The Development of Snowmobile Policy in Yellowstone National Park

by Michael J. Yochim

Yellowstone National Park is a spec- Yellowstone’s winter visitation pro- visitation led business owners and asso- tacular place in winter. Sub-zero tem- gram has become controversial, with most ciated politicians in the Cody, Wyoming peratures clash with steam from the park’s of the concern focusing on snowmobiles area to reason that, if Yellowstone were numerous hot springs and geysers to cre- and their associated noise and air pollu- open to automobiles year-round, they ate frosted ghost trees and a winter won- tion, and the possibility of snowmobiles would see their profits from tourism rev- derland. The thermally-warmed open riv- displacing the park’s wildlife. Amid the enues spread throughout the year. Conse- ers and bare ground shelter wildlife in the debates over snowmobile use in Yellow- quently, in 1948 they called upon the hostile winter environment. As tempera- stone, surprisingly little information has Yellowstone administrators to plow the tures drop, wildlife migrate to the lower been known about why Yellowstone’s park’s roads year-round.2 elevations along the roads and rivers, administrators allowed snowmobiles into Yellowstone’s administrators and the making them highly visible to the winter the park in the first place. For my Master’s Bureau of Public Roads (BPR, now Fed- visitor. thesis, I decided to investigate this topic, eral Highways) responded with a report For much of the park’s early history, and to trace the developments in the park’s analyzing the costs and feasibility of plow- the harsh temperatures and high snowfall snowmobile policy to the present. I also ing the park roads in winter. The report discouraged humans from visiting during examined the snowmobile policies of concluded that plowing would not be winter. After World War II, however, other national parks. This article will feasible, because the park’s road stan- Americans’ interest in winter recreation summarize these topics, and conclude dards were too poor to permit effective surged, and their ability to cope with the with a discussion of the story and illustra- plowing, the buildings in the park interior extreme conditions improved with tech- tions it provides to us today. Most of this were not winterized, and plowing would nological advances. Yellowstone saw story is new to historians, not having be too dangerous.3 these trends as well, and began to allow been researched before. The report settled the matter for eight winter visitors to enter the park on motor- years. Meanwhile, snowbound residents ized oversnow vehicles beginning in 1949. First Snowmobile Policy: 1940 to 1971 of the communities outside the park built Since then, visitation has steadily climbed, the first “snowplanes.” Snowplanes were peaking at 143,000 in the winter of 1993- After the Second World War, increased vehicles composed of a two-person cab 94. While still a small portion of prosperity and leisure time enabled on three large metal skis with an airplane Yellowstone’s annual visitation, winter Americans to travel to their national parks propeller mounted on the rear that blew is now a popular time to visit—so popular in record numbers. In Yellowstone, visi- around the area’s snow-covered roads that Yellowstone admits more snowmo- tation doubled from its pre-war peak of without ever “taking off.”4 The touring biles than all other national parks com- 500,000 visitors in 1940 to more than one possibilities of the unusual vehicles be- bined.1 million visitors in 1948. The surge in came obvious; in January 1949, 35 visi-

2 Yellowstone Science tors entered the park in 19 snowplanes Clifford P. Hansen called upon the NPS believing that plowing the roads through from West Yellowstone. The superinten- and Department of the Interior to recon- Yellowstone would stimulate traffic on dent of the park prophetically reported sider the decision against plowing park the same highways in their communi- that “it appears that this mode of travel is roads.9 Park administrators embarked ties.11 becoming more popular.”5 upon a third round of cost estimates, After the hearing, Yellowstone’s ad- Snowplanes were the only oversnow visitor use estimates, and debates about ministrators gave serious consideration vehicles in the park until January 1955. policy. The intensity of the debate this to keeping park roads open from October That year, Harold Young and Bill Nicholls time drew NPS Director George Hartzog through the end of December. Superin- of West Yellowstone received permis- into the fray. Hartzog organized the Tri- tendent McLaughlin hoped that, by doing sion to use the first snowcoaches in the State Commission, a group of high-level so, “most people, particularly the Wyo- park. Snowcoaches were large vehicles NPS officials and regional government ming Congressional Delegation, will made by the Bombardier Company of representatives. After meeting several settle down for the next several years and Quebec, Canada, capable of carrying 10 times to discuss the feasibility of plowing maintain some semblance of peace and people in a heated interior. Calling the the roads, the Tri-State Commission meet- quiet.”12 Despite McLaughlin’s recom- snowcoaches a “good tourist gimmick,” ings culminated in a congressional hear- mendation to go ahead with this compro- Young and Nicholls took up to 500 visi- ing on the matter in Jackson, Wyoming mise, “the Director’s Office…advised tors per winter through the park in this on August 12, 1967.10 there will be an unqualified ‘no’ on win- manner in the 1950s.6 AmFac, the park’s Hartzog began the hearing by stating ter road openings in Yellowstone…The main concessionaire today, still uses the the position of the NPS: first, the form of basis of this is the restriction on funding same or similar vehicles. transportation in winter in Yellowstone levied by Congressional Committees.”13 In 1955 the National Park Service (NPS) should be that which was most appropri- Consequently, park administrators launched its Mission 66 program. Largely ate to the park and the park visit; and spent the following winter admitting