Notes

Chapter 1

1.Joint Chiefs of Staff were inter-service, but of one nationality. 2. Harrison, 10 March 1943, FO 371/38839. 3. SHAEF to G5, AFHQ, 3 September 1944, WO 204/3031. 4. COS, 17 August 1944, CAB 66, WP (44) 449. 5. AFHQ, February 1945, WO 193/368. 6. ‘Military Government exists to keep the civil population from under the feet of the Army.’ Eisenhower, quoted in B.N. Reckitt, Diary of Military Government in Germany 1945 (Ilfracombe, 1989), frontispiece. The War Office Manual of Military Law defined this as ‘the principle that a belliger- ent is justified in applying compulsion and force … [for] the complete submission of the enemy at the earliest possible moment with the least pos- sible expenditure of men, resources and money.’ Quoted in C.V. Donnison, Civil Affairs and Military Government: Central Organization and Planning (, 1966), p. 119. 7.SACMED’s designation covered all three services and a wide range of responsibilities. 8. AFHQ to SHAEF, 26 August 1944, WO 204/3031. 9. Ibid. 10.FO 371/40734. 11.Gladwyn Jebb, The Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (London, 1972), p. 132. 12. It had two branches. The object of the Operations Committee was to enable the Prime Minister, with his essential advisers, to consider the current mili- tary situation and future operations. The Defence Committee (Supply) laid down the main features of the supply programme for the armed forces, and reviewed their progress. 13. J. Erhman, Grand Strategy 6 (London, 1956), p. 326. According to Ismay, Churchill ‘never overrode the Chiefs of Staff. He may sometimes have over- borne them, by the weight of his personality or the pertinacity of his argu- ments – indeed I think he certainly did – but he always tried (by every means) to carry them along with him.’ Ismay to Norman Brooke, 27 January 1959, Ismay papers, 1/14/8. 14.Jebb, Memoirs, p. 57.

Chapter 2

1. Campbell, 15 September 1943, FO 371/34466. The communiqué containing the declaration was released on 11 November 1943. 2. The Nazis had their forerunners in the German Workers Party founded in the Sudetenland in 1904. In 1918, the movement had split, the group choosing the name later adopted by the Nazis – the German National

200 Notes 201

Socialist Workers Party. In 1920, the leader of this group, Walter Riehl, introduced the swastika as the party emblem. Hitler himself was born in Upper Austria, and Vienna was the scene of his early humiliation and failure. ‘Vienna’, he admitted, ‘taught me the most profound lessons of my life.’ A. Hitler, Mein Kampf (London, 1939), p. 33. 3. M. Balfour and J. Mair, Survey of International Affairs 1939–1946: Four Power Control in Germany and Austria 1945–46 (London, 1956), p. 274. 4. HC Deb. 5th ser, 423, 1861. 5. K. Schuschnigg, The Brutal Takeover (London, 1969), p. 29. However, in the German Peace Treaty of 28 June 1919, Anschluss was forbidden, and Germany undertook to recognise Austrian independence as inviolable unless the unanimously agreed otherwise. This ban was not included in the original draft of the Austrian peace treaty, the Treaty of Saint-Germain, of June and July 1919. But, in the final draft it appeared, on French insistence, as Article 88. K. Waldheim, The Austrian Example (London, 1973), p. 24. 6. HC Deb. 5th ser, 313, 1228. 7. This produced a disastrous effect in all Western capitals. Eden was requested by Baron von Franckenstein (Austrian envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary in London) to reply to a parliamentary question on the matter along the lines that the meeting had enabled Austria to settle her problems with Germany ‘without the slightest disturbance’. In 1938 Franckenstein became a naturalised British subject and was knighted. 8. M. Gilbert and R. Gott, The Appeasers (London, 1963), p. 75; Sir N. Henderson, Failure of a Mission (London, 1940), p. 102. 9.J. Harvey, The Diplomatic Diaries of Oliver Harvey, 1937–40 (London, 1970), p. 91. 10. Harvey, Diplomatic Diaries, pp. 90, 91. 11. He was not given office until 1940. He made his name as British Minister Resident in North Africa, despite being removed from mainstream policy- making in London. 12. HC Deb. 5th ser, 333, 45. 13. HL Deb. 5th ser, 108, 77. 14. Allen, 19 February 1943, FO 371/34464. Lord Cranbourne replied for the Government along the above lines. He said that whereas Austrians had been in the USA for many years, in Britain they were recent arrivals. 15. Harrison, 4 July 1944, FO 371/38839. 16.E. Barker, Austria, 1918–1972 (London, 1973), p. 135. 17. Harrison to Eden, 28 November 1943, FO 371/34467. 18. They are listed in Eden to HMG representatives abroad, FO 371/34467. 19.Roberts, 1 May 1943, FO 371/34464. 20. H. Guderian, Panzer Leader (London, 1952), p. 51. 21. In 1934, when police raids on Social Democrat offices led to bloodshed and the barricades. 22.K. Stadler, ‘Austrian Resistance to German Rule and the Development of Austrian National Aspiration 1938–45’ unpublished thesis (Nottingham, 1969), p. 133. 23. Stadler, Austrian Resistance, p. 133. 202 Notes

24. He was hanged in 1946 for his record as the wartime Reichskommissar of the Netherlands. 25. Resistance groups ranged from youthful idealists (such as the so-called student group, the Grey Free Troops) in the early years of the war, to regular partisan bands operating in areas such as the Leitha Hills of the Burgenland, and to the group of Austrian officers serving on Wehrmacht staffs in Vienna who plotted to liberate the capital for the advancing Allies to occupy in 1945. The O5 organisation, which was constructed in the last six months of the war, was the best known resistance group. O5 was a code abbreviation for Oesterreich, O being the first letter of the symbol, and E the fifth letter of the alphabet. To begin with, O5 was little more than symbol, but by the end this fact probably outweighed any physical results it might achieve. Like the V-sign it was a dramatic success. Many commentators put the total number of Austrians killed or impris- oned for opposition to Hitler at between 80,000 and 100,000. But it is impossible to estimate precise figures because, apart from suffering from lack of publicity in the West, Austrian resistance activities lacked a central authority. There was no dramatic martyrdom to act as a rallying point, and Austria’s most likely candidates for leadership had either fled abroad, been arrested or sent to concentration camps. Hitler always hated and distrusted Vienna, the scene of his earlier humiliation and failure. And Vienna was the only city in the Reich where the Generals’ coup of 20 July 1944 succeeded (even though its failure in Berlin prevented any advantage being taken of its success). But the first cases of sabotage were not known in the West until 1942, and the first important strikes were not heard of until 1943. C. T. Grayson, Austria’s International Position, 1938–1953 (Geneva, 1953), p. 39. 26.A. Brissaud, The Biography of Admiral Canaris, Chief of German Military Intelligence in the Second World War (London, 1973), p. 86. 27. On 20 June 1944, O’Neil asked, ‘Is any serious sabotage being undertaken?’ FO 371/38839. 28. HC Deb. 5th ser, 408, 1665–6. 29. Harrison, 10 February 1945, FO 371/46609. Archduke Robert repeatedly contacted the Foreign Office with reports of resistance activity but was never regarded as a reliable witness. 30. Harrison, 16 June 1945, FO 371/38839. 31.Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary, 7, 17 August 1945, FO 371/46612. 32. Red-White-Red Book: Justice for Austria. Descriptions, Documents and Proofs to the Antecedents and History of the Occupation of Austria (from Official Sources) (Vienna, 1947), p. 147; G. Shepherd, The Austrian Odyssey (London, 1957). 33. The city on the Oder which was still fighting the Red Army when Berlin surrendered. 34.Eden, 11 March 1944, FO 371/38839. 35. Wilson to Harrison, 13 June 1944, FO 371/38839. 36. 16 February 1944, FO 371/38839. 37.A. Briggs, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom: The War of Words (London, 1970), pp. 111, 431. The British press contained few references to resistance activity in Austria. It was different in the USA where, in late 1944, Notes 203

