State Of Knowledge Report

Template For SoK Of WP2: Boiled Plantain

Douala, December 2018

Gérard NGOH NEWILAH, CARBAP, Douala, Cameroon Cédric KENDINE VEPOWO, CARBAP, Douala, Cameroon Agnès ROLLAND-SABATÉ, INRA, Avignon, France

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This report has been written in the framework of RTBfoods project.

To be cited as:

Gérard NGOH NEWILAH, Cédric KENDINE VEPOWO, Agnès ROLLAND-SABATÉ. 2018. Template For SoK Of WP2: Boiled Plantain. Douala (Cameroon). RTBfoods Project Report, 14p.

Image cover page © Dufour D. for RTBfoods. 1

CONTENTS

Table of Contents

1 Composition and structure of raw material ...... 4

1.1 Composition ...... 4

1.2 Structure ...... 8

2 Processing condition ...... 8

3 Sensory analysis and consumer preference ...... 8

4 Product characterization and relationship with sensory evaluation ...... 9

4.1 Evolution of composition and structure with processing ...... 9

4.2 Instrumental Texture assessment and relationship with sensory evaluation...... 9

4.3 Relationship between composition and sensory evaluation ...... 10

5 Conclusion ...... 10

6 References ...... 11

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ABSTRACT

This literature review considers 34 articles and documents investigating banana and plantain postharvest qualities including composition of raw material, processing conditions, sensory analysis and consumer preferences. All these topics were not closely related to boiled plantain, they mostly concerned cooking banana chips and flours obtained from various Musa cultivars. It will be important to carry out more research on boiled plantain characterization related to sensory analysis and consumer preferences.

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1 COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF RAW MATERIAL 1.1 Composition

Physicochemical properties

The dry matter content (DMC) of pulp and peel was determined by oven-drying at 105°C for 24 h. Pulp firmness was measured at the centre of the transversal section of the finger, using a manual penetrometer (Cosse model). The pH of the peel and pulp was measured with a digital pH-meter (Inolab, pH level 2), using 15 g pulp or peel blended in 45 ml distilled water. The total soluble solids (TSS) and total titratable acidity (TTA) of the blended pulp were determined using a REF 113 Brix 0– 32 ATC refractometer (Index Instruments, Ramsey, United Kingdom) and a 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution during titration until the indicator just changes pink/red (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). The peel thickness, fruit grade and fruit length were determined by measuring the middle fruit in the outer whorl of the second hand with a pair of callipers (Stanley model) and a tape, respectively. The peel and pulp colours were determined using colour charts (IPGRI, 1996).

Table 1. Physicochemical properties of bananas and plantains at harvest (Ngoh Newilah et al., 2009, Ngoh Newilah et al., 2011). NGA Fg (cm) Fl (cm) Pt (mm) Peel pH Pulp pH Pulp Peel Pf TSS TTA Musa type DMC DMC Cooking 06 4.0 – 6.0 16 – 28 2.9 – 3.6 5.65 – 5.88– 32–40 9.89– 2.41-3.17 1.2–2.3 270–450 bananas 6.21 6.34 14.5 Dessert 09 2.6 – 4.2 12 – 21 2.1 – 3.3 5.38 – 5.42– 20.5–30 8.63– 1.99 – 3.2 1.2–2.08 405–530 bananas 5.94 5.67 11.5 04 3.0 – 4.5 16 – 25 2.5 – 4.0 5.36 – 5.69– 31 – 34.5 7 – 11 2.15 – 1.10 – 348 – Plantain hybrids 5.86 6.15 3.45 2.80 509 Plantain 11 3.6 – 6.0 22 – 44 3.0 – 4.2 5.50 – 5.80- 34 – 39 9 – 14 2.5 – 3.5 1.20 – 317 – cultivars 5.70 6.20 2.10 436

NGA: number of genotypes analysed; Fg: Fruit girth; Fl: Fruit length; Pt: Peel thickness, DMC: dry matter content (g/100g FW); Pf: pulp firmness (kg/cm²); TSS: total soluble solids; TTA: total titratable acidity

Polyphenol contents

Banana pulp and peel contains various phenolic compounds, such as gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, tannins and anthocyanins. Banana contains high amounts of total phenolic compounds and flavonols. The total content of phenolic acids in bananas has been reported to be 7 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW). These compounds impart astringent taste to the unripe banana. Free phenolic compounds (solvent extractable) in the banana pulp ranges from 11.8 to 90.4 mg of GAE (gallic acid equivalent)/100 g FW (Singh et al., 2016).

