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Apollo program

The program, also known as Project Apollo, was the third United States program carried out by the National and Space Administration (NASA), which succeeded in landing the first humans on the from 1969 to 1972. First conceived during Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration as a three-man to follow the one-man which put the first Americans in space, Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's national goal of "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the " by the end of the , which he proposed in an address to Congress on May 25, 1961. It was the third US human spaceflight program to fly, preceded by the two-man conceived in 1961 to extend spaceflight capability in support of Apollo.

Kennedy's goal was accomplished on theApollo 11 mission when Neil and Buzz landed their (LM) on July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar surface, while Michael Country remained in in the command and (CSM), and all Organization NASA three landed safely on Earth on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in . In these six Purpose Manned lunar landing spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon. Status completed Program history Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It [1] achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the major setback of a Cost $25.4 billion (1973) [2] 1967 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. ($112 billion 2018) After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow- Duration 1960–1972 on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical First flight AS-201, February 26, 1966 exploration. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. Five of the First crewed , October 11–22, remaining six missions achieved successful landings, but the flight 1968 landing was prevented by an tank explosion in transit to the Moon, which destroyed the service module's capability to provide electrical power, Last flight , December 7–19, crippling the CSM's propulsion and life support systems. The crew returned 1972 to Earth safely by using the lunar module as a "lifeboat" for these functions. Successes 16 Apollo used family as launch vehicles, which were also used Failures 2: Apollo 1, Apollo 13 for an Apollo Applications Program, which consisted of , a space Partial 1: station that supported three manned missions in 1973–74, and the Apollo– failures Test Project, a joint US- Earth-orbit mission in 1975. Launch Cape Kennedy Air Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in site(s) Force Station LC-34 sending manned missions beyond . was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 Cape Kennedy Air mission marked the sixth and the ninth manned mission Force Station LC-37 beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds (382 kg) of lunar rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the LC-39 Moon's composition and geological history. The program laid the foundation Vehicle information for NASA's subsequent human spaceflight capability and funded Vehicle type Capsule/Lander construction of its and Kennedy Space Center. Apollo Crew vehicle also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry Apollo command and and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and service module computers. Apollo Lunar Module Crew 3 capacity Contents Launch Saturn IB vehicle(s) Background Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies Political pressure builds NASA expansion Manned Spacecraft Center Launch Operations Center Organization Choosing a mission mode Spacecraft Command and service module Apollo Lunar Module Launch vehicles II Saturn IB (pictured) walked on the Saturn V Moon with , on , July 20–21, 1969 Astronauts Lunar mission profile Profile variations Development history Unmanned flight tests Preparation for manned flight Program delays Apollo 1 fire Unmanned Saturn V and LM tests Manned development missions Production lunar landings Mission cutbacks Extended missions

Mission summary , an iconic image from the Samples returned 1968 Apollo 8 mission, taken by Costs Apollo Applications Program Recent observations Legacy Science and engineering Cultural impact Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project Depictions on film Documentaries Docudramas See also Notes References Further reading External links

Background

Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, as a follow-up to Project Mercury. While the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to aspace station, circumlunar flights, and eventual manned lunar landings.

The program was named after Apollo, the Greek god of light, music, and the sun, by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that "I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby."[3] Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt "Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program."[4]

In July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the command module (piloting and reentry cabin), and a propulsion and equipment module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, three study contracts were awarded to Dynamics/, General Electric, and the Glenn L. Martin Company. Meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led byMaxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs.[5]

Political pressure builds In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of and missile defense. Up to the election of 1960, Kennedy had been speaking out against the "missile gap" that he and many other senators felt had developed between the Soviet Union and United States due to the inaction of President Eisenhower.[6] Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige, pledging to make the US not "first but, first and, first if, but first period."[7] Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing.[8] When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue.[9]

On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up.[10] Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets.[11]

On , Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the to catch up.[12][13] Johnson responded approximately one later, concluding that "we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership."[14][15] His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first.[14]

On May 25, 1961, twenty days after the first US manned spaceflight Freedom 7, Kennedy proposed the manned Moon landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs: Now it is time to take longer strides - time for a great new American enterprise - time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth.

...I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the President Kennedy delivers his long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or proposal to put a man on the Moon expensive to accomplish.[16] Full text before a joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961 NASA expansion

At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American had flown in space—less than a earlier—and NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy's ambitious goal could be met.[17] By 1963, Kennedy even came close to agreeing to a joint US-USSR Moon mission, to eliminate duplication of fort.ef [18]

With the clear goal of a manned landing replacing the more nebulous goals of space stations and circumlunar flights, NASA decided that, in order to make progress quickly, it would discard the feasibility study designs of Convair, GE, and Martin, and proceed with Faget's command and service module design. The mission module was determined to be only useful as an extra room, and therefore deemed unnecessary.[19] They used Faget's design as the specification for another competition for spacecraft procurement bids in October 1961. On November 28, 1961, it was announced that had won the contract, although its bid was not rated as good as Martin's. Webb, Dryden and chose it in preference due to North American's longer association with NASA and its predecessor.[20]

Landing men on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological creativity, and the largest commitment of resources ($25 billion; $112 billion in 2018 dollars)[2] ever made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities.[21]

On July 1, 1960, NASA established the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama. MSFC designed the heavy lift-class Saturn launch vehicles, which would be required for Apollo.[22]

Manned Spacecraft Center It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth's Space Task Group, which had been directing the nation's manned space program from NASA's . So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center, the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was chosen in , , on land donated by Rice University, and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19, 1961.[23] It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Air Force Station launch facilities in , so a new would be included in the MSC.[24]

In September 1962, by which time two Project Mercury astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his organization to rented space in Houston, and construction of the MSC facility was under way, Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech:

But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? ... We choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills; because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win ... [25]. Full text

The MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed by the US Congress in honor of Lyndon Johnson soon after his death in 1973.[26] Play media President Kennedy speaks atRice University, September 12, 1962 (17 Launch Operations Center min, 47 sec) It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida. The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end: LC-34 and LC-37. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth required for the manned lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island. The design, development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus, a member of Dr. 's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Debus was named the LOC's first Director.[27] Construction began in November 1962. Upon Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29, 1963, to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy.[28]

The LOC included Launch Complex 39, a , and a 130 million cubic foot (3.7 million cubic meter) Vertical Assembly Building (VAB) in which the space vehicle ( and spacecraft) would be assembled on a and then moved by a transporter to one of several launch pads. Although at least three pads were planned, only two, designated A and B, were completed in October 1965. The LOC also included an Operations and Checkout Building (OCB) to which Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to their launch vehicles. The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in two vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at altitudes up to 250,000 feet (76 km), which is nearly a vacuum.[29][30]

Organization Administrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control, he had to develop greater project management skills in his organization, so he recruited Dr. George E. Mueller for a high management job. Mueller accepted, on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization necessary to effectively administer Apollo. Webb then worked with Associate Administrator (later Deputy Administrator) Seamans to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF).[31] On July 23, 1963, Webb announced Mueller's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, to replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes on his retirement effective September 1. Under Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center (Gilruth), Marshall Space Flight Center (von Braun), and the Launch Operations Center (Debus) reported to Mueller.[32]

Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects, Mueller realized some skilled managers could be found among high- ranking officers in the , so he got Webb's permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips, who gained a reputation for his effective management of the Minuteman program, as OMSF program controller. Phillips' superior officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA, along with a staff of officers under him, on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director. Mueller agreed, and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964, until it achieved the first manned landing in , after which he returned to Air Force duty.[33]

Choosing a mission mode Once Kennedy had defined a goal, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that could meet it while minimizing risk to human life, cost, and demands on technology and astronaut skill. Four possible mission modes were considered:

Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): This turned out to be the winning configuration, which achieved the goal withApollo 11 on July 24, 1969: a single Saturn V launched a 96,886-pound (43,947 kg) spacecraft that was composed of a 63,608-pound (28,852 kg)Apollo command and service module which remained in orbit around the Moon, while a 33,278-pound (15,095 kg), two-stagelunar module was flown by two astronauts to the surface, flown back to dock with the command module, explaining the LOR [34] and then was discarded. Landing the smaller spacecraft on the concept Moon, and returning an even smaller part (10,042 pounds (4,555 kg)) to lunar orbit, minimized the total mass to be launched from Earth, but this was the last method initially considered because of the perceived risk of rendezvous and docking. : The spacecraft would be launched as a unit and travel directly to the lunar surface, without first going into lunar orbit. A 50,000- pound (23,000 kg) Earth return ship would land all three astronauts atop a 113,000-pound (51,000 kg) descent propulsion stage,[35] which would be left on the Moon. This design would have required development of the extremely powerful Saturn C-8 or launch vehicle to carry a 163,000-pound (74,000 kg) payload to the Moon.[36] (EOR): Multiple rocket launches (up to 15 in some plans) would carry parts of the Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for translunar injection (TLI). These would be assembled into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit. Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft would be launched in . The first, an automated vehicle carrying propellant for the return to Earth, would land on the Moon, to be followed some time later by the manned vehicle. Propellant would have to be transferred from the Early Apollo configuration forDirect [37] automated vehicle to the manned vehicle. Ascent and Earth Orbit Rendezvous, In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. 1961 Many engineers feared that a rendezvous—let alone a docking—neither of which had been attempted even in Earth orbit, would be extremely difficult in lunar orbit. Dissenters including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spoke "somewhat as a voice in the wilderness," Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question.[38]

Seamans' establishment of an ad-hoc committee headed by his special technical assistant Nicholas E. Golovin in July 1961, to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program, represented a turning point in NASA's mission mode decision.[39] This committee recognized that the chosen mode was an important part of the launch vehicle choice, and recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR-LOR mode. Its consideration of LOR—as well as Houbolt's ceaseless work—played an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR, including the newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight, Joseph Shea, who became a champion of LOR.[40] The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), which had much to lose from the decision, took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing on June 7, 1962.[41]

But even after NASA reached internal agreement, it was far from smooth sailing. Kennedy's science advisor , who had expressed his opposition to manned spaceflight to Kennedy before the President took office,[42] and had opposed the decision to land men on the Moon, hired Golovin, who had left NASA, to chair his own "Space Vehicle Panel", ostensibly to monitor, but actually to second-guess NASA's decisions on the Saturn V launch vehicle and LOR by forcing Shea, Seamans, and even Webb to defend themselves, delaying its formal announcement to the press on July 11, 1962, and forcing Webb to still hedge the decision as "tentative".[43] Wiesner kept up the pressure, even making the disagreement public during a two-day September visit by the President to Marshall Space Flight Center. Wiesner blurted out "No, that's no good" in front of the press, during a presentation by von Braun. Webb jumped in and defended von Braun, until Kennedy ended the squabble by stating that the matter was "still subject to final review". Webb held firm, and issued a request for proposal to candidate Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) contractors. Wiesner finally relented, unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all in Kennedy's office, because of the President's involvement with the October Cuban Missile Crisis, and fear of Kennedy's support for Webb. NASA announced the selection of as the LEM contractor in November 1962.[44]

Space historian James Hansen concludes that:

Without NASA's adoption of this stubbornly held minority opinion in 1962, the United States may still have reached the Moon, but almost certainly it would not have been accomplished by the end of the 1960s, President Kennedy's target date.[45]

The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a "lifeboat" in the event of a failure of the command ship. Some documents prove this theory was discussed before and after the method was chosen. In 1964 an MSC study concluded, "The LM [as lifeboat] ... was finally dropped, because no single reasonable CSM failure could be identified that would prohibit use of the SPS."[46] Ironically, just such a failure happened on Apollo 13 when an oxygen tank explosion left the CSM without electrical power. The lunar module provided propulsion, electrical power and life support to get the crew home safely.[47]

Spacecraft

Faget's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone-shaped command module, supported by one of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power, sized appropriately for the , cislunar, and lunar landing missions. Once Kennedy's Moon landing goal became official, detailed design began of a command and service Module (CSM) in which the crew would spend the entire direct-ascent mission and lift off from the lunar surface for the return trip, after being soft-landed by a larger landing propulsion module. The final choice of changed the CSM's role to the translunar ferry used to the crew, along with a new spacecraft, the lunar excursion module (LEM, later An Apollo boilerplate command shortened to lunar module, LM) which would take two men to the lunar surface and module is on exhibit in theMeteor [48] return them to the CSM. Crater Visitor Center in Winslow, . Command and service module The command module (CM) was the conical crew cabin, designed to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing. It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early Apollo study designs. Its exterior was covered with an ablative , and had its own (RCS) engines to control its attitude and steer its path. Parachutes were carried to slow its descent to . The module was 11.42 feet (3.48 m) tall, 12.83 feet (3.91 m) in diameter, and weighed approximately 12,250 pounds (5,560 kg).[49] CSM in lunar orbit A cylindrical service module (SM) supported the command module, with a service propulsion engine and an RCS with propellants, and a fuel cell power generation system with liquid and liquid oxygen reactants. A high-gain S-band antenna was used for long-distance communications on the lunar flights. On the extended lunar missions, an orbital scientific instrument package was carried. The service module was discarded just before reentry. The module was 24.6 feet (7.5 m) long and 12.83 feet (3.91 m) in diameter. The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately 51,300 pounds (23,300 kg) fully fueled, while a later version designed to carry a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over 54,000 pounds (24,000 kg).[49]

North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM, and also the second stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle for NASA. Because the CSM design was started early before the selection of lunar orbit rendezvous, the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off the Moon, and thus was oversized to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight.[50] Also, there was no provision for docking with the lunar module. A 1964 program definition study concluded that the initial design should be continued as Block I which would be used for early testing, while Block II, the actual lunar spacecraft, would incorporate the docking equipment and take advantage of the lessons learned in Block I development.[48]

