that recreational activities. communities involved work projects, the Forest Service It established a general in work projects, educational activities, will: framework of cooperation educational activities, and snowmobile upon which mutually and snowmobile  Provide the cooperators opportunities. beneficial programs, work opportunities. information regarding  Make National Forest projects, and snowmobile the development and  Encourage its System lands available activities may be planned presentation of training members to work with for the furtherance and accomplished on materials related local Forest Service of this MOU, subject National Forest System to snowmobiling officials to discuss and to applicable Federal lands. It also recognized safety and ethics, identify opportunities laws, regulations, that such programs, and the availability for cooperative work Forest plans, and projects, and activities of snowmobiling on mutually beneficial other management complement the Forest opportunities on projects or activities. direction. Service mission and are in National Forest System the best interests of the lands. public.

Wyoming State Trails Program Photo

Sweetwater Sno-Pokes Photo

Examples of volunteer work provided by snowmobilers for partners: (clockwise from top left) Safety shelter construction, Wilderness boundary signing, fall trail maintenance, firewood cutting for shelters

(Bottom) Oregon State Snowmobile Association Photos

9 Snowmobiling… SOIL AND VEGETATION COMPACTION

ISMA Photo Myth: pound of pressure is  A study of the effects did cause a slower Snowmobiles further reduced by an of snowmobile recovery in early intervening blanket of traffic on bluegrass spring.’ compact soil snow. (Foresman 1976) and damage concluded that ‘early vegetation. growth was slower  A study in Maine Numerous studies looked but summer yields (Wentworth 1972) at potential compaction were the same; no concluded that when snowmobiles soil compaction was ‘compaction of the first started growing in detected in the treated snow cover had little facts: popularity in the 1970s plots.’ effect on average soil Snowmobiles exert and concluded that temperature under dramatically less pressure potential impacts were the different treatment on the earth’s surface than minimal; these conclusions  A research symposium areas.’ other recreational activities remain valid today. Visit report published (i.e., just one-tenth the www.snowmobileinfo. by Michigan State pressure of a hiker and org/research-studies- University (1974)  A study of snowmobile one-sixteenth the pressure snowmobiling-impact- stated that ‘where traffic on several of a horseback rider, vegetation.html to view snow cover exceeded forage species and as shown in the table all research related to 3 inches in depth winter wheat below). Additionally, a this topic. A summary there were no (Ryerson 1977) snowmobile’s one-half includes: detrimental effects on over a 3-year grass or vegetation period showed Pressure Exerted by Various Travel Modes stands, their vigor, no detrimental Pounds of Pressure exerted or yield; high-grade effects on four Object per square inch grasses recover forage species and naturally from heavy that winter wheat Four-Wheel Drive Vehicle 30 snowmobile traffic; yields were not Horse 8 and snowmobile reduced. It concluded Man (hiking) 5 traffic caused no that trail use rather stand reductions, but than open, All-Terrain Vehicle 1.5

Snowmobile 0.5

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Fact… Numerous studies have concluded that ‘there were no detrimental effects’ to soil or vegetation from snowmobiling.

uncontrolled use The photos to the right would be most show the same locations in appropriate in crop both winter and summer; vegetation environs. the top photo set is of a heavily used trail while the bottom set shows  A study in Nova a heavily used off-trail Scotia (Keddy 1979) location adjacent to a busy

concluded that ‘marsh parking area.   
 
  
 
 
  
 

  
 vegetation showed no

significant effects of Photos by Kevin Dreyer


  
 
  
 
 
  
 

  
 snowmobile treatment’ Additionally many

since its roots are snowmobile trails are

under solid ice cover located on snow over

during the winter. the top of roadways or hardened trails, where the impact on vegetation is Given adequate zero. snowfall and responsible operation, all evidence of snowmobile operation generally disappears when the seasons change and snow melts.

Did you know… Photos by Kim Raap
A man hiking exerts 10 times more pressure per square

inch than what a snowmobile does.

11 anywhere else in the world NAAQS threshold). In during the early 2000’s. 2005-2006 the requirement Despite all the concerns for only Best Available Snowmobiling… and negative rhetoric Technology (BAT) model regarding snowmobile snowmobiles (all 4-strokes) eMISSIONS AND AIR use in Yellowstone, very was fully implemented in intensive studies confirmed Yellowstone; monitoring QUALITY that, despite high levels of showed the 1-hour average unregulated snowmobile for CO dropped to 2.1 use, National Ambient Air ppm (6% of the NAAQS mid-1990’s through 2003 Quality Standards (NAAQS) threshold). CO emissions Myth: were never close to being from both engine types likely represents some of Snowmobile the most concentrated exceeded in YNP due to were – and remain – snowmobile use ever snowmobile use. NAAQS significantly below the emissions cause experienced in one thresholds have also never NAAQS threshold. air pollution location at one time. been exceeded elsewhere This time period was also due to snowmobile use. and harm the prior to when the U.S. Air quality monitoring environment. Environmental Protection during the same time Agency (EPA) first regulated The NAAQS 1-hour period at the YNP West snowmobile engine threshold for Carbon Entrance also measured factS: emissions. As a result the Monoxide (CO) is 35 Particulate Matter (PM YNP West Entrance clearly parts per million (ppm). 2.5). The NAAQS 24- Snowmobile engines are represented a worst-case The winter season of hour threshold for PM dramatically cleaner than scenario in respect to 2002-2003 represents 2.5 is 65 micro-grams portrayed and they do not snowmobile emissions, the ‘highest snowmobile per cubic meter (ug/m3). cause unacceptable air prior to implementation visitation levels’ for the The average 24-hour pollution. of a new YNP winter use most recent years when concentration observed management plan in ‘any snowmobile model’ during the 2002-2003 YNP High numbers of late 2004. Consequently (primarily 2-strokes) could winter season (primarily snowmobiles entering the issue of snowmobile be used in YNP; monitoring 2-stroke models) was 18.6, Yellowstone National emissions and air quality showed the 1-hour average while the average during Park (YNP) through its was studied more for CO at the YNP West the 2005-2006 season (all West Entrance during the intensely in YNP than Entrance was 8.6 ppm 4-stroke models) was 7.2 (about one-fourth the ug/m3. PM emissions from Yellowstone National Park both engine Air Quality Monitoring – CO Yellowstone National Park Air types were – Carbon Monoxide (CO) Quality Monitoring – PM and remain Monitoring Results from YNP West Entrance Particulate Matter (PM) – well below (ppm) Monitoring Results from the NAAQS 40 YNP West Entrance 35 (ug/m3) threshold (28% 35 70 65 and 11% of 30 60 50 the threshold, 25 40 respectively). 20 30 18.6 15 20 7.2 8.6 10 10 0 5 NAAQS Threshold 2002-2003 2-stroke 2005-2006 BAT 2.1 snowmobiles snowmobiles 0 Source: NPS Winter Use Plans DEIS NAAQS Threshold 2002-2003 2-stroke 2005-2006 BAT snowmobiles snowmobiles Source: NPS Winter Use Plans DEIS 12 A summary of key findings winter and summer, and EPA Snowmobile Emission Standards includes: were considerably lower Emission Standards than maximum levels % of  A two-year air quality HC CO allowed by NAAQS. Model Year Fleet monitoring study was conducted by the USDA g/kW-hr g/kW-hr Phase-In Forest Service Rocky  A Comparability 2002 baseline Mountain Research Assessment of Snow- 2-stroke 150 400 NA Station (Musselman snowmobile mobile and Snowcoach 2007) at the Green Rock Transportation Event 2006 100 275 50% snowmobile staging Impacts in Yellowstone 2007 – 2009 100 275 area in the Snowy National Park (NPS 2010 75 275 100% Range of Wyoming. It Winter Use Plan/SEIS, found that snowmobile 2012 75 200 2013) determined: emissions did not The EPA issued the first- model years) reduced have a significant • One mode of transpor- ever snowmobile engine baseline emissions by a impact on air quality tation is not conclusive- emissions regulations in minimum of 50%. at this extremely busy ly cleaner, quieter, or less harmful to wildlife 2002 – something the snowmobiling area New four-stroke engines than the other. snowmobile community located in a high- and direct or semi-direct had been requesting for elevation ecosystem. • One mode of transpor- injection two-stroke engine tation does not provide several years. The result is The study measured technology has truly driven for higher quality visitor that snowmobile engines levels of nitrogen experiences than the a major transformation now have significantly oxides (NOx, NO), other. in snowmobile engines. lower emissions and carbon monoxide Additionally the use of low- • One mode of trans- are much cleaner. EPA (CO), ozone (O3) and emission synthetic engine portation is not con- regulations target Carbon particulate matter clusively more harmful oils has greatly reduced Monoxide (CO) and Hydro- (PM10 mass); air to health and safety of snowmobile emissions. Carbon (HC) emissions quality data during visitors and employees than the other. from snowmobiles on Visit www.snowmobileinfo. the summer was also an engine family (fleet org/research-studies- compared to winter average) basis and apply snowmobiling-impact- data. It determined that to model year 2006 or air-quality.html to view all pollutant concentrations newer snowmobiles. The research related to this were generally low both