the New York Times carried a number of articles dealing with anti-Nazi action. 38. 20 , FO 371/38839. 39. That Anschluss was tacitly recognised was made clear when Britain entered into agreements with Germany in 1938 and 1939; the inclusion of Austria in Germany was implicit because agreements covered Austria as well as Germany. The USA accepted the Anschluss de facto, but did not recognise it de jure. 40. HC Deb. 5th ser, 383, 123–4. 41. Red-White-Red Book, pp. 1, 207. 42.Grey, 11 January 1941, FO 371/26537. 43. Avon, the Earl of, The Eden Memoirs: Facing the Dictators (London, 1963), p. 289. 44. HL Deb. 5th ser, 125, 800–1. 45. Makins, 3 February 1942, FO 371/30910. 46.Makins (later Lord Sherfield) went with Macmillan when the latter’s office moved to Greece in late 1944, but was soon recalled to London, where he stayed for the rest of the war. In London he was the Foreign Office contact with Military Intelligence (Research), which worked under the auspices of the Joint Intelligence Committee. Macmillan wrote of his ‘rapier-like brain’. 47.Eden, 10 June 1942, PREM 4, 33/7. 48. Eden, 9 September 1942, FO 371/30943.

Chapter 3

1.Scarlett, 5 January 1943, FO 371/34464. ‘We had even by then got into the habit of referring to the post war authority as the United Nations, presum- ably because Roosevelt had used this term when he tried to rally the Allied Governments in Washington’ in 1943. Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn, p. 127. 2. Allen, 13 January 1943, FO 371/34464. It is not clear whether this belief was approved by the Cabinet. Allen’s views should be contrasted with those of Harrison and Grey. Grey thought that the majority of Austrians accepted Anschluss. 11 January 1941, FO 371/26537. 3. Roberts, 26 February 1943. 4. All planning exhibited an underestimation of Austrian political awareness. It was later thought that a political vacuum existed in the country, so the Renner Government caught the Western Allies by surprise in April 1945. 5. Roberts, 7 March 1943, FO 371/34464. 6.Eden, 25 May 1943, PREM 4, 33/7, WP(43) 218. 7. Central Department, 3 April 1943, FO 371/34464. 8. Barker, Austria, pp. 144–5. 9.M. Matloff and E.M. Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943, 1944 (Washington DC, 1953), pp. 11, 491. 10.W. Leahy, I Was There (London, 1950), p. 334. 11. 16 August 1943 (dated 12 July 1943), FO 371/34465. 12. P.E. Mosely, ‘The Treaty with Austria’, International Organization (May 1950), pp. 227f. 13. Intelligence paper, 12 June 1943, FO 371/38839. 204 Notes

14. APW meeting, 18 May 1944, WO 106/4019. 15. Barker, Austria, p. 139. 16. Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn, p. 118. 17. ‘War and the Working Class’, reported in the Manchester Guardian, 18 November 1943. This was considered as ‘Quite an interesting statement of the Soviet Government’s attitude on the basis of the Moscow Declaration’. Allen, 4 December 1943, FO 371/34467. 18. Grayson, Austria’s International Position, pp. 61–2. 19. R.E. Sherwood, The White House Papers of Harry L. Hopkins (London, 1949), pp. 11, 789. 20.Sherwood, White House Papers, p. 358. 21. HC Deb. 5th ser, 410, 1881. 22. The Protocol stated that the three Governments ‘Jointly declare their mutual agreement to concert during the temporary period of instability in liberated Europe the policy of their three governments in assisting the peoples liberated from the domination of Nazi Germany and the peoples of the former Axis states to solve by democratic means their pressing political and economic problems. This is a principle of the Atlantic Charter – the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they will live – the restoration of sovereign rights and self-government to those peoples who have been forcibly deprived of them by the aggressor nations.’ 23. Compiled from Foreign Office List and Diplomatic and Consular Year Book (London, 1943–5).

Chapter 4

1. Terms of Reference, 11 January 1944, FO 371/40580. The origins of the EAC were to be found in the United Nations Commission for Armistice and Post- Armistice Problems, which Gladwyn Jebb had worked on earlier in the year. 2. The EAC, according to the original British proposal of 2 July 1943, would assume ‘authority in Europe to direct and coordinate the activity of the several Armistice Committees, the Allied Commanders in Chief and any United Nations civilian authorities that may be established; and to deal with current problems, military, political and economic, connected with the main- tenance of order’. PHP(43)20, Final Annex, 1 July 1943, CAB 81/41. 3. F. King, The New Internationalism: Allied Policy and the European Peace 1939–1945 (London, 1973), p. 127. 4. King, New Internationalism, p. 127. 5. Hood, 19 May 1944, FO 371/40734. 6. Private conversation with M.F. Cullis, 5 March 1974. The remark was based on intelligence from a Soviet defector to the West in 1945. 7.Planning paper 2, Austrian Planning Section, US Army, 27 May 1944, FO 371/40734. 8. Sub-committee minutes, 15 May 1944, FO 371/40736. 9.Strang, 18 August 1944, FO 371/40734. In 1945, it was the Soviet Union which wished to include other contingents, and Britain which would not agree to it on the grounds that too many minor Allies would wish to take part, and that the Moscow Declaration had specified only the three Allies. Sargent to Churchill, 30 March 1945, FO 371/50665. Notes 205

10. 2 November 1944, FO 371/40735. 11.ACA Report, 9 January 1945, FO 371/50662. 12.Strang, 23 January 1945, FO 371/50662. 13. PHP Committee, 20 January 1945, FO 371/50662. 14. Private conversation, 3 January 1973. Winterton was appointed Deputy Commissioner (Military) and, as such, became responsible for co-ordinating the move of the British Element to Italy in the spring of 1945, where it would join the American Element. 15. Mack, 27 March 1945, FO 371/46626. 16.ACA, 17 January 1945, FO 371/50831. 17. Hood, 27 January 1945, FO 371/50663. 18. Hood, 6 February 1945, FO 371/50663. 19.Roberts, 22 April 1945, FO 371/50665. 20.MO5, 13 February 1945, WO 106/4019. MO5 was a branch of the Directorate of Military Operations in the War Office. 21.Strang became Political Adviser to the British Commander in Chief in Germany on 5 June. 22. Agreement between the … United Kingdom, United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the … French Republic concerning Control Machinery and Zones of Occupation in Austria and the Administration of the City of Vienna, London 4 July, 9 July, Vienna 28 June 1946 (London, 1946), Cmd. 6958.