a program of development to serve the second, oversnow visitation was, unless oversnow vehicles as before. In March, needs of increasing numbers of visitors to shown otherwise, the appropriate means 1968, though, they convened an all-day the national parks, Mission 66 also sought of visiting the park in winter, since meeting at Mammoth Hot Springs to for- to disperse visitation throughout the year, oversnow vehicles travel on top of the malize a winter use policy. The policy in an effort to take some of the pressure snow rather than in the trench that plow- they discussed and implemented in the off the parks in summer. In Yellowstone, ing would create of the roads in winter. next three years would consist of three local politicians used Mission 66’s idea Senator Gale McGee of Wyoming, who parts: 1) formally permitting and encour- to renew their calls for plowing park chaired the hearing, spent the remainder aging visitation to the park’s interior by roads in 1957. In response, Yellowstone’s of it accepting oral and written comments oversnow vehicles instead of automo- administrators formed a “Snow Survey from chambers of commerce in the Yel- biles; 2) grooming the oversnow roads to Committee” to study the matter. On the lowstone area and in the state of Wyo- make them more comfortable for travel; committee were representatives of Yel- ming, all of which supported plowing. and 3) authorizing the park concession- lowstone and federal and regional high- Chambers from as far away as Logan and aire to open a lodging facility for over- way departments. After traveling around Salt Lake City, Utah, and Amarillo, Texas night use at Old Faithful.14 Their reason- the park observing its traveling condi- sent statements in support of plowing, ing for these decisions follows. tions, the committee recommended in 1958 that plowing would be “feasible but not practical,” citing many of the same reasons as the 1949 BPR report did.7 This report settled the matter for the next six years. In 1963 the first visitors on snowmobiles entered the park. Known as Polaris “Snow Travelers,” the vehicles were the direct predecessor of modern snowmobiles in that they were a toboggan driven by a motor. Such vehicles became popular very quickly, enabling visitation to jump from about 1,000 oversnow visitors in 1963Ð64 to more than 5,000 just three winters later.8 In January 1964, six senators repre- Snowplane 1957. Highway maintenance supervisor senting the states on U.S. Highway 20 Charlie Shumate of Colorado at West Thumb Geyser (which connects with Yellowstone Park’s Basin. The propeller is in motion at rear (left). NPS roads) along with Wyoming Governor photo.

Spring 1999 3 tors began to investigate better ways of grooming. Using the technical assistance of Midwest snowmobile groups, the NPS purchased the park’s first grooming machines, and began grooming the roads by February 1971.20 Besides making travel more comfortable, grooming the park roads also encouraged snowmobilers to stay on them rather than seeking a smoother surface off road, thereby tram- pling native vegetation.21 Early snow groomer 1975. By 1971, the NPS began to Meanwhile, demand had become so groom the roads regularly in order to make travel by great for a place to stay overnight at Old over-snow vehicle more comfortable. This is one of their Faithful that some visitors camped out in early grooming machines. NPS photo. the only heated building there—the public restroom.22 After extensive discussion with the NPS, the YPCo. opened the Old Faithful Snowlodge on December 17, 1971, for its first winter season. It chose the “Campers Cabins” building because that was the only hostelry at Old Faithful that was even partly winterized.23 Open through March 19, 1972, the Snowlodge featured “simple, pleasant and comfortable lodging spiced with hearty western food and beverage and nature’s grandest winter display…Single, twin and triple rooms are available. All are conve- nient to centrally located bath facilities.”24 It was the Campers Cabin building with a Old Faithful Snowlodge 1972. In 1971, the Yellowstone new name,25 featuring 34 dorm rooms Park Company opened the Snowlodge at Old Faithful to without bath occupied in summer by em- provide overnight accommodations. Note the temporary ployees. The YPCo. decided against open- “Snow Lodge” sign covering the more permanent sign ing all or part of the famous Old Faithful beneath, which probably said “Campers Cabins.” In 1973, Inn because it would have needed exten- the company permanently renamed the building “Old Faith- sive winterizing.26 (AmFac razed the ful Snowlodge.” It was torn down in 1998. NPS photo. original Snowlodge in April 1998, re- placing it with a more comfortable and architecturally pleasing building.) Yellowstone’s administrators chose to but felt that this would have been too Superintendent Anderson and his staff allow oversnow vehicles rather than au- exclusive, since few people could ski or promoted the park’s snowmobile pro- tomobiles largely because plowing park snowshoe the long distances necessary to gram by arranging a visit by Lowell Tho- roads would make them into “snow can- view the park’s major attractions.17 Be- mas, a well-known radio commentator of yons”—plowed trenches with tall berms cause “public pressure to open the park the time. Thomas visited Yellowstone in of snow on the sides that would be diffi- gave [them] little choice,” they chose to winter, 1969, and discussed his visit on cult for automobile passengers to see go with oversnow vehicles as a compro- several subsequent radio broadcasts.27 over. They felt that those snow canyons mise. In this way, the public could view By the end of the 1971Ð72 season, would be obstacles to migrating wildlife Yellowstone, but the park’s administra- Yellowstone had responded to the persis- and would trap them on the road, making tors could keep the highways from be- tent pressure to open the park by encour- driving hazardous.15 Furthermore, they coming busy throughways.18 aging oversnow vehicles as the winter felt that plowing the park’s roads would Oversnow vehicles tend to move the mode of transportation. Maintenance staff have the disadvantages of only serving snow over which they travel, creating provided smooth roads, and the YPCo. those who were traveling through Yel- very bumpy, rough roads. To smooth the provided comfortable lodging and dining lowstone, and of causing the townspeople roads, the Yellowstone Park Company facilities at Old Faithful. These efforts to of West Yellowstone to suffer economi- (YPCo.) had experimented with various make the park available to the public in cally.16 They also considered restricting means of road grooming, which were all winter paid off, for pressure to plow park the park to skiers and snowshoers only, generally ineffective.19 Park administra- roads largely disappeared from this point