final stage (2012 or newer topic. KRC/Clean Snowmobile Challenge Photo

Clean Snowmobile Challenge A wide range of local and national snowmobiling groups plus the four snowmobile manufacturers have been strong supporters of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Clean Snowmobile Challenge since it was founded in 2000. This Collegiate Design Series event requires students to re-engineer an existing snowmobile to reduce emissions and noise. A total of 20 universities from across the United States and Canada participated in the 2013 event, indicative of its annual strong support from Snowbelt universities.

The 200-plus students, advisors and sponsors who take part in this annual event are making a difference for the future of snowmobiling. Several dozen technical papers have been produced as a result of this event as it continues to be a prime driver in lowering snowmobile emissions and sound levels. Many student competitors have been hired as engineers by snowmobile manufacturers upon graduation.

13 Snowmobiling… snow and water QUALITY

other contaminants direct- Myth: ly into the snowpack or Snowmobile have a negative effect on engines deposit water quality. A summary of key study findings are gasoline, oil, noted below. Visit www. and other snowmobileinfo.org/re- search-studies-snowmobil- contaminants ing-impact-water.html to on snow, which view all research related to leads to ground this topic. and surface water quality  The effect of snowmo- bile emissions on the Photo by degradation and Kim Raap chemistry of snowmelt subsequently water was extensively impacts aquatic studied by Yellowstone The monitoring project Yellowstone, Montana, was conducted in 2003 and the Old Faithful life. National Park’s Center for Resources (Arnold/ and 2004, when pre- area. Three sites were Koel 2006) over con- EPA regulated two- located immediately secutive winters. This stroke snowmobile adjacent to the road- long-term research visitation was around way in the vicinity of factS: study represents the 75,000 units per year. the West Entrance, Snowmelt runoff sam- Madison Junction, Scientific monitoring has most extensive and accurate body of ples were collected and Old Faithful. The proven that snowmobiles from four sites along fourth site was used do not emit gasoline and scientific information available on this topic. the heavily traveled as a control and was road corridor con- located near Madison necting Yellowstone’s Junction approximate- West Entrance at West ly 100 meters from the roadway, away from

14 the effects of snow- levels that would ad- the trail, especially mobiles. Each site versely impact aquatic early in the season.  A study of snowpack was visited on 9–10 systems. However since the trail chemistry on heavily different days during followed a roadway, traveled snowmobile the spring sampling researchers felt the trails in Vermont (VHB period, with visits  A USDA Forest Ser- higher early-season Pioneer 2010) indi- dependent on having vice Rocky Mountain concentrations may cated no detectable a daily temperature Research Station study have likely been affect- levels of VOC or total >5 degrees Celsius (Musselman 2007) in ed more by roadway petroleum hydrocar- for good potential the Snowy Range of chemistry conditions bons in surface waters to obtain snowmelt Wyoming measured than by snowmobile located immediately runoff. Water quality water chemistry and traffic. However all down gradient (down- measurements related snow density from levels were within stream) of snowmobile to water temperature, snow samples collect- acceptable limits and trails. Soil chemistry dissolved oxygen, pH, ed on and adjacent to well below levels that monitoring also indi- specific conductance, a heavily used snow- would adversely im- cated no detectable and turbidity were mobile trail. Snow on pact aquatic systems. levels of VOC or total collected at each site the trail was denser The study also found petroleum hydrocar- and analyzed for nine than it was off-trail, that snowmobile ac- bons. volatile organic com- which would stand to tivity had no effect on pounds (VOCs). reason since it had nitrate levels in snow; been compacted by they were the same

trail grooming. both on- and off-trail. Photo by Ron McKinney All water quality mea-

Photo by surements were within Kim Raap acceptable limits and Snow chemistry was the concentrations significantly different of all VOCs detected between on- and off- were considerably trail locations. On-trail below the U.S. Envi- snow was more acidic ronmental Protection with higher concen- Agency’s water quality trations of sodium, criteria and guide- ammonium, calcium, lines for VOCs while magnesium, fluoride, also being well below and sulfate than what was found in snow off Fact… VOC concentrations of snowmelt runoff were well below EPA criteria and well below levels that would adversely impact aquatic systems. – Arnold 2006

15 Examples of Comparative Sound Levels

Sound Level Sound Source Snowmobiling… dB(A) 75-piece orchestra 130 sound levels Car horn, snow blower 110 Pre-1969 snowmobile 102 Snowmobile sound levels Blow dryer, diesel truck 100 Myth: have continued to decline. Electric shaver, lawn mower 85 According to a Michigan Garbage disposal, vacuum cleaner 80 Snowmobiles Technological University Post-1975 snowmobile (full throttle (MTU) study (Blough 2009), 78 are noisy and at 50 feet; maximum allowed by law) ‘exhaust noise has long pollute natural been considered to be the Alarm clock, city traffic 70 primary noise source on a Dishwasher 60 soundscapes. snowmobile. Historically Leaves rustling, refrigerator 40 most snowmobiles have been powered by 2-stroke chamber however they and upgrade both the engines which require a are now fitted with a very facilities and software tuned exhaust to produce factS: significant muffler, like the capability to deploy these maximum power. This tuned 4-stroke snowmobiles, technologies throughout the Snowmobiles produced exhaust is composed of a which provides a very design and manufacturing since 1975 are certified tuned expansion chamber significant reduction in of their snowmobiles. They to emit no more than 78 and a “can” or muffler. In exhaust noise. These use finite element analysis, decibels from a distance of the past, the muffler was advances in the reduction rigid body dynamics, 50 feet while traveling at full not always designed to of the exhaust noise can boundary element analysis, throttle. Comparatively pre- provide significant noise clearly be heard on the modal analysis, transfer path 1969 snowmobiles emitted attenuation. However, modern snowmobiles. In analysis, sound intensity sound levels as high as in the last 5 to 8 years many cases, under many and near-field acoustic 102 decibels. Since sound modern snowmobiles operating conditions the holography to optimize levels are logarithmic, this have significantly modified dominant noise source now their designs. In every new means sound levels for this approach to their appears to be the track product release by the snowmobiles have been exhaust system designs. system.’ snowmobile manufacturers reduced 94% from early Many snowmobiles the snowmobiles have models. Consequently, it are now powered by The MTU study also been heavily optimized would take 256 78-decibel 4-stroke engines which found that ‘snowmobile and tested for noise and in snowmobiles operating do not require a tuned manufacturers are many cases hard decisions together at wide open expansion chamber to employing nearly all of have to be made between throttle to equal the noise produce maximum power, the state of the art noise weight, cost, performance, level of just one pre-1969 leaving the muffler as reduction technologies that and noise. Upon listening to snowmobile. Examples the only exhaust system the automotive and heavy a new snowmobile it is very of comparative sound component besides the equipment manufacturers evident that in the tradeoff levels are shown in the requisite downpipes and use. The snowmobile situations, noise has become table; in addition normal piping. The newer 2-stroke industry has spent a large much more important and conversation at three feet snowmobiles still require sum of money over the last driven the final design produces approximately 70 the tuned expansion 7 to 8 years to modernize decibels. decisions much more often than in the past designs.’

