DOCUMENT RESUME SO 002 538 ED 059 145 Unit in World Cultures.2nd TITLE China Today. A Resource Edition. of Education, Harrisburg. INSTITUTION Pennsylvania State Dept. PUB DATE 69 NOTE 58p. MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29 EDRS PRICE History; Chinese; *Chinese DESCRIPTORS *Area Studies; *Asian Culture; Communism; *CrossCultural Studies; Cultural Awareness; CurriculumGuides; *Foreign Culture; History Instruction;Interdisciplinary Approach; International Education; NonWestern Civilization; Resource Units;Secondary Grades; SocialStudies Units; World History IDENTIFIERS *Asian Studies; China

ABSTRACT This resource unitintended for teachers ofsecondary fundamental elements grades offers a suggestedapproach to learning provide a structured, of Chinese culture. Themajor objective is to factual framework of theforces and the 3,000 yearsof cultural evolution in whichChinese ideals andinstitutions developed and contributed to the moderncomplex society of China,through which students can appraiseand understand thepeople of that country with outlines ofsuggested content are today. Broad generalizations science given in each of thesix units that combineall of the social economics, political disciplines emphasizinggeoqI.aphy, history, structure, social fabric?.1e1 foreign relations. Ashort epilogue and short conclusionof the sequence ofevents includes a description that took place in pertaining to the ',GreatProletarian Revolution,' features include thelisting of suggested the 1960's. Special each unit; a short learning activities anddiscussion topics after bibliography; and a listof information glossary; a classified Despite changes that may sources, periodicals,films and filmstrips. have occurred since thewriting of this document,the guide will continue to be a valid andrelevant resource. (SJM) A Resource Unit in WorldCultures

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TAIWAN= ;I iot4G NAT1ONA NA) .R NAPConion 41r ong Pennsylvania Department of Public Instruction 1969 lAINAN U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECES- SARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY China Today A ResourceUnit in WorldCultures

Bureau of General andAcademic Education Director, John Kosoloski Division of Social Studies James G. Kehew, Coordinator

Second Edition

Revised by: C. Robert Scull Assistant Professor Geography Department Shippensburg State College Shippensburg, Pennsylvania 17257 First Edition published 1962

Russel Lenz and appears by courtesyof The 'Thristian Science The cover map was drawn by Policy Association, Monitor. This map appeared also inHeadline Series No. 153 of the Foreign 345 East 46th Street, New York, N. Y.10017. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

A Word About Teaching This Unit iv ChinaProgress and Turmoil Glossary

Generalizations with Outline of Suggested Content and Learning Activities: PartIGeography of China 1 Part HHistory of China 5 Part IIIEconomy of Communist China 12 Part IVPolitical Structurc of Communist China 19 Part VSo-cial Fabric of Communist China 25 Part VIForeign Relations of Communist China 41

Epilogue 45 Bibliography and Learning Materials 47 Overhead Projcction Transparency Masters 51

In 3 A WORD ABOUT TEACHING THIS UNIT

This World Cultures unit, designed for a study of area should find the materialuseful. modern China, represents an effort to present a short, Obviously it would be impossible to present a de- yet thorough overview of the fundamentalelements finitive study in such a booklet, so broad generaliza- of this complex society.It envisions the use of all tions which strikc at the heart of each topic have the social science disciplines to achieve its ends been attempted. Each teacher will probably wish to anthropology, sociology, geography, history, econom- read widely and supplement this material with find- ics, and political scienceplus the fields of literature, ings of his own. religion, and the fine arts. The intention is to im- This unit contains three basic features for each of merse the student in anunfamiliar culture by making six major areas chosen for analysis.First there are a many-sided analysis ofthe forces which contribute the key generalizations, which are followed by an to its creation, sustenance, and values. outline of content significant to their understanding. The primary concern is to form an unbiased ap- At the end of each section arc numerous activities praisal and understanding of the people of China.as and discussion topics which might be tricd to stimu- they arc today. In order to achieve this aim, basic late interest, to clinch learning, and to probe deeper geographical and historical influenc,ts are scanned. into the culture. A bibliography of books, pamphlets Those sections dealing with the economic and po- and audio-visual materials dealing with modern litical structure of China are essentially related to China is also included. Encourage studeuts to begin thc present. The social fabric is probed in a host of building a library of their own by purchasing pub- ways which might help to reveal the true naturcof lications appearing under the paperbaeked book sec- the society. tion.Films and filmstrips should be used liberally Despite the effort to examine a complex society on to enable as much visual contact aspossible with the a "here-and-now" basis, certainportions of the ma- culture being studied. Every effort should be made terial may become out-datedor utterly falseby to keep abreast of current developmentsthrough the march of events with each passing day. frequent use of contemporary periodicals. It should be understood that this publication Finally, one word of caution needs to be made. merely represents a suggested approach to the study Since much of the material available on China re- of a unit ill World Cultures. Other approaches may flects either Communist or Nationalist viewpoints, be equany valid or even superior. Since it is axio- teachers should point out to students the value of matic that there arc many paths to truth;no teacher using several sources.In fact, the teaching of this shouhl discard his own proven approach for this one, unit is an opportunity to have students learr toeval- but those who have been looking for guidance in this uate printed matter withdiscrimination and logic.

iv CHINA-PROGRESS AND TURMOIL

"Cu angeless society", "non-technical orientation", derstanding on the part of the peasant as well as the "resource poor"these and many more phrases have industrial worker. The production of motor vehicles been used 'to describe China in the past. Recent re- at one factory is not only a major economic achieve- appraisal of Communist China must refute these. ment but a symbolic "slap in the face" to those who concepts whi,:h are based upon limited knowledge for years have held Chinese technical ability in such and archaic facts. Communist China today is a rest- low esteem. less gh,nt experiencing the growing pains of an Increasing industrialization has led to a search for adolescent on the verge of maturity. basic industrial resources with expanding vigor. The The sweeping changes in traditional social, eco- results of this search are just now becoming known nomic and politicalpatterns have eliminated the to the world, but all indications are that China has concept of unchanging stagnation and backwardness. discovered adequate resources to move into the world The stormy period from 1911 to 1949, followed by of industrial_ powers. Many years of time and adjust- even more drastic changes to the present, has pro- ment are necessary before these resources can be duced a new society and severed nearly all ties with fully developed, however, the potential is now there. thc past. Despitethe seriousturmoil in China today,it Increasing industrializationis being closelyf )1- lowed by increased technical awareness that is filter- should be notedthat Communist China hasre- ing through the huge peasant population and creating entered the world of major powers. What the out- a large basic labor force. Technical skills are of an- comes of the current internal struggles will be and cient tradition in China, but applied and theoreti- who will emerge as Mao's successor must remain cal skills have just recently been introduced to the speculative today. Regardless of their final solution, masses, changing their world outlook and giving rise it is becoming an urgent necessity that every Ameri- to increasing expectations and national awareness. can student have a fundamentalunderstanding of There is a general sense of pride in accomplishments China today in preparation for his reactions and achieved through technological application and un- policies toward China tomorrow.

GLOSSARY

tung east Kang (Kong) port hsi or si west hsiang (hong) fragrant Nan south King capital pci or pelt north Chou a country hwang yellow (Hwang Ho) hsien a district ho river T'ien heaven Kiang river ta big Examples of use: hsiao little Si Kiang West River Shan mountain Hwang Ho Yellow River Ling hill or mountain NanKing South Capital Chou (Chow) island PeKing North Capital PART I

Tagh and Kunlun mountains.This Generalizations on theGeography general regioncontains numerous of China peaks of approximately 20,000feet. I.Natural geographic barriers haveisolated China b) Ih the West in SinkiangPronee are from the rest of the world throughout mostof the Tieta Shan mountains.These ex- its history.This has permitted China to de- tend for 1,000 miles and alsohave velop a culture relatively unaffected byoutside many peaks over20,000 feet. influences until recent times. c) IntbeNorthwest arc theAltai, Tannu Tuva. and the Khangi moun- II. China is the third largest countryin the world in area, yet it has difficulty insupporting the tains. world's largest population because ofthe scar- 2. Deserts regionsof city of arable land. Theprincipaldesert China are found in Mongoliaand III. Patterns of livingdiffer markedly between Sinkiang.These are some of the North and South China. Both havefrequently driest regions on earth. been plagued by natural disasters causedmainly 3. The Pacific Ocean by the climate and topographypeculiar to each Until the 19th century, this ocean region. was an effectivebarrier to invasion IV. Chinese civilization has grown andflourished from the east. aro and the great riversof China. B. The northeastern borderof China is easy to penetrate. It is into this partof China that V. Ocean commerce has not been animportant invaders have poured. To reducethe threats factor in Chinese history even thoughChina of invasion in this regionthe Chinese built has many fine ports and an extensivecoastline. the Great Wall of China. well as VI. Recent mineral and fuel discoveries, as largest country in the an expandingtransportation system, have great- II. China is the third of world in area, yet it hasdifficulty in support- ly increased the potential industrial power population because of China. ing the world's largest the scarcity of arable land. China arc con- VII. The political boundaries of A. Mainlanci China has3,691,502 square miles de- stantly changing. China has increased or of territory.Only the Soviet Union and creased in size as its power has risen or declined. Canada are larger in arca. B. China's population isimpcssible to estimate Outline of Suggested Content accurately. The best c3timatewould indi- I. Natural geographic barriers haveisolated cate a figure of over760.000,000 (including China from the rest of the workl throughout 11 million on Taiwan).This represents most of its history. This haspermitted China roughly 25 percent of the world'spopulation. unaffected by to develop a culture relatively C. China has limitedland resources. outside influences until recent times. 1. 'Only 11 percent of theland is cultivated A. Geographical features of China that have (J apan-15 U.S.-14%). reduced contacts with other peoples. 2. About 10 percent ofthe land is poten- 1. Mountains tially suitable for plowland. a) In the Southwest is the Himalayan Pasture lands account for 20 percentof system.These are China's highest 3. mountains. Here also, arc the Astin total area-8 percent isforested.

1 6 4. Approximately 51 percent of the land andpoliticalregionswith numerous is useless for agriculture. differences. D. The fertile areas of China arc in the East. B. China extends from north to south a dis- Six of every seven Chinese arc concentrated tar ',:r.! equal to that from Labrador to Puerto into about one-third of the countryL. area Rico in the Western Hemisphere, and its creating a great density of population in climate has variations even greater than these regions (aver 400 per square mile). those found between these two regions. E. The western part of China has little rainfall, C. Asian weathcr patterns give China a climate is fiercely cold in winter, and has extremely with much greaZzz fluctuations than that of hot summers. These conditions discourage the Western Hemisphere. population growth; consequently this area D. The fluctuations in rainfall have caused its is very sparsely settled.However, recent people great suffering. mineral discoveries have led to increased settlement of this area. 1.Ingeneral,South Chinaishumid, North China is subhumid, and Outer F. The basic scarcity of good land in China (western) China is arid. has greatlyaffected the development of China. 2. Rain iscarried into China from the east. The mountains of central China 1. China is a country of farmers and rural block the easy northward movement of dwellers.Eighty percent of the popu- precipitation. lation engages in some phase of agri- culture. 3.Rainfall can be very erratic especially in the North. Recurring droughts make 2. The Chinese are very frugal in their this the great famine area af China. use of available land. 4. Floods havealso beenapersistent 3. The Chinese grow only thosecrops source of trouble. The most friquently which will produce the maxinnim re- flooded area is along the lower Hwang turn per acre of land. (These crops will Ho (Yellow River) known appropri- be discussed later). ately as "China's Sorrow." 4. The difficulty of raising enough food aspecialproblem for everyone has plagued past regimes E. Typhoons have been along the southern and central coasts. and continues to cause trouble for the Chinese Communists. IV. Chinese civilization has grown and flourished III. Patterns of living differ markedly between around the great rivers of China. North and South China. Both have frequent- A. Four major rivers floweastwardacross ly been plagued by natural disasters caused China. They are, from North to South: mainly bytheclimateand topography 1. The Heilung Kiang or Amur River peculiar to each region. 2. The Hwang Ho or Yellow River A. China is divided logically into northern and 3. The Yangtze Kiang southern regions by the Ch'in Ling Shan 4. The Si Kiang or West River mountains. B. There are no important north-south flowing 1. These mountaias actas a barrier to rivers. However, the Grand Canal serves as monsoon rainfall from the south and to an artery of transportation inthis direction the dust-laden winds from the north. for over 1,000 miles. 2. The North is the dry, wind-blown wheat C. The YangtzeisChina's most important country and the South isthe green river.Agricultural and industrial develop- humid riecland. The North is further ment is growing rapidly along its course. divided roughly by the Great Wall into farm and grazing lands. D. Chinese civilization first developed around 3. These mountains lily,. divided China the Yellow River. into distinct linguistic, ethnic, cultural 1.This early civilization developed much

2 as those of the IndusRiver valley or total absolute figures place China as the the Nile valley. second highest producer i.1 the world. 2. The Yangtze Ri .er later served to nur- 2. China has tremendous potential hydro- ture an expanding Chinese civilization electric power. that existed even before the founding a) Prior to 1949 this source of energy of Rome. was largely neglected. E. Most of China's large cities lie near or are b) Under theCommunistsextensive on itsnavigable rivers or by the ocean. projects have begun to develop hy- Some important urban centers are Shanghai, droelectric power, particularly on Peking,Tientsin, Hong Kong, Mukden, the Yangtze Kiang. Canton, Nanking, and Harbin. 3.China has several oil-bearing regions V. Ocean commerce has not been an important with a steadily increasing production. Construction of refineries and transpor- factor in Chinese history even though China tation facilities arc rapidly expanding has many fine ports and an extensive coast- the value of these regions, many of line. which arc in the remote western prov- A. China possesses at least 20 seaports that can inces. provide for ocean-going vessels, yet overseas 4.China's greatest source of energy power commerce has been relatively unimportant today, as in the past, is the manual for China through most of its history. power of her massive labor forcewhich 1. China has concentrated largely on in- is improving rapidly in "technological ternal development. ability." 2. In the 19th century the Western na- D. China's mineral resources tions began to penetrate China by way 1.Substantial supplies of iron ore exist in of the east coast and trade expanded the vicinity of established metallurgical eonbiderablyintheinterestofthe bases. Western Powers. a) 3tatisties vary with one setindi- 3.Since 1949, China has again looked to cating that China is in fourth place its own internal development, although in proven iron ore re.2,Tves after the there has been an increasing effort to U.S.S.R., U.S.A., and India. develop international trade. b) Three major deposits are located VI. Recent mineral and fuel discoveries, as well near the metallurgical centersof An- as an expanding transportation system, have shaw, Wuhan, and Paot'ou. greatlyincreasedthepotentialindustrial c) Many of these deposits have an iron power of China. content of 40 percent, high by world A. Detailed knowledge of China's mineral re- standards. sources is lacking. Geological surveys until 2.China has great deposits of other metals recently were incomplete especially in the necessary for the steel industry. west of China. The new regime has been a) China'sdeposits oftungstenarc active in its explorations for resources, but enormous with productionclaimed it provides little information on its findings. to be 75 percent of the world's out- B. Latest discoveries indicate that China has put. ample natural resources for modern indus- b) Antimony is available in great quan- trial development.Coal, oil, and iron ore tity with China possessing close to 80 are becoming increasingly obtainable.Es- percent of the world's deposits. sentially China isa "have" nation on its c) Molybdenum,manganese,copper, way to becoming a major industrial power. zinc, lead, and aluminum arc avail- C. China's power base able in sufficient ivantities. 1.China is one of the richest nations of E. China's great problem in the past has been the world in high-grade coal deposits; the development of transportation facilities

3 and industrial complexes to make full use 2. Have students draw the current political bound- of remote resource bases. Relocation ofla- aries of China on an outline map of eastern Asia. borers and technicians is being encouraged On the same map have them locate the basic by the government. mountain ranges, the deserts, and have them trace the course of the Yangtze,Amur, and Yel- VII. The political boundaries ofChina are con- low Rivers. stantly changing. China has increased orde- 3. Have a student obtain information and offer a creased in sivas its powerhas risen or report on the Great Wall of China, itsrelative declined. success as a barrier toinvasions and its relation- A. Mainland China, controlled by thePeople's ship to major climatic zones. Republic of China, measures approximately 4. Have two students prepare reports on how 3,691,502 square miles. peoples' lives are affected by the differences in climate between North and South China. B. Mainland China consists of 21provinces and 5 autonomous regions. 5.Discuss the implications of generalization num- China by both ber VII. If Chinese Communist power continues C. Taiwan is claimed as part of to grow, what are likely to be itsterritorial am- the Nationalists and Communists. The ma- bitions in the light of present-day conditions? jor dispute concerns who actually represents the official government of China. 6. Assign a student to gather informationabout the rivers of China; specifically have a student!-,u- D. Outer Mongolia is an independent country vestigate the importance of the Yangtze. strongly under the influence of theSoviet Discuss the question of the similaritiesof the Union. 7. history of China and the United States inthe E. Much of the present controversy overterri- emphasis both countries have placed oninternal torial claims between China and theU.S.S.R. development. What trends will be likely for stems from the extensiveconcessions granted China's future development? Chinese Imperial Russia during a period of Should China weakness in the late 19th and early20th 8. Discuss the following question: place great emphasis on the industrializationof centuries. its economy? 9. Speculate on the fate ofChina and the course Activities of history if China did not possess itsmountain- Some Suggested Learning ous frontier. 1. On an outline map of theUnited States, have information on typhoons; scale, a 10. Have students obtain students superimpose, to approximate how these tropical storms behave;and, specifi- map of China. Havestudents locate on a globe cally, how they have affected China. their home com- the latitude of Pennsylvania and called "China's Sor- munity in comparison with pointsof interest in 11. Why is the Yellow River China. row"?