4 Yellowstone Science forward. By the end of that winter season, more than 25,000 people had visited the park.28

Challenges to the New Snowmobile Policy: 1967Ð77

The increasing numbers of visitors brought a corresponding increase in snowmobiles—as many as 30,000 in the winter of 1973Ð74 (three times the number as had entered just five years earlier).29 With more snowmobiles came more reports from park visitors and staff of problems such as noise, air pollution, and effects on park wildlife. The managers responsible for carrying out the new policy responded to these concerns as best they could while adhering to the policy. Snowmobiles at West Entrance 1972. Snowmobiling in Yellowstone in- The snowmobiles of the early 1970s creased exponentially in the 1970s. Here, the man at left is registering at the were very noisy, sometimes emitting as self-registration station while his friends wait. NPS photo. much as 100 decibels of noise at a dis- tance of 50 feet with a full throttle—a level that would seem as loud as a jet.30 Park staff were also concerned that search into these problems. Cole reported: Complaints from visitors attempting to snowmobiles could be displacing and “My field observations suggested that enjoy the winter silence and from field harassing park wildlife and damaging the the elk that used areas near roads became rangers were common.31 Superintendent vegetation. Resource management spe- habituated to snowmobiles…Displace- Jack Anderson acknowledged that “ev- cialist Edmund J. Bucknall discussed ments of these animals were mostly con- eryone pretty well agrees that [snowmo- some of the problems in a memorandum fined to the road plus surprisingly short bile noise] is a very disturbing factor for to the chief park ranger on March 16, distances.”39 In contrast, Keith Aune, a those who are attempting to enjoy the 1970: “The combination of noise and graduate student at Montana State Uni- peace and quiet of the winter wilder- offroad operation of these [oversnow] versity, examined the topic in the late ness.”32 However, he felt powerless to machines is causing serious disturbance 1970s for his master’s thesis and con- improve the situation, since “reduction of all through the Madison valley winter cluded that snowmobiles harassed wild- noise and air pollution must await me- range…elk are spooking even from the life, displaced them from areas near snow- chanical improvements by the manufac- far side of the river at the sound of an mobile trails, and inhibited their move- turers.”33 approaching snowmobile.”37 The num- ment across trails.40 Air pollution from snowmobiles also ber of research papers from the early Based on Cole’s findings (Aune’s were became a problem, especially at Old Faith- 1970s investigating snowmobile effects issued after Anderson retired), Anderson ful and the West Entrance. Warning park upon wildlife indicates that Bucknall’s adhered to the new policy, which speci- administrators of the air quality problem concern was well-founded. According to fied that snowmobiles must remain on were some field rangers such as James James W. Caslick, who surveyed litera- the snow-covered roads.41 It also meant Fox, who wrote to his supervisor in 1970: ture on snowmobile effects upon wild- denying permission to the YPCo. to open “A great deal of exhaust smoke is pro- life, “much of the literature on this topic a snowmobile rental at Old Faithful be- duced by most snowmobiles…when dates from the 1970s, when snowmobiles cause that “would, in effect, turn the Old many machines enter the park in a single were new on the winter scene. There was Faithful area into a recreational area with day, a foul-smelling blue pall of smoke a flurry of related papers, particularly snowmobiling the principal activity and hangs over the entrance for most of the from the Midwestern states…Reports this is not the basic objective in making morning.”34 Adhering to the new policy, sometimes conflicted with previous find- the Old Faithful area accessible…for Anderson stated (though not in direct ings, but there was general agreement public use in the winter.”42 Anderson response to Fox) that “conditions have that winter recreation, particularly opened the Old Faithful Visitor Center not, however, become uncomfortable for snowmobiling, had great potential for for its first winter season on January 1, breathing” in the park.35 He again felt negatively impacting wildlife and wild- 1971 to provide information to visitors.43 helpless to improve the situation, since life habitats.”38 Anderson upheld his park’s new policy the technological improvements neces- In response to the complaints of the while attending to the concerns associ- sary to clean up snowmobile emissions public and his rangers, Anderson directed ated with rising snowmobile use. Some were out of his control.36 park biologist Glen Cole to initiate re- statements he made in an interview with