16 Immense public discussion  Natural soundscapes  An earlier Park Service  A State of Wyoming regarding snowmobiling in monitoring by the report (Burson 2005) study (Daily 2002) Yellowstone National Park National Park Service concluded that ‘the concluded that ‘the over the past decade has (Burson 2011) found sound level and sound levels of many resulted in numerous sound that ‘although on percent time oversnow late model snowmobiles monitoring projects being average snowmobiles vehicles were audible overlap or are quieter completed to compare were audible for more remained substantially than snowcoaches under sound levels between time than snowcoaches lower than oversnow the same or similar different snowmobile (because there were vehicle sounds from the testing conditions. The models and snowcoaches. significantly more 2002-2003 winter use quietest snowmobile A summary of key findings snowmobiles than season.’ This reflects at 20 mph produced are noted below. Visit snowcoaches in the the regulation change less sound than any of www.snowmobileinfo. park), snowcoaches whereby only Best the snowcoaches at org/research-studies- in general had higher Available Technology the same speed. The snowmobiling-impact- sound levels, especially (BAT) snowmobiles loudest stock over-snow sound.html to view all at higher speeds.’ with a maximum sound vehicle at a steady state research related to this level of 70 decibels are speed was a Bombardier topic. allowed into the park. snowcoach.’ The report recommended that ‘any regulations written should reasonably  

 
 


consider that over-snow Protocol for SAE test J2567 was issued in vehicle sound levels are January 2004 and has since been adopted not attributable to just as a sound enforcement tool by several engine sounds, but also states. This new test established a sound must factor in the other level threshold of 88 decibels at 4 meters mechanical sounds (13 feet) which, due to the logarithmic (clutch, track and skis) nature of sound levels, corresponds to associated with tracked the ’78 decibels at 50-feet’ sound law. vehicles.’ The result is that illegally altered exhaust systems can now be identified with an enforcement tool that is safe to administer

in the field and will also hold up in court. Photo by Kim Raap


A snowmobile’s sound level is being

measured by a law enforcement officer

using the SAE J2567 stationary sound test.






Fact…



Snowmobile sound
levels have been reduced 94%


as compared to early
models. Problems with excessive noise levels do occur when irresponsible riders modify their snowmobiles’ exhaust systems or substitute factory systems with aftermarket racing exhaust systems. In most states this practice is illegal. It also grossly misrepresents responsible riding habits practiced by the vast majority of snowmobilers. The snowmobile industry worked with the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and State DNR agencies to address this issue by developing a new, stationary sound test for snowmobiles.

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Snowmobiling… wildlife impacts

Yellowstone National Park Studies The most recent disturbances like those snowmobile/wildlife associated with OSV use Photo by Kim Raap related studies were in YNP. Observations conducted in Yellowstone of bison, elk, trumpeter

Researchers monitoring wildlife/human interactions in National Park and swans, and bald
Yellowstone National Park
represent some of eagles, which evince
the most intensive awareness of passing

winter monitoring ever OSVs but typically are
Myth: 1970s when snowmobiling conducted. This body of not displaced, do not
scientific research includes: suggest substantial
Snowmobiles was an emerging
winter activity to those  The Scientific energetic costs. Elk and
bison near roadways do
disrupt and completed within the Assessment of
Yellowstone National not appear to exhibit
harm wildlife past few years. Whether
Park Winter Use (YNP elevated levels of stress one looks at early studies
populations. SEIS 2011) concluded hormones attributable
(whose results remain
that ‘collectively, wildlife to OSV traffic. Effects of
valid today) or new ones OSV use on the dynamics
studies conducted to
recently completed, date suggest effects of intensively studied
factS: the conclusions are the of over-snow vehicles species clearly are subsidiary to effects of Throughout the years same: real impacts are (OSV) on individual ecological processes.’ numerous studies have minimal or can at least be animals have not had measurable detrimental  A National Park Service been done regarding the managed. Snowmobilers effects. Any behavioral study in Yellowstone impact of snowmobiles and wildlife populations or physiological (White 2006) concluded on wildlife. These studies can coexist very well; they reaction to disturbance that ‘human disturbance cover a wide spectrum of actually have done so for associated with OSV did not appear to be a time – from the early over 50 years. use qualifies as an primary factor influencing effect on an individual the distribution and animal. Studies of movements of the ungulate physiology wildlife species studied; suggest habituation there was no evidence to predictable that snowmobile use Did you know… during the past 35 years Numerous studies have concluded that wildlife species are disturbed more by cross-country skiers and people on foot than by snowmobiles.

18 adversely affected experts from federal the demography or agencies, state agencies, population dynamics of and universities, was held bald eagles, bison, elk, in 2001 to summarize or trumpeter swans.’ the state-of-science  A previous Yellowstone on monitoring the study conducted by the effects of snowmobiles Park Service (White 2005) on wildlife in national concluded that ‘responses parks and surrounding by these wildlife species lands. The report from to over-snow vehicles were this workshop (Graves relatively infrequent, short 2001) states that ‘experts in duration, and of minor in the field of wildlife to moderate intensity; (and wildlife reactions to disturbance) are ungulates habituated National Park Service Photo somewhat to motorized uncomfortable passing that ‘both species winter recreation without recreation; there was no judgments on whether behaviorally responded incurring losses at the evidence of population- snowmobiles adversely more often to people population level.’ level effects to ungulates (or, for that matter, off-trail than to people from motorized winter positively) affect wildlife.  Older Yellowstone on trails, and these use because estimates Even under circumstance studies (Aune 1981) activities prompted more of abundance either with the best available concluded that ‘winter behavioral responses increased or remained information, the question recreation activity than activities on roads. relatively stable during of when an impact was not a major The predictability and three decades of becomes serious enough factor influencing frequency of OSV motorized recreation prior to warrant taking action wildlife distributions, activities facilitated to wolf colonization in is a subjective value movements, or habituation to the 1998. Thus, we suggest judgment, and many population sizes.’ Prior majority of the winter that the debate regarding respondents recognized to that it was observed recreation activities. the effects of motorized this. The majority felt that (Chester 1976) that Despite varying recreation on wildlife is insufficient data exist to ‘variation in the intensity responses to increased largely a social issue as even begin to understand of human use did not winter visitation since opposed to a wildlife the issue.’ appear to be responsible the late 1970s, bison management issue.’  A study of bison and for shifts in wildlife and elk return to winter elk responses to winter distribution.’  A workshop sponsored in the same area each recreation in Yellowstone  by the National Park year, coexisting with A study of elk responses Service, which included (Hardy 2001) found to disturbances by cross-country skiers in FACT: Yellowstone (Cassirer 1992) found that ‘elk Researchers have concluded that in this study had a low ‘the debate regarding the effects of tolerance for disturbance motorized recreation on wildlife is by people on foot or largely a social issue as opposed to a skis. Disturbance caused wildlife management issue.’ – White 2005 temporary displacement of the elk.’

