or almost three thousand years, Egyptian embalmers preserved the bodies of deceased individuals through a process of mummification. Egyptian records rarely mention the techniques of mummification, but the Greek historian Herodotus traveled in Egypt about 450 B.C.E. and briefly explained the craft. The embalmer first used a metal hook to draw the brain of the deceased out through a nostril, then removed the internal organs through an incision made alongside the abdomen, washed them in palm wine, and sealed them with preservatives in stone vessels. Next, the embalmer washed the body, filled Canopic Coffinette it with spices and aromatics, and covered it for about of Tutankhamon two months with natron, a naturally occurring salt I! www.mhhe.com/ bentleybrief2e substance. When the natron had extracted all mois- ture from the body, the embalmer cleansed it again and wrapped it with strips of fine "linen covered with resin. Adorned with jewelry, the preserved body then went into a coffin bearing a painting or a sculpted likeness of the deceased. Careful preservation of the body was only a part of the funerary ritual for promi­ nent Egyptians. Ruling elites, wealthy individuals, and sometimes common people as well laid their deceased to rest in expensive tombs equipped with furniture, tools, weapons, and ornaments that the departed would need in their next lives. Relatives periodically brought food and wine to nourish the deceased in their new dimension of existence. Egyptian funerary customs were reflections of a prosperous agricultural society. Food offerings consisted mostly of local agricultural products, and scenes painted on tomb walls often depicted workers preparing fields or cultivating crops. Moreover, bountiful harvests explained the accumulation of wealth that supported elaborate funerary practices, and they also enabled some individuals to devote their efforts to specialized tasks such as embalming. Agriculture even influenced religious beliefs. Many Egyptians believed fervently in a life beyond the grave, and they likened the human experience of life and death to the agricultural cycle in which crops grow, die, and come to life again in another season. As Mesopotamians built a productive agricultural society in southwest Asia and as Indo-European peoples introduced do­ ( Excavations • mesticated horses to much of Eurasia, cultivation and herding surrounding the also transformed African societies. African agriculture first took pyramids, as seen root in the Sudan, then moved into the Nile River valley and from the air. also to most parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture flourished

Nubia (NOO-bee-uh) particularly in the fertile Nile valley, and abun­ dant harvest s soon supported fast-growing pop­ ulations. That agricultural bounty underwrote 9000 B.C.E. Origins of Sudanic herding the development of Egypt, the most prosperous 7500 B.C.E. Origins of Sudanic cultivation and powerful of the early agricultural societies 3100 B.C.E. Unification of Egypt in Africa, and also of Nubia, Egypt's neighbor to

3100-2660 B.C.E. Archaic Period of Egyptian history the south. 2660-2160 B.C.E. Egyptian Old Kingdom Distinctive Egyptian and Nubian societies be­

2600-2500 B.C.E. Era of pyramid building in Egypt gan to take shape in the valley of the Nile River during the late fourth millennium B.C. E., shortly 2500-1450 B.C .E. Early kingdom of Kush with capital at Kerma after the emergence of complex society in Meso­ 2040-1640 B.C.E. Egyptian Middle Kingdom potamia. Like their Mesopotamian counterparts, 2000 B.C.E. Beginnings of Bantu migrations Egyptians and Nubians drew on agricultural sur­ 1550-1070 B.C.E. Egyptian New Kingdom pluses to organize formal states, support special­ 1479-1425 B.C.E. Reign of Pharaoh Tuthmosis Ill ized laborers, and develop distinctive cultural tra­ 1473-1458 B.C.E. Reign of Queen Hatshepsut ditions. Also like Mesopotamians, Egyptian and (coruler with Tuthmosis Ill) Nubian residents of the Nile valley had regular 1353-1335 B.C.E. Reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) dealings with peoples from other societies. They 900 B.C.E. Invention of iron metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa drew inspiration for political and social organi­ 760 B.C.E. Conquest of Egypt by King Kashta of Kush zation both from Mesopotamia and from their African neighbors to the south. In addition, they both traded with and competed against Mesopo­ tamians, Phoenicians, Africans, and others, which resulted in increasing connections with other societies as well as intermittent military conflict. Indeed, like their counterparts in Mesopotamia, Egyptian and Nubian societies developed from their earliest days in a larger world of interaction and exchange. Just as the peoples of southwest Asia influ­ enced one another, so inhabitants of the Nile valley mixed and mingled with peoples from the eastern Mediterranean, southwest Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. Just as Indo-European peoples migrated to new lands and established communities that transformed much of Eurasia, so Bantu peoples migrated from their original homeland in west Africa and established settlements that brought profound change to much of sub-Saharan Africa . By no means were Egypt and Nubia isolated centers of social develop­ ment. Instead, they were only a small part of a much larger world of interacting societies.

EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY IN AFRICA Egypt was the most prominent of early African societies, but it was by no means the only agricultural society, or even the only complex, city-based society of ancient Africa. On the contrary, Egypt emerged alongside Nubia and other agricultural societies in sub-Saharan Africa. Indeed, agricultural crops and domesticated animals reached Egypt from sub-Saharan Africa by way of Nubia as well as from southwest Asia. Favorable geographic conditions enabled Egyptians to build an especially productive agricultural economy that supported a powerful state, while Nubia became home to a somewhat less prosperous but nonetheless sophisticated society. After taking shape as distinctive societies, Egypt had regular dealings with both eastern Mediterranean and southwest Asian peoples, and Nubia linked Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean basin with the peoples and societies of sub-Saharan Africa.

Bantu (BAHN-too)

28 P ART I TH E EA R LY C OMPLE X SOCI ETIES , 3500 TO 5 00 s c E , Climatic Change and the Development ofAgriculture in Africa African agriculture emerged in the context of gradual but momentous changes in climatic conditions. About 10,000 B.C.E., after the end of the last ice age, the area now occupied by the Sahara desert was moscly 11 grassy reppe with numerous lakes, rivers, and streams. Lndeed, cl imatic and geographic condi rions were similar to those of the Sudan-a region of savanna and grassland thar stretches across the African continent between the Sahara to the norrh and the p:opical rain forest to rhe south.

EARLY SUDAN I C AG RIC U L TU R E After about 9000 B.C.E., peoples of the eastern Sudan domesticated cattle and became nomadic herders but also continued to collect wild grain . . After 7500 a.c ..E. they esrablished permanent settlements and began to cultivate sorghum. Meanwhile, after about 8000 B.c.E., inhabitants of the western Sudan began w cultivate yams i_n d1e region between the iger and Congo rivers. Sudanic agri- ulnu·e became increasingly diverse over the following centuries: sheep and goats arrived from outhwesc Asia after 7000 B. .E., and udaui peoples began to cultivate gourds, watermelons, and cotton after 6500 B.C.E. - Agri ulrural productivi-ty-and the need for order-led Sudanic peoples to organize sma U-scale st;ues. By about 5000 n.c.E. many Sudanic peoples had formed small mon­ archies ru led by kings who were viewed as divine or semidivine beings. Sudanic peoples also developed reUgiou beliefs that reflected their agricultural society. They recognized a ingle divin e force as the source of good and evil, and they associated it with rain-a mat­ ter of concern for any agricul tmal society.

CLIMATIC cHANGE After 5000 B.C.E. the northern half ofAfrica became much hotter and drier than before. The Sahara desert in particular became increasingly arid and uninhabitable. This process of desiccation drove both humans and animals to regions that offered reliable sources of water such as lakes and rivers. One of those regions was the val­ ley of the Nile River, the principal source of water flowing through north Africa.

T H E N I L E R IV E R vALLEY Fed by rain and snow in the mountains of east Africa, the Nile, which is the world's longest river, courses some 6,695 kilometers (4,160 miles) fi·om its ource at Lake Victoria to irs oudet rhrough the delta to the Mediterranean Sea. Each spring, rain an I melting snow swdl the river, which surges north through the udan and Egypr. UntiLr he ompletion of rhe high dam at Aswan in 1968, every year the ile flooded the plains downsrream. When c:he waters receded, they left behind a layer of rich, fertile muck, and those alluvial deposits supported a remarkably productive agricul­ tural economy throughout the Nile River valley.