Spring 1999 5 ing that all Rocky Mountain superinten- decisions of their peers. Anderson’s post- dents should have environmental assess- retirement remarks on this topic are worth ments on snowmobile use prepared for noting: “I’m a little upset with some of their parks.48 I could not find a response my fellow superintendents. I sometimes from Anderson to the regional director in think they are getting lazy when they the historical record, nor could I find evi- want to ban snowmobiles simply because dence that he prepared the suggested EA. they are motor-powered vehicles…they Providing an interesting contrast to just don’t want to get involved because it Yellowstone are the actions of Glacier sets up a debate and … creates work for National Park administrators regarding land managers.”54 the executive order. Responding to the Before retiring in 1975, Anderson re- regional director’s memorandum, Gla- ceived the International Snowmobile In- Superintendent Anderson snowmobiling cier conducted an EA on snowmobile use dustry Association’s first International in 1972. Anderson personally liked in 1975. At the time, there were up to Award of Merit for his “enlightened lead- snowmobiling and was out in the park on 1,300 snowmobiles visiting the moun- ership and sincere dedication to the im- a regular basis. Here he talks to some tain park each winter. As part of the EA, provement of and advancement of park visitors at Old Faithful. NPS photo. Glacier held two public meetings on the snowmobiling in the United States.”55 matter and gathered written public input. Glacier noted the following problems Expanding the Snowmobile Program: Derrick Crandall of the Snowmobile caused by snowmobiles: wildlife dis- 1975Ð82 Safety Certification Committee in 1977, placement, trampled vegetation, air and two years after he retired from public noise pollution, conflicts with other park John Townsley took the superinten- service, seem to conflict with his actions users, the need to groom roads, and the dency of Yellowstone upon Anderson’s as superintendent. In that interview, fact that snow compaction caused by retirement and continued promoting the Anderson labeled the complaints about snowmobiles would make spring plow- park’s winter program. He expanded the snowmobile noise “baseless,” suggested ing more difficult.49 NPS winter operation by purchasing more that those complaining ski another 100 In 1975, Glacier’s officials decided to grooming machines and having his staff yards to escape the noise, and said, “All it ban snowmobiles from the park, prima- groom the roads in the evening hours, takes is a pair of earplugs to solve that real rily because they disrupted the solitude of when falling temperatures would freeze quick.” He also felt that complaints about the national park in winter: “Over 90% of the snow as it was groomed, producing a wildlife harassment were “emotionalism” the comments opposed to snowmobile more durable snow road.56 To provide for and “never supported by fact.”44 He said use related that concern to silence, tran- the needs of the increasing numbers of that snowmobiling is “a great experience quillity, or in other words, aesthetics. winter visitors, he opened warming huts and a great sport, one of the cleanest types Because aesthetics are an emotion, a feel- at Canyon and Madison and expanded of recreation I know.”45 ing, it is impossible to quantify [sic]. interpretive services at the huts.57 Yellowstone’s administrators were not However, it is a very valid concern, and Townsley authorized the concessioner alone in struggling with the use of federal the National Parks represent, above all to expand its involvement in the winter lands by off-road vehicles (ORVs), which other values, an emotion, a feeling, which operation as well. The company expanded exploded in the early 1970s. Land man- Americans can obtain only in a handful of the capacity of Old Faithful Snowlodge agers nationwide struggled with this is- other natural scenic places.”50 The offi- by opening additional cabins and the sue. President Nixon attempted to give cials confirmed their decision with two Snowshoe Lodge, a summertime em- them some direction in 1972 with Execu- more hearings and further public com- ployee dormitory, for guest use. The com- tive Order (EO) 11644, which established ments in 1976-77, and formalized the ban pany also reopened the Mammoth Hot federal policy regarding the use of ORVs in 1977.51 It remains in effect today. Springs Hotel for winter use in 1982.58 on public lands. It clearly specified that Other national parks, including The hotel had been open continuously snowmobiles were ORVs, and outlined Yosemite, Sequoia/Kings Canyon, and from 1966 to 1970, but the YPCo. closed the resources and issues that land manag- Lassen National Parks, responded to pub- it in 1970 because the winter season at ers should consider in allowing ORV lic opinion by eliminating snowmobiles that time was a pronounced business fail- use.46 during the same period.52 In contrast, ure.59 Both the hotel and the Snowlodge Anderson was one of the first park Rocky Mountain National Park decided remain open in winter today. superintendents to respond to the EO. In to permit snowmobiles on the west side Townsley defended the winter use pro- a decision published in the Federal Reg- of the park.53 gram from possible shutdown by James ister dated May 7, 1974, he designated all Clearly, national park managers have Watt, Secretary of the Interior under Presi- of Yellowstone’s interior roads as snow- struggled with the issue of snowmobiles. dent Reagan, who wished to save federal mobile routes.47 One month later, NPS Furthermore, policies on snowmobiles funds. After Townsley took him on a tour regional director in Denver followed up differ among national parks, illustrating of the park in December, 1981, Watt on the EO with a memorandum suggest- that superintendents are not bound by the decided to keep the park open in winter.60