National Park Service Photo

19 when approached. A significantly greater number of deer ran Wildlife Impacts… from a person walking than from a person on  A Colorado study snowmobile.’ OTHER wildlife (Freddy 1986) found that ‘mule deer were  Another Maine study STUDIES disturbed more by (Lavigne 1976) found persons on foot than that ‘disturbance of There are over 100 wildlife the need to spend current by snowmobiles.’ deer by snowmobiles studies which conclude research funds to simply did not cause them  snowmobile conflicts are reconfirm old conclusions. A Wisconsin study to abandon preferred non-existent, nominal, or Consequently these (Eckstein 1979) states bedding and feeding at least can be managed. studies still represent the ‘data showed that sites. Snowmobile Visit www.snowmobileinfo. ‘best available science.’ snowmobile activity trails enhanced deer org/snowmobiling-access- A summary of key wildlife had no significant mobility and probably resources.aspx#Research- studies, by impact species, effect on home-range reduced their energy Studies-Related-to- includes the following: size, habitat use, or expenditure.’ Snowmobiling-Impacts to daily activity patterns of white-tailed deer  A Montana study review them. While many wintering in Wisconsin.’ (Aasheim 1980) of these studies are 20 to Deer, Elk and Moose Additionally it concluded that 40 years old, their results  concluded that ‘deer ‘animals accustomed are still applicable – and A Montana study of appeared to react to humans are impacts are either the ungulates (Canfield 1999) concluded that more to a person less affected by same or even substantially walking/skiing than on snowmobiles than lower given the significant ‘snowmobiles appear less distressing than snowmobiles.’ animals in more remote decrease in snowmobile areas.’ sounds and exhaust cross-country skiers.’  A Maine study (Richens emissions compared The report also stated 1978) concluded  An Alberta study to 1970- and 1980-era that ‘big game hunting that ‘white-tailed (Ferguson 1985) snowmobiles when some has more immediate deer response to regarding the influence studies were originally effects on ungulate snowmobiles seemed of Nordic skiing on conducted. It is important population densities dependent on the distribution of elk and moose determined to note that these studies and structures than deer’s apparent ‘cross-country skiing have not been updated any other recreational security. Animals in the open or in hardwood influenced the general because scientists have not activity.’  


 

stands tended to run over winter distribution felt when approached by of moose but not of snowmobile. Deer in elk. Both species, softwood stands, which however, tended to provide more cover, move away from areas showed a greater near heavily-used trails tendency to stay during the ski season.’

deer-pictures.com photo 

  

20

 
  
      
 A Wyoming study stationary with fright (Ward 1980) fitted elk while snowmobiles with heart rate monitors were being operated.’ and determined that  A study of the impact ‘elk responded most of snowmobile tracks strongly to sonic on animal mobility in booms, gunshots, and Maine (Hubbe 1973) people on foot. Elk found that ‘snowmobile seldom reacted when tracks were helpful’ approached by an since they help animals OSV.’ save energy in powder
 Another Wyoming snow.

moose-pictures.com photo
study (Colescott

seasons like those that snowmobile trail 1998) found that

inhabit the tundra, locations need to be ‘the frequency of Reindeer

and instead stay in the sensitive to potential snowmobile traffic did

 A study in southern
forest, either alone or habitat fragmentation. not seemingly affect
Norway (Reimers
in small groups. Their the average percent
2003) determined that,
main threat is habitat of moose active, or
‘overall provocations by
deterioration, either Mountain Goats the numbers of moose

skiers and snowmobiles
from fragmentation, present in the study
 A Greater Yellowstone revealed similar
degradation or loss. areas.’
Area assessment (Olliff behavioral responses.’
Habitat fragmentation 1999) concluded that  A study of the effects can also contribute ‘because mountain of snowmobile noise to an increase in goat winter range on deer and rabbits predation. Caribou is inaccessible and (Bollinger 1974) Caribou range in precipitous, goats indicated that ‘the deer  According to Natural Canada is heavily used and recreationists are and rabbits were not Resources Canada (cfs. for snowmobiling with not often coming into forced to move out nrcan.gc.ca, 2013), no major conflicts. conflict.’ of their normal home Woodland Caribou While they appear to ranges, nor did they do not migrate long co-exist quite well, seek shelter or remain distances between Fact… Numerous scientific studies have concluded that snowmobile activity has no significant effect on wildlife populations; in some situations snowmobile trails have been found to enhance wildlife mobility and help animals save energy in deep powder snow.

Yellowstone Tour & Travel photo 21 Wildlife Impacts… OTHER wildlife STUDIES

Bighorn Sheep Rabbits  A Greater Yellowstone  A study of the effects Area assessment (Olliff of snowmobile noise USGS Photo by Kim Keating 1999) concluded that on deer and rabbits ‘skiing, snowmobiling, (Bollinger 1974) mountaineering, concluded ‘the research Birds 2000, at which time and snowshoeing team was unable a Lynx Conservation  A Washington study will most likely only to detect a severe Assessment and (Skagen 1980) affect bighorn sheep or negative animal Strategy (LCAS) was found that ‘eagles wintering at higher reaction to noise established by the were found to be elevations. The generated by vehicles. U.S. Fish and Wildlife more sensitive to encounters between Conclusions of the Service (FWS) to guide disturbance while these recreationists study indicate that the lynx conservation and feeding on gravel bars and the bighorns may deer and rabbits were management. The than while perching, be infrequent enough not forced to move out LCAS was most recently and to approaches by that there would be of their normal home updated in 2013 to humans on foot and little or no impact to ranges, nor did they address the substantial concealed than by the animals.’ seek shelter or remain volume of new people in vehicles.’ stationary with fright information on lynx, while snowmobiles  An Iowa study (Sodja hares, and their habitats Wikimedia Commons Photo were being operated.’ 1978) found ‘no effects and distributions that of snowmobiling on has accumulated from pheasant movements more than a decade of or behavior.’ continuing research. Notably, the 2013 LCAS deemed it appropriate Lynx to abandon the use of prescriptive measures  The Canada Lynx was initially established by listed as “threatened” the 2000 LCAS. under the Endangered Species Act in  The FWS determined many original 2000

22 LCAS ‘risk factors’ Consequently the fire and fragmentation and development, were actually not 2000 LCAS standard of habitat. Each of illegal shooting, and negatively affecting which prescribed these situations can forest/backcountry the lynx population ‘no increase in snow directly affect both roads and trails. as a whole. Most compaction’ was snowshoe hare (the These six activities important in respect determined to be primary lynx food have been lowered to snowmobile a flawed recreation source) and lynx to being a ‘second management, after management premise. population dynamics. tier’ influence since evaluating two studies Consequently first tier subsequent research  The 2013 LCAS takes in particular (Bunnell influences will be the or management a new management 2006 and Kolbe prominent drivers for experience since 2000 approach which 2007), it determined future lynx conservation has shown they are not established two tiers of that the best and management likely to have substantial potential anthropogenic information available efforts. effects on lynx or their influences related did not indicate that habitat. Consequently, to lynx population  The second tier compacted snow while snowmobiling in dynamics. The first tier of anthropogenic routes increased lynx habitat should be of influences includes influences include six competition from ‘considered’ in future four factors: climate activities that were other species to levels land use planning, it change, vegetation previously identified that adversely impact is not precluded from management, wildland as ‘risk factors’ in the lynx populations. occurring (or growing) 2000 LCAS: given that it’s proven incidental In response to a lawsuit filed by the Washington and Wyoming to not have substantial trapping, snowmobile associations over a proposal to designate critical lynx effects on lynx recreation, habitat in parts of Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Washington, Maine and conservation. Likewise Minnesota – the lead lynx biologist for the Fish and Wildlife Service in minerals trails have not proven to Helena, Montana said his agency hasn’t identified snowmobiling as a and energy negatively affect lynx. problem in lynx habitat. He specifically stated, exploration “We haven’t identified trail maintenance as being a problem for critical habitat, and we don’t expect trail maintenance to be a problem for critical habitat. And we don’t see new trails as being a problem for critical habitat. So we don’t see that there’s a basis for those fears.”