Chapter 5

1. Under the standard usage developed in 1941, ‘combined’ referred to Anglo- American arrangements, whereas ‘joint’ meant inter-service arrangements in only one of the two countries. 2. Unsigned, 21 January 1944, CAB 88/24. 3. SHAEF to AFHQ, 29 April 1944, WO 204/572. 4.Makins to Jebb, 5 August 1944, FO 371/40734. 5. Peake to Troutbeck, 29 March 1944, FO 371/38840. The paper dated March 1944, provides a good illustration of the type of repetitive work carried out. 6. CCS to War Cabinet Office, 22 April 1944, FO 371/40633. 7. Unsigned, 28 April 1944, FO 371/40734. 8. SHAEF to AFHQ, 27 April 1944, FO 371/40734. 9.Kesselring was one of Germany’s most outstanding army group comman- ders. Alexander said he could be out-thought but rarely out-fought. 10.Strang, 29 March 1944, FO 371/38840. 11. Churchill to Eden, 22 May 1944, FO 371/40734. 12. Unsigned, 25 June 1944, CAB 88/24. 13. Eden to Mack, 6 June 1944, FO 371/40734. 14.Maxwell, 2 May 1944, FO 371/40734. 15. PHP Committee, 3 May 1944, FO 371/40734. 16.PHP Committee to War Cabinet, 1 June 1944, FO 371/40734. 17.Ward, 30 May 1944, FO 371/40734; Ward to J.S.M., July 1944, WO 106/4019. An implication was that SACMED’s civil affairs organisation should be integrated from the start. 18. Combined Civil Affairs Committee, undated July 1944, CAB 88/24. 206 Notes

19.Seagrave to AFHQ, 8 July 1944, WO 204/2807(381/1). 20. COS, 25 August 1944, FO 371/40735. 21. O’Neil, 18 August 1944, FO 371/38849. 22.Alexander to Leese, 24 September 1944, WO 214/45. 23. AFHQ, 3 September 1944, WO 204/3031(381/1). 24. Wilson to SHAEF, 24 October 1944, CAB 88/24. 25. Troutbeck, 7 October 1944, FO 371/38851. 26.Deputy Commissioner to Troutbeck, 9 October 1944, FO 371/38851. 27. Winterton to Cadogan, 19 January 1945, FO 371/50663.

Chapter 6

1.ACA to AFHQ, 11 November 1944, WO 204/2815(381/1). 2. British Element, Hammersmith, 17 November 1944, WO 204/2808. 3. Vyvyan, 20 January 1945, FO 371/50663. 4. Hood, 27 January 1945, FO 371/50663. 5. P. Calvorcoressi and G. Wint, Total War: Causes and Courses of the Second World War (London, 1972), p. 554. The source of the quote is not given. It is not Djilas’s Conversations with Stalin (London, 1962). 6.Progress Report, ACA, 22 February 1945, FO 371/46597. Details were not provided. 7. COS to AFHQ, 23 February 1945, FO 371/46598. 8. Unsigned draft, March 1945, WO 204/3044

Chapter 7

1. Field Handbook of Military Government, 13 February 1945, FO 371/46644. 2. Thornley to Harrison, 16 June 1944, FO 371/38839. 3. Harrison, 21 June 1944, FO 371/38839. A pamphlet produced by the Free Austrian Movement in London in January 1945 spoke of many deserters hiding in forests, unwilling to die for either Austria or Germany. 31 January 1945, FO 371/46609. Cullis described the pamphlet as a ‘remarkable and informative production’. 4.SAC to CCS, 5 November 1944, WO 106/4018. 5. Harrison to War Cabinet Office, 18 October 1944, FO 371/38839; HQ Clowder Mission, 16 January 1944, WO 204/1954 (74/27). A central department in Whitehall allocated operational code names; ‘Clowder’ was chosen at random. 6.WO 204/1954 (74/27). 7. Director of Plans, 10 August 1944, WO 106/4019. 8. Lockhart to Warner, 9 August 1943, FO 371/36992. Lockhart thought this was the case ‘even if Anglo-American cooperation in the postwar world is unobtainable (and the ‘’if’’ expresses a large measure of doubt)’. 9. 13 October 1944, FO 371/38841. 10. In January 1944, for example, AFHQ summer plans were governed by the following factors: that the Soviets would take Vienna by March, and would occupy Austria completely; by the same date Kesselring would have with- drawn from Italy and the would be on the line of the Adigne. HQ Clowder Mission, 16 January 1944, WO 204/1954 (74/27). Notes 207

11.Jackling to G-5, March 1945, WO 204/3044. 12.Ward, 25 July 1944, FO 371/38840. 13. In the event, three British divisions finally entered Austria, namely the 6th Armoured Division, 46th Infantry Division, and the 78th Infantry Division. 14.Mediterranean Joint Planning Staff, 20 February 1945, WO 204/6872. 15. CCS to AFHQ and SHAEF, 17 April 1945, WO 106/4024. 16.A. Kesselring, The Memoirs of Field Marshal Kesselring (London: Greenhill, 1988), p. 279. For details of the end of the war in south Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, see pp. 280–4. 17.J. Colville, The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries 1939–1955 (London, 1985), p. 592, n. 2. 18. Leahy, I Was There, p. 383. 19. Stalin’s Correspondence, 11, Doc., 286, 206. 20.Leahy, I Was There, p. 391. 21. Stalin’s Correspondence, 11, Doc., 453, 345. 22.By this time he was Commander in Chief of the Western Theatre. 23. Kesselring, Memoirs, p. 281. 24.Sargent, 2 April 1945, FO 371/47881. 25. Roberts to Warner, 25 April 1945, FO 371/47882. 26.Alexander to COS, 28 February 1945, WO 106/4019. 27. FREEBORN, 2 May 1945, WO 204/1539. 28. Eden had earlier thought that ‘on the basis of such information as is avail- able and of the declared intentions of other interested governments, there is no reason to suppose that Soviet and British interests need clash in Austria’. 9 August 1944, WP(44) 436. This should be contrasted with his later comment on the situation in Germany: ‘HMG believe that the de facto occupation by the British and American armies of large parts of the even- tual Soviet zone is an important bargaining counter for obtaining satisfac- tion from the Soviet Government on a number of outstanding questions.’ 4 June 1945, WO 106/4020. 29.Alexander to CIGS, 3 May 1945, WO 214/45. 30.Kesselring, Memoirs, p. 280. 31.Sargent, 1 May 1945, FO 371/50666. 32.Alexander to COS, 9 May 1945, FO 371/48813.