Total polyphenol compounds of dried pulverized Musa pulp were determined at 760 nm using an optimized Folin-Ciocalteu method (Singleton and Rossi, 1965).

Table 2. Total polyphenol contents (μg gallic acid equivalents / 100 g dry matter) of bananas and plantains during ripening (Ngoh Newilah et al., 2010). Maturation stage Musa types Number of genotypes Unripe Ripe Fully ripe analysed Plantain hybrids 05 54 – 91 124 – 314 155 – 361 Plantain cultivars 12 27 – 139 32 – 306 105 – 541 Cooking banana cultivars 05 46 – 100 100 – 448 126 – 379 Dessert banana cultivars 10 47 – 104 121 – 415 62 – 465

There are significant levels of total phenolic contents in the pulp of banana (Table 2) and the distribution of phenolic compounds in bananas is affected by maturity and cultivar. The highest total phenolic content in the pulp is for cavendish with 232mg/100g dry matter (DM) and a new banana triploid hybrid (FLHORBAN 920 cultivar, AAA group), partially resistant to Yellow Sigatoka and Black Leaf Streak diseases (334 mg/100g FW) (Singh et al., 2016; Bugaud et al., 2009). Many free phenolic compounds have been identified in ripe banana pulp: gallic acid, catechin, gallocatechin, naringenin-7-0- 4

hesperoside (Verde-Mendez et al., 2003). Several studies have also suggested that consumption of unripe bananas confers beneficial effects for human health, as they might be an important source of phenolic compounds. Unripe dessert banana (Musa cavendish L.) contains dopamine and norepinephrine in high levels (0.72-6.1 and 0.62-1.5 mg/100g FW of pulp) (Kanazawa and Sakakibara, 2000). Hydroxycinnamic acids, particularly ferulic acid-hexoside with 4.4–85.1 µg/g of DM, dominated in the plantain pulp and showed a large diversity among cultivars (Passo-Tsamo, et al., 2015a).

Carotenoid contents

1. Unripe, starting to ripe, ripe and fully ripe fruits of Musa cultivars sourced from the CARBAP collection in Cameroon were analyzed for their total carotenoid levels by UV-VIS spectrophotometry at 450 nm. Three inner fruits of 104 cultivars from the first, median and last hands were cut longitudinally and compared to two colour fans; one based on the flesh colour variation in potato, developed on the initiative of the CGIAR HarvestPlus Challenge Programme, and the other based on egg yolk colour variation developed by DSM.

Table 3. Pre-screening Musa cultivars for proVitamin A using colour charts (Ngoh Newilah et al., 2008)

Musa types Number of genotypes Harvest Plus colour fan DSM yolk colour fan TCC (µg/g FM) analysed RHS 9/2 - 1355U 9 Plantains (AAB) 08 5 – 26 RHS 9/3 - 7507U 7 Cooking bananas (AA, AAB, RHS 9/2 - 1355U 9 03 3 – 21 ABB) RHS 9/3 - 7507U 7 RHS 5/3 - 7401U 3 Dessert bananas AAA, AAB, AA 03 2 – 3 RHS 3/3 - 1205U 1 Plantain hybrids (AAAB) 02 RHS 9/3 - 7507U 7 ND RHS 9 - 137U 13 PNG cultivars (AA, AAA) 03 9 - 49 RHS 9/3 - 7507U 7

TCC: total carotenoid content; FM: fresh matter; PNG: Papua New Guinea; ND: not determined

2. The quartered and lyophilised pulps of three (03) Musa types were submitted to HPLC techniques for total carotenoid levels determination during postharvest maturation, as well as some specific carotenoids (α-carotene, β-carotene and lutein). Carotenoid extraction was adapted from the method of Rodriguez-Amaya and Kimura (2004) and their analysis were realized according to a published method (Dhuique-Mayer et al., 2005).