Wikimedia Commons Fact… Photo by Michael Zahra A lead lynx biologist for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service says “the agency doesn’t consider snowmobiling to be a problem in lynx habitat.” – S. Sartorius 2009

23 Wildlife Impacts… OTHER wildlife STUDIES

Subnivean (under- formation of subnivean were not as conclusive snowmobile tracks, the-snow) Animals – space over woody regarding the effects multiple passes over Shrews and Voles shrubs or large woody of recreational use the same track will have debris. Until there is on subnivean space. more impact than a A California study for a deep snow cover, But there is some single pass. (Halfpenny the USDA Forest Service recreationists tend to suggestion that winter 1989) (Wildlife Resource avoid woody shrubs recreation may impact Consultants 2004) as they are difficult subnivean space at represents the most to move through and low elevations. Winter  An early Minnesota current information logs can be difficult recreation probably study (Jarvinean 1971) regarding the effects to cross because of has the greatest effect suggested there ‘may of winter recreation on breaking into the at low snow depths. be increased winter subnivean mammals. subniveal space. mortality of small Study conclusions include: Later in the season as mammals beneath . Snowmobiles and snow depth increases, Earlier Studies Concluded: snowmobile compacted cross-country skiing recreational use of snowfields.’ However  Skiers may do may affect the amount these sites probably the report concluded more damage to of subnivean space, has a minimal effect that ‘more information the snowpack than but both snow depth due to the snow is necessary.’ Given snowmobilers because and vegetation are depth. the dramatic evolution narrow skis cut deeper also strong influences. of snowmobiles over . Wet meadows at into the snowpack the nearly 40 years . Winter recreationists low elevations with and because skis have since this study was would be unlikely to low snow depth a greater foot load conducted, it is likely affect the early season probably have the (amount of weight this report has no most subnivean space. per surface area) tangible relevance today This study’s findings in comparison to a even though it is still snowmobile track. For cited by snowmobiling both ski tracks and Did you know… critics. Skiers may do more damage to the snowpack than snowmobiles because narrow skis cut deeper into the snowpack and have a heavier foot load. – Halfpenny 1989 24 Wolverines Yellowstone wolverine snowshoes carrying to very little recreation use. monitoring program small GPS data loggers, The levels of recreation use The wolverine is one (Inman 2007) was so their travels can be documented thus far across of the rarest animals in the first to document compared to travel the various wolverine home North America, and the wolverine/winter data from GPS-collared ranges varies dramatically least known of large recreation interaction wolverines in the same – from 1% up to 46% of carnivores (Banci 1994). It that observed an active areas. (Wolverine individual areas. has emerged as one of the natal den site with Foundation 2009-2012) latest species of concern in snowmobiling occurring respect to winter recreation. in close proximity to the Because these rare animals den. This represented The project identified large have such large home some of the first real areas that encompass ranges, this research is  Recent research on data documenting ‘wolverine home range.’ challenged by a small wolverines (Copeland wolverine/snowmobile It then overlaid data sample size of wolverines 1996, Copeland et al. interactions, and the derived from GPS tracking and particularly of animals 2007, Squires et al. female wolverine was of winter recreation uses exposed to higher levels 2007) indicates that not displaced from its to estimate that about of winter recreation across wolverines are wide- den. 14% of the identified a notable portion of their ranging, inhabit remote wolverine home range home range. Consequently areas near timberline, area is also documented future efforts will focus on and are sensitive to  Snowmobilers have to have some level of trying to identify additional human disturbance at partnered with winter recreation use based study areas which host the natal and maternal den researchers to help upon the GPS sampling. elusive wolverine and which sites. gain better information While this research is still also have relatively high about potential winter in progress, early findings levels of winter recreation. recreation/wolverine have documented a wide (Heinemeyer & Squires  Researchers only issues. The Central range of interaction levels 2012) recently began learning Idaho Wolverine and – with some individual about wolverines’ Winter Recreation wolverines being exposed habits and how they Research Study has to relatively high levels of may interact with winter recreationists using winter recreation use and recreation. The Greater snowmobiles, skis, and many others being exposed

FACT: The first real data documenting wolverine / snowmobile interactions found that the animal was not displaced from its den site. – Inman 2007

Sierra Nature Notes photo

25 Snowmobiling… social conflicts

to diminish snowmobilers’ Increased ‘demand’ freedom of choice across doesn’t always correlate to public lands. In particular not having an ‘adequate the quiet-use movement supply’ of nonmotorized has forced snowmobilers quiet-use areas. All too out of open terrain like often this position is meadows and creek pushed as a social/moral bottoms and into less safe change agenda versus and more avalanche-prone being based upon factual

Photo by Kim Raap riding areas. While steep on-the-ground needs. Any areas are attractive to thoughts of eliminating some snowmobilers, the multiple use should first who choose differently. result of losing open terrain ensure nonmotorized Myth: Public land managers are close to roads and parking users are fully utilizing Conflicts require not the ‘social police’ since areas is that family-friendly existing ‘exclusive use’ their missions are primarily snowmobiling terrain nonmotorized areas since that multiple use grounded upon multiple continues to erode away – they can already travel management use management principles. which is not an acceptable everywhere motorized Consequently resolution of or desired condition. More recreationists are allowed if practices be social intolerance is an issue emphasis must be placed they so choose. abandoned. outside agency missions. on ensuring snowmobiling Public lands management areas are available close to Unfortunately even should instead focus upon parking areas for families though they essentially factS: reasonable sharing versus and novice riders. already ‘have it all,’ It is important to recognize yielding to society’s growing groups continue trying that ‘user conflicts’ are really intolerance for those who Divvying up public lands to close more areas to ‘social conflicts’ based upon think, act, or recreate often unnecessarily and snowmobiling while the collision of different differently. ideals and expectations – inappropriately pits user pushing their narrow with the degree of conflict groups against one another agendas. Consequently a ultimately influenced While every acre is certainly – and doesn’t solve the root local ‘needs assessment’ by varying degrees of not suitable for every use, issue of growing intolerance (and not a ‘wants intolerance for those abundant Wilderness and within our society. Instead, assessment’) should be a growing push for more more emphasis should be conducted in targeted segregated nonmotorized placed on requiring all user areas before considering ‘quiet-use’ areas continues groups to ‘play together in any reallocation of lands for the sandbox.’ winter recreational uses.

26 “The U.S. Department skiers and snowshoers never Myth: of Agriculture (USDA) Myth: get beyond a ‘3- to 5-mile Separating uses prohibits discrimination Pristine untracked radius’ from where they park is always the best in all its programs and terrain for skiers their car – so what difference activities on the basis of does it really make if lands way to manage race, color, national origin, and snowshoers beyond that zone are winter recreation age, disability, and, where is rapidly tracked up or not? Efforts applicable, sex, marital to provide untracked terrain on public lands. status, familial status, disappearing for skiers are important but parental status, religion, under the tracks of should be focused only factS: sexual orientation, genetic snowmobiles. close to their access areas. Separating uses information, political beliefs, At the same time experience (segregation) is a poor reprisal, or because all shows these set-asides option for managing public or part of an individual’s factS: don’t really solve all conflicts lands. It is an extremely income is derived from any Reality is that untracked because it often just shifts polarizing premise that public assistance program.” terrain is important rifts to being within like user often leads to long-term ill- to motorized and groups (skiers complaining about skiers). will and decreased support Recreation conflict – which nonmotorized winter for agencies. Consequently is really social conflict - is recreationists alike – so land managers should be often addressed at length education directed at both For nonmotorized and cautious about embracing it in these land use plans. groups as to how to ‘share motorized recreationists as a suitable or sustainable Since many social conflicts the powder’ is likely to alike the question really management principle. are in reality connected gain more ground than becomes ‘who gets to track to differences in political enacting large closures to up the terrain first?’ The beliefs, age, sex, religion, snowmobiling under the answer is that this is not Segregation has proven pretense of ‘saving powder.’ to be poor public policy and/or race - and persons an agency’s issue to solve for this country in many with disabilities and the – it’s rather a case of ‘the respects. A synonym for elderly are more dependent Complaints that early bird gets the worm’ the word ‘segregation’ is upon motorized vehicles for ‘snowmobilers traveling (powder) – and everyone discrimination. Therefore it their recreational outings freely are tracking up the else gets the leftovers until than younger or more landscape’ are illogical the cycle repeats itself after is unlikely that ‘segregating  


recreational users’ based able-bodied persons – it since the vast majority of the next snowfall. upon motorized and would seem that nonmotorized uses – as is ‘segregating’ often purported to be a ‘fix’ recreational for public lands conflicts – users based will be deemed any more upon their class appropriate or successful of use would when evaluated over the be a violation long-term. of this anti- discrimination standard that It is interesting that federal prefaces all agencies preface land use planning. planning documents with a statement like what is used by the Forest Service: Photo by Kim Raap