Chapter 8

1. The number is difficult to establish. Dalgleish refers to under 50 officers for Carinthia and Styria’s population of 2 million, but this appears to refer to the situation at the end of the summer. J. Dalgleish, ‘Military Government, Austria’, Army Quarterly, LII, 2 (1946), p. 236. 2. F.S.V. Donnison, Civil Affairs and Military Government: Central Organization and Planning (London, 1966), p. 95. 3. The committee was required to consider ‘the steps necessary on military grounds to ensure efficient civil administration of the territory liberated in Europe as the result of operations by forces of the United Nations’. 4. Hood, 23 February 1944, FO 371/38841. 5. Donnison, Central Organzation, p. 323. 208 Notes

6. F.S.V. Donnison, Civil Affairs and Military Government: North-West Europe (London, 1961), p. 312. Its practical value often depended on personalities. Reckitt notes that in Germany it was supposed to consist of a commander (who might be a major or a lieutenant colonel), a public safety officer, usually a policeman in khaki, and two others, one of whom should have been trained in handling DPs. ‘Actually detachments were made up from any material available and each officer had had specialist training of some kind which he had to subordinate to the needs of the moment.’ B.N. Reckitt, Diary of Military Government in Germany 1945 (Ilfracombe, 1989), p. 17. Civil affairs training often presupposed the existence of communications and transport which did not exist. 7.AAI, August 1944, WO 106/3031; G-5 to G-3, 13 October 1944, WO 204/2807. 8. Seagrave to AFHQ, 8 July 1944, WO 204/2807. 9.Dalgleish, ‘Military Government: Austria’, p. 238. 10.ACA(BE) and US Control Council for Austria, Field Handbook of Austrian Government, 13 February 1945, FO 371/46644. 11.Some changes in its composition occurred later, and it became a political advisory committee. Similar events took place elsewhere in the following weeks. When British military-government officers entered Graz in Styria on 23 July, they also found a provisional Land government which had been set up by the Russians, four of its 12 members being Communists. This govern- ment was dissolved, but its head, Reinhold Machold, was called upon to form a new provisional government in which the Communists were not represented in excess of their local support. It was required not to enter into any relations with the Renner Government. Machold admitted that Renner had visited the area in May, but said that Renner had not made any approaches. At the same time as Styria’s new provincial government was established, the Carinthian Advisory Committee was raised to the status of a provisional Land government. 12.See Donnison, Central Organization, pp. 197–206; JSM to COS, 31 May 1945, WO 106/4022. McCreery later wrote that he had received ‘careful definitions of citizenship’ from the Foreign Office and had to ‘stick to the rules’. R.L.M., ‘Austria 1945’, The Delhi Spearman: The Regimental Journal of the 9th/ (Prince of Wales’s), 3: 1 (1969), pp. 98–109. See also Sunday Times, 6 January 1974; Christopher Booker, A Looking-Glass Tragedy: The Controversy over the Reparations from Austria in 1945 (London, 1998); Ian Mitchell The Cost of a Reputation: Aldington versus Tolstoy (London, 1998). 13. Quoted in Donnison, Central Organization, p. 201. 14.Draft White Paper, 12 January 1946, WO 204/3073. By January 1946 it was reported that 6,000 people had been interned in the British zone, and approximately 100 were still being arrested each week. The arrests were based largely, although not entirely, on ranks and appointments held in the Nazi Party and affiliated organisations, and it was these criteria which accounted for the more prominent, influential and ardent Nazis in the British zone. In addition, over 4,000 were dismissed after systematic and thorough examination of the political records of all officials in the civil administration and public services; anyone who was more than a nominal party member was dismissed. Notes 209

Chapter 9

1. Winterton to COS, 10 June 1945, WO 204/915. Winterton reported that ‘The Russians appear genuinely anxious to see the Commission start work in Vienna and repeated several times that we are all late in Austria saying “People who are late are always punished”.’ 2. Winterton to COS, 13 June 1945, WO 204/915. 3. Stalin’s Correspondence, 1, Doc. 489, 366. 4.McCreery, 20 July 1945, FO 371/46618. 5. H.S. Truman, Year of Decision (New York, 1955), p. 53. 6.D. Dilks, ed., The Diaries of Sir Alexander Cadogan OM, 1938–1945 (London, 1971), p. 765. 7. J.F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly (New York, 1947), p. 76. 8. Ismay Papers, IV (Bur 1). 9.Attlee Papers, Box 16, University College, Oxford. 10.FRUS, Potsdam, II, Doc. 770. 11. This probably accounted for the casual fashion in which the matter was negotiated: the decision to spare Austria formal payment consisted of a two- sentence exchange between Attlee and Stalin. It is, however, difficult to see how the West could have persuaded the Soviets to accept a position more in line with their own, since the Soviets were determined from the start to get as much as they could. 12.Quoted in M. Colvin, ‘Principal Issues in the U.S. Occupation of Austria, 1945–1948’, in H.A. Schmitt, ed., U.S. Occupation in Europe after World War II (Lawrence, KA, 1978), pp. 144–5. Clark also reported that the French repre- sentative, General Béthouart (with whom he established a good working relationship) sometimes took positions primarily to demonstrate French independence: ‘I was never really sure that I could go into a meeting on a vital question like feeding (with their support).’ 13. Winterton to McCreery, 11 August 1945, WO 106/4026. 14. The Soviet ration scale was from 825 calories a day to 1,640 for heavy workers. The Western Allies considered this to be inadequate. AFHQ’s scale was 1,550 calories for normal consumers to 2,760 calories for special cate- gories of workers. McCreery to COS, 10 August 1945, WO 106/4026). 15. McCreery to Alexander, undated, WO 204/419. 16. Cullis, 22 September 1945, FO 371/46620. 17. Winterton, 29 August 1945, WO 106/4028. 18. 11 September 1945, WO 204/3045(381/1). It was decided that the Kommandatura should not meet until the Allied Council had settled the food issue. Consequently, the first meeting did not take place until 28 July. 19. There were also delays and difficulties with regard to Western policy control, owing to the division of responsibilities between various govern- ment departments.

Chapter 10

1. O’Neil, 25 July 1944, FO 371/38840. 2.Eden, 9 August 1944, CAB 66, WP(44)436. 210 Notes

3. O’Neil, 26 April 1945, FO 371/46614. 4. Harrison, 10 July 1945, FO 371/46618). 5. Churchill to Truman, 30 April 1945, PREM 4, 33/6. 6.Mack, 4 May 1945, FO 371/46614. 7.Recommendations for a provisional Austrian Government could then be made to the Allied Council. Mack to Nicholls, 21 June 1945, FO 371/46617. 8. Harrison, 25 July 1945, FO 371/46629. 9.Mack, 22 September 1945, FO 371/46620. McCreery thought Renner was ‘flabby’. 10.BBC, 23 October 1945, FO 371/46633. 11.Mack, 22 October 1945, FO 371/46622. Harvey minuted on it: ‘The Russians have put over a fast one, designed I suppose to gratify the Austrians whom they are otherwise antagonizing by the behaviour of their troops. It is also no doubt designed to give their representative, backed as he is by a marshal, pre-eminence over the three Allied political advisers and Commanders in Chief.’ 12.Mack, 27 November 1945, FO 371/46623. 13. ACA(BE), 19 November 1945, WO 204/3066. 14.ACA(BE), 16 October 1945, FO 371/46634. 15. Mack, 8 December 1945, FO 371/46636. 16.At the same time, American estimates gave figures of 200,000, 47,000, 65,000, and 40,000 respectively. W. Bader, Austria Between East and West 1944–55 (Stanford, 1966), p. 55. 17.Renner to Bevin, 16 October 1945, FO 371/46622. 18. ACA, 30 October 1945, FO 371/46634.