Table 4. Total carotenoid contents (μg β-carotene equivalent per 100g on fresh matter basis) of three Musa types during ripening (Ngoh Newilah et al., 2010a).

Maturation stages Musa types Unripe Start ripe Ripe Fully ripe Over ripe French sombre (plantain) 1631 2543 2355 2341 2485 Pelipita (cooking banana) 1047 1421 1315 1162 1456 Grande naine (dessert banana) 182 185 225 250 355

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Table 5. Specific carotenoid contents of Musa pulps during ripening in Cameroon (μgꞏ100 g–1 dry matter) (Ngoh Newilah et al., 2009a).

Carotenoids Maturation stages Musa types NGA Unripe Ripe Fully ripe α-carotene 2100 – 4200 1450 – 3200 450 – 2100 Plantains β-carotene 1700 – 3300 1200 – 2850 330 – 1450 10 Lutein 40 – 190 20 – 190 60 – 325 α-carotene 125 – 1350 125 – 650 165 – 630 Cooking β-carotene 340 – 1120 340 – 590 390 – 680 bananas 03 Lutein < 30 80 – 130 35 – 260 α-carotene 60 – 520 105 – 600 40 – 550 Dessert bananas β-carotene 13 – 370 60 – 250 30 – 215 03 Lutein 50 – 200 60 – 185 80 – 150 α-carotene 1600 – 2100 1700 – 2350 1700 – 3000 Plantains hybrids β-carotene 700 – 1400 950 – 1280 900 – 1600 03 Lutein 20 – 130 20 – 350 10 – 400

NGA: Number of genotypes analysed

Other micronutrient contents

Carotenoids Analysis. The pVACs contents of aliquots of the filtered, combined extracts were analyzed by RP-HPLC according to the method given in ref 17. Total carotenoids contents were analyzed in duplicate by microtiter plate spectrophotometry at 450 nm, using a quartz microtiter plate (Davey et al., 2006)). In both cases, concentrations were calculated by the external standards techniques using standard curves of freshly prepared 0.1-10 µg/mL all-trans--carotene (t-BC) (Sigma- Aldrich), in extraction solvent (Davey et al., 2006; Schierle et al., 2004).

Analysis of Mineral Micronutrient Contents. Aliquots of lyophilized plant tissue powder were digested with 1 mL of high-purity 60-70% nitric acid overnight at room temperature. Samples were then evaporated just to dryness in a heating block at 140 °C (Tecator Digestion System 40), 1 mL of 60-70% nitric acid was again added, and the sample was again evaporated just to dryness, before reconstitution in 1.0 mL of nanopure water for analysis. Mineral micronutrient concentrations were measured by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) using a Perkin-Elmer Optima 3300 DV. Some mineral and vitamin composition of raw, sundried, fermented, boiled and roasted samples were determined using standard methods of analyses of AOAC, atomic absorption spectrophotometric and spectrophotometric methods respectively (Adepoju et al., 2012).

Table 6. Mean Micro- and Macronutrient Contents of Musa Fruit Pulp (mg/kg of dry weight) (Davey et al., 2006) Macrominerals Microminerals Musa types NGA Mg Ca S Fe Zn B Plantains 03 96 – 114 8 – 13 27 – 33 1 – 1.30 0.45 – 0.56 0.30 – 0.68 Dessert bananas 03 110 – 113 22 – 26 33 – 38 1.17 – 1.45 0.41 – 0.65 0.34 – 0.51