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Snowmobiling… planning for multiple use winter recreation

Myth: Snowmobiling creates conflicts, so it is best managed by reducing or eliminating snowmobile Photo by Kim Raap access on public conflicts between tow vehicle. Plus they stressed the minute they lands. snowmobilers and need extra room for turn into poor parking nonmotorized winter loading and unloading areas. And their stress recreationists most typically their snowmobiles, as well and ‘conflict’ can build factS: begin – if they are going to as room to pull in and from that point on, for the Public land managers are occur – addressing conflicts out with their extended remainder of their outing, sometimes reluctant to at their origin is the single length vehicle. And some due to their initial hassle expand or even continue best management tool snowmobilers travel with getting parked. snowmobiling access for land managers and even longer trailers – for due to concerns about recreationists to consider. six or more snowmobiles – ‘conflicts’ between winter which increases their needs Winter ‘conflicts’ recreationists. However for adequate parking and oftentimes are really just a oftentimes these situations Parking is truly the maneuverability even need for ‘more and better can be addressed with ‘root stressor’ for winter more. winter parking,’ which better multiple-use recreation. While a typically requires project- management rather nonmotorized family of specific NEPA analysis than by closing areas to four can easily park their The result is that, if to address. This type of snowmobiling. vehicle in about 20 feet parking is not designed conflict can also sometimes or less, a motorized family and managed well, winter be addressed by simply of four needs close to recreationists (motorized separating uses for only Since trailheads and 60 feet of room to park and nonmotorized alike) a short distance out of parking areas are where their 4-place trailer and can begin to become trailhead areas.

28 The following  If available space does both groups make it  When designing or planning principles not allow for separate necessary to depart zoning staging areas can be instrumental parking areas, staging staging areas from for snowmobilers, toward addressing areas should be zoned the same location, still it is important to winter conflict for nonmotorized and designate separate recognize the need for issues where motorized parking motorized and snowmobile ‘warm-up’ they most often areas. Again, good nonmotorized routes areas close to parking originate – in the on-the-ground signing and delineate them areas. Oftentimes, is critical to help guide with on-the-ground older snowmobiles parking areas: recreationists to their snow poles and that have been hauled  When space allows, designated parking signing – and enforce any distance on trailers it can be beneficial zones. it. tend to have their to provide separate carburetors ‘load-up’  When designing and/  If feasible, it is often parking areas for (flood), which requires or zoning winter advantageous to motorized and that the machines parking and staging route nonmotorized nonmotorized be run a bit to clear areas, it is critical to users along or recreationists to their engines. While remember that the slightly into the tree eliminate interaction newer sleds with space required for line (if adjacent to between the groups fuel injection have maneuvering, parking, open areas), while while loading and fewer problems with and unloading simultaneously unloading. When this, cold weather vehicles with trailers is routing snowmobile this is done, good conditions can still significantly more than traffic either along on-the-ground create needs to warm the space required by the opposite side of signing is critically up all snowmobiles. It most nonmotorized openings or through important to help is therefore important users – so parking the middle of open guide recreationists to have either open zones should be areas. If access routes to the staging area areas or extra trail arranged and must be located appropriate for their space adjacent to allocated accordingly. entirely within woods, recreation choice. parking areas so consider cutting two If possible, egress  If possible, have snowmobiles can be trail routes with a and ingress routes motorized and properly ‘warmed degree of separation should also have some nonmotorized up’ prior to groups between them if degree of separation egress/ingress routes departing. possible. between user groups depart from separate to minimize interaction sections of parking versus immediately areas, correlating placing them together to the separate in the same areas or parking zones. onto the same trail If topography routes. or ultimate destinations for Did you know… Poor parking is the root stressor for winter recreation.

29  

Snowmobiling… planning for multiple use winter recreation

This can cause CONSIDER THE they are still serving the difficulties and FOLLOWING WHEN public interests and are confusion if CONDUCTING WINTER still needed, and whether travel planning TRAVEL PLANNING the mix of uses should is conducted be modified in view of Motorized winter simultaneously changing demands and/or recreation generally due to resource issues. substantively encompasses large different areas and its participants It is also important to are often quite mobile. assure a level playing field NOHVCC photo impacts.

By comparison most for both motorized and
Therefore summer and winter travel nonmotorized over-snow nonmotorized activities Myth: planning is generally the recreation takes place when approaching winter most successful when within 3 to 5 miles of recreation management. If Summer and conducted separately trailheads. An exception wildlife issues are driving winter travel since snow is a temporary is that a growing number area closures, it is likely medium and winter tracks of nonmotorized that all forms of winter planning is very over snow disappear from recreationists are recreation may need to be similar and is the landscape. using snowmobiles to excluded. While animals access distant areas for can be stressed by all best conducted backcountry skiing or human activities, they are snowboarding. often more likely to be simultaneously to While trails are important stressed by nonmotorized to get from one place Modification of current address conflicts. recreationists since their to another, they are winter travel management ‘more quiet’ approach not the only focus of plans should be can resemble predator snowmobiling activities in undertaken only when behaviors and ultimately factS: many areas of the country; changing resource issues elicit threat responses It is important to consequently both on- clearly indicate that from animals. recognize there are and off-trail opportunities adjustments are needed. significant differences are very important. This Any modifications should The issue of managing between summer and is distinctly different from consider both motorized ‘conflict’ must work both winter motorized activities. summer motorized travel and nonmotorized ways since – if those planning. activities, examining how asserting conflict are adequately existing plans regularly rewarded at are meeting public needs. the expense of other Existing closures should users – their incentive to be re-evaluated to see if continually push conflict as an issue becomes

30 more appealing and can community give up’. This essentially become an simply is not a satisfactory unending enterprise. approach to winter travel All too often these planning; rather all users types of conflicts are should have something inappropriately elevated to win or lose to help to decision-determining reach more effective and levels when the issues equitable compromises. are actually very minor or isolated. When IMPORTANT principles considering allocating FOR winter travel planning: exclusive use for one ISMA photo group or another, all  Evaluate the unit’s uses should stand equal entire land base changes resulting from are needed; and chances to be excluded. – including areas natural forces such as what attributes of the For example, if skiers currently closed to wildfires, diseases or winter experience are insist that snowmobiling specific uses – to other factors which truly important to the is incompatible with their determine which may have changed the different user groups. desires, they should in turn areas are currently landscape.  Evaluate the amount be excluded from areas suitable or unsuitable  Determine – with the of use taking place open to snowmobiling; for various winter assistance of various currently by various otherwise the unending recreation activities. user publics: where do user groups and conflict enterprise While Congressionally- people recreate on the examine likely trends continues to repeat itself. designated Wilderness public lands unit, and in future demands for is not available Past winter travel where would they go if each. for motorized management has largely given the opportunity recreation, it is  Use collaborative allowed nonmotorized to do so; what are exclusively available efforts between users to have their the primary access for nonmotorized agencies and all user exclusive areas, plus free locations and trails; recreation and should groups with a stake in and unfettered access to where are the current be considered as the outcome early in all snowmobile areas – so loop opportunities, such in determining the planning process. the question has typically and where can new the mix of uses. This collaboration been ‘how much more ones be developed; When performing should be used area should the motorized where are the play this evaluation, to help develop  
 

 

 
  
 
 

 
 areas; what parking consider new formal alternatives and trailheads are information, new or proposals which currently available, science, and the agency can duly and what new ones consider during its planning analysis. Did you know… A growing number of nonmotorized recreationists are using snowmobiles to access distant areas for backcountry skiing or snowboarding.