4 9 PART II

Generalizations on the History of 3.These early people were skilled in the meking of pottery and silk, had a re- China ligious system, government, and gener- 1.Chinese civilization flourished without serious ally livedby hunting,fishing,and disruption by outside influences for a longer f arming. period than any other important civilization in the world. B. Because of its peculiar geographical situa- tion(see Part I), China escaped most of II.China has been united politically throughout the periodic invasions by alien groups that, most if its history in the form of an empire for instance, disrupted Indian history. ruled by emperors representing many different 1.This isolation permitted the Chinese dynasties. patterns of life to flourish without ma- III. The Mongols and the Manchus were the only jor dilution for a period of 3,000 years. non-Chinese people able to invade China and 2.Escaping the violent upheavals result- gain complete control.Yet neither of these ing from cross-cultural conflicts, China groups greatly altered the pattern of the ex- managed to perfect its institutions to a isting Chinese society. high degree of sophistication. IV. The course of Chinese history was drastically 3.Isolated from western civilization, China changed by the advent of Western imperialism never experienced the patfernof devel- in the 19th century. opment ofthiscivilization, and the American student should realize that V. China in the 20th century is a nation in revolt. terms such as ancient, medieval, and The conflicting forces of this troubled age have modern cannot be used in analyzing helped bring into being a regime which is erect- Chinese history unless greatly modified. ing on the rubble of the collapsed old order China, until the modern era, never ex- a new society, vastly different from classical 4. perienced anything so disrupting to its Chinese civilizations. civilization as the fall of the Roman Empire or the split of Christendom de- Outline of Suggested Content spite the cyclical spread and decline of feudalism depending on the strength of I. Chinese civilization flourished without seri- the central government. OU8 disruption by outside influences for a longer period than any other important C. Classical Chinese civilization continued with civilization in the world. official sanction until the fall of the Manchu A. The earliest Chinese civilization of which dynasty in 1911. we have any record was created by a group 1.This collapse occurred when China's of rulers called Shang. According to archeo- rulers were unable and unwilling to ad- logical discoveries this early dynasty began just to the modern world. about 1500 B.C. 2.. Some aspects of classical Chinese civili- 1. The earliest civilization in China ap- zation persist today even though China peared approximately 2,000 years later is now almost unique among nations in than the early Mediterranean cultures. intense effort to break with the past. It 2.It was around the Hwang Ho (Yellow is the eradication of this tie with the River) Valley of Northern Chi-ia that past that is the goal of the recent Red this early society developed. Guard Movement. 10 5 H. China has been united politically throughout up.on its inherent capacity to rule. most of its history in the form of an empire It is important to realize that the ruled by emperors representing many dif- traditional view oflife in China ferent dynasties. was not one of progress in a straight A. The rise and fall of separate distinct dynas- line as in the West, but a cyclical ties is a recurring cycle in Chinese imperial view of history. history. h) The rise and fall of these dynasties should not obscure the genius of the 1.Chinese history(until 1911) may be conveniently subdivided into the history Chinese forperpetuating a sound of each of the passing dynasties. system of government without ma- 2. The typical pattern of the rise and fall jor change for over3,000 years. Emperors came and went; yet a fa- of a particular dynasty is as follows: miliar pattern of governmental in- a) A period of disorder exists because stitutions prevailed. a weak central government presided over by an incompetent or corrupt B. Certain dynasties stand out in the long view ruler is unable or unwilling to pro- of Chinese history because of the significance vide the necessary leadership. of their accomplishments. Space does not b) Various warlords arise in different permit discussion here of major events in regions contesting the power of the each dynasty.In later sections reference central regime. will be made to these eras. c) Economic disorder or natural calam- 1. The Chou (1028 B.C.-221 B.C.) ity produce frustration and hardship a) Three of China's greatest philoso- for the local peasantry. Both peas- phers and teachers lived in this era: ants and local leaders are condi- Confucius, Mencius, and Lao-tse. tioned to give their support to a b) By the end of the Chou and the Han new regime which seems to bring period (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), the value order out of chaos. system of Chinese culture was largely d) Out of this chaos a new leadership established. appearsusually a gi-eat warrior or c) This value system was based on the scholar who senses the needs of the Confucian view of life which will be population and with the support of discussed later. the masses overthrows the old deca- d) China existed as a unified state not dent order. through feelings comparable to mod- e) Once the machinery of the central em nationalism but becauseof the government is seized by this new loyalty of people to the Confucian leadership, the nation usually ex- ideal. periences an era ofefficientrule, 2. The Ch'in Empire (221 B.C.-206 B.C.) justice, and even a flowering of sci- In this brief period a strong ruler broke ence and culture. the power of feudal lords, completed f) This era of prosperity and peace the Great Wall, and organized the im- lasts as long as the emperor remains perial system of officials which lasted vigorous. But leadership passes from until 1911. generation to generation, and it is 3. The Han Empire (206 B.C.-220 A.D.) inevitable that less gifted emperors a) This empire was sometimes called come to power. Incompetency, dis the Roman Empire of the East. honesty and lose of contact with the peasants result and disorder grows. b) Official doctrines cf the state derived The dynasty finally reforms or col- from Confucianism. lapses. c) Examinationsystemfor choosing civil servants started. g)Throughout the history of China this cycle has repeated itself. How long d) Important military conquests were any one dynasty ruled depended made in the north, west and south.

6 11 e) Buddhism was introducedinto that extended its control as far asMon- golia,Tibet, Sinkiang and Annam; China. Nepal and Burma paid tribute tothe themselves f)Chinese like to refer to Manchus. For example, K'angHsi, a as the "sons ofHan." contemporary of LouisXIV and Peter 4. T'ang Dynasty (618A.D.-906 A.D.) the Great, was at least their equalin a) Area of China increased. his capacity to rule, hislearning, and b) Arts flourished. his general concern for matters of state. works and c) Golden Age of Buddhism. He initiated many public promoted culture. 5. The Ming Dynasty (1368A.D.-1644 A.D.) 4. The later Manchu rulers wereless effec- a) Age marked by prosperity. tive. b) Interest in traditionalChinese cul- 5.Despite the brilliance of theearly Man- ture revived. greatly became very chu rule Chinese ways were not c) Science and medicine changed, nor did this period seethe important. originality in culturalachievement of d) Europeans sent firstmissionaries: the Han, T'ang, or Sungperiods. Francis Xavier, and Matteo Rici. Chinese population, or- time of the Han C. The large mass of 6. In summary, from the ganized along strict andtraditional social to about the 18thcentury,V dynasty lines, was capable of"absorbing" the rela- China was as technicallyadvanced or invaders with little than the West. Sample tively small numbers of even more so change in the total pattern oflife. achievements of its technology weresilk making, paper, printing, use ofprinted IV. The course of Chinesehistory was drastically money, gunpowder, compass,abacus, changed by the adventof Western imperi- porcelain, and use of coal. alism in the 19th century. III. The Mongols and theManchus were the only A. The cultural ethocentrismof classic Chinese non-Chinese people able to invadeChina and civilization caused the Chinese tolook upon Kingdom and upon gain complete control. Yetneither of these themselves as the Middle the pattern of the ex- outsiders as barbarians.Chinese pride, al- groups greatly altered China isolated from isting Chinese society. ways strong,kept Western influence. Prior tothe 19th cen- A. The Mongols. tury contactsbetween China and theWest 1. In 1260 KublaiKhan, grandson of were limited.Those worthy of mention are dy- Ghenghis Khan, set up the Yuan 1. Marco Polo'strips-13th century. that lasted100 yearsand de- asty 2. WesternMissionaries-16th century. stroyed the decaying Sungdynasty. 3. Limited trade contactsin the late 18th 2.This Mongol dynasty attempted an un- century. successful invasion of Japan. B. The 19th century was anage ofWestern 3. The rulers did not upsetChinese insti- imperialism in China. tutions; instead they themselves were 1. This imperialisticrivalry among West- converted to Chinese ways. ern nations was anoutgrowth of the 4. Marco Polo came to Chinaduring this Industrial Revolution. era. 2. The sameindustrial technologywhich B. The Manchus (Ch'ing Dynasty) made nations seekcolonies and com- 1. This was one of China'slongest dynas- mercial privileges inAsia also made it ties, lasting from 1644 to 1911. difficult for a technologicallybackward nation such as China toresist European 2. Manchus were non-Chinesewarriors from Mamhuria. intervention. .by the earlier impe- rulers, China 3. China, unaffected 3. Under the early Manchu rialistic activity ofEurope in the 15th, was a powerful, prosperouscountry 7 12 16th and 17th centuries, was not so rival nations accepted the United States fortunate in the 19th century. Open Door Policy as a convenient way to 4. The nature of Western imperialistic avoid the power struggle in China for the endeavors in China was primarily com- time being. mercial. No Western power triedto F. The Westernnations broughttoChina "conquer" China. Rather each nation knowledge of Western philosophy and tech- sought to obtain more favorable conces- nology on a scalz never before experienced sions from the Chinese than the next. by China. These Western ideas presented Finally, China was forced to yield to the first serious challenge to Chinese civiliza- Westernnationsspecialconcessions tion since the beginning of the imperial rule which significantly impinged upon its before the time of Christ. rights as a sovereign nation. G. China suffered most of the disadvantages of a) A series of so-called "unequal trea- foreign intervention: dislocation of the old ties" was forced upon China which order; loss of face; and restrictions in sov- granted to various Western nations ereignty without experiencing the benefits of such special privileges as extraterri- formal colonization that Great Britain, for toriality, tariff concessions, abandon- instance, brought to India. ment of import restrictions, use of ports, and the principle of the most V. China in the 20th century is a nation in re- favored nation. volt. The conflicting forces of this troubled b) By 1900 China was so greatly ex- age have helped bring into being a regime ploited by Western powers as to be which is erecting on the rubble of the col- in danger of being completely "gob- lapsed old order a new society, vastly different bled up" by both the West and from classical Chinese civilizations. Japan. A. China, like most of the world in this cen- C. This crisis created by Western intervention tury, has been greatly affected by the fol- came at the same time that China had been lowing forces: weakened internally by the decay of the Manchu dynasty. 1. Nationalism a) Modern nationalism was late in com- 1. The years of soft living had weakened ing to China. The Boxer Rebellion the fibre of the dynasty. was one of the earliest manifesta- 2. China in the 19th century was racked tions of nascent Chinese nationalism by a series of internal revolts of which reacting to the heavy-handed West- the Taiping Rebellion was the most erninfluencesofthelate19th important. Century. D. In the last decade of the 19th century China b) The Sino-Japanese War, the Russo- experienced a series of blows that were to J apanese War, the poor treatment of rock the Manchu regime to its foundation. China at the Versailles peace confer- ence, and the Americanrestrictive 1. Sino-Japanese War (1894-5). immigration legislation all intensi- 2. Renewal of Western demands for lease. fied the bitterness of the Chinese at holds. the weaknesses of China and the 3.Reactionary leadership on the part of resultant denigration of China by the Manchu rulerthe Empress Dowa- world powers. These feelings helped ger Tzu accelerate the growth of nationalism. 4. Boxer Rebellion (1900). c) Sun Yat-sen, China's great revolu- tionarypatriot, made nationalism 5. Russo-Japanese War which was fought one of the main principlesof his on Chinese soil (1904-5). famous (San Min Jui I) program. E. Only rivakies among the great powers saved He helped to promote the idea of China from total dismemberment. These nationalism in the Western sense. 8 13 d) After the collapse of the Manchu dy- compared with the West, he made nasty in the Revolutionof 1912, far-reaching plans to modernize the China no longer had the imperial Chinese economy. system to unify China.Nationalism b) His grandiose economic program of had to fill the vacuum. The politi- reform never came about because cal chaos of the early days of the the billions of dollars of capital it Republic Indicates how slow and would have required, even if he had painful were the steps to the devel- been capable of carrying out his opment of a real feeling ofnation- plans, were not available. alism in all sections of China. c) The underdeveloped nature of China in the early days of the 20th centay 2. Democracy made economic reform a problem of a) Sun Yat-sen was educated along Western lines at Hong Kong. He massive propor tions. became a Christian and was com- d) The major industries that did de- mitted to the ideals of the modern velop in China in the 1920's and world. 1930's were in the coastal areas and in Manchuria, regions that the Jap- b) He preached the idea that democ- with China. racy should be reachedin three anese seized in the war e) Little was done to relieve the eco- stages: (1)apartypledgedto democracy must win military con- nomic problems of the peasants un- trol of the whole of China; (2) the til the early reforms of the present people must be educated for self- regime which has capitalized on uni- government first, through the cre- fied mass effortand self-reliance ation of local units of government (the concept of Tzu-li Keng Sheng). by the democratic process; and (3) a 4. Communism central democratic government must a) After tbe Chinese Communist party be created. No time schedule was was founded in1921, Mao Tse-tung attached to this plan. quickly rose to prominence as its c) Democratic government in the West- leader. ern senseneverdidoperatein b) Sun Yat-sen's Party, theKuomin- China, and today the country called tang, was modeled afterthe Russian the People's Republic of China is a Communist party and until 1926 the totalitarian regime much on the dic- Communists were permitted to re- tatorial pattern (stage 1) as seen by main in the Kuomintang. Sun Yat-sen. c) In 1927 a struggle developedwithin d) Attemptstoestablishdemocratic the Kuomintang and an opensplit government failed:(1) when Sun developed.This resulted incivil Yat-sen's republic collapsed and a war for over twenty yearsbetween militaryfigure,YuanShih-k'ai, the Kuomintang led by Chiang Kai- usurped power; (2) when Sun Yat- shek and the Communists ledby sen died in 1926before he was Mao Tse-tung. able to unite China; and (3) when d) During this struggle the Communists Chiang Kai-shek'sNationalistre- at times controlledimportant parts gime, nominally democratic, spent of northwest and north China.They most of its energies fightingthe did not "just suddenly appear" at Communists and Japanese. the end of World War II, as some 3. Industrialism may believe. a) The third point of Sun Yat-sen's e) The triumph of theCommunists revolutionary program was called over the Kuomintangin 1949, re- the "People's Livelihood."Recog- quiring the latter group to flee to nizing the underdeveloped nature of Taiwan, was the result ofcoMplex China's industry and agriculture as forces related to two fundamental 9 14 points:(1) Mao Tse-tung's "New Some Suggested Learning Activities Democracy" program seemed like an attractivealternative toa people 1.Investigate the facts related to the finding of the racked by twenty years of war, pri- famous Peking Man, one of the earliest speci- vation, and disorder; and (2) Chiang mens of prehistoric man. Kai-shek and his Kuomintang failed 2. Prepare maps or a map with overlays showing to eliminate or correct the evils char- the extent of China during the Shang, Ch'in, acteristic of postwar China. Conse- Han, T'ang, Yuan, Ming, and Manchu dynasties. quenty, Chiang Kai-shek and his 3. Have each atudent, after individual research, regime,rightlyor wrongly, were summarize on a chart the major achievements 'of blamed by the Chinese masses for the separate dynasties of China. all that was wrong in China in the 4. Discuss the following questions: What condi- 1940's. tions contribute to the collapse of a political 1)Since 1949 the Communists have regime? A nation? A civilization? Select from been remaking China on a massive Chinese history material relating to the fall of scale with the most wide-ranging the Manchu dynasty and the collapse of the effects in the entire history of the Nationalist regime to provide background for nation. the discussion. B. Mao Tse-tung is not just another warlord 5. Have a student report on the political organiza- who has come into power; his regime is re- tion of imperial China.This report should shaping the entire Chinese civilization ac- emphasize its similarities with the present politi- cording to a Western ideologycommunism, cal system and its differences. modified to meet the peculiar needs of China 6.If possible, place on reserve in the library for as he understands them. student use, books quoting extensively Marco C. Nationalist China continues to control Tai- Polo's experiences in China. What effect on wan, and this regime vows its intention to China did Marco Polo's travels have? regain control of the mainland. 7. Compare and contrast the conditions and the 1. The ChineseNationalists claim that circumstances which resulted in the opening of they are the legitimate rulers of China. China and Japan by the West. Their fealing, that the Communists are 8. Have students gather information to support the traitors in the hire of the Soviets, makes following statement: The Chinese Communist sense ifitis viewed from a Chinese Revolution dates back to 1921 and is not an event Nationalist viewpoint. The history of occurring only in 1948-49. China is a history filled with situations 9. Have all students prepare thorough biographical similar to those which exist todaya sketches of Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek and majority and a minority regime com- Mao Tse-tung. On the basis of this common peting with each other for support of preparation discuss the impact of these men on the masses.In the struggle between recent Chinese history. What similarities and these two regimes the power of the differences do they possess? Assess their relative Chinese Nationalists should not be ig- importance. nored, for they possess today far water resources than did the Communists in 10. Have individual students report on the follow- the 1930's, when theirs was the minority ing highlights in recent Chinese history: Boxer regime. Rebellion; The Long March of the Communists to Yenan; The 1931 Japanese invasion of Man- 2. Only time will tell what the future holds churia and world reaction; The role of China in for the two Chinas. Analysts who wish- World 'Wars I and II. fully predict rapid disappearance of the mainland government should recall how 11. Analyze the American Open Door Policy. How the Soviet regime survived the 1920's successful was it? and 1930's in spite of famine, civil war, 12. Investigate the role the United States played in party disputes, and the hostility of most China from 1945 to 1949. Why is this period of of its neighbors. American-Chinese relations so controversial?