NGA: Number of genotypes analysed

Other nutrients and compounds

Also, using colorimetric and biochemical characterisation, many studies indicated physicochemical and nutritive properties of raw plantain fruits, sometimes during ripening. They included total carotenoids, total starch, total polyphenol, total protein through the quantification of total nitrogen by Kjeldahl method - Total sugar estimated at 540 nm using a UV/visible spectrophotometer - minerals determined with Scanning Electron Microscope/Energy Dispersion Spectrometry, etc. (Gnagne et al., 2017, Ngoh Newilah et al., 2009, Ngoh Newilah et al., 2011), pectin and hemicellulose polysaccharides during ripening of dessert banana fruit (Duan et al., 2008; Cheng et al., 2009), extractable polyphenols, condensed tannins, and hydrolysable tannins (Rosales-Reynoso et al., 2014).

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Preparation and analysis of Banana Pulp Cell Walls (Benett et al, 2010)

For the cell wall preparations, the frozen banana pulp was powdered in amortar with liquid N2, and three 8-g replicates of this powdered pulp were incubated with 200 mL of chloroform/methanol (1:1, v/v) for 1 h at 70 °C for the extraction of pigments, lipids, and various secondary metabolites and also to inactivate cell wall degrading enzymes. The suspensions were centrifuged for 10 min at 10000g, and the supernatants were discarded. The remaining residues, named the alcool insoluble residues (AIR) were washed at least five times with acetone and allowed to dry at 25 °C. Banana pulp starch was removed by re-extracting overnight in 90% aqueous Me2SO. The different fractions of cell wall polysaccharides and pectins were then extracted from the destarched AIR (as described in Cheng et al., 2009 and Duan et al., 2008) and analyzed for molecular size distribution by gel permeation chromatography and for the sugar composition after acidic hydrolysis of cell wall fractions by the analysis of alditol acetates by GC–MS.

The modification and depolymerization of hemicellulose polysaccharides in the cellular walls of harvested banana fruit were responsible for banana fruit softening during ripening (Cheng et al 2009) together with modifications in polysaccharide compositions and glycosyl linkages, reduced molecular size distributions and enhanced depolymerization of pectin (Duan et al, 2008).

Preparation and analysis of Banana Pulp Polyphenols (Passo-Tsamo et al., 2015a)

Approximately 0.5 g of freeze-dried pulp or peel, were extracted with 10 mL of acetone:water:acetic acid (50:49:1; v:v:v) containing 0.2 mM of ascorbic acid. The mixture was vortexed for 1 min and the extraction was carried out in a water bath under agitation at 40 °C for 1 h. The extract was centrifuged at 4 °C, for 20 min at 5000 g and the supernatant was collected. The residue was extracted two more times. The supernatants were combined and evaporated to dryness with a rotary evaporator at 40 °C. Identification and quantification of phenolic compounds were performed by means of HPLC–ESI-HR- MS and HPLC-DAD.

Significant levels of tannins have been reported in bananas and there are more tannins in ripe bananas than in green bananas (Kyamuhangire et al., 2006). However, tannins are polyphenolic compounds of high molecular weight with low solubility that are not taken into account in most chemical and biological studies of extractable polyphenols. They are polymers of flavan-3-ols (up to 27 units). They are responsible of perception of astringency and bitterness.

Epigallocatechin was identified as the major constituent of condensed tannins in the pulps of diverse dessert and plantain banana cultivars (Uclés Santos et al., 2010) and a leucocyanidin (flavan-3,4-diol) was identified in plantain banana pulp as the active anti-ulcerogenic molecule (Lewis, Fields, & Shaw, 1999). Uclés-Santos et al. (2010) reported tannins between 0.3 and 2.1% of FW banana pulp, except for a Pacific plantain which was tannins-free. Tannins in banana fruit have been reported to be concentrated in latex vessels (lacticifers). Condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) of high molecular weight, whose basic structure is represented by flavan-3-ol and flavan-3-4diol, presented higher content than hydrolysable tannins (gallic and ellagic acids). Values of extractable polyphenols, condensed tannins, and hydrolysable tannins were found to depend on the variety of banana (Rosales-Reynoso et al., 2014).