Photo by Shad Hamilton

31 Snowmobiling… planning for multiple use winter recreation

 Fully evaluate potential economic impacts of various proposals on surrounding counties, communities, and the region. Photo by Kim Raap communities, remains for the along with areas  Use adaptive construction of restriction. Closure designated for only management to warming huts, and/or areas should be nonmotorized uses. ensure decisions can placement of restroom manageable, be adjusted in the facilities. enforceable, and easily  future in response to recognized on the Once travel planning is changing conditions,  Consider how ground. completed, agencies such as new science, improvements should continue to new trends, or large are to be funded  Designated linear work closely with user fires that modify native and maintained. travel routes, through groups to ensure vegetation and wildlife Snowmobiling largely restricted areas implementation of habitats. pays its own way that provide access the management via gas taxes and to open use areas plan is working as intended. They can  Consider both registrations or trail beyond the restriction, provide valuable direct and indirect use fees. Evaluate how should be considered assistance with plan management actions other winter users can and accommodated implementation, to help manage winter also help pay their way whenever possible. including the visitor use. This may for facilities they share maintenance and include actions such with motorized users  The final step in travel construction of as: trail grooming, or for services such as planning should facilities, trails, trailhead snow ski trail grooming that be development of parking lots, and removal, developing may have historically detailed yet user- signage, along with or expanding been provided solely friendly maps that providing education/ existing parking by agency funds. clearly identify enforcement, maps areas, providing boundaries of areas and informational loop opportunities,  All restricted areas appropriate for over- brochures. establishing should be evaluated snow vehicle travel, access routes from periodically to ensure clear justification

32

Replace existing graph on this page

an average of 4.8 to 5.2 Average Hours Spent per trip Myth: hours per recreation visit There should engaged in snowmobiling, 6 while cross-country skiers be substantially 5 spend an average of only 5.2 more miles of 2.6 to 3.1 hours skiing per 4 groomed trails visit. Consequently, even 3 allocated for though the popularity 3.1 cross-country of the two activities may 2 be similar, their needs 1 skiing since it is for space are actually a more popular quite different. Since 0 snowmobilers spend 40% Snowmobiling Cross-­‐Country winter activity. Skiing to 45% more time on the

snow during an outing, it NVUM monitoring shows that snowmobilers spend an average of 4.8 to 5.2 hours per is important to recognize radiusrecreation from where visit they engaged Thein snowmobiling other extremely, while cross-country skiers spend an average of only when planning for winter 2.6 to 3.1 hours skiing per visit. Consequently, even though the popularity of the two activities factS: park, resulting in no more important factor to trails and overall winter may be similar, their needs for space are actually quite different. Since snowmobilers spend The USDA Forest Service than40% five to to 45% ten moremiles time onrecognize the snow is that during a large an outing, it is important to recognize when access that snowmobilers National Visitor Use beingplanning traveled for during winter an trailsnumber and overall of cross-country winter access that snowmobilers travel much further and travel much further and Monitoring (NVUM) entiresubsequently outing. require significantlyskiers and snowshoersmore miles of trail for their day trips than what subsequently require program provides nonmotorized recreationistsactually do. doNumerous not desire state (or studies have shown that snowmobilers typically ride 60 to 120 miles per day in the West, and up to 100 to 200 miles per day in the the best available significantly more miles rest of the country. In comparisonrequire) groomed research trails has for shown cross-country skiers typically travel no of trail for their day trips information regarding the It is moreimportant than to a 3- to 5-miletheir radius outings. from Sincewhere the they park, resulting in no more than five to ten than what nonmotorized relative popularity and recognizemiles beingthere istraveled a duringpurpose an entire of snowshoes outing. in recreationists do. participation levels for much greater actual particular is to provide snowmobiling and cross- It is important to recognize there is a much greater actual need for snowmobile trail grooming needthan for snowmobilethere is for ski trail flotationgrooming for. Stravelince snowmobileacross traffic has a tendency to create heavy country skiing. This long- trailm groomingoguls on than trails, there it requires the topmuch of uncompactedmore frequent trail grooming to help keep them smooth and Numerous state studies term monitoring shows is forsafe. ski trailConversely grooming. cross -countrysnow, having skiing groomed doesn’t create this same heavy moguling effect. have shown that that overall participation Since snowmobile traffic trails is often deemed to snowmobilers typically The other extremely important factor to recognize is that a large number of cross-country skiers levels are actually quite has a tendency to create be undesirable. ride 60 to 120 miles per and snowshoers actually do not desire (or require) groomed trails for their outings. Since the similar and continually heavypurpose moguls of on snowshoes trails, in particular is to provide flotation for travel across the top of day in the West, and up to fluctuate due to varying it requiresuncompacted much more snow , having groomed trails is often deemed to be undesirable. 100 to 200 miles per day snow conditions across the frequent trail grooming to in the rest of the country. SIDEBAR delete all existing text and graphs in sidebar; we may need to look at adding country. help keep them smooth In comparison research something else to fill space, so let me know and safe. Conversely has shown cross-country cross-country skiing skiers typically travel no PAGE 32 NVUM monitoring shows doesn’t create this same more than a 3- to 5-mile that snowmobilers spend heavyP lmogulingannin geffect. for Multiple Use Winter Recreation

33  


Snowmobiling… planning for multiple use winter recreation

on groomed snowmobile Photo by Kim Raap
Myth:
trails. So a prime issue for
continued multi-use is self-
both ways. Snowmobilers Substantially
Myth: generated funding – or the
usually pay 100% of the large areas
lack thereof in respect to
The designation cost to groom their trails
nonmotorized. should be closed
and then allow them to
‘multi-use’ is a to snowmobiles
be used for other ‘multi-
misnomer and uses’ like cross-country to create
The reality is that closures
is rather de skiing, snowshoeing,
to snowmobiling which more areas for
dog sledding or winter
facto ‘single extend farther than a 3- to nonmotorized
biking. So if it were not
use motorized’ 5-mile radius from plowed
for the generosity of winter
access areas – and are in
because the snowmobilers allowing recreationists in opportunity for the multiple-use of trails non-Wilderness settings they fund, there would – are for all intents and every national human-powered often be no groomed purposes unnecessarily forest. recreation trail opportunities closed to all uses since experiences are for nonmotorized they are too remote to recreationists. be accessed by most factS: often lost on cross-country skiers and lands designated snowshoers. The focus for Those pushing this agenda nonmotorized use areas are inappropriately twisting On the other hand, as as multi-use since should therefore be within the truth and applying nonmotorized trail users zones that are close to global statistics to issues those lands are continually try to whittle parking areas. Beyond that are best considered often dominated away at snowmobiling those zones multiple use at local landscape levels. access with more closures by motorized use. – or even ‘domination’ by While there are always to motorized uses, a snowmobiles – should be localized situations growing number of acceptable since no one where motorized and snowmobilers are starting factS: else (or very few) will likely nonmotorized recreationists to advocate for single- can benefit from working Concerns about multi-use be there. use (snowmobiles-only) better together to resolve and single-use can cut concerns, the situation on