Apollo Lunar Module The Apollo Lunar Module (LM) was designed to descend from lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take them back to orbit to rendezvous with the command module. Not designed to fly through the Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, its fuselage was designed totally without aerodynamic considerations, and was of an extremely lightweight construction. It consisted of separate descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine. The descent stage contained storage for the descent propellant, surface stay consumables, and surface exploration equipment. The ascent stage contained the crew cabin, ascent propellant, and a reaction control system. The initial LM model weighed approximately 33,300 pounds (15,100 kg), and allowed surface stays up to around 34 hours. An extended lunar module weighed over 36,200 pounds (16,400 kg), and allowed surface stays of over 3 days.[49] The contract for design and construction of the lunar module was awarded to Grumman Apollo 11 on the Aircraft Engineering Corporation, and the project was overseen by Thomas J. Moon Kelly.[51]

Launch vehicles

Before the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun and his team of rocket engineers had started work on plans for very large launch vehicles, the Saturn series, and the even larger Nova series. In the midst of these plans, von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA, and made Director of the Marshall Space Flight Center. The initial direct ascent plan to send the three-man Apollo command and service module directly to the lunar surface, on top of a large descent rocket stage, would require a Nova-class launcher, with a lunar payload capability of over 180,000 pounds (82,000 kg).[52] The June 11, 1962, decision to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the Saturn V to replace the Nova, and the MSFC proceeded to develop the Saturn Four Apollo rocket assemblies, drawn to scale: rocket family for Apollo.[53] Little Joe II, Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V

Little Joe II Since Apollo, like Mercury, would require a (LES) in case of a launch failure, a relatively small rocket was required for qualification flight testing of this system. A size bigger than the NAA Little Joe would be required, so the Little Joe II was built by General Dynamics/Convair. After an August 1963 qualification test flight,[54] four LES test flights (A-001 through 004) were made at the Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January 1966.[55] Saturn I Since Apollo, like Mercury, used more than one launch vehicle for space missions, NASA used spacecraft-launch vehicle combination series numbers: AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn IB, and AS-50x for Saturn V (compare Mercury-Redstone 3, Mercury-Atlas 6) to designate and plan all missions, rather than numbering them sequentially as in Project Gemini. This was changed by the time manned flights began.[56]

Saturn I, the first US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch partially equipped CSMs in low Earth orbit tests. The S-I first stage burned RP-1 with liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer in eight clustered H-1 engines, to produce 1,500,000 pounds-force (6,670 kN) of thrust. The S-IV second stage used six liquid hydrogen-fueled Pratt & Whitney RL-10 engines A Saturn IB rocket with 90,000 pounds-force (400 kN) of thrust. A planned Centaur (S-V) third stage with two RL- launches Apollo 7, 1968 10 engines never flew on Saturn I.[57]

The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC-34, with only live first stages, carrying dummy upper stages filled with water. The first flight with a live S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed by five launches of boilerplate CSMs (designated AS-101 through AS-105) into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The last three of these further supported the Apollo program by also carrying satellites, which verified the safety of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency and severity of impacts.[58]

In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four manned CSM flights on the Saturn I from late 1965 through 1966, concurrent with Project Gemini. The 22,500-pound (10,200 kg) payload capacity[59] would have severely limited the systems which could be included, so the decision was made in to use the upratedSaturn IB for all manned Earth orbital flights.[60]

Saturn IB The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the Saturn I. The S-IB first stage increased the thrust to 1,600,000 pounds-force (7,120 kN) by uprating the H-1 engine. The second stage replaced the S-IV with the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX, to produce 200,000 pounds-force (890 kN) of thrust.[61] A restartable version of the S-IVB was used as the third stage of the Saturn V. The Saturn IB could send over 40,000 pounds (18,100 kg) into low Earth orbit, sufficient for a partially fueled CSM or the LM.[62] Saturn IB launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-200 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "2" indicating the second member of the Saturn rocket family.[63]

Saturn V Saturn V launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-500 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "5" indicating Saturn V.[63] The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to the Moon. It was 33 feet (10.1 m) in diameter and stood 363 feet (110.6 m) tall with its 96,800-pound (43,900 kg) lunar payload. Its capability grew to 103,600 pounds (47,000 kg) for the later advanced lunar landings. The S-IC first stage burned RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust of 7,500,000 pounds-force (33,400 kN), which was upgraded to 7,610,000 pounds-force (33,900 kN). The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen, and the third stage was a modified version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to 230,000 pounds-force (1,020 kN) and capability to restart the engine for translunar injection after reaching a parking orbit.[64] A Saturn V launches Apollo 11 in 1969 Astronauts NASA's director of flight crew operations during the Apollo program wasDonald K. "Deke" Slayton, one of the original astronauts who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Slayton was responsible for making all Gemini and Apollo crew assignments.[65]

Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo program. Twenty-four of these left Earth's orbit and flew around the Moon between Apollo 1 crew: , command , and Roger and December 1972 (three of them twice). Half of the 24 walked on the Moon's surface, though none of them returned to it after landing once. One of the moonwalkers was a trained geologist. Of Apollo 11 crew, who made the first the 32, Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee were killed during a ground test manned landing: CommanderNeil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot in preparation for the Apollo 1 mission.[56] Michael Collins, and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut groups. All missions were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans. Crews on all development flights (except the Earth orbit CSM development flights) through the first two landings on Apollo 11 and , included at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans. Dr. , a geologist, was the first NASA scientist astronaut to fly in space, and landed on the Moon on the last mission, Apollo 17. Schmitt participated in thelunar training of all of the Apollo landing crews.[66]

NASA awarded all 32 of these astronauts its highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, given for "distinguished service, ability, or courage", and personal "contribution representing substantial progress to the NASA mission". The medals were awarded posthumously to Grissom, White, and Chaffee in 1969, then to the crews of all missions from Apollo 8 onward. The crew that flew the first Earth orbital test missionApollo 7, Walter M. Schirra, Donn Eisele, and , were awarded the lesser NASA Exceptional Service Medal, because of discipline problems with the flight director's orders during their flight. The NASA Administrator in October, 2008, decided to award them the Distinguished Service Medals, by this time posthumously to Schirra and Eisele.[67]

Lunar mission profile

The nominal planned lunar landing mission proceeded as follows:[68]

Launch The 3 Saturn V stages burn Translunar injection After one to Transposition and docking (1) The for about 11 minutes to achieve a two orbits to verify readiness of Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter 100-nautical-mile (190 km) circular spacecraft systems, the S-IVB third (SLA) panels separate to free the parking orbit. The third stage burns a stage reignites for about 6 minutes to CSM and expose the LM. The small portion of its fuel to achieve send the spacecraft to the Moon. command module pilot (CMP) moves orbit. the CSM out a safe distance, and turns 180°.

Transposition and docking (2), The Lunar orbit insertion The spacecraft After a rest period, the commander CMP docks with the LM, and pulls passes about 60 nautical miles (CDR) and lunar module pilot (LMP) the combined spacecraft away from (110 km) behind the Moon, and the move to the LM, power up its the S-IVB, which then is sent into SM engine is fired to slow the systems, and deploy the landing solar orbit. The lunar takes spacecraft and put it into a 60-by- gear. The CSM and LM separate; the between 2 and 3 days. Midcourse 170-nautical-mile (110 by 310 km) CMP visually inspects the LM, then corrections are made as necessary orbit, which is soon circularized at 60 the LM crew move a safe distance using the SM engine. nautical miles by a second burn. away and fire the descent engine for Descent orbit insertion, which takes it to a perilune of about 50,000 feet (15 km).