Egypt and Nubia: "Gifts of the Nile"

Agrlculcure transformed the entire Nile River valley, with effects char were most dmmarlc Herodotus & Egypt in Egypt. In ancient times, Egypt referred nor ro the territory embraced by the modern www.mhhe.com/ bentleybrief2e stare of Egypt bur; rather, ro the ribbon of land bordering the lower third of rhe NiJe between rhe Mediterranean and the river's first cararact (an unnavigable stretch of rapid • and waterfalls) near Aswan. Egypt enjoyed a much larger floodplain than most of the land to the south known as Nubia, the middle stretches of the Nile valley between the river's fi r t and sixth cararacr . & the Sahara became increa i.ngly arid, cultivators flocked to the Nile valley and esmbUshed societies that depended on intensive agriculture. Because of r.he ir broad £I odplains, Egyptians were ab le to rake erter advantage of the Nile's annual floods d1an their neighbors to the south, and they turned Egypt into an CSJ ccial ly produc­ tive agriculrw-aJ region thar was capable of supporting a much larger population than were Nubian lands. Because of irs prosperity, the Greek historian Herodotus proclaimed Egypc the "gift of the Nile."

CHAPTER 2 EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE B ANTU MIGRATIONS 29 Mediterranean Sea

• Jericho Dead Sea . - ~ . ' TaniS He IIo po 1s, LOWER G~ . EGYPT Mernph1s• SINAI I'£N INSlJLII

~ • Akheta ten '•, · · (Tell ei-Amarna)

UPPER •Thebes EGYPT The region between the first and sixth cataracts was known as Nubia. Elephantine • •Aswan 0 First Cataract = j

Second Call~racl =

NUBIA

Third Cataract - , Kerma 1-'attrl nlamct h Fifth Egypt Napata -? Cataract Kingdom of Kush 0 •Merol! 125...... 250mi Sixth Cataract ,.. "'I ,.. "'I 250 SOOkm

MAP 2.1 I The Nile valley, 3000-2000 s. c. E. Note the difference in size between t he kingdom of Egypt and the kingdom of Kush. What geo­ graphical conditions favored the establishment of large states north of the first cataract of the Nile River?

Counting livestock, EARLY AGR ICULTURE IN THE NILE VALLEY Ge graphye.nsured a model from a tomb thar Egypr and Nubia would come under rhe influence of both ub-Saharan Africa and il www.mhhe.com/ bentleybrief2e rhe ea rernJvledireu:anean basin, ince the Nile River li nks the I:WO regions. Abour 10,000 B . . li. migrants from rhe Red Sea hills in non:hern Erhi pia traveled down the Nile valley and inrr duced to Egypt and ubi a the practice of collecting wild grain a' well as th eir language, whlch became rhe language of anciem Egypt. After 5000 n. c .E., as the African cl imate grew hotter and drier, Sudanic peoples moved down rhe Nile, ino·oducing Egyp and ubia. to crops such as gourd ao.d. wate[melons and domesticated animals uch a catrle ;u1J donkey . Abour the arne time, wheat and barley reached Egypt and ubia from M esopotamia by traveli ng up th Nile from rhe Mediterranean. Both Egyptia ns and ubians relied heavily on agriculmre at leas t by 500013. ,.. Egyp­ tian cultivators went into the floodplains in the lace summer, after the recession of the Nile's annual flood, sowed their seeds without extensive preparation of the soil, allowed their crops to mature during the cool month of the year, and harve. teet th m during rhe winter and early spring. With less-extensive 0 odplain, Nubian relied more on pre­ pared fields and irrigation by waters diverted fi·om rhe Nile. As in Mesopotamia, high agrimlrural productiviry led to a rapld increase in population throughout the ile va lley. Demographi pre su rei; soon forced Egyptian in particular rod velop more inrense and sophi ticared me hods of agriculture a cul tivarors found it necessary to move beyond the Nile's immediate floodplains to areas that required careful preparation and irrigation. By