6 Yellowstone Science Like his predecessor, Townsley set two from Yellowstone, and one from the increase for the next ten years,69 perhaps some limits to the winter program. He regional office. The plan made few because the plan’s authors relied upon denied a stuntman permission to jump a changes in Yellowstone’s winter program, data from other national parks rather than snowmobile over Old Faithful while it and arguably did not address the con- from Yellowstone itself in projecting the was erupting,61 and banned dogsleds from cerns raised in the Existing Winter Use future trends in winter visitation.70 Also, the park to protect the dogs from snow- Management Guidelines, Inventory & snowmobile air pollution exceeded the mobiles.62 Concerns about air and noise Needs issued a year before. For example, Clean Air Act limits at the West Entrance pollution and wildlife impacts were Yellowstone administrators did not ini- in 1995,71 despite the assertion of the present during Townsley’s tenure too.63 tiate the research projects suggested in authors that such would not happen.72 The park’s bison evidently began using the previous document, perhaps due to a Despite its shortcomings, the Winter Yellowstone’s hard-packed snowmobile lack of adequate funding. Use Plan continues to guide the manage- routes to travel upon around 1980. Al- Yellowstone’s administrators them- ment of Yellowstone in winter. Barbee though he labeled this habit a “strange selves did not wholly approve of the left Yellowstone in 1994 to assume the quirk,”64 Townsley supported Aune’s Winter Use Plan. In a memorandum to a regional directorship of Alaska’s national research into snowmobile effects upon member of the core team, Chief Ranger parks where, in the late 1990s, he and his park wildlife. Dan Sholly questioned the projected win- staff wrote regulations banning snowmo- In recognition for his efforts, Townsley ter visitation figures. He felt that the plan biles from Denali National Park. As jus- too won the International Award of Merit was “somewhat generic,” and did not tification for this action, Barbee told me from the International Snowmobile In- have strong language on winter wildlife that “we don’t want Denali to become dustry Association (ISIA) in 1982, shortly protection.68 The Winter Use Plan offers another Yellowstone.”73 before he died. In presenting Townsley little to suggest that Sholly’s concerns with his award, ISIA Chairman M. B. were addressed. Indeed, in just three years A Hard Look at the Problems: 1993Ð97 Doyle said “Snowmobilers, local tour- actual Yellowstone winter visitation ex- ism industry leaders and other govern- ceeded the authors’ maximum projected Mike Finley became superintendent of mental officials…recognize his personal commitment to bringing persons enjoy- Left: Bison on the road, 1997. By the ing a variety of outdoor winter activities early 1990s this view was becoming into harmony with each other and the common in Yellowstone; bison using the park resource they are experiencing.”65 hardpacked snowmobile roads for travel. This habit has raised concern about the The First Winter Use Plan: 1983Ð92 effects of the park’s winter program its wildlife. Below: Thousands of snowmo- Robert (Bob) Barbee became superin- biles, 1997. By the mid-1990s, as many tendent of Yellowstone in 1983. During as 140,000 visitors passed through Yel- his tenure, winter visitor use doubled lowstone in winter, the majority on snow- from 70,000 persons to 140,000 visitors mobile. Over 75% of the visitors travel per winter. To deal with the problems of to Old Faithful during an average visit; increasing visitation, Barbee commis- as many as 2,000 snowmobiles will pass sioned the first compilation of winter use through that area per day. Photos by M. management guidelines and the park’s Jochim. first Winter Use Plan.66 As the first step, Barbee and his staff summarized the scattered pieces of Yellowstone’s snowmobile policy in the Existing Winter Use Management Guide- lines, Inventory & Needs. The document, issued in 1989, reflected the concerns at the time about the impacts of winter use on the park and the lack of ongoing research projects aimed at identifying the current and potential impacts of such use.67 In 1990, the NPS issued the Winter Use Plan Environmental Assessment. A core team of ten persons authored the plan: five from the Denver Service Center, three from Grand Teton National Park,

Spring 1999 7 Yellowstone when Barbee left in 1994. state of Montana shot or sent to slaughter terest groups. Soon, Finley and his staff began renewed most of the bison that left the park—a The legal atmosphere and its effects on examination of the impacts of the winter total of 1,084 by spring, 1997. This repre- park management have changed consid- use program. sented about a third of the park’s herd, erably since Anderson’s time. Anderson In 1992-93, administrators in Grand was the largest control of bison departing and his staff had little guidance in decid- Teton National Park (immediately south Yellowstone in history, and was one of ing to permit snowmobiles either from of Yellowstone) had opened their park’s the largest slaughters of bison anywhere law or from national park service policy portion of the Continental Divide Snow- since humans eliminated them from the directives. Beginning with the passage of mobile Trail, a 240-mile trail in Wyo- Great Plains in 1884.78 NEPA in 1970, the people of the United ming. That same winter, visitation in The bison killing led to a lawsuit against States gave increasing legislative guid- Yellowstone alone surpassed 140,000 the NPS by the Fund for Animals, a ance to federal land managers. Today’s persons. Both events tripped an impor- wildlife advocacy group. Filed on May park managers have not only a suite of tant trigger specified by the 1990 Winter 20, 1997, the lawsuit contended that national environmental laws but also ex- Use Plan: the implementation of the Yellowstone’s winter use program was tensive policy direction from the NPS Visitor Use Management Planning Pro- in violation of several laws, including the itself to follow and use. cess (VUM),74 which is “a process of National Environmental Policy Act The role of research in national park identifying goals (or desired futures), (NEPA), the Endangered Species Act, management has also changed. As Rich- looking at existing conditions, identify- and the NPS Organic Act.79 The NPS ard Sellars points out in Preserving Na- ing discrepancies between the two, and settled out of court with the Fund on ture in the National Parks (1997), the laying out a plan of action to bring the two September 23, 1997, by agreeing to both NPS did not embrace peer-reviewed re- closer together.”75 The NPS began the consider closing a snowmobile trail in search until quite recently.82 Illustrating VUM Process in Yellowstone in 1993 order to