Powered descent At perilune, the The CDR and LMP perform one or The ascent stage lifts off, using the descent engine fires again to start the more EVAs exploring the lunar descent stage as a launching pad. descent. The CDR takes over manual surface and collecting samples, control after pitchover for a vertical alternating with rest periods. landing.

The LM rendezvouses and docks The CDR and LMP transfer back to Trans-Earth injection The SM with the CSM. the CM with their material samples, engine fires to send the CSM back to then the LM ascent stage is Earth. jettisoned, to eventually fall out of orbit and crash on the surface.

The SM is jettisoned just before Atmospheric drag slows the CM. Parachutes are deployed, slowing the reentry, and the CM turns 180° to Aerodynamic heating surrounds it CM for a splashdown in the Pacific face its blunt end forward for reentry. with an envelope of ionized air which Ocean. The astronauts are recovered causes a communications blackout and brought to an . for several minutes. Lunar flight profile (distances not to scale).

Profile variations

Starting with Apollo 13, descent orbit insertion was to be performed using the service module engine instead of the LM engine, in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing. This was actually done for the first time on , since the Apollo 13 mission was aborted before landing.[69] The first three lunar missions (Apollo 8,, and Apollo 11) used a free return trajectory, keeping a flight path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion. Landing site lighting conditions on later missions dictated a lunar orbital plane change, which required a course change maneuver soon after TLI, and eliminated the free-return option.[70] After Apollo 12 placed the second of severalseismometers on the Moon,[71] the S-IVBs on subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit, as an active seismic experiment to induce vibrations in the Moon.[72] As another active seismic experiment, the jettisoned LM ascent stages on Apollo 12 and later missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon at known locations. The only exceptions to this were the Apollo 13 LM which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, andApollo 16, where a loss of after jettison prevented making a targeted impact.[73]

Development history

Unmanned flight tests Two Block I CSMs were launched from LC-34 on suborbital flights in 1966 with the Saturn IB. The first, AS-201 launched on February 26, reached an altitude of 265.7 nautical miles (492.1 km) and splashed down 4,577 nautical miles (8,477 km) downrange in the .[74] The second, AS-202 on August 25, reached 617.1 nautical miles (1,142.9 km) altitude and was recovered 13,900 nautical miles (25,700 km) downrange in the Pacific Ocean. These flights validated the service module engine and the command module heat shield.[75]

A third Saturn IB test, AS-203 launched from pad 37, went into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nosecone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload was the unburned liquid hydrogen fuel, the behavior of which engineers measured with temperature and pressure sensors, and a TV camera. This flight occurred on July 5, before AS-202, which was delayed because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight.[76] Preparation for manned flight Two manned orbital Block I CSM missions were planned: AS-204 and AS- 205. The Block I crew positions were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer.[77] The astronauts would wear a modified version of the Gemini spacesuit.[78]

After an unmanned LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn IB).[79] The Block II crew positions were titled Commander, Command Module Pilot, and Lunar Module Pilot. The astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo A6L spacesuit, designed to accommodate lunar (EVA). The traditional Apollo unmanned development mission visor helmet was replaced with a clear "fishbowl" type for greater visibility, launches. Click on a launch image to read and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water-cooled the main article about each mission undergarment.[80]

Deke Slayton, the grounded Mercury astronaut who became director of flight crew operations for the Gemini and Apollo programs, selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on . Slayton replaced him with Chaffee.[81] NASA announced the final crew selection for AS-204 on March 21, 1966, with the backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans James McDivitt and , with rookie Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran , Eisele, and rookie Walter Cunningham were announced on September 29 as the prime crew for AS-205.[81]

In December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled, since the validation of the CSM would be accomplished on the 14-day first flight, and AS-205 would have been devoted to space experiments and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB was allocated to the dual mission, now redesignated AS-205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew.[82]

Program delays The spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to the Kennedy Space Center with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before flight; these delays caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and eliminated hopes the first manned mission might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with the last Gemini mission. Eventually the planned AS-204 flight date was pushed to February 21, 1967.[83]

North American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM, but for the Saturn V S-II second stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the first unmanned Saturn V flight AS-501 from late 1966 to . (The initial assembly of AS-501 had to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the stage.)[84]

The problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a "tiger team" to investigate North American's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president Lee Atwood, with a strongly worded letter by Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans.[85] Meanwhile, Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module, eliminating hopes it would be ready for manned flight in 1967, not long after the first manned CSM flights.[86]

Apollo 1 fire Grissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo 1 as a motivational focus on the first manned flight. They trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at North American, and in the altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. A "plugs-out" test was planned for January, which would simulate a launch countdown on LC-34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied to internal power. If successful, this would be followed by a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the February 21 launch, with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled.[87]

The plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27, 1967, and immediately was Charred Apollo 1 cabin interior plagued with problems. First the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits, which delayed the sealing of the hatch. Then, communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in the simulated countdown. During this hold, an electrical fire began in the cabin, and spread quickly in the high pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the cabin inner wall burst, allowing the fire to erupt onto the pad area and frustrating attempts to rescue the crew. The astronauts were asphyxiated before the hatch could be opened.[88]

NASA immediately convened an accident review board, overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that "deficiencies existed in command module design, workmanship and quality control."[88] At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed as command module program manager.[89] Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) Manager Joseph Francis Shea, replacing him with .[90]

To remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch, and removal of flammable cabin and materials.[91] The Block II design already called for replacement of the Block I plug-type hatch cover with a quick-release, outward opening door.[91] NASA discontinued the manned Block I program, using the Block I spacecraft only for unmanned Saturn V flights. Crew members would also exclusively wear modified, fire-resistant A7L Block II space suits, and would be designated by the Block II titles, regardless of whether a LM was present on the flight or not.[80]

Unmanned Saturn V and LM tests On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for all flights, manned or unmanned. The sequence would The Block II spacesuit in January start with to cover the first three unmanned flights while retiring the Apollo 1968, before (left) and after changes recommended after the Apollo 1 fire 1 designation to honor the crew, per their widows' wishes.[56][92]

In September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the manned lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary; therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The A missions were unmanned Saturn V validation;B was unmanned LM validation using the Saturn IB;C was manned CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; D was the first manned CSM/LM flight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM flight; F would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing (a "dress rehearsal"); and G would be the first manned landing. The list of types covered follow-on lunar exploration to include H lunar landings, I for lunar orbital survey missions, andJ for extended-stay lunar landings.[93]

The delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on man-rating the LM and Saturn V. Apollo 4 (AS-501) was the first unmanned flight of the Saturn V, carrying a Block I CSM on , 1967. The capability of the command module's heat shield to survive a trans-lunar reentry was demonstrated by using the service module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher than the usual Earth-orbital reentry speed.