Chapter 11

1.Gladwyn, Memoirs, p. 128. Bibliography

Primary material: unpublished

1. British government archives Cabinet office CAB 21 Minutes and conclusions CAB 27 Cabinet committees CAB 49 Armistice and Post-War Committee CAB 65 War Cabinet minutes CAB 66 War Cabinet, WP and CP (Caretaker Government) series CAB 69 War Cabinet Defence Committee (Operations) CAB 70 War Cabinet Defence Committee (Supply) CAB 79 War Cabinet Defence Committee (COS Committee minutes) CAB 80 CCOS Defence Committee memorandum CAB 83 Ministerial Committee on Military Co-ordination CAB 87 War Cabinet Committee on Reconstruction CAB 88 COS Combined Committee and Sub-Committee

Foreign Office FO 181 Embassy and consular archives, Russian correspondence FO 371 General correspondence, political FO 404 Confidential Print Central Europe

Prime Minister PREM 3 Operational papers PREM 4 Confidential papers

War Office WO 190 Appreciation files WO 193 Directorate of Military Operations collation files WO 204 War of 1939–45: Military HQ papers, AFHQ WO 205 War of 1939–45: Military HQ papers, SHAEF WO 214 Alexander papers

2. Private correspondence, diaries and memoranda Attlee Papers (University College, University of Oxford; Churchill College, University of Cambridge) Mr M.F. Cullis: private conversation, 1974 Sir Geoffrey Harrison: private correspondence, 1973 Ismay Papers (Centre for Military Archives, King’s College, University of London) 211 212 Bibliography

General Sir Richard Loudan McCreery: diaries Lady McCreery: private conversations, 1973–75 Professor Peter Sorenson (Århus University, Denmark): private correspondence, 1973 Sir William Strang: private correspondence, 1973 Sir John Strawson, General Sir Richard McCreery, private publication by Lady McCreery, 1973 Mr J.M.K. Vyvyan: private conversations, 1974, 1980 General Sir T.J.W. Winterton: private conversations, 1973

3.Unpublished theses Stadler, K.R., ‘Austrian Resistance to German Rule and the Development of Austrian National Aspirations, 1938–1945’ (University of Nottingham, PhD, 1970)

Primary material: published

1. Official documents, proceedings of Parliament and government publications:

Austria Red-White-Red Book: Justice for Austria. Descriptions, Documents and Proofs to the Antecedents and History of the Occupation of Austria (from Official Sources) (Vienna, 1947)

Great Britain Agreement Between the … United Kingdom, United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the … French Republic Concerning Control Machinery and Zones of Occupation in Austria and the Administration of the City of Vienna, London 4th July, 9th July 1945, Vienna 28th June 1946, Cmd. 6958 (London, 1946) AMGOT Plans, Proclamations and Instructions (London: War Office, September 1943) Austria: Basic Handbook (London: Foreign Office and Ministry of Economic Warfare, 1944–45) Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, series D 1937–45 (London, I, 1949; XI, 1961; XII, 1962) Establishment of the Council of Foreign Ministers. Extract from the Tripartite Conference at Berlin Originally Published 2nd August 1945, Cmd. 6689 (London, 1945) Foreign Office List and Diplomatic and Consular Year Book for 1943, 1945 (London, 1943, 1945) Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, Official Reports, 5th series. In the text they are cited in the form of the bound volumes, followed by the column number; for example, for House of Commons, HC Deb. 5th ser, 400, 1403; for House of Lords, HL Deb. 5th ser, 126, 493–4 Bibliography 213

Official History of the Second World War: United Kingdom Military Series Civil Affairs and Military Government Harris, C.R.S., Allied Administration of Italy (London, 1957). Donnison, F.S.V., Civil Affairs and Military Government: North-West Europe, 1944–46 (London, 1961) Donnison, F.S.V., Civil Affairs and Military Government: Central Organization and Planning (London, 1966)

Grand Strategy Erhman, J., Grand Strategy: August 1943–September 1944, V (London, 1956) Erhman, J., Grand Strategy: October 1944–August 1945, VI (London, 1956) Protocol of the Proceedings of the Berlin Conference, Berlin, 2nd August 1945, Cmd. 7087 (London, 1947) Proceedings of the Crimea Conference, Yalta, 11th February 1945, Cmd. 7088 (London, 1946) Report by the Supreme Commander to the Combined Chiefs of Staff on the Operations in Europe of the Allied Expeditionary Force, 6th June 1944–8th May 1945 (London, 1946) The Organization for Joint Planning, Cmd. 6351 (London, 1942) Woodward, Sir Llewellyn, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War, III (London, 1971)

United States of America Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers: Malta and Yalta 1945 (Washington DC, 1955) Foreign Relations of the United States: Conference of Berlin (Potsdam) 1945 (Washington DC, 1960)

United States Army in the Second World War Coakley, B.L., and Leighton, A.K., The War Department: Global Logistics and Strategy (Washington, DC, 1964) Coles, H. L., and Weinburg, A. K., Special Studies: Civil Affairs: Soldiers Become Governors (Washington, DC, 1964) Fisher, E.F., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, DC, 1977) Matloff, M. and Snell, E.M., The War Department: Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1943–4 (Washington, DC, 1953–9) Pogue, F.C., The European Theater of Operations: The Supreme Command (Washington, DC, 1954)

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Stalin’s Correspondence with Churchill, Attlee, Roosevelt and Truman, 1941–1945 (Moscow, 1957)

2. Diaries and memoirs Avon, the Earl of, The Eden Memoirs: Facing the Dictators (London, 1963) Bradley, O., A Soldier’s Story (London, 1952) 214 Bibliography

Brissaud, A., Canaris: The Biography of Admiral Canaris, Chief of German Military Intelligence in the Second World War (London, 1973) Bryant, A., Triumph in the West 1943–1946: Based on the Diaries and Autobiographical Notes of Field Marshal the Viscount Alanbrooke (London, 1959) Butler, Lord, The Art of the Possible (London, 1971) Byrnes, J.F., Speaking Frankly (New York, 1947) Ciano, Count, Ciano’s Diary, 1939–1943 (London, 1947) Clark, M., Calculated Risk (1940–1947) (London, 1951) Clark, M., From the Danube to the Yalu (London, 1954) Dalton, H., The Fateful Years: Memoirs 1931–1945 (London, 1957) Dilks, D., ed., The Diaries of Sir Alexander Cadogan OM, 1938–1945 (London, 1971) Feiling, K., The Life of Neville Chamberlain (London, 1970) Frankenstein, Sir G., Facts and Features of My Life (London, 1939) Jebb, G., The Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (London, 1972) Grew, J., Turbulent Era: A Diplomatic Record of Forty Years, 1904–1945 (New York, 1952) Guderian, H., Panzer Leader (London, 1952) Harvey, J., ed., The Diplomatic Diaries of Oliver Harvey, 1937–1940 (London, 1970) Henderson, Sir N., Failure of a Mission (London, 1940) Hull, C., Memoirs, II (New York, 1948) Irving, W. (trans.), The Memoirs of Field Marshal Keital (London, 1965) Kesselring, A., The Memoirs of Field Marshal Kesselring (London, 1988) Kirkpatrick, I. The Inner Circle (London, 1959) Leahy, W., I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman (London, 1950) Macmillan, H., Winds of Change, 1914–1939 (London, 1966) Montgomery, The Memoirs of Field Marshal the Viscount Montgomery (London, 1958) North, J. ed., The Alexander Memoirs, 1940–1945 (London, 1962) Patton, G.S., War As I Knew It (New York, 1995) Reckitt, B.N., Diary of Military Government in Germany 1945 (Ilfracombe, 1989) Sherwood, R.E., The White House Papers of Harry L. Hopkins: January 1942–July 1945, II (London, 1949) Stimson, H.L. and Bundy, M., On Active Service in Peace and War (London, 1949) Truman, H.S., Memoirs: Year of Decision, I (New York, 1955) Vansittart, Lord, The Mist Procession (London, 1958) Williams, F., A Prime Minister Remember: The War and Post-War Memoirs of the Right Hon. Earl Attlee (London, 1961)