30 PART I THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES. 3500 TO 500 e.c E 4000 B.C.E. agricultural villages dotted the Nile's shores from the Mediter­ ranean in the north to the river's fourth cataract in the south. As in Meso­ potamia, dense human population in Egypt and Nubia brought a need for formal organization of public affairs. Although geographical barriers in the form of seas and desert meant that neither area faced external dangers to the extent that Mesopotamia did, the two areas still needed to maintain order and organize community projects. As a result, both Egyptians and Nubians created states and recognized official authorities. The earliest Egyptian and Nubian states were small kingdoms much like those instituted in the Sudan after 5000 B.C.E. Indeed, it is likely that the notion of divine or semidivine rulers reached Egypt and Nubia from the eastern and central Sudan. In any case, small kingdoms appeared first in southern Egypt and Nubia after 4000 B.C.E., and by 3300 B.C.E. small local kingdoms organized public life throughout Egypt as well as Nubia. EARLY AGIUC UI,TU RE IN EGYPT. I A painting from The Unification of Egypt the tomb of a priest who lived about the fifteenth century a.c.E. MEN E s By 3500 a.c.E. politica l. and economic co mpetition fueled numerous ski.r­ depicts agricultural workers plow­ mishes and small -scale wars between the ile kingdoms. ome kingdom s overcame their ing and sowing crops in southern Egypt. neighbors and gradually expanded until they conrrolled siza ble territories. Abottt 3100 B.C.E. Egyptian rulers drew on the co n iderable agricul tural and demographic adv;mrages of Egypt's large population and broad floodplains co forge aU th.e rer.ritory between the Nile delta and the river's first cataract into a powerful and unified kingdom. T radi tion holds that unified rule came to Egypt in the person of a conqueror named Menes (sometimes identified with an early Egyptian ruler called Narmer). Menes was an ambitious minor offi­ cial from southern Egypt (known as Upper Egypt, since the Nile flows north) who rose to power and extended hi.s authori ty north ·md into the delta (known as Lower Egypt). According to tradi tion, M ene fi un.cled rbe ciry of Memphis, near modern Cairo, which srood at the jun cion of Opper and Lower Egypt. Memphis served as Menes' capital and even ually becam e the culrmal as well as the political center of ancient Egypt. Menes and .his succes rs bllilr a centralized state ruled by the pharaoh, the Egyptian king. The early pharaohs claimed to be gods living on the earth in human form, the owners and absolute rulers of all the land. In that respect, th ey continued che aad iti.on of divine kingship inherited from the early agricultural societi es of rl1e udan. Over time, Egyptians viewed rulers as offspring of Amon, a sun god. They considered the ruling pharaoh a hu­ man sun overseeing affairs on the earth, just as Amon was the sun supervising the larger cosmos, and they believed that after his death the pharaoh actually merged with Amon.

T H E ARC H A I C PER I 0 D AN D T H E 0 L D K I N G D 0 M The power Diagram of the pyramids of the pharaohs was greatest during the first millennium of Egyptian history-the eras W\-"W.Inhh,1 ,(() 11l/ b1 ntlvyi:H wi:~~' known as the Archaic Period (3100-2660 B.C.E.) and the Old Kingdom (2660-2160 n.c.E.). T he most enduring symbols of their aurhorily and divi11e scams are the massive pyramids consrmcted. during the Old Kingdom as royal rombs, most of them during rh.e entury from 2600 to 2500 B .•E . These cnor:rnous monuments srand today ar iza, n ar Cairo, as testimony ro the pharao hs' abili ty ~o mar ·hal Egyptian resour e.s. The large 't is the pyramid on hufu (also known as Cheeps), which invo.lved the pre ise curting and Atting oF2.3 million li mesrone blod