Apollo 5 (AS-204) was the first unmanned test flight of LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on January 22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1. The LM engines were successfully test-fired and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short the first descent stage firing. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a "fire-in-the- hole" test, where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. Although Grumman wanted a second unmanned test, George Low decided the next LM flight would be manned.[94]

This was followed on , 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection, followed closely by a simulated direct-return abort, using the service module engine to achieve another high-speed reentry. The Saturn V experienced pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion, which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. The damage to the third stage engine was more severe, preventing it from restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers were able to use the service module engine to essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4. Based on the good of Apollo 6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo 6 problems, NASA declared the Saturn V ready to fly men, cancelling a third unmanned test.[95]

Manned development missions

Apollo manned development mission Neil Armstrong descends the LM's patches. Click on a patch to read the main ladder in preparation for the first article about that mission steps on the lunar surface, as televised live on July 20, 1969 Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, was the C mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham. It was an 11-day Earth-orbital flight which tested the CSM systems.[96]

Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968, crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn IBs.[97] In the summer it had become clear that the LM would not be ready in time. Rather than waste the Saturn V on another simple Earth-orbiting mission, ASPO Manager George Low suggested the bold step of sending Apollo 8 to orbit the Moon instead, deferring the D mission to the next mission in , and eliminating the E mission. This would keep the program on track. The Soviet Union had sent two tortoises, mealworms, wine flies, and other lifeforms around the Moon on September 15, 1968, aboardZond 5, and it was believed they might soon repeat the feat with human cosmonauts.[98][99] The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans and , and rookie William Anders captured the 's attention by making ten lunar orbits in 20 hours, transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on , and returning safely to Earth.[100]

The following March, LM flight, rendezvous and docking were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on , and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its portable life support system (PLSS) outside the LM.[101] The F mission was successfully carried out onApollo 10 in May 1969 by Gemini veterans Thomas P. Stafford, and Eugene Cernan. Stafford and Cernan took the LM to within 50,000 feet (15 km) of the lunar surface.[102] The G mission was achieved onApollo 11 in July 1969 by an all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first landing at the Sea of Tranquility at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2 hours, 31 minutes outside the spacecraft,[103] walking on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying automated scientific instruments, while continuously sending black- and-white television back to Earth. The astronauts returned safely on July 24.[104]

That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.

— Neil Armstrong, just after stepping onto the Moon's surface[105]

Production lunar landings

Apollo production manned lunar landing mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission Apollo landings on the Moon, 1969– 1972 In November 1969, Gemini veteran Charles "Pete" Conrad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing on Apollo 12 within walking distance of the 3 unmanned lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967 on the Ocean of Storms. The command module pilot was Gemini veteran Richard F. Gordon Jr. Conrad and Bean carried the first lunar surface color television camera, but it was damaged when accidentally pointed into the Sun. They made two EVAs totaling 7 hours and 45 minutes.[103] On one, they walked to the Surveyor, photographed it, and removed some parts which they returned to Earth.[106]

The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single veteran as commander, with two rookies. Apollo 13 launched Lovell, , and in , headed for the . But two days out, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the service module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a "life boat" to return to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause, which turned out to be a combination of damage of the tank in the factory, and a subcontractor not making a tank component according to updated design specifications.[47] Apollo was grounded again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and an extra one was added.[107]

The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs were enough for lunar landing missions through Apollo 20. NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing sites, with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions, along with the payload capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in the 1967 list, allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his companions were on the surface, and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days. These missions would also carry the (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing televised liftoff of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was revised for the extended missions to allow greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV.[108]

Mission cutbacks About the time of the first landing in 1969, it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory pre-built on the ground, replacing the original plan to construct it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches; this eliminated Apollo 20. NASA's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of the successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds available for the development of the upcoming . By 1971, the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19.[109] The two unused Saturn Vs became exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, , and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.[110]

The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions. Apollo 15 had been planned to be the last of the H series missions, but since there would be only two subsequent missions left, it was changed to the first of three J missions.[111]

Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo 14, commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran , with and .[112] This time the mission was successful. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface,[113] and completed two EVAs totalling 9 hours 24 minutes, which was a record for the longest EVA by a lunar crew at the time.[112]

In , just after conclusion of the Apollo 15 mission, President proposed canceling the two remaining lunar landing missions, and 17. Office of Management and Budget Deputy Director Caspar Weinberger was opposed to this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining missions.[114]

Extended missions Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, with David Scott, and . Scott and Irwin landed on near Hadley , and spent just under two days, 19 hours on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about 77 kilograms [115] Lunar Roving Vehicle used on (170 lb) of lunar material. Apollos 15–17 Plaque left on the Moon byApollo 17 Apollo 16 landed in the on April 20, 1972. The crew was commanded by John Young, with and . Young and Duke spent just under three days on the surface, with a total of over 20 hours EVA.[116]

Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landing in the Taurus–Littrow region in December 1972. Eugene Cernan commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA's first scientist-astronaut, geologist Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt.[117] Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18,[118] but the lunar geological community lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing.[119] Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the surface for just over three days and spent just over 23 hours of total EVA.[117]