3. Newspapers and magazines Austria: A Monthly Report and Review, ACA(BE) (Vienna). The Economist Eighth Army News Daily Express Daily Telegraph Gazette of the for Austria Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 5 (London, 1946) Bibliography 215

Manchester Guardian New York Times Observer Parade (Eighth Army magazine) Soldier ( magazine, produced monthly by the War Office and HQ BAOR, Welfare Section) Sunday Observer Sunday Times Stars and Stripes (magazine for US Armed Forces, Mediterranean) The Times Union Jack (Eighth Army newspaper)

Later works

1. Books Bader, W.B., Austria Between East and West 1945–55 (Stanford, 1966) Balfour, M. and Mair, J., Survey of International Affairs 1939–1946: Four Power Control in Germany and Austria (London, 1956) Barker, E., Austria, 1918–1972 (London, 1973) Bathurst, M.E. and Simpson, J.L., Germany and the North Atlantic Community: A Legal Survey (London, 1956) Benevenisti, E., The International Law of Occupation (Princeton, NJ, 1993) Blumenson, M., Mark Clark (London, 1985) Booker, C., A Looking-Glass Tragedy: The Controversy over the Reparations from Austria in 1945 (London, 1998) Braunthal, J., The Tragedy of Austria (London, 1948) Briggs, A., The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom: The War of Words, III (London, 1970) Churchill, W., The History of the Second World War: Closing the Ring, V (London, 1952) Churchill, W., The History of the Second World War: Triumph and Tragedy, VI (London, 1954) Clemens, D.S., Yalta (New York, 1970) Dallek, R., ed., The Roosevelt Diplomacy and World War, II (New York, 1970) Deane, J.R., The Strange Alliance: The Story of American Efforts at Wartime Cooperation with Russia (New York, 1947) Dennet, R. and Johnson, J. E., Negotiating with the Russians (Boston, 1951) Divine, R., Roosevelt and World War II (Baltimore, 1969) Djilas, M., Conversations with Stalin (London, 1962) Friedrich, C.J. et al., American Experiences in Military Government in World War II (New York, 1948) Gehl, J., Austria, Germany and the Anschluss, 1931–38 (London, 1963) Gilbert, M. and Gott, R., The Appeasers (London, 1963) Glatov, G. von, The Occupation of Military Territory: A Commentary on the Law and Practice of Belligerent Occupation (Minneapolis, 1957) Grayson, C.T., Austria’s International Position, 1938–1953 (Geneva, 1953) Greenfield, K.R., American Strategy in World War II: A Reconsideration (Baltimore, 1963) 216 Bibliography

Gruber, F., Between Liberation and Liberty: Austria in the Postwar World (New York, 1955) Hiscocks, R., The Rebirth of Austria (London, 1955) Holbourne, L.W., ed., War and Peace Aims of the United Nations, II (New York, 1948) Johnson, W., ed., Roosevelt and the Russians: The (New York, 1949) King, F.P., The New Internationalism: Allied Policy and the European Peace, 1939–1945 (London, 1973) Kolko, G., The Politics of War: Allied Diplomacy and the World Crisis of 1943–5 (London, 1969) Krabbe, H., Voices From Britain: Broadcasting History 1939–45 (New York, 1948) McDermot, G., The Eden Legacy and the Decline of British Diplomacy (London, 1969) Middlemas, K., Diplomacy of Illusion: The British Government and Germany, 1937–39 (London, 1972) Mitchell, I., The Cost of a Reputation: Aldington versus Tolstoy (London, 1998) Nicholson, N., The Grenadier Guards in the War of 1939–45, II (Aldershot, 1949) Opie, R. et al., The Search for Peace Settlements (Washington DC, 1951) Playfair, E., ed., International Law and the Administration of Occupied Territories (Oxford, 1992) Price, G. Ward, Year of Reckoning (London, 1939) Quilter, D.C., ed., ‘No Dishonourable Name’: The 2nd & 3rd Battalion Coldstream Guard 1939–1946 (London, 1947) Ray, C., Algiers to Austria: A History of 78th Division in the Second World War (London, 1952) Robbins, K., Munich 1938 (London, 1968) Scharf, A., April 1945 in Vien (Vienna, 1948) Schmitt, H.A., ed., U.S. Occupation in Europe after World War II (Lawrence, KA, 1978) Schuschnigg, K. von, The Brutal Takeover (London, 1969) Shepherd, G. Brooke, The Austrian Odyssey (London, 1957) Shepherd, G. Brooke, Anschluss: The Rape of Austria (London, 1963) Stadler, K.R., Austria (London, 1971) Stettinus, E.R., Roosevelt and the Russians (London, 1950) Tait, E., Military Occupation and the Care and Repatriation of Displaced Persons (Cambridge, 1982) Tolstoy, N., Victims of Yalta (London, 1977) Ulam, A., Expansion and Co-existence: The History of Soviet Foreign Policy from 1917–1967 (London, 1968) Vernant, J., The Refugee in the Post-War World (London, 1953) Voigts, A., Defence and Diplomacy: The Soldier and the Conduct of Foreign Relations (New York, 1956) Wagner, W., The Partitioning of Europe: A History of Soviet Expansion up to the Cleavage of Germany, 1918–1945 (Stuttgart, 1959) Waldheim, K., The Austrian Example (London, 1973) Woodbridge, G., UNRRA: The History of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Association (New York, 1950) Bibliography 217

2. Articles and reports Afanasyeva, O., ‘The Allied Commission for Austria’, World Today, V (December 1945) Bell, W.G., ‘Mission On The Morgan Line’, Army, 44, 7 (1994) Boas, G., ‘Human Relations in Military Government’, Public Opinion Quarterly, VII (1943) Bottome, P, ‘The Real Austria’, Spectator, 5028 (January 1944) British Troops in Austria, HQ, ‘The British Achievement in Austria, 1945–1948’ Army Quarterly, LVIII, 1 (1949) Bryant, A., ‘Some Factors Underlying British Foreign Policy’, International Affairs, XXII (April 1946) Budwell, P.W., ‘Ideals in American Diplomacy’, International Affairs, XXII (October 1946) Crankshaw, E., ‘Russia in Europe: The Conflict of Values’, International Affairs, XXII (October 1946) Dalgleish, J., ‘Military Government: Austria’, Army Quarterly, LII, 2 (1946) Erickson, E., ‘The Zoning of Austria’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 267 (January 1950) Geyde, G.E.R., ‘The Position of Austria’, Contemporary Review, (November 1946) Gould, S.W., ‘Austrian Attitudes towards the Anschluss, October 1918–September 1919’, Journal of Modern History, XXII (September 1950) Gruber, K., ‘Austria Holds On’, Foreign Affairs, XXIV, (April 1945) Gruber, K., ‘Austria Infelix’, Foreign Affairs, XXV (January 1947) Hadsel, W.N., ‘Austria Under Allied Occupation’, Foreign Policy Report, XXIV (November 1948) Mansoor, P.B.,’The Defense of the Vienna Bridgehead’, Armor, XCV, 1 (January–February 1986) McCreery, General Sir Richard, ‘Austria 1945’, The Delhi Spearman: The Regimental Journal of the 9th/12th Royal Lancer’s (Prince of Wales’s), 3, 1 (1969); 3, 2 (1970) Mosely, P.E., ‘The Occupation of Germany’, Foreign Affairs, XXVIII (January 1950) Mosely, P.E., ‘The Treaty with Austria’, International Organization, IV (May 1950) Pollak, O., ‘The Rebirth of Austria’, Contemporary Review, 167 (March 1945) Renner, K., ‘Austria: Key for War and Peace’, Foreign Affairs, XXVI (July 1948) Salmon, I., ‘Field Security in Austria’, Army Quarterly & Defence Journal, 128, 4 (1998) Schuster, Lord, ‘Military Government in Austria with Special Reference to the Administration of Justice in Occupied Territories’, Journal of the Society of Public Teachers of Law, 1 (1947) Selby, Sir W., ‘Austria Before the Anschluss and a View of Her Future Prospects’, International Relations, XXI (October 1945) Starnbrooke, F.G., ‘The German–Austrian Customs Union Project of 1931: A Study of German Methods and Motives’, Journal of Central European Affairs, XXI (April 1961) Zheltov, A., ‘For the Liberation of the Hungarian and Austrian Peoples’, Soviet Military Review, (February 1985) Index