evaluate the effects on overwin- this fact in Yellowstone is the dearth of with Grand Teton and the surrounding tering bison in the park and also to write research on snowmobile effects upon the national forests. In 1997, these agencies a new Winter Use Plan/Environmental park dating from the 1970’s. Today, the issued the Winter Visitor Use Manage- Impact Statement (EIS).80 climate for research in the national parks ment: A Multi-Agency Assessment, which In January, 1998, Yellowstone admin- is much more supportive and the NPS has was a preliminary summary of the issues istrators announced that they would not many different on-going projects to as- and concerns related to snowmobile use close any snowmobile trails, but would sess the effects of its winter program in Yellowstone and the surrounding area. institute several research projects to gather upon the park. Still, much research needs The document listed noise pollution, air baseline data on bison use of groomed to be done. pollution, and wildlife impacts as con- roadways. After three years, they would A decision that was arguably done to cerns raised by the public.76 After analyz- re-evaluate the need to close a road for protect the park from becoming a busy ing more than 200,000 comments, the research purposes.81 They began the EIS winter thoroughfare has, in a way unfore- agencies expected to issue the final VUM in April, 1998, and should complete it in seen to the park’s managers, enabled its report early in 1999. This document will 2000, if all proceeds as planned. parkways to become even more crowded. recommend ways of improving the cur- The administrators of the 1960s and 1970s rent situation, but any changes will be at Conclusion recognized that plowing park roads would the discretion of each land management encourage regional residents to drive agency.77 The history of snowmobiling in Yel- through the park rather than around it. While the federal agencies were busy lowstone illustrates several concerns re- Restricting visitation to oversnow ve- with the VUM Process, nature intervened garding the management of national parks. hicles meant that only those who really with an extraordinary winter in 1996-97, First, as with many issues, winter use wanted to see Yellowstone would enter. which saw more than 150 percent of evolved without much research and with To encourage such appreciative visita- normal snowfall in Yellowstone. Com- little followup. Park managers were con- tion, administrators promoted the winter pounding the snow was a layer of ice that fronted with a new use and had to make a program in various ways. Their efforts to formed in the snowpack from some rain decision on whether or not to allow it stimulate such visitation paid off so well that fell after Christmas. The park’s bison without the time or ability to fully re- that today’s park managers find too many could not break through the ice to reach search the ramifications of it on Yellow- visitors and associated impacts at times. the grass below and began migrating out stone. Moreover, they did not have policy The modern NPS finds itself groping for of the park (some via the snowmobile direction from above in deciding whether ways to more adequately control the situ- roads) in search of more easily obtainable that use was considered appropriate and ation, and perhaps limit visitation. food. Some of the park’s bison carry traditional. Once made, their decision The history of winter use in both Yel- brucellosis, a disease that, if transmitted became institutionalized and hard to lowstone and Glacier illustrates the high to cattle, can cause an expectant cow to change. Making significant change in the level of emotions attached to snowmo- abort its fetus. To prevent that transmis- program today would be difficult at best bile use in national parks. At Glacier, sion, along with associated negative eco- due to the complexity of the issue and park managers perceived that some con- nomic and political consequences, the number of economically dependent in- cerns were too emotional to be settled by

8 Yellowstone Science objective research, and that some emo- Suggested Readings tions should be used to direct management within the national parks. Managers Frome, Michael. 1992. Regreening the National Parks. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. 289pp. in Yellowstone have seen consistent com- Jurale, James. 1986. History of Winter Use in Yellowstone National Park. Master’s Thesis, University plaints from the public reflecting their of Wyoming, Laramie. concerns and emotions on winter use, and National Park Service. 1989. Existing Winter Use Management Guidelines, Inventory, and Needs, Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone National Park, Wyo. continue to struggle with them. National Park Service. 1990. Winter Use Plan Environmental Assessment. Denver Service Center, Ultimately, the story of snowmobile Denver, CO. use in Yellowstone National Park may be Runte, Alfred. 1979. National Parks: The American Experience. University of Nebraska Press, a good illustration of how visitor prefer- Lincoln, Neb. 335pp. Sax, Joseph. 1980. Mountains Without Handrails. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, ences change over time. In the 1960s, Mich. 152pp. Yellowstone’s visitors seemed to prefer Schullery, Paul. 1997. Searching for Yellowstone: Ecology and Wonder in the Last Wilderness. opening the park to access by snowmo- Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Mass. 338pp. bile. Practically no opposition to this move Sellars, Richard West. 1997. Preserving Nature in the National Parks. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. 