R E LA T I 0 N S B E T W E E N E GYP T A N D N U B I A Even after the emer­ gence of the strong pharaonic state, the fortunes of Egypt and Nubia remained closely intertwined. Egyptians had strong interests in Nubia for both political and commercial

Menes (mee-neez)

CHAPTER 2 EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE BANTU MIGRATIONS :-n rea ons: they were wary of Nubian kingdoms that miglu threa ten Upper f,rypt, and rhey desired produces such as gold, ivory, ebony, and pre ious tones rh ar were aval labl · only from outhern lands. Mea nwhile, Nubians had equally u·ong interests in Egyp t: rhey wanted to protect their independence from their large and powerful neighbor ro the north, and they sought to profit by controlling trade down the il c.

THE EARLY K 1N G D D M D F KUSH Tensi on Jed to frequent violence belweeo Egypr and Nubia throughout the Archaic Peri d and che Old Kingdom. rnd eed, Egypt do.minared Lower NLLbi a fthe l.and between the first and second cataracts of the Nile) for more man half a millennium, from abom 3000 ro 2400 13.C.E. This Egyptian presence in the north for ed N ubian leaders to concenrrarc their efforts at political orga­ nization farther tO the s uth in Upper Nubia. By about 2500 .n.c.n. they had established a powerful kingd m, called Kush, with a capital at Kerma, about 700 kilometers (435 miles) south of Aswan. Though not as powerful as united Egypt, the kingdom of Kush became a formidable and wealthy state in its own right. In spite of constant tension and frequent hostilities, Egypt and Nubia remained con­ nected in many ways. About 2300 B.C.E., for example, the Egyptian explorer Harkhuf made four expeditions to Nubia. He returned from one of his trips with a caravan of some three hundred donkeys bearing exotic produc from tr pical Africa as wdl as a dan ing dwarf, and his cargo timu.lated .Egyptian desire for a·ade wi[h sourhern lands. Meanwhile, by rhe end of the Old Kingdom, ubian mercenaries had become quire prominenr in Tigyprian armies. In fact, they often married Egyptian women and assimHared inro Egypti an so iecy. Turmoil and Empire

THE M I D 0 L E KING D D M Toward the end of the Old Kingdom, high agri­ cu ltural productiVity made several regio ns of Egypt so prosperous and powerful that they were able to ignore rhe pharaohs and pursue their own interests. As a result, the central tare declined and evenruaUy disappeared alcogether during a long period of upheaval and tLnrest (2160-2040 s.c.B.). Pharaonic authority returned with the establishment of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B.C.E.). Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom were not as powerful as their predecessors of the Old Kingdom, but they effectively stabilized Egypt and supervised relations with neighboring lands.

THE H Y K S D S · radualiy, however, Egypt came under the pres ure of foreign people from sourhwe. t Asia, particularly a emiric people whom Egyprjans called che Hyksos ("foreign rulers"). Little informacion urvives about the Hyksos, but it is dear that they were horse-riding nomads. Indeed, their horse-drawn d1ariots whid1 they-learned about from Hittites and Mesopotamians, provided them with a significant military ad­ vantage over Egyptian forces. They enjoyed an advantage also in their weaponry: the Hyksos used bronze weapons and bronze-ripped arrows, whereas Egyptians relied mostly on wooden weapons and arrows wi th stone heads.Abouc 1674 H. C.£. theHyk o. captured Memphis and levi ed tribute throughout Egypt. Hy.ksos ru le provoked a strong rea~on especially in Upper Egypt, where disgmntled uobles organized revolts againsr cl-le foreigners. They adopted horses and chariots for their own military forces. They al o eq\.lipped cheir troops with bronze weapons. Working from Thebes and later From Mernphi5 Egyptian leaders gradually pushed the Hyksos out of the Nile delta and fow1ded a powerful st.are known as the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B.c.E.). Pharaohs of che New Kingdom pre ided over a prosperou and productive society. Agricultural surplu e. upporred a population of perhap foUl· miliion people as well as an army and an claborare bureaucracy thar divided respo n 'ibilitie among different offices.