AAI, see Armistice Terms and Civil ACA, see Allied Commission for Administration Committee, 45–6 Austria Army Council, 14 ACAB, see Allied Commission for Atlantic Charter, 38, 204n22 Austria, British Element Attlee, Clement, 19, 46 administration, quadripartite, 179 Austria, 1, 16–17, 111, 131–3 AFHQ, see Allied Force Headquarters Austrian self-justification, 25–6 (Mediterranean) Austrians in Britain, 21 air fields, 67–8, 70, 71, 162–3; see also J Mission Baldwin, Sir Stanley, 17 Aldington, Lord, see Low, Brigadier T. basic detachment, 142–3, 208n6 Alexander, Field Marshal Harold, 9, BBC, 26–7 70, 79, 81, 82, 124, 132, 159; see Bevin, Ernest, 41, 168 also ANVIL, SACMED, Tito boundaries, tripartite, 54–6; see also Allen, W.D., 44, 203n2, 204n17 tripartite divisions Allied Armies in Italy (AAI), 92 Bovenschen, Sir Frederick, 86 Allied Commission for Austria (ACA), Bridges, Sir Edward, 12 10, 62, 63, 73, 98, 100, 113, 165, Britain and Austria, 17–21, 27–31, 171, 172–9, 181, 184; see also 33–5, 41–3, 191–3, 197; see also Allied Council, Executive Foreign Office, propaganda Council, Kommandatura, British attitudes to Soviets, 116, 121, McCreery, Renner, Winterton 196; see also Foreign Office, Red Allied Commission for Austria, British Army Element, 62–3, 71–3, 94–6, British Troops in Austria (BTA), 92, 98–104, 178, 184 135, 159, 184 Allied Control Commission Italy, 106 Broad, P., 109, 146 Allied Council, 176 Brooke, General Sir Alan, 82 Allied Force Headquarters (AFHQ), 8, BTA, see British Troops in Austria 9, 29, 48, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84–5, 92–4, 109, 114–16, 123, Cadogan, Sir Alexander, 44 144; see also Clowder Mission CCAO, see Chief Civil Affairs Officer Allied Military Government (AMG), CCS, see Combined Chiefs of Staff 150–1 Chamberlain, Sir Neville, 17, 18 Allied Military Government of Cherrière, General P.R., 71, 182 Occupied Territories (AMGOT), 5, Chief Civil Affairs Officer (CCAO), 5, 79, 140, 141 50 AMG, see Allied Military Government Chief of the Imperial General Staff AMGOT, see Allied Military (CIGS), 82 Government of Occupied Chief of Staff to Supreme Allied Territories Commander (COSSAC), 2, 77, 80 Anschluss, 16–19, 22–4, 200n2, Churchill, Winston, 12–14, 19, 20, 201n5, 203n39, 203n2 21, 28, 29, 30, 41, 42, 43, 53, 56, ANVIL, 82 69, 70, 81, 82, 124, 168, 188

218 Index 219

Ciano, Count Galeazzo, 23 entry, military, 1, 132–4 CIGS, see Chief of the Imperial European Advisory Commission, 2, General Staff 40, 45–8, 51, 54, 56, 60, 65–7, 69, civil affairs, 88–9, 93–4, 136–9, 70, 73, 75, 76, 80, 113, 114, 161, 139–52; see also displaced 164, 165, 204n1, 204n2; see also persons, G-5 tripartite division Clark, General Mark, 64, 82, 173 Executive Council, 177 Clowder Mission, 107, 109–11, expenditure, 193–6 206n5; see also AFHQ, Combined Chiefs of Staff, resistance Fischer, Ernst, 188 Colville, John, 119 Flory, General, 71 Combined Chiefs of Staff (Anglo- Floyd, General Sir Henry, 159 American), 13–14, 80, 87, 91, food, 165, 167, 168, 171–4, 175–6, 200n13, 205n1 181, 193, 209n14 Control Office for Germany and Foreign Office, 10, 14–15, 20, 21, Austria, 179–80; see 24–5, 29–30, 88, 91, 101, 102, Hyndquarters 103, 113, 121, 123, 168, 180, co-ordination, 12, 45, 46, 60, 79, 86, 198–9; see also Cullis, Harrison, 91, 101, 114–15, 140, 146, 178, Harvey, Hood, Jebb, O’Neil, 194, 197–8; see also ACA, EAC Roberts, Sargent, Troutbeck, COSSAC, see Chief of Staff to Supreme Vyvyan, Ward Allied Commander Franckenstein, Sir George, 21, 25, 27 Cossacks, 153–4; see also Displaced fraternisation, 58, 88, 89, 123 Persons, Low, Macmillan, Tolstoy FREEBORN, 116, 123; see also RANKIN Council of Foreign Ministers, 172 ‘C’ Cranbourne, Viscount, 29, 201n14 CROSSWORD, 70, 119–21 G-5, General staff division, 86, 92, Cullis, Michael F., 21, 44 97–8, 114–16, 143, 145–7, 149, currency, 193 179; see civil affairs Germany vis-à-vis Austria, viii, 1, 86, Danubian confederation, 19, 35, 38, 125, 137, 164, 180–2; see also 41–3 Hyndquarters de-Nazification, 150, 156–8, 208n14 Gousev, Fedor, 45, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, directives, 83, 87–8 64, 70 disbandment, 155–6 Grandi, Count Dino, 23 displaced persons, 114, 134, 152–5 Grigg, Sir James, 65, 165 DRAGOON, 82 Guderian, General Heinz, 22 Dunn, James C., 39 guilt, British, 17–20

EAC, see European Advisory Habsburg, Archduke Otto, 36 Commission Halifax, Viscount, 19, 20 Economic and Reconstruction Harrison, Sir Geoffrey W., 4, 21, 25, Department, 15; see also Jebb 26, 36, 44, 190 Eden, Anthony, 18, 25, 26, 29, 30, 35, Harvey, Oliver, 18, 44 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 56, 69, 124 Henderson, Sir Arthur, 19 Eighth Army, 92, 104, 132, 133, 159, Henderson, Sir Nevile, 18 184, 189; see also BTA hesitancy, British, 3, 26–8, 32–5 Eisenhower, General Dwight D., 51, Hitler, Adolf, 16, 200n2 70, 77, 125–6 Honner, Franz, 37, 157, 188 220 Index