380pp. occurs in the historical record until after Yochim, Michael J. “Snowplanes, Snowcoaches and Snowmobiles: The Decision to Allow snowmobile visitation was well estab- Snowmobiles into Yellowstone National Park.” Annals of Wyoming Vol. 70(3): 6-23. Summer, lished. Since then, opposition has been 1998. steady or increasing simultaneously with Yochim, Michael J. 1998. The Development of Snowmobile Policy in Yellowstone National Park. Master’s Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula. the growth of snowmobile use. Such changing user preferences are difficult for park managers to assess and monitor. As volatile as the preferences may be, it is Unless otherwise noted, all sources are in the vice, Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the difficult to predict where the park’s win- Yellowstone National Park Library and Archives at Committee on Appropriations, United States Mammoth Hot Springs, Wyoming. Abbreviations Senate, on Winter Operation of Roads in YNP, ter use program will go in the future. One used include: YNP: Yellowstone National Park; Ninetieth Congress, Second Session, 1968. thing is certain though—the ride prom- GNPA: Glacier National Park archives; POF: Plan- 12 John S. McLaughlin to Director, September 18, ises to be emotional and rocky. ning Office files, YNP. 1967, IN Box D-166, File D30: “Roads and 1 Michael J. Yochim, “The Development of Trails 1967—Winter Travel in Yellowstone.” Snowmobile Policy in YNP,” Master’s thesis 13 Jack K. Anderson to All Division Heads, Octo- submitted to the University of Montana, 1998, ber 11, 1967, IN Box D-166, File D30: “Roads Michael Yochim has worked in Yellow- p. 98. and Trails 1967—Winter Travel in Yellow- stone National Park for a total of 12 2 “Seek Year-Round Opening of Yellowstone stone.” Evidently, Anderson assumed years, both as a tour guide for AmFac Hiways,” Cody Enterprise, Cody, Wyoming, Yellowstone’s superintendency from March 17, 1948. McLaughlin in late September or early Octo- Parks and Resorts and as a ranger-natu- 3 Lemuel Garrison to Regional Director, Oct. 11, ber, 1967. ralist for the National Park Service. He 1957, IN Box D-24, File D30, Book #2: “Snow 14 “Winter Oversnow Vehicle Operations” Min- derived this article from his master’s Removal, July 1957 through March, 1958,” utes, IN Box L-42, File L3427: “Recreation thesis research into the history of winter Regional Archive Depository of the National Activities 1969—Winter Sports (Oversnow Ve- Archives, Kansas City, MO. hicle Use).” use and the development of snowmobile 4 Walt Stuart, “Interview with Walt Stuart by 15 Anderson, “Interview with Jack Anderson, policy in Yellowstone. The University of Leslie Quinn, 1997,” November, 1997, IN former Park Superintendent,” interview by Rob- Montana conferred upon him the degree Drawer 8, Tape #96-8. ert Haraden and Alan Mebane, June 12, 1975, of Master of Science in Environmental 5 Superintendent’s Monthly Report, January IN Drawer 3, Tape 75-3. 1949, 5. 16 “Disadvantages to Winter Road Opening— Studies in 1998. 6 Robert S. Halliday, “Yellowstone in Winter,” Yellowstone,” IN Box D-164, File D30: “Roads Parade, March 13, 1955, 11. & Trails 1968—Winter Travel in Yell. Snow 7 NPS, USDI, “Report of the Snow Survey Com- Removal.” mittee, YNP, May 1958,” IN Box A-165, File 17 Anderson, interview by Haraden and Mebane, A4055: “Conferences and Meetings-1969: Tri- June 12, 1975, IN Drawer 3, Tape 75-3. State Comm. And Master Planners.” 18 Anderson to Raymond Euston, July 20, 1972, 8 Superintendent’s Monthly Narrative Report for IN Box N-118, File “Historical Backcountry January 1964, 1. Correspondence.” 9 Hickenlooper, Hruska, Curtis, Miller, Jordan, 19 Bob Jones (former Reservations Manager for and Simpson to Stewart Udall, Jan. 16, 1964, YPCo.), Interview by author, telephone con- and Clifford P. Hansen to Stewart L. Udall, versation, Moab, Utah, Nov. 17, 1997. February 25, 1964, both IN Box D-173, File 20 Staff Meeting Minutes for Feb. 2, 1971, IN Box D30: “Winter Travel in Yellowstone, 1962- A-37, File A40: “Conferences and Meetings, 64.” 1971,” p. 3. While numerous other sources 10 George Hartzog to Tim Babcock, Governor of mention 1970 as the year road grooming began Montana, Aug. 19, 1966 IN Box A-165, File (such as Linda Paganelli, “The Historical De- A4055: “Conferences and Meetings—1969: velopment of Winter Visitor Use at YNP,” Tri-State Comm. and Master Planners,” and Vertical Files, 1980), this is the earliest men- Staff Meeting Minutes for March 9, 1967, IN tion that I could find of it. With 264 person days Box A-226, File a40: “Staff Meeting Minutes, (53 weeks) of work listed as the number of days 1967—Yellowstone.” spent on grooming that winter, it is likely that Michael Yochim. 11 Department of the Interior, National Park Ser- the NPS began grooming in December, 1970. Spring 1999 9 Since Paganelli does not cite her source, and ation on Wildlife in YNP: A Literature Review Jan. 24, 1977, IN Box W-129, File W46: “Gen- because I can not find an original source with a and Recommendations,” March 20, 1997, re- eral Regulations ’75,’76,’77.” 1970 date on it, I adhere to the February, 1971 port submitted to Branches of Planning and 62 Robert E. Sellers (Acting Chief Park Ranger) to date. Compliance, Natural Resources, and Resource Randy Camper, Nov. 7, 1975, IN Box W-129, 21 Harold J. Estey to Superintendent, August 14, Management and Visitor Protection, POF, 3. File W46: “General Regulations ’75,’76,’77.” 1970, IN Box K-93, File “Oversnow Activi- 39 Cole, Glen F., “A Naturally Regulated Elk 63 John Townsley, “The Oversnow Vehicle in ties—Winter of 1969-1970, Winter operations Population,” Proceedings of the Symposium on Yellowstone National Park,” presentation to brief; Old Faithful 1971.” Natural Regulation of Wildlife Populations the Montana Snowmobile Assn., Annual Meet- 22 “Winter Oversnow Vehicle Operations”—Min- (Vancouver, BC), 1983, p. 77. ing @ Fairmont Hot Springs, 2/5/77, IN Snow- utes of March 18, 1968 meeting IN Box N-115, 40 Keith Aune, “Impact of Winter Recreationists mobile Briefing Book Vol. 1. File L3427: “Winter Sports—Oversnow Ve- on Wildlife in a Portion of YNP, Wyoming,” 64 John Townsley to Christine Berry, Feb. 23, hicle Use.” Master’s thesis, Montana State University, 1981, IN Box A-222, File A3615 “Complaints 23 Bob Jones, interview by author, Nov. 17, 1997. 1981, p. ix. 1981: About Service & Personnel.” 