Kush (kuhsh) Hyksos (HICK-sohs)

32 PART I THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES, 3500 TO 500 acE Many Egyptians wrote briefautobiographies that they or their descendants had carved into their tombs. One ofthe most famous autobiographies from the Old Kingdom is that ofHarkhuf a royal official who became governor of Upper Egypt before 2300 B.C.E. The inscriptions in his tomb mention his four expeditions to Nubia to seek valuable items and report on political conditions there. The inscriptions also include the text ofa letter from the boy-pharaoh Neferkare expressing his appreciation for Harkhuf's fourth expedition and his desire to see the dancing dwarf that Harkhufhad brought back from Nubia.

The majesty of l Fh~raohJ Memen:. my lord, sent me roger her majesty did for you: "Does anything equal what was done for with my farber .. . ro [rhc Upper Nubian kingdom of] Yam the sole companion Harkhuf when he came down from Yam, to open the way w rhar counrry. 1 did ir in seven m nrhs; l on account of the vigilance he showed in doing what his lord brought from ir all kinds ofbeaudful and ra re gifcs, and wa loved, praised, and commanded?" praised for it greatly. Come north to the residence at once! Hurry and bring His majesry sent me a second time alone . . .. I came down with you this pygmy whom you brought from the land of the [the Nile] bringing gifts from that country in great quantity, horizon-dwellers live, hale, and healthy, for the dances of the the likes of which had never before been brought back to this god, to gladden the heart, to delight the heart of King Nefer­ land [Egypt] .... kare who lives forever! When he goes down with you into the Then his majesty sent me a third time to Yam .... I came ship, get worthy men to be around him on deck, lest he fall down with three hundred donkeys laden with incense, ebony, into the water! When he lies down at night, get worthy men ... panther skins, elephant's tusks, throw sticks, and all sorts to lie around him in his tent. Inspect ten times at night! My of good products. majesty desires to see this pygmy more than the gifts of the [The letter of Pharaoh Neferkare to Harkhuf:] Notice has mineland [the inai peninsu la] and of Pum! been taken of this dispatch of yours which you made for the W hen you arrive at rh res idence and this pygmy i with King of the Palace, to let one know that you have come down you live, hale, and healthy. my maje [)' will do great thin gs for in safety from Yam with the army that was with you. You you, more rh an wa.o; done for the [roya l official] Bawerd ed i.n have said in this dispatch of yours that you have brought all rhe ri me of I iDg lsesi , in acco rd ance with my maj ry's w i ~h kinds of great and beautiful gifts .... You have said in this ro ee rb!s pygmy. rders have been brought ro the chief of dispatch of yours that you have brought a pygmy of the god's the new towns and the companion, overseer of priests to com­ dances from the land of the horizon-dwellers [the region of mand that supplies be furnished from what is under the charge Nubia southeast of Egypt], like the pygmy whom the [royal of each from every storage depot and every temple that has not official] Bawerded brought from Punt [Ethiopia and Somalia] been exempted. in the time of King Isesi. You have said to my majesty that his like has never been brought by anyone who [visited] Yam • How does Harkhuf's autobiography illuminate early previously. Egyptian interest in Nubia and the processes by which T rul y you know how t·o dowha[ your lord loves and praises. Egyptians of the Old Kingdom developed knowledge Truly yo u spend day and nighr pl rull1ing ro do what yo ur about Nubia? lord loves, prai ·es, and commands. Hi maje ry will provide you many worrhy honors for the b nefi.r of yow- son's $011 for SOURCE: Miriam Lichtheim, ed. Ancient Egyptian Literature. 3 vols. all time so that aU people wi ll say. when they hear whaL my Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973, 1:25-27.

EGYPTIAN IMPERIAL 1s M Pharaohs of the New Kingdom also worked to extend Egyptian authority well beyond the Nile valley and the delta. After expelling the Hyksos, they sought to prevent new invasions by seizing control of regions that might pose threats in the future. Most vigorous of the New Kingdom pharaohs was Tuthmosis III

Tuthmosis (tuh-MOE-sis)

C HAPTER 2 EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE BANTU MIGRATIONS 33 MAP 2.2 I Imperial Egypt, 1400 s.u. Compare the territory ru led by the New Kingdom with the ear­ lier kingdom of Egypt as represented in Map 2.1. Why was the New Kingdom able to expand so dramatically - I to the north and south? Why did it not expand to the Black Sen east and west also?