Mission summary Launch Designation Date CSM LM Crew Summary vehicle First flight of Saturn IB and Block I CSM; suborbital to AS-201 Feb 26, 1966 AS-201 CSM-009 None None Atlantic Ocean; qualified heat shield to orbital reentry speed. No spacecraft; observations of liquid hydrogen fuel behavior in AS-203 Jul 5, 1966 AS-203 None None None orbit, to support design of S-IVB restart capability. Suborbital flight AS-202 Aug 25, 1966 AS-202 CSM-011 None None of CSM to Pacific Ocean. Not flown; all crew members Gus Grissom AS-204 perished in fire Feb 21, 1967 AS-204 CSM-012 None Ed White (Apollo 1) on launch pad Roger B. Chaffee on January 27, 1967. First test flight of Saturn V, placed a CSM in a high Earth orbit; Apollo 4 Nov 9, 1967 AS-501 CSM-017 LTA-10R None demonstrated S-IVB restart; qualified CM heat shield to lunar reentry speed. Earth orbital flight test of LM, launched on Saturn IB; demonstrated Jan 22–23, 1968 AS-204 None LM-1 None ascent and descent propulsion; man-rated the LM. Apollo 6 Apr 4, 1968 AS-502 CM-020 LTA-2R None Unmanned, SM-014 attempted demonstration of trans-lunar injection, and direct-return abort using SM engine; three engine failures, including failure of S-IVB restart. Flight controllers used SM engine to repeat Apollo 4's flight profile. Man-rated the Saturn V. First manned Earth orbital demonstration of Block II CSM, launched Wally Schirra on Saturn IB. Apollo 7 Oct 11–22, 1968 AS-205 CSM-101 None Walt Cunningham First live Donn Eisele television publicly broadcast from a manned mission. First manned Frank Borman flight to Moon; Apollo 8 Dec 21–27, 1968 AS-503 CSM-103 LTA-B James Lovell CSM made 10 William Anders lunar orbits in 20 hours. First manned flight of CSM and LM in Earth orbit; James McDivitt CSM-104 LM-3 demonstrated Apollo 9 Mar 3–13, 1969 AS-504 David Scott Gumdrop Spider portable life Russell Schweickart support system to be used on the lunar surface. Dress rehearsal for first lunar CSM-106 Thomas Stafford landing; flew LM-4 Apollo 10 May 18–26, 1969 AS-505 Charlie John Young LM down to Brown Eugene Cernan 50,000 feet (15 km) from lunar surface. First manned landing, in , Sea of Neil Armstrong Tranquility. CSM-107 LM-5 Apollo 11 Jul 16–24, 1969 AS-506 Michael Collins Surface EVA Columbia Eagle Buzz Aldrin time: 2:31 hr. Samples returned: 47.51 pounds (21.55 kg). Second landing, in Ocean of Storms near CSM-108 C. "Pete" Conrad . LM-6 Apollo 12 Nov 14–24, 1969 AS-507 Yankee Richard Gordon Surface EVA Intrepid Clipper time: 7:45 hr. Samples returned: 75.62 pounds (34.30 kg). Apollo 13 Apr 11–17, 1970 AS-508 CSM-109 LM-7 James Lovell Third landing Odyssey Aquarius Jack Swigert attempt aborted Fred Haise near the Moon, due to SM failure. Crew used LM as "life boat" to return to Earth. Third landing, in Fra Mauro formation, located northeast of the Alan Shepard Jan 31 – Feb 9, CSM-110 LM-8 Sea of Storms. Apollo 14 AS-509 Stuart Roosa 1971 Kitty Hawk Antares Surface EVA Edgar Mitchell time: 9:21 hr. Samples returned: 94.35 pounds (42.80 kg). First Extended LM and rover, landed in Hadley- Apennine, located near David Scott Jul 26 – Aug 7, CSM-112 LM-10 the Sea of Apollo 15 AS-510 Alfred Worden 1971 Endeavour Falcon Showers/Rains. James Irwin Surface EVA time:18:33 hr. Samples returned: 169.10 pounds (76.70 kg). Landed in Plain of Descartes. Surface EVA John Young CSM-113 LM-11 time: 20:14 hr. Apollo 16 Apr 16–27, 1972 AS-511 T. Kenneth Mattingly Casper Samples Charles Duke returned: 207.89 pounds (94.30 kg). Only Saturn V night launch. Landed in Taurus–Littrow. First geologist on the Moon. Apollo's last, Eugene Cernan CSM-114 LM-12 and the most Apollo 17 Dec 7–19, 1972 AS-512 America Challenger recent, manned Harrison Schmitt Moon landing. Surface EVA time: 22:02 hr. Samples returned: 243.40 pounds (110.40 kg).

Source: Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (Orloff 2004)[120]

Samples returned

The Apollo program returned over 382 kg (842 lb) of lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston.[121][120][122] Today, 75% of the samples are stored at theLunar Sample Laboratory Facility built in 1979.[123]

The rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by radiometric dating techniques. They range in age from about 3.2 billion years for the basaltic samples derived from the lunar maria, to about 4.6 billion years for samples derived from the highlands crust.[124] As such, they represent samples from a very early period in the development of the , that are largely absent on Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo Program is dubbed the , retrieved by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during the Apollo 15 mission.[125] This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich mineral anorthite, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust.[126] A geochemical component called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12, which has no known terrestrial counterpart.[127] KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once The most famous of the Ferroan Anorthosite [128] completely molten (see ). Moon rocks recovered, the , returned Genesis Rock, returned from Apollo 16. Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects. Many from Apollo 15. samples appear to be pitted with micrometeoroid impact craters, which is never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many show signs of being subjected to high pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events. Some of the returned samples are of impact melt (materials melted near an impact crater.) All samples returned from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events.[129]

Analysis of composition of the lunar samples supports the giant impact hypothesis, that the Moon was created through impact of a large astronomical body with the Earth.[130]

Costs

When President Kennedy first chartered the Moon landing program, a preliminary cost estimate of $7 billion was generated, but this proved an extremely unrealistic guess of what could not possibly be determined precisely, and James Webb used his judgment as administrator to change the estimate to $20 billion before giving it to iceV President Johnson.[131]

When Kennedy made his 1962 speech at Rice University, the annual space budget was $5.4 billion, and he described this cost as 40 cents per person per week, "somewhat less than we pay for cigarettes and cigars every year", but that the Moon program would soon raise this to "more than 50 cents a week for every man, woman and child in the United States".[25] Apollo budget NASA budget Apollo share of Year ($ in thousands) ($ in thousands) total budget (%) 1960 100 523,575 <1% 1961 1,000 964,000 <1% 1962 160,000 1,671,750 10% 1963 617,164 3,674,115 17% 1964 2,272,952 3,974,979 57% 1965 2,614,619 4,270,695 61% 1966 2,967,385 4,511,644 66% 1967 2,916,200 4,175,100 70% 1968 2,556,000 3,970,000 64% 1969 2,025,000 3,193,559 63% 1970 1,686,145 3,113,765 54% 1971 913,669 2,555,000 36% 1972 601,200 2,517,700 24% 1973 76,700 2,509,900 3%

Total 19,408,134 56,661,332 34%[132]

Webb's estimate shocked many at the time (including the President) but ultimately proved accurate. In January 1969, NASA prepared an itemized estimate of the run-out cost of the Apollo program. The total came to $23.9 billion, itemized as follows:[133]

Aircraft/Operation Cost ($) Apollo spacecraft 7,945.0 million Saturn I launch vehicles 767.1 million Saturn IB launch vehicles 1,131.2 million Saturn V launch vehicles 6,871.1 million Launch vehicle engine development 854.2 million Mission support 1,432.3 million Tracking and data acquisition 664.1 million Ground facilities 1,830.3 million Operation of installations 2,420.6 million

The final cost of Apollo was reported to Congress as $25.4 billion in 1973,[1] It took up the majority of NASA's budget while it was being developed. For example, in 1966 it accounted for about 60 percent of NASA's total $5.2 billion budget.[134] That was one of the biggest investment of the US in science, research and development, and employed thousands of American engineers, scientists and technicians. A single Saturn V launch in 1969 cost up to $375 million, compared to the National Science Foundation's fiscal year 1970 budget of $440 million.[135]

In 2009, NASA held a symposium on project costs which presented an estimate of the Apollo program costs in 2005 dollars as roughly $170 billion ($215 billion in 2018 dollars[2]). This included all research and development costs; the procurement of 15 Saturn V rockets, 16 command and service modules, 12 lunar modules, plus program support and management costs; construction expenses for facilities and their upgrading, and costs for flight operations. This was based on a Congressional Budget Office report, A Budgetary Analysis of NASA's New Vision for Space, September 2004.[131] The Space Review estimated in 2010 the cost of Apollo from 1959 to 1973 as $20.4 billion, or $109 billion in 2010 dollars. ($125 billion in 2018 dollars[2])[136] Apollo Applications Program

Looking beyond the manned lunar landings, NASA investigated several post-lunar applications for Apollo hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (Apollo X,) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit, using the space in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) to house a small orbital laboratory (workshop). Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was followed by design of a larger orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty S-IVB Saturn upper stage, and grew into the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). The workshop was to be supplemented by the , which could be attached to the ascent stage of the lunar module via a rack.[137] The most ambitious plan called for using an empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for aV enus fly-by mission.[138]