24 “Yellowstone Snowtime Adventures,” promo- 41 “Regulations Governing Winter Activities,” 65 “National Park Service Official Receives Inter- tional brochure for Old Faithful Snowlodge for appended to Anderson to Regional Director, national Award,” ISIA Press Release dated its first season, 1971-72, located at Chief December 8, 1970, IN Box L-33, File L34: May 3, 1981, IN Box A-1, File: “Correspon- Executive’s Office, AmFac Parks & Resorts, “Recreation Activities,” (no page number). dence to & from John Townsley.” Mammoth, WY. 42 J. Leonard Volz to Director, National Park 66 1983 Annual Report of the Superintendent, 25 Yellowstone National Park, Winter Informa- Service, November 3, 1971, IN Box S-5, File YNP, 56. tion, 1977 (Unpublished green folder in Verti- S5831: “Motor-Driven or Propelled Equipment 67 NPS, Existing Winter Use Management Guide- cal Files), no page. 1971.” lines, Inventory, and Needs, YNP, March, 1989 26 Bob Jones, interview by author, Nov. 17, 1997. 43 “Winter Operations Brief,” IN Box K-93, File (NPS, YNP), 1989. 27 Hack Miller, “The Joke of Yellowstone,” “Oversnow Activities—Winter of 1969-1970, 68 Dan R. Sholly to Management Assistant, March Deseret News, March 6, 1969. Winter operations brief; Old Faithful 1971.” 26, 1990, IN Box W-197, File A18: “Advisory 28 Summary Record of Snowmobile Use, YNP, 44 Anderson, Jack, interview by Derrick Crandall, Boards.” 1966 through April, 1978, IN Box K-57, File April 1, 1977, p. 6. 69 Greater Yellowstone Winter Visitor Use Man- “Winter Activities.” 45 Ibid., p. 11. agement Working Group, Winter Visitor Use 29 Ibid. 46 Executive Order 11644, February 8, 1972, 42 Management: A Multi-Agency Assessment 30 “Noise Facts and Acoustic Terms,” from the U.S.C.A. ¤ 4321. ([n.p.]: Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Com- “Current Stuff” Section of the Snowmobile 47 39 FR 16151, May 7, 1974. mittee, Greater Yellowstone Area, 1997), 6. Briefing Book Vol. 1, black binder in YNP 48 Acting Regional Director to Superintendents, 70 National Park Service, Winter Use Plan Envi- Research Library. Rocky Mountain Region, June 21, 1974, IN ronmental Assessment (Denver, Denver Ser- 31 Complaints from visitors are mentioned in the “Snowmobile EA” Box, GNPA. vice Center, 1990), 20-21. following: Anderson, Jack, “Transcript of Con- 49 Glacier National Park, Environmental Assess- 71 “Ambient Air Quality Study Results,” flyer versation, Jack Anderson and Derrick Crandall,” ment: Proposed Oversnow Vehicle Use at available from the Planning Office, NPS, YNP, interview by Derrick Crandall, April 1, 1977 IN Glacier National Park, Montana, 1975, IN WY. “Current Stuff” Section, Snowmobile Briefing “Snowmobile EA” Box, GNPA. 72 Ibid., p. 61. Book Vol. 1, p. 6; Robert Haraden to Henry F. 50 “Iversen Sends Recommendation On Snow- 73 Robert Barbee, interview with author, tele- Shovic, December 9, 1975, IN Box L-35, File mobile Policy to Denver,” Hungry Horse News, phone interview, Anchorage, AK, Jan. 14, 1998. “Land and Water Use,” and Rick T. Anderson (Hungry Horse, MT), Aug. 5, 1976. 74 Greater Yellowstone Winter Visitor Use Man- to Richard C. Warren, January 26, 1971, IN 51 “Snowmobiling in Glacier National Park,” agement Working Group, Winter Visitor Use Box N-118: File “Historical Backcountry Cor- Briefing Statement, 1985, NPS, GNP, MT. Management: A Multi-Agency Assessment, 6. respondence.” Park Ranger Douglas J. Riley 52 Yosemite: “Demonstration Urges Reopening 75 “Winter Visitor Use Management Overview,” complains about noise to his supervisor in Parks to Snowmobiles,’ National Parks 55(6): Unpublished Paper IN “VUM Speech” File, Riley to West Sub-District Ranger, March 17, 23-24; Sequoia/Kings Canyon: “Acreages— POF, January, 1995. 1969, IN Box N-115, File L3427: “Winter Snowmobile Area,” Snowmobile Briefing Book, 76 Greater Yellowstone Winter Visitor Use Man- Sports Oversnow Vehicle Use,” as does Re- Vol. 1, circa 1978; Lassen: “Finding of No agement Working Group, Winter Visitor Use source Management Specialist Edmund J. Significant Impact, Snowmobile Use, Lassen Management: A Multi-Agency Assessment, Bucknall to Chief Park Ranger, March 16, Volcanic National Park,” Sept. 30, 1985, IN 1997; concerns listed on page 9. 1970, IN Box A-36, File L34: “Recreation Lassen National Park files, Mineral, CA. 77 John Sacklin, Chief Park Planner, YNP, per- Activities, 1970.” 53 Roger Contor to Honorable William S. sonal communication, December 14, 1998. 32 Anderson to Paul McCrary, Midwest Region, Moorhead, Feb. 19, 1976, IN “Snowmobile 78 Doug Peacock, “The Yellowstone Massacre,” December 2, 1969, IN Box L-42, File L3427: Comments” Box, GNPA. Audubon 99(3): 42. “Recreation Activities 1969—Winter Sports 54 Interview with Crandall, pp. 5-7. 79 Case Number 1:97CV01126, U.S. District Court (Oversnow Vehicle Use).” 55 Taken directly from his trophy at Mammoth for the District of Columbia, Judge Emmett 33 Anderson to Director, April 15, 1971, IN Box Hot Springs, YNP, WY. Sullivan, Deck Type Civil General, May 20, L-36, File L3427: “Recreation Activities—Win- 56 Joe Halladay, interview by author, personal 1997, POF. ter Sports.” interview, Belgrade, MT, May 29, 1997. 80 Settlement Agreement, The Fund for Animals, 34 James E. Fox to West District Ranger, May 3, 57 1977 Annual Report of the Superintendent, et al., v. Bruce Babbitt et al., Civil No. 97-1126 1970, IN Box A-36, File L34: “Recreation YNP, 11 and 16. (EGS), Sept. 23, 1997, U.S. District Court, Activities—1970.” 58 Joe Halladay, interview by author, May 29, District of Columbia, POF. 35 Anderson to Director, April 15, 1971, IN Box 1997. 81 “Sen. Thomas: Snowmobiles trail closures not L-36, File L3427: “Recreation Activities—Win- 59 Superintendent’s Monthly Narrative Report for justified,” Bozeman Daily Chronicle, Jan. 15, ter Sports.” December 1966, p. 11, and John D. Amerman 1998. 36 Ibid. to Jack Anderson, Aug. 19, 1970, IN Box C-24, 82 Richard West Sellars, Preserving Nature in 37 Bucknall to Chief Park Ranger, March 16, File “Concessions Bldgs.” the National Parks, 1997 (Yale University Press, 1970, IN Box A36, File L34: “Recreation Ac- 60 1981 Annual Report of the Superintendent, New Haven, Connecticut), p. 3. tivities, 1970.” YNP, 69. 38 Caslick, James W., “Impacts of Winter Recre- 61 Jerry R. Phillips to William M. Kirkpatrick, Jr.,

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