Hood, Viscount, 57, 71, 91, 100–1, Makins, Roger, 15, 29–30, 79, 90, 113–14, 165 203n46 Hull, Cordell, 39 manpower, 4, 85, 194–6 Humphrey, Sir Geoffrey, 94 Massigli, M., 45 Hyndquarters, 180; see Control Office McCreery, General Sir Richard, 132–3, for Germany and Austria 158, 159–60, 168, 172–3, 174–5, 176, 180, 189, 191, 195–6; see Ismay, General Sir Hastings, 12, 13, also ACA 168 McSherry, General F.J., 141 Izvestia, 42 military administration, justification of, 4–10; see military J Mission, 150, 162–4, 166 government Jebb, H.M.G. (Lord Gladwyn), 12, 28, military government, 9, 126, 135, 42, 44, 79, 197 151, 159–60, 199, 200n6; see also jeep, policemen in, 179 civil affairs, G-5, military Joint Chiefs of Staff (British), 13–14, administration 125, 205n1 Missions to Vienna, 67–9, 71, 91; see Joint Planning Staff, 13 also Clowder, J Mission Molotov, Vyacheslav, 39, 119–20, Keightley, General Sir Charles, 133, 168, 170 153, 158; see also Cossacks Morgan, General Sir W.D., 130–1 Kesselring, Field Marshal Albert, 1943, 38–40; see 81, 82, 112, 126, 132, 205n9; also Moscow declaration see also CROSSWORD, Moscow Declaration, viii, 16, 35–8, FREEBORN Kirby, General S.W., 199, 204n9 86, 96 Mosely, Phillip, 38 Kirkpatrick, Sir Ivone, 41 Mussolini, Benito, 23 Kommandatura, 63, 64, 163, 175, 176, 177–8 National Redoubt, 108; see also 123–4, Koniev, Marshal Ivan, 164, 171 RANKIN ‘C’, FREEBORN Koplenig, Johann, 37 New York Times, 56, 202n37 Kosak, General, 164–5 O5, 202n25 Law, Richard, 43, 50 O’Neil, Sir Con, 44, 81, 91, 185–6 Lawson, Jo, 154, 158, 159, 180, 195 occupation, 1, 4, 107–8, 123–6, Leahy, Admiral, 37, 120 131–4, 164–7; see also legalism, Soviet, 171 expenditure FREEBORN, National Lloyd George, Earl David, 17 Redoubt Lockhart, Sir Robert Bruce, 112 OCTAGON, 54 Low, Brigadier (Lord Aldington), 153; OVERLORD, 15, 82, 123, 197 see also Cossacks PHP, see Post Hostilities Planning Mack, W.H.B. (later Sir Henry), 65, Staff 67, 98–9, 102, 159, 189 planning, 2–3, 76–8, 85, 116, 197–9; Macmillan, Harold, 19, 29, 48, see also FREEBORN 200n11; see also Cossacks policy and strategy, relationship of, 3, Mair, J., 17 15, 197–9 Maitland-Wilson, General Sir Henry, Political Warfare Executive, 32–4, 36, 7, 77 41, 112 Index 221

Portici, civil affairs school, 147, 148 sovereignty, 9 Post Hostilities Planning Staff (PHP), Special Operations Executive (SOE), 7, 45, 50, 85 108–9 Post Hostilities Planning Sub- Stalin, Josif, 29, 37, 42, 43, 67, 91–2, Committee, 15, 86, 95; see also 101, 120, 169, 172; see also Bovenschen CROSSWORD Potsdam, conference, 39, 165–6, Strang, W. (later Sir William), 15, 39, 167–70 45, 53, 59, 64, 65, 66, 69, propaganda, 26–7 205n21 Sunday Times, 108 RANKIN ‘C’, 87, 90, 112, 117; see Supreme Allied Commander FREEBORN Mediterranean (SACMED), 2, 77, Red Army, liaison with, 111–16, 125, 78, 80, 82, 83, 90–1, 99, 123, 199; 133, 196; see also FREEBORN see also Alexander Renner, Karl, 23, 169, 170, 172, 175, supreme authority, 6, 7–8, 9, 50, 62, 185–91 71–2, 101, 133 reparations, 169–70, 209n11 Supreme Commander Allied requisitioning, 165 Expeditionary Forces (SCAEF), 76, Red Army, 60, 68, 71, 76, 91, 105, 82–3 106, 111, 113, 165, 166, 171 Supreme Headquarters Allied resistance, 22–6, 202n25, 202n37; see Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF), 2, also Clowder Mission, Political 51, 53, 76–80, 123 Warfare Executive, SOE responsibilities, allocation of, 77–80, The Times, 40, 187 81, 84–5, 87–8, 90 Tito, Marshall Josip, 57; see also Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 23 Trieste rivalry, AFHQ and SHAEF, 77–92 Tolbukhin, Marshal Fedor I., 67, 68, Roberts, Frank, 15, 22, 34, 44, 67, 125, 162 120 Tolstoy, Nikolai, 153–4 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 37, 42, 48, 53, Toynbee, Professor Arnold, 28, 44 54, 70, 124 Trieste, Tito’s claims to, 121–3, 126–7, 129–31, 133–4 ‘S’ day, 131–2 tripartite division, 47–51, 53–4, 56–7, SACMED, see Supreme Allied 65–9, 70–1, 85, 91, 93–4, 103–4, Commander 105–6, 161, 164, 204n9, 207n28; Sargent, O., 15, 44, 121, 126, 165, 168 see also J Mission, planning SCAEF, see Supreme Commander military Allied Expeditionary Forces Troutbeck, J.M., 44 scenarios, 3; see also RANKIN ‘C’ Truman, Harry, 168 scepticism, British, 23–5 Schuschnigg, Kurt von, 18 United Nations, 4, 46 Seyss-Inquart, Dr Arthur, 23, 24 United Nations Relief and Shackleton, Wing Commander, 17S Rehabilitation Administration HAEF, see Supreme Headquarters (UNRRA), 89, 114, 137, 155 Allied Expeditionary Forces UNRRA, see United Nations Relief and Shepherd, G. Brooke, 26 Rehabilitation Administration Smuts, Sir Jan, 159 SOE, see Special Operations Executive, Vansittart, Sir Robert, 28 108–9 Venice, 159 222 Index

Vienna sectors, 64, 66, 71, 161, Ward, J.G., 116 166–7, 175, 177, 181; see also Winant, John, 45, 53 ACA, airfields, J Mission, Winterton, Brigadier T.J.W., 64, 71, Kommandatura, zones 92–4, 96, 97, 98–9, 205n14 Vyshinsky, Andrei, 39, 69 Wolff, General Karl, 70 Vyvyan, J.M.K., 44 Zheltov, General A.S., 160, 163, war aims, 1, 16–17, 28, 29–31 173 War Cabinet, 10–15, 86 zones, 1–2, 48–51, 53–62, 64, 67, 71, War Office, 14, 76, 102, 113, 179 93, 165–6, 181