10 15 13. Discuss the following question: Towhat extent China? What conditions must be present ia a is the hostile regime in China todaythe histori- country before democracy can truly operate? cal outgrowth of the Western interventionsof the 15. How has the history of Communist take-over in 19th and 20th centuries? China violated Marxist teaching and departed 14. Why was it difficult to establish a democracyin from classic communist theory?

11 1,6 PART III Generalizations on the Economy of 2. In the 20th century the industry that did develop was extensively dominated Communist China by foreign influence. I.China today has a totalitarian, state-operated, 3. The Imperial and Nationalist govern- centralized economic system which is more ments followed basically laissez-fa:re regimented and more collectivized than that of economic policies. the Soviet Union. 4. In 1949 China was still a nation made II. Because of central planning the Chinese econ- up predominantly of farmers. omy has developed since 1949 along the lines 5. Conditions in China between 1945-1949 of a rather clearly defined predetermined pro- were very chaotic.The economy had gram in which distinct phases can be noted. largely collapsed as a result of 20 years III.China's rapid population growth has created a of war. situation of perpetual crisis in China, and the B. In 1949 the Chinese Communists launched fate of the Communist regime eventually will their economic revolution. The new regime rest on its ability to come to terms with this had as its goal not a program of reform problem. but a complete reorganization of China's IV. The Chinese Communists have failed to solve economy. China's agricultural problems. The regime has I. Mao Tse-tung, leader of the new regime, now rejected its former hardMarxist-Stalinist had long advocated the need for mod- line, and is de-emphasizing the farm communes erate land reform and nat'Aonalization in an attempt to restore order to the disturbed of key industries in his book, On New and disrupted agricultural economy. Democracy. V. An analysis of the assets and liabilities inherent 2. Once in power the Communists proved in Communist China's economy leads many ob- that they were authentic Marxists and servers to the conclusion that the people are not mereagrarian reformers.They gaining a great sense of pride in their "self- acted on the precept that China's gigan- reliance" and, with the lessening of extreme tic problems could be solved onlyby pressures resulting from the Great Leap For- creatingacentralized,collectivized ward, have found greater personal satisfaction state-operated economic system. than in the past few years. 3. The goal of the new regime was tode- velop China quickly into a powerful, Outline oi Suggested Content modern state. This was to be accom- I. China today has a totalitarian, state-operated, plished bv the industrialization and the centralized economic system which is more socialization of China. regimented and more collectivized than that 4. The speed of this new regime ismani- of the Soviet Union. fested by the following statistics: A. The old China, prior to 1949, was au indus- By 1957, 99 percent of China's industry trially backward underdeveloped agricul- was state-owned,and 97 percentof turalsocietyinwhich most economic China's farmland was state-owned. The functions were performed by families, part- State carried out this program by strict nerships or guilds. rationing, forced labor, forced migra- 1. China was still in the handicraft stage tion, and a totally mobilized population. of development when the Western na- 5. In trying to turn China into an indus- tions intervened in China in the 19th trial society the Communists took a century. fairly self-sufficient economy and made

12 it dependent upon the Soviet Union fur Stalinist book.Special emphasis was capital goods and raw materials. At the placed on heavy industry. same time the ChineseCommunists a) High levels of state investment re- alienated the Western nations, thus sulted in enforced consumer aus- making themselves even more depen- terity. dent upon the Soviet Union. b) Chinese workers were goaded into a C. Those who have visited China since 1949 new world of socialist competition. testify that the economic power of the State In this Orwellian world the regime is unlimited, its activity ubiquitous, and that issued a continual flow of statistics the face of China,is undergoing a vast re- designed to encourage and demon- making. Those familiar with the old China, strate progress. it is said, would not recognize much of the c) The Communists received much new China. technical assistance and large quan- 1. Gone are the bargaining, haggling, tities of capital goods from the Soviet sharp-witted merchants who tried to get Union. Communist China had to the highest possible price from their pay for this assistance. victims. Now prices are set by the State 3. The First Five-Year Plan was a success. and merchants acquiesce. There was rapid growth. Statistics are 2.Railroads now run on time, but most very unreliable, yet it is estimated trains have loudspeakers which blare China's economy grew in this period at out to passengers the Communist party a rate of seven gr eight permit. "line" (generally ignored by the pas- a) Industries expanded in existing cen- sengers). ters such as Shanghai and Tientsin. 3. People are better-dressed, but everyone New industries appeared in more re- wears the same blue cotton clothesthat mote areas. create the image of citizenry in uniform. b) Officials began to talk of surpassing Britain and Japan in industrial pro- 11. Because of central planning the Chinese duction. economy has developed since 1949 along the c) Agricultural progress was less spec- lines of a rather clearly defined predeter- tacular. mined program in which distinct phases can be noted. C. The Great Leap Forward, 1958-1960. A. The Rebuilding Period, 1949-1952. 1. This followed the First Five-Year Plan. The radicals in the regime argued that 1. The first goal of the Communists was the earlier successes indicated the ca- the rehabilitation of the inherited econ- pacity to do even better (even though omy.Full socialization was delayed. 1957 was a year with little improvement Existing factories were rebuilt, trans- over 1956). They won theirpoint and a port was repaired, trade was revived, period of forced draft expansion was and inflation was ended. (All this was launched based on the total mobiliza- done during the Korean War.) tion of the entire population. This plan B. The First Five-Year Plan, 1953-1957 was preceded by aperiod of intense, 1. China, adopting the Stalinist system of emotional propagandizing. five-year plans, officially launched its a) Unprecedented growth rates were program of full bocialization and indus- projected and unrealistic targets trialization with its First Five-Year Plan were established. in 1953. By the end of 1955 China's b) The development of small-scale in- economy was expanding at unprece- dustry was pushed throughout rural dented rates, and a new order was China. This was the day of the back- rapidly being brought into being. yard iron furnace. 2. The Chinese copied the design of their c) Projects were based upon the use of First Five-Year Plan right out of the maximum of physical labor and a

13 18 minimum of capital. (China was no 2. Many industries are closed down for longer receiving large-scale aid from repair and renovation. A shortage of the Soviet Union.) raw materials has developed. d) Communes were organized in agri- 3. Industries producing goods for agricul- culture. ture have been given priority. e) The population was worked to the point of exhaustion. The Communist III. China's rapid population growth has created regime had to caution Party cadre to a situation -of perpetual crisis in China, and allow peasants enough time for sleep. the fate of the Communist regime eventually will rest on its ability to come to terms with 2. The Great Leap Forward was a big this problem. failure. a) Government planning broke down A. Too many people. when the national statistical system 1. The first official government census of collapsed. Cadre; to win praise or to 1954 indicated that there were over escape purging, reported production 600,000,000 Chinese. The best estimate that in some cases did not exist. (One today indicates a figure of over 750,- example is of a large coal mine that 000,000. oversubscribed its production quotas 2. An estimated annual population growth by sending to mills coal shipments rate of over two percent a year adds consisting of numerous 100-pound about 14 million more to the population boulders.) each year. b) Many of the small industries proved a) Four or five million a year are added to be too inefficient to operate. The to the labor force; industry, how- backyard furnaces were abandoned ever, can absorb fewer than two mil- as they were using much neededfuel lion a year. and producing poor quality iron. b) Cities and towns are bulging at the c) Serious bottlenecks developed in seams. The countryside (where set- transportation. tled)isalready the most densely d) Overworked peasants dragged their populated on earth. feet. B. In 1957 the regime took steps to encourage e) The communes failed to work as birth control.Itsefforts were crude;it planned. alienated many people; and after eight f) 1959 wasa year of floods and months the policy was dropped in the eupho- droughts. ria which the Great Leap Forward gener- 3. The gross national product in 1958 grew ated. at an estimated rate of 17 to 18 percent; C. The regime, after the failure of the Great yet by 1961 it was down to less than four Leap Forward, is reportedly again taking percent. steps to promote birth control.That the 4. China had experienced an economic de- Mao regime would again adopt such a policy pression as a result of poor and radical indicates, as one wag put it, "On the good planning at a time when she could ship Politburo Captain Marx is now under poorly absorb such a setback. restraint,if not in irons, and gaunt and hungry Captain Malthus is back on the D. The Current Period. bridge." Since 1961 the Communist regime has 1. b. The agricultural failures of the early 1960's shifted its emphasis from developing produced serious malnutrition and political industry to expanding agricultural pro- duction. The pressure is off. The re- discontent. gime is apparently trying to recoup 1. Communist China has had to use valu- from the dislocations of the Great Leap able foreign exchange to purchase grain Forward. from non-Communist nations. 14 9 2. Starvation or widespread famine, how- vious eras had dominated local affairs. ever, are absent in China for thetotali- This produced a period of violent class tarian government is capable of shifting conflict.Land was parceled out to supplies quickly and efficiently enough peasants. to forestall the worst calamities. This 4. In 1955-56 the regime organized the mobility of resources is a result of a peasants into approximately 750,000 col- much expanded transportation system. lective farms. These were called "higher W. The Chinese Communists have failed to solve stage agricultural collectives." In this China's agricultural problems. The regime program the various functions of plant- has now rejected its former hard Marxist- ing and harvesting were operated on an Stalinist line, and is de-emphasizing the farm interfarm and regional basis. communes in an attempt to restore order to 5.Late in 1958 the first experimental farm the disturbed and disrupted agricultural commune was organized.Eventually economy. 26,000 communes were established. A. Since the 1917 Russian Revolution most a) The commune performed every func- Communist regimes have been plagued by tion in its area including industry, agricultural problems. China is no excep- agriculture, commerce, finance, edu- tion. cation, and military training. 1. The Chinese Communist agricultural b) Communal living in barracks was policies of collectivization and commu- pushed. Peasants no longer retained nization of the land were adopted after ownership of individual land. A the Soviets themselves had modified this military-type leadership directed the approach to farm problems. labor of the commune without con- 2. China had agricultural problems long cern for the welfare ofindividuals. before 1949, and the rapid growth of c) The purposes of the communes were population has only intensified the toaccelerateprogress toward the problem. ultimate goal of a complete com- 3. The seriousness of the problem is great munist society and liberate surplus for eight out of every ten Chinese de- labor for "capital" investment in pend on agriculture for their livelihood. public works projects, part of the Increasing urbanization is intensifying Great Leap Forward. the critical nature of food supply and d) In the communes the peasants were distribution. treatedlike privates in an army. B. The First Five-Year Plan neglected agricul- They were denied the possibility the ture. In the blind haste to industrialize, ofpersonal improvement from regime did not keep agricultural problems their labors.All sacrifices were to in proper perspective, and agricultural re- strengthen the State rather than to forms lagged. ameliorate their own deprived cir- C. Collectivization of the agricultural economy cumstances. Inevitably the peasants, was from the beginningthe goal of the Com- overworked and frustrated, began to munist regime. reduce production. Agricultural pro- 1. The State established its control over duction in 1960 fell to 1958 levels. agriculture immediately by the ration- Yet there were at least 20 million ing of grain. more Chinese to feed.Recognizing 2.Peasants were pressured to join vcrious its failure, the regime in 1961 began types of farm organizations sothey to de-emphasize the communes.Par- could be propagandized on the virtues ticipation in communal activityis of the new collectivized order. now voluntary and manyof the func- 3. Land reform was instituted to destroy tions of the commune have been the powerful land owners who in pre- shifted to other groups. 15 20 6. The basic question of how to increase 6. The Soviet Union is still a source of farm production in a socialist regime economic support even though it no remains unsolved; meanwhile, natural longer provides large-scale aid. disasters have produced crop failures at 7. Because of its former undeveloped the same time the communal effort status and its Asian setting, China does failed.All this created an atmosphere not have to create living conditions com- of crisis for the regimethe greatest parable to those in the West to placate since its founding. its people. The demands for a better 7.Present policies are improving the sit- life must always be understood to be uation but agriculture remains on the relative, and China does not have to critical list. match Western standards of living to be a) Extensive and prac ti cal irrigation a leader in Asia, a position toward which she is rapidly moving. projects have taken precedence over spectacular hydro-electric projects. B. Present economic liabilities. b) Chemical fertilizers, plants and seed 1. The Communists inherited an extremely research cereers are gradually im- underdeveloped economy; therefore, proving the productive capacity of they have had enormous handicaps to the land. overcome. c) Greater production per acre as well a) In 1960 it was estimated China had asexpansion into marginal lands only 24,500 miles of railroad track of seems to be the hope of theadminis- which 40 percent was located in tration. Manchuria.This total is equal to d) Increased transportation f acilities about 1/10 of that in the United have made use of distant lauds in States. the west more feasible as a support b) Highways are still inadequate. Geo- base for the eastern urban centers. graphical barriers make road build- ing very expensive. V. An analysis of the assets and liabilities in- c) Prior to 1941 industry amounted to herent in Communist China's economy leads only 10 percent of the gross national many observers to the conclusionthat the product. A comparison of the people are gaining a great sense of pride in amount of machinery per capita their "self-reliance" and, with the lessening is interesting. If northwestern Eu- of extreme pressures resulting from the rope had been given aunit value Great Leap Forward, have found greater per- of 100, and the United States 400, sonal satisfaction than in the past few years. China in 1939 would have rated 1. A. Present economic assets. 2. China's huge population is a liability as 1. The regime has a sense of direction, a well as an asset. Food needs are con- stantly expanding and industry has dif- set of goals, and the totalitarian control ficulty absorbing the increase in the to carry out its plans. labor supply. 2. China's coal supplies and hydro-electric 3. There is an acute shortage of capital. power potentialprovide unlimited sources of electric power. a) Much of China's industrial progress to date can be attributed tothe com- 3. Recent discoveries have significantly ex- bination of Soviet assistance, utiliza- panded the mineral and fuel resource tion of previously existing industrial base. (See Part I.) capacity, the expropriation of pri- 4.China's' transport and communication vate industries, and theausterity are for the first time in its history uni- forced upon the people. fied and operating efficiently. b) New sources of capital for future de- 5. An unlimited supply of manpower velopment must be found. At the exists. present time industry is benefiting 16 21 industrial power overnight threatensthe from the "drive" ofthe people, who for the first time intheir history actual survival of the Communist re- improve gime unless it can accomplishits goal have had the incentive to the well- their conditions by their ownefforts and simultaneously improve the if even in a collective sense. being of the peasants. Often it is spectacular industrial project thathas two 4. Politicaltension between the more appeal inthis respect than much world neces- Chinas and the Western needed, small-scale improvements. sitates heavy expendituresfor the armed forces. 5. China has seriotsproblems in agricul- Some Suggested LearningActivities ture. the class a research 6. The split in Chineseleadership between 1. Assign several members of moderates partially project on agricultural productionin China. the radicals and the of crops are negates the asset of acentralized govern. Have them find out what kind relative impor- ment and economicplanning. grown, where they are grown, tance, and any other pertinentdata. Two good bureaucracy has seri- 7. The governmental sources for thisinformation are George B. ous deficiencies.It is especially handi- Cressey, Land of the 500 Million,McGraw-Hill capped by the difficulty ingathering Victor P. Petrov, uni- Company, New York, 1955 and statistical data and in establishing China: Emerging World Power,Van Nostrand, fied leadership. Princeton, 1967. problem of defi- 8. China has a continuing Western imperialism in cits in its international balanceof pay- 2. Investigate the effect of undermining the traditional Chinese economy. ments. a) In 1960 China owed itsbestcus- 3. Have four students debatethe following resolu- tomer, the Soviet Union,$300,000,- tion: "Resolved, it is aninherent characteristic 000; this is the difference invalue of human nature to desire to ownprivate prop- of its imports over its exportsin erty and to benefit from itsownership." Have Sino-Soviet trading. opposing teams select their argumentsfrom re- b) Food purchases fromAustralia and cent Chinese history. Canada have intensified this prob- 4. Develop in a class discussionthe arguments for lem. and against a highly centralized programof eco- C. This analysis of China's assetsand liabilities nomic planning by alarge underdeveloped must be viewed within anunderstanding of nation such as China. A good sourceof ideas is the Chinese mentality. The Chinese are ma- Barbara Ward, The Rich Nationsand the Poor terialistically minded, espec i ally sofor Nations, W. W. Norton Co., NewYork, 1962. always em- Asians. Their past culture has the relative degree of suc- phasized the importance ofwell-being in 5. Have students analyze another cess of India andChina in meeting rather similar this world; the hereafter, heaven, or contrasting 3co- existence after death has not loomedlarge economic problems with quite Ward, India and in the Chinese view. The peasantstradi- nomic systems. (See Barbara tionally have judged a regime on itsability the West, W. W. Norton Co.,New York, 1961.) to meet their curr entessential material 6. Discuss whether theUnited States should send needs. surplus grain products toCommunist China. 1. When the Communistsimproved the 7.Investigate the role HongKong and Macao play life of the peasants in North Chinabe- Communist China: Why fore they came to power, they were in the economic life of have the Communists notseized these ports? acting in the best Chinese traditionsand greatly facilitated their takeover. 8. Discuss why theindustrial revolution was late What effect did this late Communist in coming to China. 2. Paradoxically, however, the development of China? goal of transforming China into a great arrival produce on the 17 22 9. Discuss the implications of the famousdictum: theories and their applicability, if any, to the "Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts present population problems of China. absolutely" in the light of recent Chinese eco- 12. Have the class analyze the degree to which the nomic history. economies of the Soviet Union and Communist 10. Gather information from current periodicals on China are complementary.Assess the implica- flood control and conservation projects in China. tions of these findings. What effects will these projects have on the 13. Compare and contrast the agricultural problems Chinese economy in the near future? of the United States and Communist China. 11. Assign a student to report on Thomas Robert What conditions or factors create the problem Malthus (1766-1834) and his theories on popu- of overabundance on one hand and the problem lation problems. Have the student assess these of scarcity on the other?