Some of the phenolics and tannins in bananas are complexed with cell wall polysaccharides as reported by Bennett et al. (2010). These authors detected in the soluble extract of the fruit pulp (+) catechin, gallocatechin, and (-) epicatechin, and condensed tannins (total procyanidins between 2.2 and 124.7 g/100g DM pulp in mature green banana and between 1.6 and 86.1 g/100g DM pulp in ripe banana function of the cultivar). In the soluble cell wall fraction, two hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives were predominant, whereas in the insoluble cell wall fraction, the anthocyanidin delphinidin was predominant.

Phenolic acids (compounds containing a phenolic ring and an organic carboxylic acid group) bound to other plant components, such as polysaccharides and lignin in cell walls, predominate in this fruit (Singh et al., 2016).

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Summary: Bananas and plantains pulps are made of many constituents with variable concentrations depending on the cultivars, the ripening stage and the production sites (environment). They contain starch, micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and some secondary metabolites such as polyphenols. Their consumption may help to significantly contribute to daily food intake and enable a good functioning of the human body. Bananas and plantains can also contribute to the alleviation of some vitamin and mineral deficiencies and associated chronic diseases in target communities. 1.2 Structure

Figure 1. SEM micrographs of cooked banana: from the right to the left: raw plantain; 2 min cooked plantain; 3 min cooked plantain; 8 min cooked plantain. Adapted from Qi et al, 2000.

In the raw plantain, the cell walls are smooth, and starch granules are also smooth and not fused (Figure 1). The shape of the plantain starch grain appears to be more rounded and elongated than the starch grains of banana which were more platelike (Qi et al, 2000).

2 PROCESSING CONDITION

Whether unripe or ripe, plantain pulps follow almost the same steps during the boiling processes, only the boiling time and the quantity of water change considerably depending on the ripening stage of the fruits (Adi et al. 2018, Ngoh Newilah et al., 2018). They include:

- Peeling the fruits (unripe, start ripe or ripe fruits) and scraping the tiny membrane covering the pulps;

- Washing the pulps and cutting them into two or many pieces if the plantain pulps are big;

- Introducing the pulps in a clean pot;

- Adding water (quantity depending on the ripening stage);

- Boiling for a time depending on the fruit’s grade and ripening stage (15 min, 26 min, 45 min respectively for ripe, start ripe and unripe pulps).

NB: For a rapid water diffusion, water can first be boiled before introducing the plantain pulps.

Ripe plantain pulps are sometimes steamed

3 SENSORY ANALYSIS AND CONSUMER PREFERENCE

A cross-sectional study carried out in North Kivu (NK) and South Kivu (SK) of the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo on banana and plantain (Musa spp.) cultivar preference and local processing techniques indicated the preferred cooking banana varieties included yellow-pulped AAA-East African Highland bananas [EAHB] ‘Nshikazi’ and ‘Vulambya’, which were valued for their cooking qualities, large bunches and suitability for production of banana beer. The preferred plantains were orange- pulped and included ‘Musheba’ and ‘Musilongo’ and were preferred for their short maturation period,

8 large bunches and higher market prices. The most common cooking method was simple boiling of bananas/plantains and main accompaniments include beans and amaranth leaves (Ekesa et al., 2012). Unfortunately, no sensory evaluation were carried out.

4 PRODUCT CHARACTERIZATION AND RELATIONSHIP WITH SENSORY EVALUATION 4.1 Evolution of composition and structure with processing

The effect of temperature and duration of cooking on plantain fruit texture and cytoplasmic and cell wall components was investigated. The firmness of plantain pulp tissues decreased rapidly during the first 10 min of cooking in water above 70 °C. Cooking resulted in pectin solubilisation and middle lamella dissolution leading to cell wall separation (Qi et al., 2000). The same authors have shown that the starch content of plantain (Big ebanga type) pulp remained constant during cooking (not significant change between 0 – 40 min). As the banana, tissue was heated, starch grains lost their distinct definition and merged into a uniform reticulated structure, and intercellular space expansion became evident (Figure 1). After 3 min of cooking, the starch in plantain develops a reticulated appearance with intercellular space expansion. The reticulated materials present in the intercellular space can be linked to cell wall damage hence leakage of the wall due to heating. Thermal softening of banana and plantain pulp tissues in the early stages of cooking is related to middle lamella dissolution causing cell wall separation (Qi et al., 2000).