The S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Dubbed Skylab, it was constructed complete on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself reentered the atmosphere in 1979.[139][140]

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation space flight, paving the way for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle and International Space Station programs.[140][141]

Recent observations

In September 2007, the X Prize Foundation and Google announced the , to be awarded for a robotic lunar landing mission which transmits close-up images of the Apollo lunar modules and other artificial objects on the surface.[142]

In 2008, Aerospace Exploration Agency's SELENE probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface.[143] In 2009, NASA's robotic Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, while orbiting 50 kilometers (31 mi) above the Moon, began photographing the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar surface, and photographed each site where manned Apollo flights landed.[144][145] All of the U. S. flags left on the Moon during the Apollo missions were found to still be standing, with the exception Tranquility Base, imaged in March of the one left during the Apollo 11 mission, which was blown over during that 2012 by the Lunar Reconnaissance mission's lift-off from the lunar surface and return to the mission Command Module Orbiter in lunar orbit; the degree to which these flags retain their original colors remains unknown.[146]

In a November 16, 2009, editorial,The Times opined:

[T]here's something terribly wistful about these photographs of the Apollo landing sites. The detail is such that if Neil Armstrong were walking there now, we could make him out, make out his footsteps even, like the astronaut footpath clearly visible in the photos of the Apollo 14 site. Perhaps the wistfulness is caused by the sense of simple grandeur in those Apollo missions. Perhaps, too, it's a reminder of the risk we all felt after the Eagle had landed – the possibility that it might be unable to lift off again and the astronauts would be stranded on the Moon. But it may also be that a photograph like this one is as close as we're able to come to looking directly back into the human past...

There the [Apollo 11] lunar module sits, parked just where it landed 40 years ago, as if it still really were 40 years ago and all the time since merely imaginary.[147]

Legacy Science and engineering The Apollo program has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history.[148][149] Apollo stimulated many areas of technology, leading to over 1,800 spinoff products as of 2015.[150] The flight computer design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the Polaris and Minuteman missile systems, the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits (IC). By 1963, Apollo was using 60 percent of the United States' production of ICs. The crucial difference between the requirements of Apollo and the missile programs was Apollo's much greater need for reliability. While the Navy and Air Force could work around reliability problems by deploying more missiles, the political and financial cost of failure of an Apollo mission was unacceptably high.[151]

Cultural impact The crew of Apollo 8 sent the first live televised pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth, and read from the creation story in the Book of Genesis, on Christmas Eve 1968.[152] An estimated one quarter of the population of saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth ,[153] and an estimated one fifth of the population of the world watched the live transmission of the Apollo 11 moonwalk.[154]

The Apollo program also affected environmental activism in the due to photos taken by the astronauts. The most famous, taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts, is . This image, which was released during a surge in environmentalism, became a symbol of the environmental movement, as a depiction of Earth's frailty, [155] vulnerability, and isolation amid the vast expanse of space. The Blue Marble photograph taken on December 7, 1972 during Apollo According to The Economist, Apollo succeeded in accomplishing President 17. "We went to explore the Moon, Kennedy's goal of taking on the Soviet Union in the , and beat it by and in fact discovered the Earth." – accomplishing a singular and significant achievement, to demonstrate the superiority Eugene Cernan of the free-market system. The publication noted the irony that in order to achieve the goal, the program required the organization of tremendous public resources within a vast, centralized government bureaucracy.[156]

Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project As part of Apollo 11's 40th anniversary in 2009, NASA spearheaded an effort to digitally restore the existing videotapes of the mission's live televised moonwalk.[157] After an exhaustive three-year search for missing tapes of the original video of the Apollo 11 moonwalk, NASA concluded the data tapes had more than likely been accidentally erased.[158]

We're all saddened that they're not there. We all wish we had 20-20 hindsight. I don't think anyone in the NASA organization did anything wrong, I think it slipped through the cracks, and nobody's happy about it.

— Dick Nafzger, TV Specialist, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center[158]

The lunar EVA video was produced with a special Apollo TV camera which scanned the picture in a format incompatible with broadcast TV. This required conversion for live television broadcast, which due to the state of 1969 technology caused some degradation of picture quality. But the unconverted picture signal was recorded on magnetic telemetry tapes. In 2006, Stanley Lebar, who had led the team that designed and built the lunar television camera at Westinghouse Electric Corporation, worked with Nafzger to try to locate the missing tapes, with the goal of seeing if more modern technology could produce a broadcast-ready picture closer to the original quality. However, in the intervening years, a magnetic tape shortage prompted NASA to recall massive numbers of magnetic tapes from the National Archives and Records Administration to be reused to record newer satellite data.[158] So I don't believe that the tapes exist today at all. It was a hard thing to accept. But there was just an overwhelming amount of evidence that led us to believe that they just don't exist anymore. And you have to accept reality.

— Stan Lebar, lunar television camera designer, Westinghouse Electric Corporation[158]

With a budget of $230,000, the surviving original lunar broadcast data from Apollo 11 was compiled by Nafzger and assigned to Lowry Digital for restoration. The video was processed to remove random noise and camera shake without destroying historical legitimacy.[159] The images were from tapes in Australia, the CBS News archive, and kinescope recordings made at Johnson Space Center. The restored video, remaining in black and white, contains conservative digital enhancements and did not include sound quality improvements.[159]

Depictions on film

Documentaries Numerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the Space Race, including:

Moonwalk One (1970) For All Mankind (1989) Moon Shot (1994 miniseries) "Moon" from the BBC miniseriesThe Planets (1999) Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005) The Wonder of It All (2007) In the Shadow of the Moon (2007) When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions (2008 miniseries) (2008 miniseries) James May on the Moon (2009) NASA's Story (2009 series) (2009) Apollo 11 (2019)

Docudramas The Apollo program, or certain missions, have been dramatized in Apollo 13 (1995), Apollo 11 (1996), From the Earth to the Moon (1998), The Dish (2000), Space Race (2005), Moonshot (2009), and First Man (2018).