18 -_ 23 S.

PART IV

3. Many freedoms are specifically guaran- Generalizations on the Political teed in their constitution eventhough Structure of CommunistChina they are restricted when it is in thebest I. In theory, Communist China is aconstitutional interest of the government. democracy with representative government. In 4. Every opportunity is takenby the re- fact, real political power resides in theCom- gime to emphasize thatCommunist munist Par':.y and its importantleaders. China is a People's Democracy. oligarchy II. The Chinese Communist Party hasmade itself B. Communist China is really an ruled by a handful of all-powerfulCommu- the master over 750,000,000 peopleby the skill- ful use of the most massive andelaborate nist Party officials. system of thought control,propaganda and psy- 1. The Party controls thepolitical ma- chological pressure ever implemented in alarge chinery of government, themilitary nation. forces, arid many other important or- ganizdtions. political subdivisions in Com- III. Theoretically, 2. The Communist Party gainsits strength munist China have large degrees of autonomy. membership of over 12, all sub- not from its In r( dirty, the central regime controls 000,000, but rather from itsrigid dis- divisions to the extent necessary to carry out cipline, its centralized character,and its its will. selectiveness in admitting newmembers. IV. The political struggle between the twoChinas 3. The power of theCommunist Party is will continue to be an important worldproblem perpetuated by constant indoctrination as long as theSoviet Union and the United and periodic purges. Also,the masses States each supports one of the opposing re- have been conditioned to acceptthe gimes.(Note that the Soviet Union is increas- Party as the sole source oftruth and ingly concerned with the strong nationalistic accept it as aunifying element. People's Re- and expansionistic policies of the C. The organization ofthe Communist Party public.) in China is modeled afterthat of the Com- munist Party in the SovietUnion. Outline of Suggested Content 1. The basic Party unit iscalled the cell. There are hundreds ofthousands of I. In theory, Communist China is a constitu- cells throughout Chinafound in vil- tional democracy with representative govern- lages, factories and armyunits. The ment.In fact, real political power resides Party depends on the smallmembership in the Communist Party and itsimportant of the local cell to carry outits direc- leaders. tives. A. The Communists have gone to greatefforts 2. Above the level of thecell are regional to create the belief that their governmentis congresses andcommittees. Each prov- democratic. ince has its ProvincialParty Congress. 1. They have a written constitution (1954) 3. At the nationallevel is the National which provides that all legislative and Party Congress which consistsof about executive power shall be placed in the 1,000 Party members.The National hands of elected assemblies. Party Congress usually, meetsannually. When it is not in session aCentral Com- 2. All citizens can vote at the age of 96 alternate eighteen. mittee of 97 regular and 24 19 members carries on Party affairs. The The Standing Committee of the National Central Committee elects a chairman People's Congress who is the most powerful person in This group carries on the functions China. Mao Tse-tung is now chairman of the Congress when itis not in of the Central Committec of theChinese session. Communist Party. The State Council 4. Above the Central Committee are two This group resembles the cabinet of important party organizations: theSec- a Western parliamentary govern- retariat and the Political Bureau(Polit- ment and carries on the important executive business of government. It buro). consists of about 40 ministries such the a) The Secretariat is responsible for as foreign affairs,national defense, day-to-day administration ofthe petroleum industries, and cultural Party. affairs and is headed by the premier b) The Politburo is the group thatde- who serves as head of the govern- termines official government policy. ment. The present Premierof Com- Thus, the Politburo, not an institu- munist Chihli is Chou En-lai. tion within the government itself, is 4. The structure of government iscarefully the real source of political power. spelled out in the 1954 constitution; it Mao Tse-tung is chairman of the grants to each level of government an Politburo as well as chairman of its elected assembly to which full powers parent body, the CentralCommittee. are delegated.However, all candidates This makes Mao the single most for election at any level must be accept- powerful person in China today yet able to the Party and subject to itswill. he does not hold any office in the Much importance is placed on the trap- government of CommunistChina. pings of the election process butall the of Com- nominees for office are selected by D. The organization of the government take munist China is modeled after the govern- Party so no really free elections can ment of the Soviet Union. place. 5. Mao Tse-tung is the mostpowerful per- L The lowest unit of local governmentis son in CommunistChina. His prestige the village people's congress. comes from his success as apioneering 2. Each province has a Provincial People's leader of the Communist Party.How- Congress. ever, Mao does notrule as autocratically as Stalin didin the Soviet Union.He 3. At the national level are the following: shares his power with othermembers The National People's Congress of the Politburo. a) This organization is comparable to 6. The Chinese CommunistParty has not the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet purged numerous leaders as'has the Union.It consists of about 1,200 Soviet Communist Party.The present members elected by the regional and Communist Chinese rulers arestill provincial congresses. This group is largely the same closely-knit groupthat technically the highest source of led the long struggle againstthe Na- power in the nation.While the tionalists. As this leadership passesfrom members meet annually supposedly the scene, problems ofsuccession will to formulate government policy,they likely appear. actually act as a rubber stamp for policies shaped by the Politburo of II. Thc Chinese CommunistParty has made it- the Communist .Party. self the master over750,000,000 people by b) This Congress elects the Chairman the skillful use of the mostmassive and elab- of the Republic who is the head of orate system of thoughtcontrol, propaganda implemented state.Liu Shao-ch'i now fills this and psychological pressure ever largely ceremonial office. in a large nation.

20 A. A basic difference exists in the manner in crises and discontent caused by the failure which the Communist Chinese and the of the rcgime to ameliorate the harsh re- Soviets established and have maintained con- alities of life in Communist China today. trol in their respective countries. Much of this energy has now been turned toward an attack on the remnants and sym- 1. The Soviets made themselves supreme bols of the "Old Order". by purging, exiling or executing dissi- dent groups. III. Theoretically, political subdivisions in Com- 2. The Chinese Communists,however, munist China have large degrees of auton- have emphasized thought reform (or omy. In reality, the central regimecontrols brainwashing asitis known in the all subdivisions to the extent necessary to Weitt) as the major method of control- carry 011t its will. ling their people. a) Thought reform is b ased on the A. The Constitution of 1954 created three levels process of encouragingconfession of of local government. past "reactionary" attitudesand be- 1.The provinces, autonomous regions, and havior until the individual becomes municipalities under the control of the receptive to re-education. The per- central government make up the highest manence of thoughtreform pro- level. duced by such methods remains to a) The 21 provinces have functions and be proved. boundaries fairly similar to those of b) Thought reform is carried out by the traditional provinces of imperial using all means of communication on China. a national scale.Thus, the most mas- b) The autonomous regions consist sive propaganda machine in the primarily of peoples who are not world operates in this country. The Chinese in descent. Examples are current Communist Party "line" on Tibet, Kwangsi-Chuang, Inner Mon- any issue isconstantly driven home golia and Ninghsia. to the people by the use ofTV, c) The three municipalities are Peking, radio, newspapers, billboards, loud- Tientsin and Shanghai. These are speakers, and party cadre. National governed directly by the central campaigns to kill flies, hate Ameri- cans, and end landlordism areall regime. pushed with equal vigor. 2. The second level of local government of B. In addition to the use of thought reform and comprises a series of regional units government operating within the prov- propaganda, loyalty to the regime is gener- ated by two other circumstances: inces. goals of the Com- 3. The lowest unit of local governmentis 1. The nationalistic where munists' appeal to the masses. the village or township except communes have beenestablished. 2. The people know that all special privi- leges (e.g. higher education) go to the B. Each of these three units or levelsof local most faithful supporters of the regime. government has a congress towhich is C. The Chinese Communists did carry out one granted both legislative and executive power. Each congress chooses a council to carry out series of mass executions (apart from their interventions in non-Chinese areas). In the its administrative tasks. years immediately after theirtakeover, they C. No.division of legislative,executive, or judi- ruthlessly purged the large landowners. cial power exists in CommunistChina. The Some authorities estimate that up to one judicial system consists of a series of courts million people were killed in this initial quite different from those inthe Unitej frenzy of land reform. States. At a particular level, a courtis re- D. The use of brute force and repressive mea- sponsible not to the next highest courtbut sures has increased recently because of food to the elected congress atits level. 21 26 D. The political system of Communist China validation or repudiation of their respective is based upon the principle of "Democratic claims."1 Centralism." Future policies are formulated 1. The United States is allied with the Re- "with a nod" in the direction of democracy public of China. The Sino-American by the highest Party officials at the national Mutual Defense Treaty of 1955 pledges level.Once a policy is adopted, then all that either nation will come to the as- Party subordinates must faithfully carry out sistance of the other nation in case of this policy. This process emphasizes central- an armed attack in the West Pacific area ism to the neglect of democracy. on the territories of either nation. E. The most significant change in the local gov- 2. The Soviet Union isallied with the ernment of China under the Communist re- People's Republic of China. The Sino- gime was the abolishment of the Hsiang Soviet Treaty of Alliance of 1950 or township in 1958 and its replacement by pledges that the contracting parties will the communes as the basic unit of gov- act to prevent any aggression on the part ernment in the countryside. Since the of Japan or any state which should unite communes have failed, the regime is experi- with Japan. In the event one of the menting further with governmental organi- parties is attacked by Japan or a nation zation in the rural parts of China. allied with it, the other nation will come to its assistance. W. The political struggle between the two Chinas 3. The United States has a treaty of al- will continue to be an important world prob- liance with Japan. Therefore, this series lem as long as the Soviet Union and the of treaties possibly could bring the United States each supports one of the op- United States and the Soviet Union into posing regimes. (Note that the Soviet Union a direct confrontation in any dispute is increasingly concerned with the strong na- between the two Chinas. tionalistic and expansionistic policies of the 4. The diplomatic struggle between the People's Republic.) competing Chinese regimes continues A. Two groups ckim to be the legal government with each side having certain advan- of China: the Communist regime, called the tages., People's Republic of China, controls main- a) The Communists have been recog- land China; the Nationalist regime, called nized by more governments of the the Republic of China, controls Taiwan world as the official government of (Formosa) and the Pescadores Islands. The mainland China than has the Na- governments at Peking and Taipei deny the tionalist government. (This includes existence of two Chinas; each claims the Great Britain and other Western other does not legally exist. nations.) 1. The Communists look upon the Na- b) The Communists have control of all tionalists as a puppet regime propped the people and resources of the up by the American imperialists. mainland. 2. The Nationalists look upon the Com- c) The Nationalists retain the seat of munists as quislings occupying China in China in the United Nations at this the hire of the Soviet Union. writing, although voting on admit- ting Communist China isincreas- 3.This struggle began in 1926 when the ingly favorable.Thisis a major Nitionalists drove the Communists out source of support to their claimsof of the Kuomintang, Sun Yat-sen's po- being the real China. litical party. d) Nationalist China is recognized as B. "In the Taipei-Peking contest the sovereign the government of China by the states of the world have been made into a United States and Japan, two nations roadside jury. Having set up these com- influential in Asian affairs. peting allegations, the Chineseboth sets of 1Paul M. A. Linebarger, "Taipei and Peking: The Confront- themnow turn to the outside world for ing Republics," Journal of International Affairs, XI, No. 2, 1957.

22 27 6. Assign an outstanding student todo a short re- Some SuggestedLearning Activities search paper on the topic "TheQuestion of 1. Have a student compareand contrast the written United Nations Membership for Red China, 1949- constitutions of CommunistChina and the United 1968," and report his findings to the class. differences occur? States. What similarities and Either have a student or the teacher prepare on Evaluate -the importance of a writtenconstitution 7. the blackboard or on dittoed sheets forclass use in preserving freedom. an outline of thefloctrinal and policy differences 2. Have a studentmake two large posters:one between Communist China and the SovietUnion. showing the organization of the governmentof What factors make an open break and conflict Communist China and the otherthe organization between these two powers likely or unlikely? of the Communist Party inChina.Consult: See Klaus Mehnert, Peking and Moscow,Mentor, History of Man, Allyn L. S. Stavrianos, A Global 1963. and Bacon, 1968. 8.Assess the role of the overseasChinese. What 3. Assign members of theclass biographical reports struggles key leaders of Communist influence will they likely play in the on the following between the two Chinas? China: Mao Tse-tung, LiuShao-ch'i, Chu Teh, and Chou En-lai. 9.Discuss with class the following quotationfrom student present a Confucius inlight of the current repressive 4. Have a better-than-average toward their book report on Artbur Koestler'snovel, Darkness policies of the Communist officials at Noon. His reportshould emphasize the nature people: of communist techniques forcontrolling men's When the ruler himself does what isright, minds. he will have influence over thepeople with. 5. Have a student debate onthe following resolu- out giving commands,and when the ruler tion: "Resolved: that theUnited States should himself does not do what isright, all his recognize 'the Communist Chineseregime as the commands will be of no avail. official government of China." Are commands necessary in a countryof 80 per- See Eustace Seligman and R. R.Walker, "Should cent illiteracy as inChina of 1949? China Policy?" the United States Change Its panel discus- Headline Series, Pamphlet # 129, ForeignPolicy 10. Have a group of students present a Starts Rethink- sion on the "CulturalRevolution" and its impli- Association, May, 1958 and "U. S. Today, ink Policies on Red China",Business Week, cations.(See Hugo Portisch, Red China Fawcett, Greenwich (Conn.), 1967, pp.362-375.) March 12, 1966.

23 08 PART V Generalizations on the Social personal thoughts, the head and the heart of Fabric of Communist China every single Chinese."' VII. Traditional Chinese art, one of the noblest I. China has the most homogeneous population of achievements of civilized man, has long been any large nation in the world. Many different in decline. The Communist attitude has only ethnic groups have gone into the makeup of delayed the possibility of the art renaissance China's population, but the long process of necessary in China if it is to regain its former amalgamation has produced a people remark- high status among nations in the arts. ably similar in racial makeup. II. Over thousands of years the Chinese have cre- Outline of Suggested Content ated a standardized written language which all I. China has the most homogeneous population educated Chinese can read. Spoken Chinese is of any large nation in the world. Many dif. remarkably varied. The need for language re- ferent ethnic groups have gone into the form has long been recognized, and the Com- makeup of China's population, but the long munists are giving these reforms a high priority process of amalgamation has produced a in their planning. people remarkably similar in racial makeup. III. The Chinese have been very eclectic in their A. The Han Chinese are the main ethnic ele- religious development. Elements of animism, ment in the population. These people, who Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have all get their name from the dynasty of the same contributed to the Chinese view of life and of name, are descendants of theoriginal the universe. dwellers of northern China. Over the years many different ethnic groups haveinter- IV. China is undergoing a profound social revolu- married with them. But today 90 percent tion. The Confucian system which long unified of all Chinese are either Han Chinese or China is disintegrating under the influence of people who have adopted their culture. Western thought. Filling this vacuum is com- B. Even though the Han Chinese are remark- munist ideology.Although it is too soon to ably homogeneous, differences do exist in foretell what lasting impact this new ideology their appearanceespecially between those will have, its immediate effect has been to pro- in the north and in the south of China. duce a violent clash of conflicting values in Chi- nese society. 1. Northern Chinese are about two inches taller in avera ge height.They are V. Mass education has been given a high priority heavier, less dark-complected, their by a Chinese government for the first time in noses are less broad, andthey are re- Chinese history. The Communist drive toward puted to be more conservative, more ending illiteracy and the vast expansion in edu- stable and more phlegmatic. cation are motivated by the desire to strengthen 2. South China has experienced sizable im- the power of the State and not by the desire to migration from the islands of Southeast improve the well-being of the individual Chi- Asia which has helped to produce nese. these differences. VI. "One cannot speak of conditions of life in to- C. The Chinese have been remarkably free of day's China without taking into account the a social caste system such asIndia has. The permanent invasion of the State and the com- 'Robert Gnillain, "Living in Communist China," Current munity into the activities, the private life, the History, December, 1958.