Also, Gibert et al., (2010) investigated a kinetic approach to textural changes of different banana genotypes (Musa sp.) cooked in boiling water in relation to starch gelatinization. They developed a standardized textural test for characterizing the banana pulp softening process during boiling, and established a correlation between initial dry matter content and firmness. They observed large differences in cooking behaviour between varieties and genotypes, with various softening rates and equilibrium retainable firmness.

Banana is very susceptible to browning and flavor deterioration when being processed. It contains polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and undergoes rapid enzymatic browning following mechanical and/or physiological injury, while non-enzymatic darkening is also observed during processing (Guerrero et al. 1996).

After boiling the whole fruit no significant change in total phenolics was observed in the pulp after boiling with or without peel (Passo-Tsmo et al., 2015b). With regards to individual phenolic compounds, the most important change in the pulp was the increase of ferulic acid. In the pulp, ferulic acid was apparently released from its conjugated forms after boiling, with increases of 63.7% after boiling with peel and of 33.2% after boiling without peel in the pulp of the cultivar Moto Ebanga. A possible transfer of these compounds from the peel to the pulp could be considered. In conclusion, boiling with peel should be preferred to reduce the loss in ferulic acid. Changes in water and total ash contents also suggested a protective effect of the peel. 4.2 Instrumental Texture assessment and relationship with sensory evaluation

Thirteen cultivated dessert banana and four new triploid hybrids were characterized by sensory profiling, rheological and chemical analyses (Bugaud et al., 2013). This study was carried out in order to predict the sensory perception of banana texture and taste by instrumental parameters. Multilinear regressions were used to calibrate predictions of sourness and sweetness that were predicted by titratable acidity (R2 = 0.68) and pH (R2 = 0.66). Rheological parameters from texture profile analyses (stress at fracture, fracturability) were more suitable than pulp puncture force to predict the sensory texture properties firmness (R2 = 0.47) and melting (R2 = 0.60). These textural properties were predicted by titratable acidity and dry matter content (R2 = 0.62). Predictions of mealiness, adhesiveness, and heterogeneity 9 were not efficient. Finally, while models to predict sourness and sweetness can now be used for high throughput phenotyping. The authors recommended additional tests for other sensory attributes like for firmness, melting and astringency, which certainly need new analytical measurements (relaxation tests, soluble pectic polysaccharides, and active tannins) to improve their prediction.

Furthermore, textural hardness of selected Ugandan cooking and juice banana cultivars at green maturity was determined using a Texture Analyzer in raw form and at 30, 50, 70, 90, 100 and 130 min in boiled, steamed, mashed and cooled forms. The study indicated that cooling significantly increased hardness of bananas under all treatments. Mashed and steamed bananas were harder than boiled bananas when cooled. Bananas cooked longer had lower hardness regardless of cooking method. Textural hardness decreases with cooking time regardless of cooking method. Boiled bananas are softer than mashed or steamed. Therefore, bananas should either be boiled or steamed and mashed for softer texture and be eaten within 30 min of serving (Gafuma et al., 2018). 4.3 Relationship between composition and sensory evaluation

Please provide, and briefly comment, a comprehensive table of the relationships between composition and sensory attributes.

No information found so far.

5 CONCLUSION

Many studies based on physicochemical and nutritional composition of bananas and plantains during ripening or not have been carried out. Boiled plantain has not been really investigated in terms of product characterization and relationship with sensory evaluation. Therefore, within the framework of RTB-Foods, it will be important to focus on boiled plantain characterisation in relation to sensory analysis and consumer preference.

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