ANATOLIA

CRETE b::;:-~ .! CYPRUS 0 ~ · ~ ~ ~· ericho Tarus Dend Sm Areas of Egyptian expansion LOWER EC VP,T • Hellppol! during the New Kingdom - J:"illl>• 0 illlll Memph1 s" p~ 'l.''l~l // 11 ARABIA Akherarenl• (Tell ei ·Amarna)

UPPER EGYPT •Thebes E~rhantim.·•• Aswan !>i\l·!Al{A FirsiCttT.II O 0 £5/!Rf-. Second LdMr;l~ NUBIA

Third Gtl•lhir Kerma Napara? ''"''' Cnlnmct #fi/111 Cntnmct

Sixth Cnlnmct~ - •Meroe r------,,1 Hittite empire • Egyptian empire (New Kingdom)

(reigned 1479-1425 B.C.E.). After seventeen campaigns that he personally led to Palestine and Syria, Tuthmosis dominated the coastal regions of the eastern Mediterranean as well as north Africa. Rulers of the New Kingdom also turned their attention to the south and restored Egyptian dominance in Nubia. Thus for half a millennium Egypt was an impe­ rial power throughout much of the eastern Mediterranean basin and southwest Asia as well as most of the Nile River valley. After the New Kingdom, Egypt entered a long period of political and military decline. Just as Hyksos rule provoked a reaction in Egypt, so Egyptian rule provoked reactions in the regions subdued by pharaonic armies. Local resistance drove Egyptian forces out of Nubia and southwest Asia; then Kushite anJ Assyrian armies invaded Egypt itself.

THE REVIVED KINGODM OF KUSH By 1100 B.C.E. Egyptian forces ' ere i.t1 full rem:a t From N ubia, and in the tenrh century B.C.E. Nubian leaders organized a new kingdom off us.b wi th a capi ~.a l at Napata, located just below the Nile's fourth cata­ mcr. By che eighth centmy 11 •• E. rulers of rhis rcvivt d kingdom of Kush were powerful enough to invade Egypt. King Kashta conquered T hebes about 760 B.C.E. and founded a Kushite dynasty that ruled Egypt for almosr a ccntmy. Kashra's sue e$ ors co nsolidated Kushite authority in Upper Egypt, claimed the ririe of pharao h, an l eve ntuall y extended their rule to the Nile delta and beyond. Meanwhile, as Kushites pushed into Egypt from the south, Assyrian armies equipped with iron weapons bore down from the north. During the mid-seventh century B.C.E.,

34 PART I THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES, 3500 TO 500 B . C . E . NUBIAN TRIBU'rE TO E G YP1'. I A wall painting from the tomb of an Egyptian imperial official in Nubia de­ picts a delegation of Nubians bringing tribute in the forms of exotic beasts, animal skins, and rings of gold. What kinds of products are the delegates bringing, and why? while building their vast empire, the Assyrians invaded Egypt, campaigned as far south as Thebes, drove out the Kushites, and subjected Egypt to Assyrian rule. After the mid-sixth century B.C.E., like Mesopotamia, Egypt fell to a series of foreign conquerors who built vast empires throughout southwest Asia and the eastern Mediterranean region.