25

-29 many inv: ding groupshave been absorbed also shared with many non-Chinese into the population -vithout prejudicewhen- people. The Japanese, as well as others ever they agreed toadopt Chinese culture. in Southeast Asia, use many Chinese The Chinese always made the degree of ac- ideoiraphs. ceptance of Chinese culture themain cri- 2. No other language exists in which there terion for social acceptance and not one's is such a disparity between the written racial or religious background. and spoken languages. There are ideo- graphs for which no sounds exist in D. Within China separate ethnic groupsstill live that have not been absorbed into the spoken Chinese, and there are idioms major body of the chinese population. of speech for which there are no ideo- graphs. 1. About 18 non-Chinese groups live in various parts of China. However, these B. Spoken Chinese has a great variety of forms. people amount to little more than one However, an effort is being made to make percent of the population. Mandarin Chinese the "national language." This dialect is spoken in the purest form 2. The largest of the non-Chinese groups by the educa ted people around Peking. is the Chuangs who live in southwest Many forms of Mandarin Chinese exist and China in the Autonomous Republic of frequently people cannot communicate with Kwangsi-Chuang. those only twenty miles away. 3. On the western and northernborders Can- Tibetans, Manchus, 1. The major separate dialect is are found Uigurs, tonese; one who speaksCantonese can- Mongols and various other groups that not communicate with peoplespeaking are distinctlydifferent from the great Mandarin. majority of Chinese. 2. Spoken Chinese is extremelycomplex. 4. The Chinese Communists have had dif- It possesses many monosyllabic words ficulty controlling some of these groups. which have different meanings depend- The Tibetans resisted violently the re- ing upon the intonation of thespeaker. assertion of Chinese control over their It is said that Chinese must be sung, not been country. The Moslems also have spoken, to give it full clarity of mean- restless under Communist control. ing. II. Over thousands of years the Chinese have C. The Communist Chinese haveaccelerated created a standardized written language efforts begun long ago to reform the written which all educated Chinese can read. Spoken language and to make Mandarin the ac- Chinese is remarkably varied. The need for cepted form of spoken Chinese. language reform has long been recognized, 1. The major goals of languagereform are and the Communists are giving these reforms a high priority in their planning. a) to reduce the number of ideographs; b) to unify the nation by makingMan- A. Written Chinese has no alphabet. Instead, darin Chinese the spoken language ideas are communicated by an elaborate for all of China; and system of ideographs----symbols which repre- c) to develop a Roman alphabet to re- estimated that sent a word or a thought. It is place eventually the ideographs. there are over 40,000 ideographs. A simple newspaper uses over 1500ideographs to pre- 2. Language reform has definitedrawbacks sent the news. for these reasons: a) The use of an alphabet wouldde- 1. Only the well-educated can use the writ- by the pres- ten language. Illiteracy in China has stroy the unity provided always been high because the com- ent ideographs. plexity of the written language retards b) Language reform is always along attempts to end illiteracy. The written process. The spread ofMandarin language does act as a unifying factor Chinese is slowed by traditional re- in China. The Chinese ideographs are gional loyalties.

26 30 c) All the literature written in the ideo- Confucianism graphs would eventually be unin- a) The founder of this philosophical telligible to succeeding generations. system was Kung Fu-tse (Confucius) who lived around 551 to 479 B.C. 3. The Chinese are handicapped presently because their language is not adaptable Confucianism is not really a reli- to the ideas of modern scienceand gious system, but a philosophy of mathematics. Many Chinese scholars life whose founder never made any are today doing *heirscientific work in pretense of creating a religious sys- Russian, Ger- tem.Gradually, however, religious a foreign language such as overtones -.ere added. Later fol- man or English. lowers of Confucius actually revered III. The Chinese have been very eclectic in their him as a god. religious development. Elements of animism, b) Confucianism also came to mean the Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, have all total system of Chinese religious and contributed to the Chinese view of life and philosophical thought which existed ofthe universe. outside of Taoism and Buddhism. This is the meaning of the term most A.It is very difficult to find a Chinese who is a pure Buddhist, Taoist, orConfucian. The frequently used in the study of Chi- Chinese have preferred to draw their reli- nese society. gious views of life from all these faiths. The c) In his Analects or writings Confucius Chinese do not find it difficult to worship a emphasized mountain and Buddha at the same time. the importance of right conduct; B. There are really two levels of Chinese reli- the duties of social classesthe gious belief.Both sets have been greatly obedience of a man to his feudal weakened by Western influence since the overlord, a son to his father, 19th century. a younger brother tohis older brother, a wife to her husband, 1. Folk religion is the first level of religious the loyalty of a friend to a friend; belief. Some commentators say that animism is the real religion of China. a principle similar to theChristian Animism is the belief that all objects "Golden Rule"; possess a Eatural life or vitality or are no human can possessultimate en d owe d with indwellingsouls. The truth; peasants have traditionally believed belief that men are essentially that evil aLd demons are all around equal; themthat these spirits often take the the importance of charanter and form of some animal. They believed knowledge; that two elemental forces were at work 7-the supremacy of human values in the world :yinsymbolic of the ("Wisdom is to know men; virtue earth, moon, darkness, evil, and the s is to love men") ; female sex;and yangsymbolic of :--a better life would prevail for all heaven, sun, light, fire, goodness and the only when the rulers accepted male 86X. The evil spirits were always their full responsibilities to the yin and the gods were yang. There was people and the people recipro- also a strong belief in mythical creatures cated. such as dragons. This popular folk reli- gion had strong aspects of determinism d) Confucianism was the principle in it. Yet the peasants did believe in upon which Chinese lawdeveloped. one high god or a personalizedheaven. This law stressed the duties one per- son owed to anotherand the duties 2. The second level of religious belief con- owed eventually to the emperor. sists of the three main religious systems of China :Confucianism, Buddhism, e) Over the years an official Confucian and Taoism. religion developed-

27 An Altar of Heaven and Altar to Taoisnt the Earth were set up at Peking to a) The traditional founder of this phi- worship the spirits of heaven and losophy was Lao Tzu, supposedly a earth.Confucius was eventually contemporary of Confucius. It is not worshipped at these altars. known if he actually lived. The practice of honoring ancestors b) The word Tao refers to what West- was very important. This practice ern philosophers would call the antedated Confucius but his teach- "Absolute."Taoism emphasized ings did much to stimulate ances- mysticism, contemplation, and inac- tral worship. tion as the way of Tao. Ceremonies for departed spirits c) Taoism was a reaction against the were the most prominent aspectof ways of Confucianism, especially its the religious life of the old China. emphasis on the intellect. Buddhism d) Over the years Taoism has degener- a) This is the only religious faith im- ated into crass superstition, the ported into China that ever affected search for elixirs to provide eternal many Chinese. (Christianityhas life, and the practice of alchemy. never made many converts among e) Taoism was organized like Bud- the masses of peasants in China.) dhism with monks and temples. It b) Buddhism arrived in the Han Dy- accepted the ideas of the transmi- nasty.Its promise of a future life gration of souls and the law of to the believer gained rapid converts. Karma. However, since the T'ang Dynasty, f) Taoism promised immortality to this religion has been in decline. those who c) In China today, the only people who meditated on Taoist truths; culti- can be called exclusivelyBuddhists vated attitudes of inaction and are the monks and nuns. placidity; and adopted such prac- d) Buddhism was named for its founder tices as regulated breathing, diet- by the Indian prince, Siddhartha ing, self-discipline, and moral Gautama. The four essential truths living. of this 6th century B.C. religion are C. In summary the general characteristicsof (1) that life itself is the root of all Chinese religious life were: suffering; Its eclecticism (2) that sufferings are due to de- Its high degree of tolerance of other reli- sires; gions (3)that desires can be eliminated by Its optimism. There is little despair about negating all physical and ma- the human situation terial demands; and Its strong ethical note (4) that this can be achieved by Its emphasis on religious rites accumulating karma "deeds" Its orientation to the problems of this that will eventually bring the world, especially belief in the ability of emancipation of the individual. religion to improve this life e) Buddhism was particularly signifi- Its highly superstitious nature cant for the Chinese peasants who Its emphasis on both social and individual believed that the friendly offices of relationships the many Buddhist divinities could Its dependence upon a large amount of be used to combat evil spirits. They state control' also believed that a happy life be- There has been a movement away from reli- yond the grave was possible if one gion since the coming of the West in the 19th repeated the prayers and followed such orthodox Buddhist practices as 1K. S. Latourette, The Chinese, Their History andCulture, vegetarianism. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1946.

28 ,32 century. The Confucian statereligion col- 5. Divorce was rare. A man was permitted lapsed long before the Communists came to to have only one wife but concubines powcr. The Communistsofficially advocate were common. an atheisticview of life.Dialectical ma- B. Traditional Chinese society was remarkable terialism does not permit room for a reli- for its lack of rigid class lines. gious system. However, the official policyof the Communist regime had been to tolerate 1. No caste system existed as in India. No Christians and Buddhists so long as they do priestly elite dominated the society. not threaten state security. Mostforeign 2. In the Confucian era, China was ruled Christian missionaries have left or have been by an aristocracy of intellect rather than driven out of the country. heredity. a) The successful completion of com- IV. China is undergoing a profound social revo- petitive civil service examinations lution. The Confucian system which long based on the Confucian classics was unified China is disintegrating under the in- the only way to qualify for govern- fluence of Western th ought.Filling this ment positions. vacuum is communist ideology.Although it b) These exams were open to all males. is too soon to foretell what lasting impact this 3. Slavery never was very extensive; what new ideology will have, itsimmediate effect slavery did exist resulted from some- has been to produce a violent clash of con- thing other than racial bias. flicting values in Chinese society. 4. Intermarriage of foreign invaders with A. Until very recently, a strong family system the Chinese was characteristic of old emphasizing filial piety had been the key- China. stone of Chinese society. 5. The most exalted position in old China 1. The Confucian philosophy emphasized was held by the scholar-gentry who rep- the importance of the family and the resented about 10 percent of the popu- mutual responsibilities of its members. lation. The duty of the son to obey the father has been a strong tradition in China. 6. The farmer, while usually poor, never- Also, men were held to be superior to theless held a higher status than the women. morewell-to-do merchants, money lenders, or soldiers. 2. The family was the central unit in the nation.Most families lived on farms, 7.Ancestral worship, 80 pervasive in old and handicraft was the only type of China, reduced physical mobility. Peo- manufacturing done. ple did not like to leave their homes because they feared that absence from 3.If one person in a family committed a their ancestors' graves would bring ad- crime, the whole family was held re- versity. sponsible. This circumstance made the family the most important institution 8. An elaborate system of rules and regu- for social control and moral education. lations pertaining to social intercourse In China the family performed func- elevated coirect form to the highest im- tions usually allocated to government in portance. Much stress was placed on other societies. ceremonies and the amenities of social relationships. 4. The institution of marriage was a very important means of preserving the old a) The Chinese are highly sensitive order. Marriages were arranged by the about the matter of "face". (Face parents of the bride and groom. Fre- roughly the avoidance of error or quently, a couple never saw each other ridicule that wouE be damaging to until they were married. After marriage the family name and image.) the bride became a member of the b) They are an intensely proud people. groom's household. c) They dislike physical violence. A

29 99 , threat to strike a blow is to give great of rural China stillretains many offense. traditional elements. d) The Chinese highly esteem dignity b) When China was violently rocked by of person. Western intervention and Japanese 9. The Chinese find the directness of invasions, the energies of her people speech and thc hurried pattern of West- were involve d in self-preservation ern behavior crude. rather than in creating some new harmonious cultural synthesis which 10. In the traditional Chinese view, a tran- the country so desperately needed. quil mind was a man's richest posses- sion. c) Ironically, the best that the West had to offer in creating this ideal C. So long as China remained isolated, the synthesisdemocracy, respect for in- social patterns of old China remained stable, dividual rights, and Christian ethics but changes came rapidly beginning in the were too closely identified with 19th century. predatory W e stern imperialism to receive the attention they deserved. 1.The ideals of modern nationalism, de- mocracy, and industrialismbegan to 3.Into the chaotic situation produced by unhinge the traditional pattern of Chi- the disorganization of the social system nese society. rushed communist ideology.Because a) City life became more important this philosophy was carried forward by and offered an escape from rural a group unequaled for itsdiscipline, a drudgery. fanatical sense of rightness, and a mis- b) The ideals of individualism im- sionary zeal, the Communists were able ported from the West helped to to fill this void in China with greater ideo- undermine the Confucian ethic and success than other less organized the stability of the family. logical groups. c) Superstitions and traditionalreli- 4. The Communist social system clashes in gious rites became less pronounced many instances with traditionalChinese with a more scientific attitude to- patterns. For example, the Communists ward life. have declared that the following old d) The idea of national greatness par- patterns must give way to new:1 tially replaced loyalty to the family. a) Veneration of the past to whole- e) The humiliation caused by Western hearted confidence in th .-. future. dominance of China caused many b) Respect for learning to worship of people to reject China's traditional manual labor. way of life as inferior to theWest's or at least incapable of resistingthe c) Loyalty to family and friend to loy- alty to the party and nation. West. f) The long years of foreign and civil d) "Face" to public admission of guilt. war since 1912 destroyed manyof e) The incentive of private gain to that the old loyalties and weakened co- of future benefit of fellow country- hesive forces (e.g. the rural landlord, men. the urban bourgeois). f) Good manners and reserve to violent 2. The process of evolving a new synthesis outbursts of hate and love. in Chinese societythe best of the West g) The middle course, a sense of humor with the best of the Eastwould have and a sense of proportion to rigid taken more time and greater isolation intolerance b need on a world of from the chaotic affairs of Asia than black and white. f ate permitted. a) It takes time for old patterns of 1Peggy Durdin, "Mao's China", Headline Series #136. For. living to change. Even today much eign Policy Association, July.Angust, 1959.

30 34 either the wish or h) The ideal of tranquility tothe ideal no longer possesses the will to escape."' of tense, constant struggle. inevitably arises: Why of lifeis 7. The question 5. In practice a new pattern did the Chinese, elpeciallythe intellec- evolving in CommunistChina which the suc- radical so- tuals, accept the Communists as has produced the following cessors to theNationalists? cial changes: a) Largely, it was thebelief that the a) Because they cannotbe trusted by Communists would secure aplace in the Communist Party,the intellec- Communists the lowest the sun for China. The tuals have been reduced to were seen as a means tobring about level of the social scale. national vindication. b) Industrial worke.sand scientific spe- b) The irony is that theChinese who cialists now fors; the highestclass in in the new abandoned their traditional ways China. This group provides protest against theWest have adopted leaders for the Party.(It is ironic leaders of a Westernphilosophy of communism to note that the present as a palliative. Communist China areprimarily in- they now c) Just as the Communists arecommu- tellectuals, the very group inevitably hold in such disrepute.) nizing the Chinese, so communism in China hastaken on c) The family is aprime target of the It is the has uniquely Chinese aspects. Party. The patriarchal system lack of clarity as to whatfinal amal- been weakened. Women nowhave gamationwill come out ofthe equal rights with menwhich include Chinese mind and Divorce merger of the the right to hold property. Communist ideology thatmakes it so Women have has been made easier. difficult to predict futuretrends in been employed outside thehome in going on China the social revolution now positions of every description. for some 19 years inChina. even has a womangeneral in the army. V. Mass education hasbeen given a highpriority d) Filial piety hasbeen abolished. Sons by a Chinese governmentfor the first time and daughters are urged todenounce in Chinese history.The Communistdrive their fathers and mothersfor reac- toward ending illiteracyand the vast expan- tionary thoughts anddeeds. sion in education aremotivated by the desire e) The Party is assuming anincreas- to strengthenthe power of the Stateand not ingly enlarged responsibilityfor the by the desire to improvethe well-being of raising of children. This isespecially the individual Chinese. where the true in the communes A. China has an ancienttradition of respect for children spend most oftheir time in education. But this education wasalways nurseries. limited to the intellectuallygifted who could f) Pay for work doneby any member qualify for the study ofthe Confucian clas- of a family goes to themember who sics. This emphasis on anintellectual elite earned it and not to thehead of the combined with the rural natureof tradi- family ab traditiondemands. tional China producedalmost universal illit- thus faced technological and eracy.The Communists were 6. In summary: "With with the huge problemof a population in psychological weapons unknownin old could not relentlessly to which it was estimated 80 percent China, Peking moves read or write in 1949. create the Chineseversion of the organi- zation man: the humanbeing so per- B. The Communistshave launched a truly re- fectly synchronized withthe Party that markable educationalrevolution in their he not only echoes butanticipates its bidding, the individualpersonality so Howard L. Boorman, "HowHas China Changed",New Re- well adjusted to his narrowcell that he public, v. 136, No. 19, Hay13, 1957. 31

S") drive to become a great power.'Accurate means to bring about more quicklytheir and more recent statistics arc notavailable social, political, and economic aims. since 1961 when the governmentstopped re- 2. The Chinese Communists inject propa- leasing them and all figures of recent years ganda into such unlikely subjectsas are estimates. mathematics. For instance, the follow- 1. A vast school building program isunder- ing math problem is found in the cur- way in China. In1949 there were an riculum of a school for factory workers: estimated 350,000 schools for 25,000,000 "In the United States the number of pupils. In 1961 it was estimated that half-starved people is twice the number there were 1,000,000 schools for108,- of the unemployed and is 5,000,000 less 000,000 pupils.If true, this is a 400 than the number who have to live in percent increase. Nothing likethis has slums. As one-half the number of the ever occurred in anynation before on slum dwellers is 11% million, what is such a scale.2 the number of unemployed in the United States?" 2. Higher education is reported to bein- creasing at a rate of 500 percent. (The 3. Science, mathematics and engineering United States increased the number of receive the highest priority in the students in higher education 40 percent schools.This isin line with China's between 1949-1961.)Enrollments in desire to industrialize quickly, but it is 1,000 institutions of higher education also a reflection of the extremely back- are now estimated tobe over 800,000. ward state of scientific knowledge in adult China up to the 20th century. Today, 3. A great war is 1:eing waged on advanced scientific work is being done It is estimated that 50 per- illiteracy. in Peking and other parts of China, but cent of the Chinese can nowread and this is a relatively recent development. write to a limited degree compared with 20 percent in 1949. This has been ac- a) Liberal arts are nonexistent in the complished by workers attending eve- curriculum. ning schools and peasants attending b) Technical education is strongly em- schools held during the winter months. phasized. In 1965 over 75,000,000 were enrolled in 4. Only the ideologically correct-thinking these schools. student is permitted the chance for ad- C. The Communists state the purpose of edu- vanced study. All advanced students cation to be the following:..."raising of must pass security clearances. the cultural level of the people, training of 5. All students above the primary level are personnel for national reconstruction, eradi- assigned to a specific curriculumand cation of feudal comprador (serfdom) and after graduation are sent tothe job and fascist ideology, and development of the location of the Party's choosing. ideology of service to the people." This is physical in startling contrast to the traditional Chi- 6.All students must do some labor while in school. nese philosophy ofeducation which valued learning for its own sake. D. To insure that its educationalobjectives are 1. To achieve this purpose rhe schools dis- accomplished the Communist partycoordi- communication, all or- pense as much indoctrinationand prop- nates all means of aganda as they do learning.The ganizational activity, every phase ofChinese Communists look upon the schools as society to reflect the goals andaims of the the best way to win support of the Party. masses. They use thecurriculum as a I. Writers, artists, actors, evencircus per- formers must carry out the properParty 'The present "Cultural Revolution" has seriouslydamaged propaganda line. previous strides made in education to an unknown degree. 'William Benton, "Education in Red China", SaturdayRe. 2. Press censorship or the totalmonopoli- rim July 15, 1961. Thh article is the source for mostof this sation of communication mediaelimi- discussion on education.