See also

Apollo program portal Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package The Astronaut Monument (Iceland) List of man-made objects on the Moon List of Lockheed Propulsion Company Soviet manned lunar programs of the United States Stolen and missing Moon rocks , a fictional Moon landing

Notes This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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References

Beschloss, Michael R. (1997). "Kennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon".In Launius, Roger D.; McCurdy, Howard E. Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership. Champaign, IL: University of Press.ISBN 0- 252-06632-4. LCCN 96051213. Bilstein, Roger E. (1996) [Originally published 1980].Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. The NASA History Series. Foreword byWilliam R. Lucas. Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 36332191. NASA SP-4206. Retrieved August 1, 2013. Brooks, Courtney G.; Grimwood, James M.; Swenson, Loyd S., Jr. (1979). Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft. The NASA History Series. Foreword bySamuel C. Phillips. Washington, D.C.: Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA.ISBN 978-0-486-46756-6. LCCN 79001042. OCLC 4664449. NASA SP-4205. Retrieved August 1, 2013. Burrows, William E. (1999).This New Ocean: The Story of the First . New York: Modern Library. ISBN 0- 375-75485-7. OCLC 42136309. Chaikin, Andrew (1994). A Man on the Moon. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-027201-1. OCLC 38918860. Chaikin interviewed all the surviving astronauts and others who worked with the program. Compton, William David (1989).Where no man has gone before : a history of Apollo lunar exploration missions. NASA history series. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration.OCLC 18223277. NASA SP- 4214. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics (April 13, 1961). Discussion of Soviet Man-in-space Shot (Hearing). Washington, D.C.: 87th Congress, first session. LCCN 61061306. OCLC 4052829. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics (1973).1974 NASA Authorization Hearings (Hearing on H.R. 4567). Washington, D.C.: 93rd Congress, first session. OCLC 23229007. Dawson, P.; Bowles, Mark D. (2004). Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage Rocket 1958-2002 (PDF). The NASA History Series. Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 51518552. NASA SP-2400-4320. Retrieved September 12, 2012. Ertel, Ivan D.; Newkirk, Roland W.; et al. (1978). The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (PDF). IV. Foreword by Kenneth S. Kleinknecht. Washington, D.C.: Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA. LCCN 69060008. OCLC 23818. NASA SP-4009. Retrieved August 1, 2013. Gray, Mike (1994) [First published W. W. Norton & Company 1992]. Angle of Attack: Harrison Storms and the Race to the Moon. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-023280-X. OCLC 30520885. Hansen, James R. (1999).Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept (PDF). Monographs in Aerospace History. Washington, D.C.: NASA. OCLC 69343822. Retrieved May 3, 2012. Harland, David M. (2008). Exploring the Moon: the Apollo Expeditions. Springer-Praxis books in space exploration. Chichester, : Springer. ISBN 9780387746388. OCLC 495296214. Heppenheimer, T.A. (1999). The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space ehicleV . The NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. OCLC 40305626. NASA SP-4221. Retrieved August 1, 2013. Johnson, Stephen B. (2002).The Secret of Apollo: Systems Management in American and European Space Programs. New series in NASA history. : Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6898-X. LCCN 2001005688. OCLC 48003131. Launius, Roger D.; McCurdy, Howard E., eds. (1997). Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.ISBN 0-252-06632-4. LCCN 96051213. Launius, Roger D. (July 2004) [Originally published July 1994].Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis. Monographs in Aerospace History (Reprint ed.). Washington, D.C.: NASA. Retrieved August 1, 2013. Letterman, John B. (2003).Survivors: True Tales of Endurance: 500 Years of the Greatest Eyewitness Accounts. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-4547-4. Mindell, David A. (2008).Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight. Cambridge, : The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13497-2. OCLC 733307011. Murray, Charles; Cox, Catherine Bly (1989).Apollo: The Race to the Moon. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0- 671-61101-1. LCCN 89006333. OCLC 19589707. Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000].Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. The NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-050631- X. LCCN 00061677. NASA SP-2000-4029. Retrieved August 1, 2013. Papike, James J.; Ryder, Graham; Shearer, Charles K. (January 1998). "Planetary Materials: Lunar Samples". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. Washington, D.C.: Mineralogical Society of America. 36 (1): 5.1–5.234. ISBN 0-939950-46-4. ISSN 0275-0279. LCCN 99474392. Sidey, Hugh (1963). John F. Kennedy, President (1st ed.). New York: Atheneum. LCCN 63007800. Retrieved August 1, 2013. Townsend, Neil A. (March 1973),Apollo Experience Report: Launch Escape Propulsion Subsystem (PDF), Washington, D.C.: NASA, NASA TN D-7083, retrieved September 12, 2012 Wilford, John Noble (1969). We Reach the Moon: The New York Times Story of Man's Greatest Adventure. New York: Bantam Paperbacks.OCLC 29123.

Further reading

"Apollo Program Summary Report" (PDF). (46.3 MB) NASA Report JSC-09423, April 1975 Collins, Michael (2001) [Originally published 1974; New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux]. Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys. Foreword by . New York: Cooper Square Press.ISBN 978-0-8154-1028-7. LCCN 2001017080. Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11. Cooper, Henry S.F., Jr. (1995) [Originally published 1972; New York: Dial Press]. Thirteen: The Apollo Flight That Failed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN 0-8018-5097-5. LCCN 94039726. OCLC 31375285. Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures. French, Francis; Burgess, Colin (2007). In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965– 1969. Foreword by Walter Cunningham. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.ISBN 978-0-8032-1128-5. LCCN 2006103047. OCLC 182559769. History of the Apollo program from Apollos 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts. Kranz, Gene (2000). Failure is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0079-9. LCCN 00027720. OCLC 43590801. Factual, from the standpoint of a during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs. Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (2000) [Previously published 1994 asLost Moon]. Apollo 13. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-05665-3. LCCN 99089647. OCLC 43118301. Details the flight of Apollo 13. Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua (1999). Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-80261-9. OCLC 41579174. Tells Grumman's story of building the lunar modules. Scott, David; Leonov, Alexei; Toomey, Christine (2004). Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Space Race. Foreword by Neil Armstrong; introduction by (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-30865-5. LCCN 2004059381. OCLC 56587777. Seamans, Robert C., Jr. (2005). Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions. Monographs in Aerospace History. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-074954-9. LCCN 2005003682. OCLC 64271009. NASA SP-4537. History of the manned space program from September 1, 1960, to January 5, 1968. Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael (1995). Deke!: An Autobiography. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312- 85918-X. Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut fice,of including selection of Apollo crews. "The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 1:" (PDF). (131.2 MB) From origin to November 7, 1962 "The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 2:" (PDF). (13.4 MB) November 8, 1962 – September 30, 1964 "The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 3:" (PDF). (57.7 MB) October 1, 1964 – January 20, 1966 "The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 4:" (PDF). (24.2 MB) January 21, 1966 – July 13, 1974 Wilhelms, Don E. (1993). To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration. Tucson: Press. ISBN 0-8165-1065-2. LCCN 92033228. OCLC 26720457. The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.

External links

Apollo program history at NASA's Human Space Flight (HSF) website The Apollo Program at the NASA History Program Office "Apollo Spinoffs". Archived from the original on April 4, 2012. The Apollo Program at the National Air and Space Museum Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature at NASA (in Flash) Lunar Mission Timeline at the Lunar and Planetary Institute NASA reports

Apollo Program Summary Report (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975 NASA History Series Publications Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams at the NASA History Program Office The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal edited by Eric M. Jones and Ken Glover The Apollo Flight Journal by W. David Woods, et al. Multimedia

NASA Apollo Program images and videos Apollo Image Archive at Arizona State University Audio recording and transcript of President John .F Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb, et al., discussing the Apollo agenda (White House Cabinet Room, November 21, 1962) The Project Apollo Archive by Kipp Teague is a large repository of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings The Project Apollo Archive on Flickr Apollo Image Atlas – almost 25,000 lunar images, Lunar and Planetary Institute The short film Time of Apollo (1975) is available for free download at theInternet Archive The Journeys of Apollo - NASA Documentary on YouTube

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