34 national forest lands is not A growing number of skiers trails on national forests in either funded directly as bleak or as one-sided as and snowboarders are the West – and 135,000 by the Forest Service or is often portrayed. also using snowmobiles miles of snowmobile is subsidized with state to access backcountry trails nationwide – only Recreational Trails Program areas. These hybrid users because snowmobilers have (RTP) grant funds – which There are no credible represent multiple use chosen to tax themselves are derived from the reasons to support principles at their best through state snowmobile federal fuel tax paid on wholesale and widespread and are one more reason registrations, user fees, fuel used in snowmobiles, additional closures to why large blocks of forests and gasoline taxes they ATVs, off-road motorcycles snowmobiles on national should not be closed off pay to fund the grooming and light duty trucks used forest lands; it simply is to motorized access. The of these trails. And nearly off-road; all RTP funds are not justified or needed bottom line is that public all of these 18,000 miles of from motorized users. If since land management lands are simply best groomed trails in the West there is an inequity it is plans have already zoned managed for multiple uses. (and the vast majority of the that nonmotorized winter areas as ‘open’ or ‘closed’ 135,000 miles across the recreationists need to bring to motorized recreation. country, depending upon their own funding to the Rather solutions should Myth: landowner permission) table, as the snowmobilers start by addressing conflict are open to all winter have done, if they want issues with plowed winter There is disparity nonmotorized recreation more miles of groomed parking and dispersal of in the total miles uses. trails. uses from trailheads. Poor of groomed trails parking is truly the root of most all ‘real’ versus provided on In no instance is the Second, a large percentage ‘contrived’ conflicts and Forest Service Forest Service unilaterally of cross-country skiers should receive the highest lands, particularly paying for the grooming and snowshoers do not attention during winter of snowmobile trails with desire nor require groomed planning processes. in the West Forest Service funds. In trails for their backcountry where some contrast, the grooming recreational experience. complain there that occurs on the Thus the alleged disparity In some cases access and majority of the 1,700 is misconstrued and uses may be able to be are over 18,000 miles of nonmotorized overstated. separated, but it will more miles of groomed trails on these forests is likely need to continue snowmobile trails Photo by John Vogel being shared. There is no disagreement that and only 1,700 nonmotorized users need miles of areas designated for them groomed close to parking. However ‘cherry stem’ routes may ‘nonmotorized- also need to be provided use-only’ trails. to move snowmobilers through and beyond nonmotorized zones – so factS: that de facto ‘no-use zones’ First and foremost, there are not unnecessarily are over 18,000 miles of created. groomed snowmobile

35 Snowmobiling… planning for multiple use winter recreation

ISMA photo

Third, snowmobilers national forest planners Therefore these lands, require significantly commonly use a ‘3-mile Myth: while technically ‘open,’ more miles of trail for radius (6-mile round 70% (81 million are often classified as typical day outings than trip) from a trailhead’ as acres) of ‘unsuitable’ or ‘not what nonmotorized the distance traveled practical’ for snowmobiling recreationists do. ‘by the average skier USDA Forest in agency land use Numerous research or snowshoer’ during a Service lands planning processes. studies have found that typical day trip. in the western the average distance While the exact number traveled by snowmobilers continental U.S. of total ‘unsuitable’ or ‘not in a day ranges from 60 to practical’ acres on national Thus snowmobilers are open to forests is unknown, it is 120 miles in the West, and require 6 to 24 times is around 100 to 200 miles snowmobiles. a substantive portion more miles of trail and which generally exceeds per day in the Midwest open riding area than or New England. In at least 25 to 50 percent what cross-country skiers of individual forest lands. comparison, cross-country and snowshoers do for factS: skiers and snowshoers At least 10 percent (over an ‘average’ daily outing. While up to 81 million 8 million acres) of western generally state they are Therefore, this 10 to 1 acres of forest lands may hard pressed to cover forest lands are located on ratio is not an inequality technically be ‘open to the fringe of the Snowbelt more than five to ten miles but rather what is needed snowmobiles,’ a significant on ungroomed snow in a and host zero miles of to provide a reasonable amount of these acres snowmobile trails. day’s time. Additionally, range of opportunities for often do not either have snowmobiling. enough snow cover to support snowmobile use, Some forests have or are too heavily timbered determined through or too steep to be travel planning processes accessible by snowmobiles. that their total ‘suitable’

36 snowmobiling acres are presence. Otherwise given long distances To a large degree, all really quite minimal. nonmotorized recreation lands greater than a For example, the White can – and does – occur from plowed roads three-mile radius from River National Forest in everywhere. and trailheads to plowed parking areas Colorado – a heavy snow reach many of them. are equally ‘inaccessible’ area extremely popular to nonmotorized uses for all winter sports – irrespective as to whether determined only 7.3% of Myth: they are within designated its lands (168,000 acres More areas should factS: Wilderness areas or not – out of a total of 2.3 million be closed to Just because some since they would be too acres) were ‘practical’ Wilderness areas may not far for the average person for snowmobiling due motorized uses since be easily accessible due to access under human- to a combination of about two-thirds to their remoteness does power. heavily forested areas of the ‘35 million not warrant advocating and extremely steep acres’ managed for more areas to be topography (WRNF Travel closed to snowmobiling. This position should Management Plan and as nonmotorized Motorized access has be resisted since it is a Draft EIS, 2006). This recreation areas already been removed from pretense to push principle- scenario is common across in the West lie Wilderness areas. Therefore based set-asides (which the West. within designated nonmotorized recreationists realistically would be should work with land used by none or very few) Wilderness areas – managers to make better versus set-asides that are Myth: so they shouldn’t use of lands they already logical and practical for really count since have exclusive use of – nonmotorized recreational Only 30% (35 versus being quick to say access, i.e. within three they are often million acres) ‘we can’t access them easily miles of a trailhead. inaccessible to skiers so we want other (closer) of USDA Forest areas set aside for us.’ and snowshoers Photo by Kim Raap Service lands in the western continental U.S. are managed as ‘nonmotorized’ recreation areas. factS: Nearly 100% of National Forest lands are managed as open to all nonmotorized winter recreation uses. The only exceptions are small areas where crucial wildlife winter range or other sensitive habitats have been closed to all human

37 Twelve Principles for minimizing conflicts on multiple use trails

This will help reduce interactions both on These ‘Twelve 6. Identify the congestion and allow Actual Sources of and off the trail will help Principles’ are users to choose the Conflicts break down barriers and recommendations conditions that are best Help users to identify stereotypes, and build from Conflicts on suited to the experience the specific tangible understanding, goodwill, Multiple Use Trails: they desire. causes of any conflicts and cooperation. Synthesis of the they are experiencing. In Literature and State of 3. Minimize Number of other words, get beyond 10. Favor emotions and stereotypes the Practice, written by Contacts in Problem ‘Light-Handed Areas as quickly as possible, and Management’ Roger Moore (1994). Each contact among trail get to the roots of any Use the most ‘light- The American Council users has the potential to problems that exist. handed approaches’ that of Snowmobile result in conflict. So, as a will achieve objectives. Associations general rule, reduce the 7. Work with This is essential in order supports them as number of user contacts Affected Users to provide the freedom a way to maximize whenever possible. Work with all parties of choice and natural This is especially true in involved to reach mutually environments that are so winter recreation congested areas and at agreeable solutions to important to trail-based opportunities while trailheads. these specific issues. Users recreation. Intrusive simultaneously who are not involved as design and coercive managing public 4. Involve Users as part of the solution are management are not and private lands to Early as Possible more likely to be part of compatible with high- minimize real conflicts. Identify the present and the problem now and in quality experiences. likely future users of each the future. 1. Recognize trail and involve them in 11. Plan and Act Conflicts as Goal the process of avoiding 8. Promote Trail Locally Interference and resolving conflicts Etiquette Whenever possible, Do not treat conflict as an as early as possible, Minimize the possibility address issues regarding inherent incompatibility preferably before conflicts that any particular trail multiple use trails at the among different trail occur. contact will result in local level. This allows activities, but rather conflict by aggressively better flexibility for as goal interference 5. Understand User promoting responsible addressing difficult issues attributed to another’s Needs trail behavior. on a case-by-case basis. behavior. Determine the motivations, desired 9. Encourage 12. Monitor Progress 2. Provide Adequate experiences, norms, Positive Interaction Monitor the ongoing Trail Opportunities setting preferences, and Among Different effectiveness of the Offer adequate trail other needs of the present Users decisions made and mileage and provide and likely future users of Trail users are usually programs implemented. opportunities for a variety each trail. The ‘customer’ not as different from of trail experiences. information is critical for one another as they anticipating and managing believe. Providing positive conflicts. 38 Quote… This country will not be a permanently good place for any of us to live in unless we make it a reasonably good place for all of us to live in. – Theodore Roosevelt, 1912

ISMA photo

39 American Council of Snowmobile Associations 271 Woodland Pass, Suite 216 East Lansing, Michigan 48823 517-351-4362 www.snowmobilers.org www.snowmobileinfo.org