32 36 nates the possibility ofconflicting views (4) College admittance is based on undermining the State's educational successful passing of central gov- policies. ernment examinations. d) College is a four-year program. 3. The consequence of all this isthat there (1) Instruction at this level is very is no intellectual freedomwhatsoever in Communist China, but neither isthere narrow in scope.A student would study mine operation, for a lag betweenthe schools and society happen in a free society. instance, exclusively for four as is bound to might in- This totalitarian mobilization ofmen's years. Other courses minds makes this educational program clude such things as paper man- of China a frightful thingbothdanger- ufacturing or city planning. ous and tragic. (2) A student is highly motivated to do his best in .such a system. E. The organization of education inChina is The failure to pass exams at any somewhat similar to the European system; level means the student is con- for progression from onc level tothe next is demned to a lower status in so- only possible after passing difficultexami- ciety than one who passes on nations. Only a small percentage ofstudents through the system.Competi- ever reach theuniversity level. Educational tion is extremely keen. opportunities are particularlylimited in F. Many problems exist in theCommunist drive rural areas. to expand education. 1. The typical pattern of educationfor a 1. The lack of capital makes itimpossible child of an urban factory worker is as to care for the almostinfinite number follows: of students. Education is still not com- a) Entrance of thc child into kinder- pulsory in China for this reason. Also, garten at age three. He remainshere fees are commonly charged, and stu- until he is seven. This long stiy in dents must work for the stateduring kindergarten is due to the desire of recess or vacationwithout compensa- the Party to establish control over tion. children as early as possible. 2. Provision has been made for over91,- b) Primary school lasts for six years. 000,000 primary school children(with The curriculum is very similar to double sessions) yet only 15 percentof that of an American school except them can be accommodated in junior for the constant indoctrination. middle programs. However, the student must pass a 3. A severe shortage ofteachers exists and central government examination to teacher morale has been adverselyaf- pass on to the nexthigher school. fected by assignment to difficultadult c) Secondary school lasts for six years. schools or distant frontier schools. (1) a junior middle program is 4.China's difficult language hi-,compli- three years in duration cated the battle against illiteracy. (2) a senior middle program is also S. Even with the recent vastexpansion of three years long education, China still suffers from a crit- (3) two kinds of secondary schools cal shortage of experts in allthe tech- exist for distinctly different pur- nical fields. poses: 6. Beginning in the summer of1966 the (a) The general school empha- "Great Proletarian Revolution"dis- sizes academic programs. rupted educational services at alllen:a (b) Specialized schools em- and closed the universities. Ther!egree phasize the study of such of injury to previous development can specific fields as forestry, only be estimated but this turmoil must pharmacy, and engineering. be viewed as a major disaster.

33 u97 VI. "One cannot speak of conditions oflife in weight of the totalitarian pressures directed today's China without taking into account the against the family in China. permanent invasion of the State and the com- 1. In Communist ideology loyalty to the munity into the activities, the private life, the State and Party must supersede loyalty personal thoughts, the head and the heart of to the family. every single Chinese.'" 2. Members of families are frequently sep- A. In trying to understand the pattern of daily arated for long periods by order of the life in China, the first point to realize is that State. China is an extremely poor country even a) In rural communes, children are within its Asian setting. taken from parents at the age of 1. Average salaries of workers are less than three and placed in nurseries during $300 a year. the day so that the mothers can be 2. Farm families frequently average less freed for work in the fields or fac- than $300 a year. tories. 3. The diet of the average Chinese is esti- b) In cities, fathers are frequently sep- mated to average only 600-900 calories arated from their families by moving daily. to dormitories at their site of work 4. Such Western conveniences as running for six days a week. water, electricity, and central heating c) The bureaucracy may arbitrarily are still rare for Chinese. separate husband and wife by assign- ing each to different jobs in different 5. Even if a Chinese worker had the neces- sary money, many of the amenities of parts of China. The case is told of Peking and the life Westerners consider essential, such a couple who lived in husband was transferred to Chung- as soap, sugar, milk, meat, vegetables and quality clothes could not be pur- king. After a considerable wait the chased or would be in scarce supply. wife secured a transfer to Chungking One worker questioned by a foreigner only to learn on arriving there that was asked what his greatest wish was. her husband had been transferred to His answer :"to have a little more a third city. pork." 3. Duty owed to the State comes before B. In Communist China the urban factory personal needs. worker has been better treated by the re- a) In communes the typical day begins gime than the rural farm worker. with rifle drill and ends with propa- 1. The Chinese peasant has always been ganda sessions. poorer. b) Campaigns to kill flies, build roads, take precedence 2. The regime gives special bonuses to city or hate Americans workers to encourage industrialization. over personal desires. 3. The reforms in the countryside empha- D. No matter how hard one works, thesurplus size social change rather than economic created from his extra individual effort goes improvement. to the State. 4.Educational opportunities arefar 1. Communist leaders are pushing indus- greater in the cities than in rural areas. trialization by extracting the necessary 5.Health facilities, recreational opportuni- capital from the peasants by delaying ties, and other advantages are more improvement in their standard of living. numerous in the cities. 2. Consumer needs have low priority; a C. Family life as it is known in the West is good example is that the electric lamps rapidly disappearing under the crushing are dimmed inthe city of Shanghai in the evening to shunt additional power t Robert Cabin, "Livins in Communist Chins," Current to the factories in the suburbs. December, 1958.

34 Communists some- Constant exhortations by partycadre in China today: "for the 3. how distort the very essenceof thingsor are the meansby which the hurried worse still, theybelieve their own lies, which pace i3 maintained. are not reallylies, but a kind of obsessive E. In spite of the harshrealities of life today idea. As a result they do not try tohide in China, conditions haveimproved in some anything. They are so certain ofthe excel- areas over pastdecades." lence and reality of their obsessiveideas that 1.Public services are now efficiently oper- any one whorefuses to see things iheir way ated and more readily available. is simply a malicious saboteur or aspiteful idiot and both must be reeducated." 2. A program of socialinsurance has been instituted.This covers medical care, VII. Traditional Chinese art, oneof the noblest hospitalization, disability, and old age achievements of civilized man,has long been pensions. in decline. The Communistattitude has only 3.Rigid price controls havereduced the delayed the possibility of the artrenaissance problem of inflation.' necessary in China if itis to regain its former 4. Public health is greatlyimproved. The high status among nations in the arts. massive epidemics of the past arebe- A. In the traditional Chinesesociety, art was coming rare. valued for its own sake. Alleducated per- sons wereexpected to be knowledgeable 5.Begging, prostitution, and concubinage form of art have been outlawed and greatly reduced. about art and to practice some in their leisure time. 6. People are better-dressed,the previous traditions in China. "blue uniform" now being replaced 1. Art has ancient Primitive forms of Chinese artexist as by more colorful clothingand styles. Women wear clothing similar tothe far back as 4000 years ago. men as they oftenhave similar jobs. 2. China never experiencedanything so Conformity is the rule. disruptive as the "Dark Ages" inthe 7. Corruption of public officials is no evolution of its art. longer a serious problem. 3. Over the rpan ofChinese history the the average eras of the T'angand Sung dynaslies 8. The purchasing power of stand out as the most creativeperiods worker has increased. in the development of art. of the Chi- F. Repulsion at the regimented life a) The influence of Buddhismin this nese under Communismshould not make the period had a strong effect in pro- sudden Westerner predict the likelihood of ducing quality art. China revolution in China. One cannot judge prob- observer b) Sculpture, painting and poetry by Western standards. As one wise ably reached their greatestheights put it: "there is no room yetfor happiness (in China) but there is room forhopeand in the T'ang period. of art: ceram- that is half-way to happiness." If the current c) In some special forms and food crises, apathy, and politicaldiscontent ics, rugs, carpets, bronzework continue to persist, the hope forimprove- architecture, the era of theMing ment may fade completelyand revolution dynasty was important. will become a possibility. B. Painting appears to bethe most significant G. It is impossible to convince adedicated Com- and most highly creativeform of art in munist that things could be wrongwith life Chinese history. Chinese painting is donewith a brush 'These improvements were the result of theinitial successes 1. of the Communists in the years 1949.1958. A greatdeterioration using ink or water colors.It is closely occurred in living conditions after the failure of theGreat Leap associated with calligraphy,the drawing Forward until 1964. The time lag in getting bewsfrom China today precludes an accurate description ofconditions in 1968 of the Chinese ideographs. but considerable improvement was noted until1966 and the "Cultural Revolution." For an unconfirmed viewthat condi. of China. New York, Pitman lions were horrible in 1962 see ValentinChu, "The Famine I Peter Schmid, The New Face Makers," The New Leader, June 11, 1962. Corporation, 1958. 35

t99 2. Paintings were usually placed on scrolls 2. The architecture of Peking has made it and were seldom framed. Painting was one of the really great cities in the world. also done frequently on silk or heavy Its imperial palaces are still an archi- paper. These circumstances accountfor tecturalattraction.The Communists, the paucity of the classical paintings left however, are corrupting the classic in Ch;na today. Relatively few works of beauty of Peking by building huge the great masters have been preserved. buildings that are a warped merger of the traditional and socialist realism 3. Landscapes were the most popular sub- architectural styles. jectfor Chineseartists.Religious themes, flowers, trees and birds are also D. Sculpture has not been as significant in recurring objects in Chinese painting. China's artistic endeavors as some other 4. The Chinese were probably the first forms of art. "impressionists" in that they did not try 1. The T'ang period is again the era of to reproduce a scenephotographically the greatest work in sculpture. Today but rather to give a personal impression Buddhist statues from this era still of what the artist saw. abound. The large stone statues which still are left are usually the least orig- Color has been an important element in 5. inal in design. Chinese painting. 2. Secular sculpture in China was done 6. Two of China's greatest painters were primarily for decorating tombs. Ku K'ai-chih and Wu Tao-tsu. E. Ceramics and Chinese art are almost synony- C. Chinese achievements in architecture are mous. Pottery and porcelain works of art noteworthy, but few examples remain of were very prevalent. The name"China" has ancient Chinese architecture as the Chinese in Western parlance become synonymous usually built with perishable materials such with porcelain. In the Sung and Ming dy- as wood. nasties ceramics flourished. Even down into 1. Among the identifiable characteristics the recent period artists in porcelain were of Chinese architecture are the follow- producing quality work. ing: F. Works of art in bronze have always been a) The attempt to build structures that popular in China. More examples of bronze were in harmonious agreement with work remain from the earliest eras than any the universe.(An example to the other art forms. contrary would be the Empire State 1. Buddhist images were the most frequent Building in the United States.) subjects for bronze designers. b) Prominent use of walls. The Great 2. Bronze tablets were popular for placing Wall of China is the most famous on graves. example of such concern with walls, for cities, temples, and houses are G. Literature has been very important in Chi- usually surrounded by walls. nese history. Two kinds ofliterature exist: works written in classic style by the scholars, c) The enclosed court. and the folklore and more informal litera- d) The extensive use of wood. ture written in a morecolloquial style. e) Beams are left exposed for orna- 1. Prior to the coming of the Communists, mental purposes. the Chinese treasured most highly their f) Buildings are frequently built on classical books written in the Chou and platforms. Han periods. The Ana leas of Confucius g) Prominence of the roof which is us- are an example ofthis kind of litera- ually tiled. ture. h) Ubiquitousness of the pagoda. This 2. Works of history have been highly structure is closely associated with prized. The Chinese are among the Buddhism and is Chinese in design. world's most enthusiastic historians.

40 3. Many treatises were written on China's and its basic form was developed during traditional form of government. the reign of Huang Ti (2697 B.C.). 4. Writings about archaeology have been 2. A scale of twelve untempered half-tones both numerous and popular. W88 the first important form for musical composition. Later, during the Ming 5. The Chinese have been great encyclo- dynasty, a pentatomic scale evolved. In- pedists. terestingly, each degree of this scale was 6. Each of the great religious groups pro- given a name as follows: duced a voluminous literature. FEmperor 7. Poetry has been the most perfected lit- GPrime Minister erary form in China andprobably the ALoyal Subjects most popular. Li Po and Tu Fu are CAffairs of State China's most famous poets. DMirror of the World 8. Novels were looked down on by the 3.Microtones, which were used in early scholars, and most fiction was produced Chinese music, are still used in the form in the vernacular language. of sliding tones. Orche.tras numbering H. The theatre has long been an important in- 500 to 900 players were used in the stitution in China and it remains popular. T'ang dynasty. The exquisite instru- ments used in this dynasty are still used 1. Pantomimes with music date from early throughout the Orient. historic times and commemorate the deeds of ancestors. 4. Some of these Chinese instruments are the following: 2. The drama has always been an impor- San-Hsien, a long-necked lute the body tant agency for popular education. of which is covered with snake skin 3. The theatre in China uses little scenery; a short lute masks and elaborate costumes are used. Ti-Tau, a Chinese Bute 4. Musical accompaniment is typical of She, a fourteen.to-fifty-stringed zither most dramatic programs. Yuen Ch'in or Moon Guitar Erh-Hsien, a two-stringed fiddle 5. Chinese singing is high in pitch, and Po-Fu, a small drum Chinese singing voices have a falsetto Lo, a gong quality to Western ears. La-Pa, a trumpet 6. Themes in the theatre vary greatly. J.Beginning with the Ch'ing dynasty, at least, c3comedy, tragedy, romance, and history Chinese achievements in the various forms ate common forms. of art began to deteriorate in the general 7. While the theatre has always been pop- chaos that characterized China in the last ular, it has not been used as it has often centuries of imperial rule. been in the West to expound profound 1. In the 19th century Chinese students philosophical ideals. For this purpose began to study painting in Europe in an the Chinese have preferred to use phi- attempt to create a new synthesis of losophy. Western and Chinese painting that 8. The opera is very popular in China. would revive art in China. This country is a pioneer in this form 2. All during the 1920's and the 1930's of dramatic entertainment. artists were groping for new forms to I.The music of China is pure, melodic, void of express the conflict of ideas atwork in repetition and unadorned. The sounds of China. Some artists abandoned entirely Chinese music which Westerners often de- Chinese art forms. scribe as noise are, in actuality, means or. 3. Wood block painters began to beim- contrast. portant. This movement was led by Lu 1. Emperor Fu Hsi (2852 B.C.) is credited Thig form of artistic expression with having invented Chinese music, was readily adaptable topropaganda,

37 41 and its subject matter was very prole- Asian countries as part of their general effort tarian and filled with discontent. The to expand their system. Of course, this "cul- Kuomintang despised this dominant tural diplomacy" is used by Weste a nations, phase of painting in China in the 1930's too, in this era of cold war. for it was a primary vehicle for spread- ing communist ideology. Some Suggested Learning Activities K. The Communists inherited three kinds of painting: 1.Debate the following resolution: "Resolved: The attempt to reduce the importance of the family 1.Painting in the traditional Chinese man- of the by the Communists is doomed to failure, because ner which was only a remnant of the innate nature of mankind." former glory of Chinese painting. 2.In a class discussion compare and contrast the 2. A modern movement in art which was role of consumers in an extremely low per capita experimenting with non-Chinese forms. income nation with the United States. How is 3.The wood block movement previously capital investment secured? described. 3.Assign some student to do research on Com- L, The Communist view of all forms of art is munist ideology to determine what makes the that the artist is the servant of the State and Communists so fanatical in their zeal. the Party. All art must convey the ideas 4.Assign each student an art project or a written the Party wants its citizens to have.If an report on some phase of Chinese art. Displaythe artist is uncooperative, he is transferred to best examples of Chinese art produced by the some other activity. class. 1.Socialist realism is the approved style 5. Make a field trip to a large museum to visit its in art. This requires that a painting be oriental collection.If no museum is available photographic and easily recognizable by nearby, encourage your librarian to purchase the masses. This is contrary to all tra- some of the books on Chinese artlisted in the ditions in Chinese painting. bibliography, and assign students to read and 2. Painting has been used to push cam- report on these books. paigns such as those to clean streets and 6.Discuss the following question in class: What is to liberate Taiwan. the relationship, if any, between the presence of 3.It is unlikely in the absence of freedom religion in a culture and the artistic achieve- that Chinese artists will be able to ments of that culture? Is it merely anaccident evolve a new style of Chinese painting that the highest development of Chinese art oc- to restore it to it's former, elevated sta- curred during the T'ang dynasty when Buddhism tus. This same lack of freedom will dis- flourished and the lowest point at present when courage individualism in other art forms atheism is the official dogma of the society? as well, and individualism isthe essence 7. Have a committee read the works ofConfucius of creative effort. and compile a list of his sayings which still seem to have much wisdom for our age.When they M. The Communist regime has pushed a "do-it- report have the class analyze thephilosophy of yourself" cultural revolution. All peasants and proletarians are encouraged to paint, this sage. write poetry, and produce other works of 8.Assign four or five students to read booksby art. Never have so many done so much of recent travelers to CommunistChina. Students' such a pedestrian nature. It is hard to be- reports should emphasizethe daily pattern of lieve that quality work will come out of this life there.(See the bibliography for some Bug- campaign. gested books.) Chinese restau- N. The Chinese Communists believe that the 9. Have the class or a group eat at a Chinese cuisine. arts are a useful element in the direction of rant to sample traditional foreign affairs. They frequently promote art 10. Assign a student to do a research paperabout the festivals and writers' conferences. They ex- nvival of traditional medicine in Communist port various kinds of performers u. nearby China. This report should try to evaluate which

38 c. marriages in of the old practices inChinese medicine still 13. Discuss the question of arranged See Ruth Adams, Contemporary class. How isit possible that China continued seem effective. without China, Vintage, New York, 1966. thispractice for thousands of years young people rebelling enmasse? How has this Chinese education 11. Discuss in class the official system changed? for students to policy of requiring examinations making models qualify for advancement to the nextlevel.Is 14. Assign a student who is good in to make a model of the imperi al palaces at this desirable? Peking or a typical Buddhist temple. 12. Discnis in class the questionof the importance What are 15. Contact the art teacher and askhim if he will of freedom in the educational process. students to ex- Chinese Communist permit a representative group of the specific limitations of the ideographs. approach to education? periment in the drawing of Chinese

39 43 PART VI

Marxist line are viewed as a passing of Generalizations on the Foreign the revolutionary torch to the People's Relations of Communist China Republic. I.China has had an expanding concept of global B. This global view is totally different from the mission since the founding of the Chinese Com- lack of involvement or interest shown by munist Party. precommunist China. IL At present emphasis on national security and C. Communist China sees itself as setting the internal development tends to override concern pattern and example for the Marxist con- for world-wide revolutionary movements. cept of eventual world communism. III. The United States has been designated by the IL At present emphasis on national security and Communists as the main enemy of the People's internal development tends to override con- Republic, a role that has been strengthened by cernforworld-wide revolutionarymove- its military stance in Asia. ments. t IV. Although limited in volume, generally open A. The Chinese qommunists feel themselves trade with many countries is carried on by the enuircled by an, agonistic nations backed by People's Republic despite a strong United States alliances with the United States. embargo. 1.This view of China's condition places V. Chinese Communism is an important revolu- the Communists in the defensive posi- tionary force in Asia. How successful the tion. Chinese Communists are in exporting their sys- the 2. China's policy seems to be directed tem to other Asian nations will determine toward "neutralizing" its Asian neigh- future course of Asian history. bors rather than active conversion to communism. Outline of Suggested Content B. The Communist leaders are having difficulty I. China has had an expanding concept of in stabilizing their political and economic global mission since the founding of the system internally and a .e in no position to Chinese Communist Party. (See Lin Piao's concentrate on world communist movements article, "Long Live the Victory of the Peo- beyond offering loud moral support. ple's War," 1965. Copies available through 1. One must view carefully the compari- China Publications. See bibhography.) son between wordsand action in the A. The Communists seized power in mainland case of the People'sRepublic. Loudly China by military force. voiced belligerent policy is often marked 1. The apparent trend is to support mili- by rather cautious action. tary uprisings or "national liberation 2. The Chinese Communists feel thatthe movements" around the world. "soft" policies of the Soviet Union and 2. These "liberation" movements are sup- the withdrawal of Soviet aid have weak- ported by material aid but not troop ened China's position and encouraged commitment. harsher United States policies toward 3. The results of the Korean War gave the their regime. People's Republic greater stature as a C. Most of the Chinese border conflictstoday military power in Asia. are rooted in thebelief that all territory 4. The revisionist policies of the Soviet ever included in theManchu Empire should Union in deviating from the "pure" be restored to China.

41 44 mainland China and has used constant pres- 1.These areas include Korea, Taiwan,the Ryukyus, the Pescadores, Burma, Bhu- sure to encourage itsallies to do the same. tan, Tibet, Nepal, Annam,Outer Mon- 1.This policy was designed to weaken golia, parts of Soviet Central Asia, and China's economic growth, restrictits eastern Siberia. military potential, and isolate China 2. Such efforts at regaining territory can politically as well as economically. be traced partiallytcthe desireto 2.This embargo has not been effective establish some of the past grandeur of since most allies of the United States China. have drifted into increasing trade rela- D. The present regime in China vividlyrecalls tions with China. Today China can the humiliations at the hands of theWestern secure nearly all ofthe import goods powers at the end of the19th century and it needs desires to restore world respect. B. Eastern Europe provides China with a major E. The successful detonation ofadvanced types source of technical expertsand industrial ofatomic bombs indicatestechnological products as well as an ideological battle- ability that cannot go unheeded inthe ground with the Soviet Union. world of prestige and military power. Many C. The aim of Chinese Communist policyin feel that China is ahead of France inthis Western Europe is to expand trade relations field.' while encouraging support for the entrance by the of the People's Republic into the United III. The United States has been designated Nations. Although there is split, opinion on Communists as the main enemy of the Peo- ple's Republic, a role that has been strength- the issue, nearly all European nations to whom trade is vital trade freely withCom- ened by its military stance in Asia. munist China. A. The United States views the challenge of the entire Communist world as a threat to its political and economic system. 1. The United States policy of "contain- In the end the Socialist system will re- ment" in Asia is essentially the same as place the Capitalist system. This is an that practiced in Europe: an attempt objective law independent of human tocontain China withinitsborders will. No matter how hard the reaction- while endeavoring tostrengthen the aries try to prevent the advance of the position of surrounding nations. wheel of history, revolution will take place sooner or later and will surely 2. Where the allies of the United States triumph. lack sufficient military strength to bal- Mao Tse-tung, 1957 ance whatisseen asa Communist threat, the United States is committed to fill the vacuum. B. United States support of the Republic of V.Chinese Communism is an important revo- China (Taiwan)is aimed at limiting the lutionary force in Asia. How successfulthe external political effectiveness of the Peo- Chinese Communists are in exportingtheir ple's Republic. system to other Asian nationswill determine the future course of Asian history. IV. Although limited in volume, generally open A. There are three fundamental goalsof Chi- trade with many countries is carried on by foreign policy: the People's Republic despite a strong United nese Communist States embargo. 1. To reestablish China to itstraditional predominance in Asia. This goal has its A. Since 1950 the United States has placed a origins in ancient Chinese traditions. virtually total embargo on all trade with China has always sought to play the role 'Joint Congreuional Committee on Atomic Energy. /mpact of the Middle Kingdom, a civilized of Chinese Communist Nuclear Weapons Progreu on United island surrounded by barbaric peoples.' States National Security.Washington, D. C. 20510, 1%7. (Free)

42 45 2. To achieve the status of a major world that the balance of world power bad power.China todayis striving to shifted to ti.Communist camp. A new achieve the vision of greatness that Sun aggressive line in foreign affairs saw the Yat-sen first possessed--that of a great Communists initiate a new Quemoy Chinese nationin thetruly modern crisis, aid the rebels in Laos, and engage sense. in disputes with Indonesia and India. 3. To spread Communism throughout Asia 4. The Current Period: 1960 to the Pres- and the rest of the world. This adds a ent new dynamic to Chineseforeign policy The Chinese Communists have con- --menacing- the peace of Asia. The first tinued a somewhat hard line and par- and second goals would have existed ticularly have been involved in border even if the Communists had neverseized disputes with India. They have also pOwer. supported revolutionary regimes in B. The Chinese Communists have shifted their Southeast Asia, Albania, and Cuba with strategy and tactics frequently with changing Viet Nam taking thc ipotlight. Yet the conditions in their relentless efforts to paramount development in this period achieve their foreign policy goals. has been the growing tension between In retrospect, since 1949, there have been Communist China and the Soviet Union. certain definite phases in Communist Chi- a) Many factors have produced this ten- nese foreign policy. (Thedates are approxi- sion:traditional differences in na- mate.) tional interests, disputes over who shall lead the international commu- 1.Thc Stalinist Period: 1949-1952 nist movement, and differences of a) In this period the Communists were opinion about what should be the very aggressive and followed ahard international communist party line. Stalinist line.Because of the early (The Chinese Communists believe successes of the Communists in gain- Mao Tse-tung is the successor to ing control of the mainland, the Marx, Engels and Lenin, as chief leaders believed they were riding the Communist party philosopher, and wave of the future. they continue to hold Nikita Khrush- b) This was the era of the interventions chevin rather low esteem while in Korea and Tibet. At this time the ariding direct personal reference to Communists had little concern about present Soviet leaders.) the adverse effects of these actions b) Ehrushchev's denouncing of Stalin on world opinion. was the immediate causeof open 2.The era of "PeacefulCoexistence": friction between the Chinese and 1954-1957 Soviet Communist regimes. In this period the Communist Chinese c) China has continued to attack the shifted their line in the attempt to Soviet Union for "forsaking the revo- woo the neutralists. TheCommunists lutionary ideals" of Marx but has not courted the new nations of Asia and openly attacked Premier K4sygin or Africa at the Bandung Conference. By party Chairman 13rezhnev. subtle means the Communists hoped to undermine the influence of the West C. The Chinese Communists believe thattheir in Asia.Outright support of Asian unique form of communist revolution has communist revolutionary forces 'WM re- shown itsp-irticular applicability to the duced. former colonial areas of Asia and Africa. They envision themselves as part of the great 3. The Return to thc Hard Line:1957- sweep of history, andbelieve it is their duty 1960 to export their ideology. This rather drastic shift came about with the orbit of the Russian sputnik 1. The Chinese Communists look upon which produced the feeling in Peking themselves as the champions of the col- 43 46 onial and former colonial peoples of setbacks in China's ability to expand Asia and Africa. They feel that the her role of leadership. Chinese revJlutionary pattern of using the peasants 24 the hest source of power to overthrow existing "bourgeois" or Some Suggested Learning Activities "imperialist" regimes is the key to suc- 1. Have students prepare a simulated United Na- cessful revolution in Asia in contrast to lions debate on the admission of Communist the more orthodox Marxist emphasis on China. The many aspects of this issue may be the use of the industrial proletariat. presentedif students carefullyresearch and 2. The Chinese Communists also advocate represent the views of many nations. the skillful exploitation of discontent 2. Have students prepare a panel discussion on the caused by colonialism, feudalism, and effectiveness of United Statesforeignpolicy rising expectations of the masses. toward Communist China. This works best if 3. The Chinese Communists have success- the audience isprepared to raise important fully dramatized the premise that pro- questions. longed military resistance to an estab- 3. Structure a time line of United States-Chinese lished regime is a more effective method relations for large-group discussion. of seizing power than strikes or a coup 4. Allow a few capable students to research and trt4tat. evaluate the amount of foreign trade currently 4. The Chinese Communists also preach engaged in by Communist China. that socialism can be launched without 5. Assign reports evaluating the effectiveness of waiting for the breakdown of a capital- United States policy toward Nationalist China. istic system. In their view it is possilde to take a feudal society and remake it 6. Hare students prepare a map of Communist into a communist system without going China today and China under the Manchus. through the successive stages of indus- Other students may research the history of the trial development that Marx reasoned presentland claims of Communist China to were necessary. explain this map. D. Whether communism will or will not tri- 7. Hold a class discussion on factors which help to umph in Asia deoends upon the relative determine a nation's foreign policy. Debate this Chinm Communist foreign policyis success that the Chinese Communists and point: nothing more than the reassertion of China's tra- the non-Communist governments of Asia ditional imperialistic policim have in their struggles to improve the wel- fare of the people under their control. See Ruth Adams, Contemporary China, Vintage, 1966. I.It is not clear now whether Communist China will create a new authoritarian 8. Analyze the methods used by the Chinese Com- order in most of Asia or whether in- munists to subvert Asian nations. ternal difficuhim and the harsh realities See Richard L Walker, "Communist China Power and Prospects," New Leader, October 20, of their regimented system will negate its initial dynamism. 1958 and Levi, "China's Asian Policy," Current History, September, 1966. 2. The major obstacle to Eventual Chinese domination of Asia is the feeling of 9. Discuss with class Chinese foreign policy in light nationalism on the part of the Indo- of the point of view or C. P. Fitzgerald, "Chinese nesians, Indians and others that the Fore i gn Policy," Contemporary China, Ruth Chinese themselves have.Ultimately Adams, ed., 1966. the limitation of Chinae Communist 10. Have a student report on the border disputes expansionism will depend upon the cre- between India and China: areas of conflict, back- ationof viable independentnations ground of dispute, recent incidents, etc. around its borders. That this is now 11. Discuss with class the impact of modern national- occurring is by no means certain. ism on affairs in Asia since 1945. How effective 3. Recent disturbances such as the Red an obstacle to communismwill Asian nationalism Guard Movement have caused serious be? EPILOGUE

hotly was ripe Throughout the main body of the text,references school enrollment. Now the student andMaoimtraining. Between to the "Great ProletarianCultural Revolution" have formobilization Much of the current in- August 1966 and February 1967these organized stu- been carefully restricted. unleashed in formation available has beenspenilative or based dents, known a. the Red Guards, were local leadership wal, even on very limited sources,thus making a cautionary all region. where the The fact remains. slightly anti-Mao.These teenagers attacked any tatement of this type nemssary. luourgeois ele- lmwever. that a slate or serious fermenthas existed thing or person thought to represent cm.ailing zeal seldt.m wit- in China 'ince the fall of 1965 evenif its true nature ments or the past with a nessed. The reopening or school. inFebruary 1967 and objectives have remainedolt,enre. known as "The ended what was probably the mostdestructive period The mass mobilization program since 1919. Mao Great Leap Forward" resulted in adisastroos failure or general mansion ern in China aimed pri- had succeeded in exposing a newgeneration to the in the early 1960's. This program was that be feltto marily at stimulating and emotionallyexciting the exciteme a and revolutionary teal effort to establish economic- he so vital. mass of people in an caused by this fren- of nationalism. The The severe economic sellikek progress and a greater fienw taken by collapse of this mass drive was PO drasticthatit zied outburst and often recorded extremes Serious goes- Red Guart: units has eamedmuch comment anti shook the very roots of Mao's regime. control exerted the policy decisions speculation on the actual degree or iions were raised concerning This remains one of and authority of Chairman Maowithin the high by Mao during this period. ranking offices of the administration.The mass of the many nnknowns at present. with hitter dis- With the students returned to theclassroom, the people on the other band reacted the restoration of order appointment and a disillusioned viewof their great next order of business was leadership throughout the Strong reactionary winds swept acrossthe and staunch pro-Mao leader. partially accomplished hy the use Mao had built country. This was land threatening to destroy all that again. As could Little escaped the of the People's Liberation Army once and envisioned for his nation. of order was a difficult sides. he expected this m,toration challenging questions directed from all taking place at Extreme action was necessary to rescue theMaoist task and one which is apparently goals have been ideals and, once again, the excitement orthe masses this writing although the major was required. New goalshad to he quickly estab- accomplished. outlines t1-7. sequence lished and existing "enemies of thepeople" had to The foregoing account briefly Proletarian Cultural Revolu- be established.Revolutionary dedication akin to or events of the "Great tion." The full analysis andevaluation of thse events that of the Long March had to be lighted. of the dust before clear In November 1965 the first action wasinitiated. must await the settling is safe to draw a few Wu Han. a Party member and DeputyMayor of insight is possible. However, it Peking. was attacked in an official party newspaper basic conclusions at this point. moral editorial for criticizing the regime and lending 1. The front of solidarityand mass unity of the aid to the enemies of the state. LinPiao, Minister Chinese Communist Party hasbeen shattered or Defense, and the People's LiberationArmy now along with the indestructibleimage of Mao. formed the core of leadership in the attacks on many of past years have persons of stains accused ofbeing "bourgeoisie" and 2. Hard-earned economic gains opposed to the teachings of Mao. been seriously damaged. By June 1966 the Peking Party Committeeand 3. The path of developmenthas been altered, hut the Central Committee Propaganda Department were not significantlyimproved. purged. From this date on everyone and everyidea revolutionary has been fell under question and often open attack. 4. China's role as a world of confidence In August 1966 the Cultural Rel-ol.uti wasfor- seriously tizmnged by the loss mally- adopted and the decision made to postpone held by many lesser nations. 45 48 5. The violence and hitter slogansof the "Revolt,- Selected References: lion" have further forced the distaste of the "Handbooh on Communist China",Intercom.Vol. Soviet Union for MI Mild China. 10, No. 5, September 1968. (Published by the 6. Internal leadership has been weakenedand the Foreign Policy Association) reigns of totalitarian government areheld by Schurmann, Franz and Orville Schell.Communist the unsteady hands of a 74-year-old man. Chinn.New York: Vintage, 1967. 7. The Great Proletarian CulturalRevolution ap- pears as a desperate,last-ditch effort to re- Portisch, Hugo. RodChinn Today.Greenwich establish a dying social revolution. (Conn): Fawcett, 1967.

46 49 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LEARNING MATERIALS

The following is an initial guide to study. Books sional Publication No. 7, New York: University of indicated by () are available in paperback. the State of New York, 1967. National Tape Recording Catalog,National Educa- BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND INFORMATION tion Association, 1201 16th Street, NM.,Washing- SOURCES ton, D. C. 20006. Asia Society, The. Education Department, 112East Pan American World Airways, 28-29 RidgePlaza 64th Street, New York, New York 10021.(Basic North, Long Island City, New York.(Posters, packet of material-U.00) booklets and other educational materials.) Asian Student, The.P. 0. Box 3223, San Francisco, Service Center for Teachers of History, AService California 94119.(Newspaper publishnd during of the 4merican Historical Association, 400A academic year covering Asian affairs-$3.00) Street, S. E., Washington, D. C. 20003. Berton. Peter and Eugene Wu.Contemporary Chinl, (Booklets on Chinese history and Communism.) A Research Guide.Stanford: Stanford University United NationsReriew, Monthly magazine, $6.00 per Press, 1967. year, Sales Section, PublishingService, United Na- China Books and Periodicals, 2929 24th Street. San tions, New York. Francisco, California 94110. (Periodical and book UNESCO Courier,Monthly magazine, $5.00 per year, catalogues. Publications direct from the People's 801 3rd Avenue, New York, New York 10022. Republic.) World Affairs Center, 345 East 46th Street,New China Publications, 95 Fiah Avenue, New York, York, New York 10017. New York 10003.(Similar to above source.) TERM Chinese Information Service, 100 West 32nd Street, Armstrong, John P.Chinese Dilemma(2nd ed). New York, New York 10001. (Material from the Summit, N. J.: Laid law Brothers, 1967.* Republic of China.) Bell, Oliver.The Two Chinas.New 1 ork : Scholastic Educational Film Guide,The II. W. Wilson Com- Book Services, 1966.* pany, 950 University Avenue, New York, NewYork Bronson, Albert.Asia in Ferment.New York: Ox- 10052. (Published annually.) ford Book Company, 1962.* Educators Guide to Free Films,Educators Progress Chang, Perry P.China: Development by Force. Service, Randolph, Wisconsin 53956. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1964.* Educators Guide to Free Filmstrips,Educators Prog- Fitzgerald, C. P. (et. al).The Chinn Giant.Glen- ress Service, Randolph, Wisconsin 53956. view. T:1.: Scott, Foresman, 1967.* Embassy of the Republic of China, Cultural Consul's Rub lin, Hyman.China.New York: Houghton Mif- Office, 2311 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washing- flin, 1968. ton, D. C. 20008. Schwartz, Harry.Communist China.New York: Filmstrip Guide,The H. W. Wilson Company, 950 The New York Times, 1965.* University Avenue, New York, New York 10052. Schwartz,Rudolph.China, Japan,Korea. New Focus on Asian Studies,Asian Studies Project, Col- York: Cambridge Book Company,1965.* lege of Education, Ohio State University, 1945 North High Street, Columbus, Ohio 43210. (News- GENERAL letter of particular value published three times a Adams, Ruth(ed.).Contemporary China.New year.) York: Vintage Books, 1966.* Engle- Herman, Theodore (ed).The Geography of Chinn: Fcuerwerker, Albert (ed.).Modem China. A Selected and Annotated Bibliography.Occa- wood Cliffs, N. 3.: Prentice Hall,1964.

47 50 Hu, Chang-Tu. China. New Haven, Conn.: HRAF Grousset, Reni.. Rise and Splendour of the Chinese Press, 1960. Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press. Ping-Chia Kuo. China. New York: Oxford Univer- 1953.* shy Press, 1965. .History of Asia. New York: Walker Portisch, Hugo. Red China Today. New York: Faw- and Company, 1964.* cett, 1967.* Isaacs, Harold Robert. The Tragedy of the Chinese Revolution (rev. ed.). Stanford: Stanford Univer- Schurmann, Franz and Oni lk Schell. The China sity Press, 1951. Reader.New York:Vintage Books, 1967(3 volumes).* Rowe, David Nelson. Modern China: A Brief His- tory. Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1959.* Schwartz, Harry.China. New York: Atheneum, 1965. Schafer, Edward. Ancient China. Morristown: Silver Snow, Edgar. The Other Side of the River. New Burdett, 1967. York: Random House, 1962.* Snow. Edgar. Red Star Over China. New York: Grove Press, 1961.* Worst, John J. and J. G. MeAree. China. New York: McKay, riot. .The Other Side of the River. New York: Random House, 1962.* GEOGRAPPY White, Theodore H. and Anna lice Jacoby. Thunrkr Cressey, George B. Land of the .500liliion. New Out of China. New York: Apollo Editions, 1961.* York: McGraw-Hill, 1955. ECONOMY . Asia's Lands and Peoples. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Black, C. E. The Dynamics of Modernization. A Study in Comparative History. New York: Ilarper, Petrov, Victor P. China: Emerging World Power. Row, 19r-6 Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1967.* (et. al.). Economic Trends in Com- Rawson, R. R. The Monsoon Lands of Asia. Chicago: Eckstein, E. munist China. Chicago: Aldine, 1967.* AMine, 1963.* Tregear, T. R. The Geography of China, Chicago: Fitzgerald, C. P. (et. al.). China Ginn,: Perspective on Communist China. Oakland:Scott, Foresman, AMine, 1967.* 1967. HISTORY Galbraith, John Kenneth. Economic Development. Canis, Helmut G. China, Confucian and Commanist. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964.* New York: Holt, 1959. Gui llain, Robert. 600 Million Chinese. New York: Creel, Harr lee. Birth of China. New York: Frede- Criterion Books, 1957. rick Ungar, 1954.* Hamm, Harry. China, Empire of the 700 Million. De Jaegher, Raymond J. The Enemy Within; An (Translation by V. Anderson). New York: Don- Eyewitness Account of the Communist Conquest of bleday, 1966. China. Garden City: Doubleday, 1952. Litz, Ta-Chung and Yea, Kung-'Chia. The Economy Fairbank, John K. United Steles and China. New of the Chinese Mainland.Princeton: Princeton York: Viking, 1958.* University Press, 1965. .China: The Peoples Middle Kingdom Shabad, Theodore. China's Changing Map; A Po- and the U. S. A. Cambridge: Harvard University litical and Economic Geography of the Chinese Press, 1967.* People's Republic. New York: Praeger, 1956. Fairservis, Walter A., Jr. Origins of Oriental Civiliza- Suyin, Han. China in the Year 2001. New York: tion. New York: New American Library, 1959.* Basic Books, 1967. Fitzgerald, Charles Patrick. Revolution in China. Tawney, Richard. Land and Labour in China. New New York: Praeger, 1952. York: Octagon, 1964. Goodrich, Luther Carrington. A Short History of The Chinese Communes; A Documentary Review and the Chinese People. (rev. ed.). New York: Harper, Analysis of the Great Leap Forward. New York: Row, 1951. Institute of Pacific Relations, 1960.

48 51 Wu, Yuan-li. The Economy of CommunistChina. Yang,Yung-ch'ing.China'sReligiousHeritage. New York: Praeger, 1965. New York: Abington-Cokesbury Press, 1943. POLITICAL STRUCTURE Genend Bal !amine, Joseph W. Formosa. Washington: Brook- Dawson, Raymond S. Chinese Chameleon: An Andy- ings Institution, 1453. sis of European Conceptions of Chinese Civiliza- Barnett, A. Doà. Communist China-Continuing lion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967. Revolution. (Headline Series). New York: For- Fitzgerald, C. P. China: A Short Cultural History. eign Policy Association, 1962. New York: Praeger, 1962.* Chen, Theodore H. E. Chinese Communist Regime. Hu, Chang-tu. China: Its People, Its Society, Its New York: Praeger, 1967. Cultures. New Haven: HRAF Press, 1960. Durdin, Peggy.Mao's China.(Headline Series). Koningsberger, Hans. Love and Hate in China. New New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1959.* York: McGraw-Hill, 1966 (Signet, 1962). Elegant, Robert S.China's Red Masters; Political Li, Dun J. The Ageless Chinese. New York: Charles Biographies of the Chinese Communist Leaders. Scribner's Sons, 1965. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1951. Lin, William T. (ed.). Chinese Society Under Corn- Hahn, Emily. Chiang Kai-shek, An Unauthorized munism. New York: Wiley, 1967. Biography. New York: Doubleday, 1955. Moore, Charles A. (ed.). The Chinese Mind: Eswn- Lewis, John W.Communist China:Cris:s and tials of Chinese Philosophy and Culture. Ilona Change. (Ikadline Series). New York: Foreign lulu: East-West Center, 1966. Policy Association, 1966.* Myrdal, Jan. Report from a Chinese Village. New Mac Farquhar, Roderick (ed.). The Hundred Flowers York: McGraw-Hill (Signet), 1966.* Campaign and the Chinese Intelkctuals.New York: Praeger, 1960. FOREIGN RELATIONS Mao Tse-tung. Selected Works. New York: Interna- Blum, Robert. U. S. Policy toward Communist China: tional Publishers, 1954.* The Alternatives. (Headline Series). New York: Tewksbury, Donald G. Source Book on Far Eastern Foreign Policy Association, 1966. Ideologies. New York: American Institute of In- .(A. Doak Barnett, ed.). The United ternational Relations, 1949. States and China in World Affairs. New York: SOCIAL FABRIC McGraw-Hill, 1966.* Religion Bousearen, Anthony T. Case for Free China. Ar- lington: Crestwood, 1962. Bunt, Edwin A. Man Seeks the Divine; A Study in the History and Comparison of Religions. New Doolin, Dennis J.Territorial Claims in the Sim). York: Harper, 1957. Soviet Conflict. Hoover Institute on War, Revolu- tion, and Peace: Stanford University Press, 1965. Champion, Selwyn Gumez and Dorothy Short. Read- ings from World Religions. New York: Premier Eckstein, E. Communist China's Economic Growth Books (Fawcett), 1968.* and Foreign Trade: Implications for U. S. Policy. Granet, Marcel.Festivals and Songs of Ancient New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.* China. New York: Dutton, 1932. Fairbank, John King. The United States and China. Hughes, E. R. and K. Religion in China. New York: Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958. Hutchinson's University Library, 1950. Griffith, Samuel B., III. The Chinese People's Libera- Humphreys, Christian. Buddhism. Baltimore: Pen- tion Army. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. guin, 1958.* Halpern, A. M. (ed.). Policies Toward China: Views Percberon, Maurice. Buddha and Buddhism. New from Six Continents. New York: McGraw-Hill, York: Harper, Row (Men of Wisdom Series), 1965.* 1957.* Kalb, Marvin L. Dragon in the Kremlin; A Report Wa ley, Arthur. Three Ways of Thought in Ancient on the Russian-Chinese Alliance. NewYork: Dut- China. New York: noubleday (Anchor), 1956.* ton, 1961.

49 52 Latourette, Kenneth S. The American Record inihe Be Admitted to the U. N.? Black and white, 15 Far East, 1945-1951. New York: Macmillan,1952. minutes. (1954). Mchncrt, Klaus. Peking and Moscow. New York: Association Film Artists, 30 Nor01 Raymond Avenue, Pasadena, California. Understanding the Chinese. Ment3r, 1964.*(Hardcover: G. P. Putnam Sons) Color, 10 minutes, (1951)- Newman, RobertP.Recognitionof Communist China? A Study in Argument. New York: Mac- Brandon Films, 221 West 57th Street, New York, New York 10019. Inside Red China. Black and white, miHan, 1961. 45 minutes. Filmed 1957, sound track 1963. Rcischauer, Edwin 0. Beyond Viet Nam: The United Coronet Films, Coronet Building, Chicago, Illinois States and Asia. New York: Knopf, 1967. 60601.Asia: Continental Overview. Color, 13% Steel, A. T. The American People and China.New minutes. China: The Land and the People. Color. York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.* 13% minutes. The China Problem. Volume 7.(Intercom) New Encyclopedia Britannica Films, 1150 Wilmette Ave- York: Foreign Policy Association, 1965. nue, Wilmette, Illinois. ChinaUnder Communism. Whiting, Allen Sue's. China Crosses the Yalu;the Color, black and white, 22 minutes, (1962). Decision to Enter the Korean War. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, Text-Film Division, 330 West 42nd Macmillan, 1960. Street, New York, New York 10036. China: Feed- ing One-Fourth of the Human Race; China:The Williams, Lea E. The Future of the Overseas Chinese Awakening Giant; China: The Industrial Revolu- in Southeast Asia. New York: McGraw-Hill,1966. tion; China: The Old and the New; China: The Social Revolution. Color, black and white, approxi- PERIODICALS mately 17 minutes. Asian Student, The. The Asia Foundation, P. 0. Box World Affairs Center, 345 East 46th Street,New 3223. San Francisco, California 94119. A weekly York, New York 10017. Face of Red China. Black newspaper during theacademic year. Emphasis and white. 55 minutes (filmed for CBS-TVin on accurate picture ofAsian affairs. $3.00 per year. 1959). China Quarterly, The. Contemporary China Insti- tute, 36 Howland Street, London,W. I., England. Filmstrips SubscriptionOffice:ResearchPublications,11 Life Magazine, Filmstrip Division, 9 Rockefeller Nelson Road, S. E. 10, London, England. Scholarly Plaza, New York, New York 10020. GreatRe- journal of good quality. $6.00 per year. ligions of the World Series. China Reconstructs. China Books and Periodicals, Scholastic Book Services, Scholastic MagazineInc., 2929 24th Street, San Francisco, California 94110 New York, New York. China-Its Riseand Fall- or China Publications, 95Fifth Avenue, New York, out.Color. Continuity in China from past to New York 10003. Published monthly in Peking. present traced.Foreign relations outlined from Pictorial with a sharp propaganda line. early 19th century to present. Focus on Asian Studies. Asian Studies Project, Col- Society for Visual Education (SVE), 1345Diversey lege of Education, Ohio State University, 1945 Parkway, Chicago, Illinois 60614. Living in China North High Street, Columbus, Ohio 43210. News- Today(Series-1966).The following titlesare letter issued three times per year. availablewithabell-keyed record narration: Agriculture and Rural Life; Cities andCity Life; Association for Asian Journal of Asian Studies. Resources, industry, Transportationand Communi- Studies, Inc., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, cation;and Land of Change and Growth. Michigan.Scholarly studies of high value and quality. RECORDINGS Street, FILMS AND FILMSTRIPS Folkways: Folkways Records, 117 West 46th New York, New York 10036.Classical Instru- 16 mm. Films mentalMusic,Folkways 6812; Chinese Songs and American Film Forum. Almanac Films, 516 Fifth Opera, Folkways 8880; Folk Songs andDances, Avenue, New York, New York. Should Red China Folkways 6802.

50 53 OVERHEAD PROJECTION TRANSPARENCYMASTERS

The attached maps have been prepared for Thr dotted areas indicate land suitable for agri- reproduction as overhead transparencies by vari- cultural activities.This map indicates to some ous processes.Their effectiveness would be greatly extent the agricultural problems faced by China increased when used in close association with a in her efforts to increase production.It is par- good physical map of China. The interrelation- ticularly significant to compare this map with the ship of climate, agriculture and industrial cities map of natural resources and newindustrial cities can he viewed hy overlayprojection. in the west and central portions of China. Natural Resources of China Map Number 1.Climatic Analogues Map Number3. This map indicates the areas of China that have This map indicates the location of major re- similar rainfall and tcs iperature to locations in sources of critical importance tomodern indus- North America. These comparisons are sugges- try.Also indicated are the centers of industrial live only, but they provide si more readily under- population growth of recent years, particularly stood "picture" than more formal climatic maps. notable in the west. The metallurgical bases in- dkate areas of major industrial concentration. Map Number 2.Land Usability This map dines not indicate all areas of industrial Thismap has been greatly simplifiedfrom the development but has been kept "thin" to provide original for increased clarity when projected. space for teacher-added information.

54 51 Saskatchewan Mcnitoba Nebraska DakotaSout Dakotah Wyoming North DakotaSouth WisNor ; Nevada Montana Wyoming akota Colorado KansasNebrosit Ailloth CJ1CA Oklahoma Colorado Texas Georgia uth Carolina Alberta Montana Arkansas Tennessee F !arida South Carol;na Cuba ,1021Millign.From: -Cressey, Copyright George 1955. B. Used Lcrui by of the CLIMATIC ANALOGUES MexicoCentral Florida Florida permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company. ORvert*ico NATURAL0 ROil Oil RESOURCESRefineries OF CHINA SG Natural Gas Oil Shale C 1Coal Iron Ore Fushin Fushun (D MetallurgicalMc:icorBase Anshar Peking Shanghai

Inc.,Power.From: Princeton, Petrov, Copyright Vktor New 1967, P..Jersey D. China- Van 08540. Nostrand Emerging Company, Wald shorttoo hilly summer drytoo too dry too dry too dry too dry too hilly dry,tao hilly,short summer mountainous and tuo dry too too hilly O too mountainou s mountainoustoo by Lam:.Simplifiedpermission and from:Peoples. of McGraw-Hill Cressey, George Book Company. B. LAND USABILITY Copyright 1963. Use Asio'A AgricultureGood for UlanBatar6 0 UTERMONGOLII, .

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