THE FORMATION OF COMPLEX SOCIETIES AND SOPHISTICATED CULTURAL TRADITIONS As in Mesopotamia ciries a11d rhe congregation of dense population encouraged d1e emergence nf spe ialized labor in th e early agri ulru ml s o c i eti. e.~ of Afr ica. learly defin ed social classes >merged throughout the Nile valley, and both Egypt and Nubian la nds built patriarchal ocietie.o; rb ar 1laced aurhority la rgely in rh.e hands of ad uJ r males . The Egyptian economy was es pecially producLive, and becau e of borh its prosperity and irs geographic location, -gypr Agw-ecl as a center of trade, linking lands in southwest Asia, the eastern MeditetT

CITIES OF THE NILE VALLEY iticswcrenoras prominemin ea.rlyso­ cieties of the Nile River valley as they were in ::uJcienr Mes0poramia. Nevertheles , everal major cities emerged and guided affairs in both Egypt and Nubia. J.n Egypt Memphis, Thebes, Heliopolis, and Tanis all became importan r political, adm inistrative, or ulrural

CHAPTER 2 EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE BANTU MIGRATIONS SoCIAL s •r•'( ATU'.I 'ATION IN EGYPTIAN sociETY. 1 Building pyramids and other large structures in- volved heavy work, especially by the less privileged classes. Here an Egyptian manuscript painting produced about 1000 s.c.E. depicts a supervisor overseeing a group of laborers as they drag a sled loaded with building blocks.

centers. In Nubia, Kerma, Napata, and Meroe all took their turn as political capitals be­ tween about 2500 B.C.E. and 100 C.E.

Limestone relief of 5 CJ c 1 A L c LAs 5 E s In Egypt and Nubia aiU{e, ancient cities were center · of Akhenaten & Nefertiti considerable accu m1d ated wealr.h , which encouraged the development of social distinc­ V·.'Wt.'\' .mhhc.com/ bentleybnef2e tions and hierarchies. LLke the Mesopotamians, ancient Egyptians recognized a series of weJI -defU1ed. ocial classes. Egyprian peasant and slaves played roles in society similar co those of theiJ' Me opotamian counterpartS: they supplied the hard labor that made complex agricultural ociety pos ible. The organization of the ruling classes, however, diffe red considerably between M e oporamia and Egypt. Instead of a series of urban kings, as in Mes poramia, Egyptians recognized the pharaoh as a supreme central ruler. In ad­ d.iri n, rathc.r rhan depending on nobles who owed their positions to their birth, Egypt relied on profe sional military fo rces and an elaborate bureaucracy of administrators and tax collectors who served the central government. Thus, in Egypt much more than in Mesopotamia, individuals of common birth could attain high positions in society through government service. Surviving information illuminates Egyptian society much better than Nubian, but it is clear that Nubia also was the site of a complex, hierarchical society in ancient times. Indeed, cemeteries associated with Nubian cities clearly reveal social and economic dis­ tinctions. Tombs of weallhy and powerful individuals were often elaborate structures­ comfortable dwelling places rasteftJly decorated with palntlngs and filled with expensive goods such as gold jewelry, gems nne .furniture, and abundanr supplies of food. In con­ trast, graves of commoners were much simpler, although they usually contained jewelry, pottery, person;~ I ornaments, and other goods to accompany the departed.

PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY Like their Mes0poramian cow1terparts bo h Egyptian and Nubian peoples built patriarchal sociccies that vested allrho ri ty over publi and private affairs in their men. With rare exceptions men were the ruler in b rh Egyp­ tian and Nubian private as well as public life, and dec( ions abou.r government policies rested mostly in men's hands. Yet women made their influence felt in ancient Egyptian and Nubian societies much rn re than .in comempora.ry Me opota.rnia. In Egypr, women of the royal family some­ ri mes se rved as regents for yo 1mg ruler . ln one notable case, a woman took power as pharaoh het:. elf: Queen 1-l arshepsur (reigned 14:73-14·58 13.C.E.) served as coruler with her sreps n Tlldunosi III. However, rh e notion of a female ruler may have been unsettling to

36 PART I THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES, 3500 TO 500 e c . E many Egyptians. In whar eems ro have been an eA: rt ro present her in unth.reateni.ng guise, a monume.n.ral smrue of Queen Hatshepsur depicts her wearing tl1estylized beard uadi cionally <1-ssociared with the pharaohs. In ubia, in co ntrast, there i abundant evidence f many women mlers }\BOUT in the kingdom of Kush. orne ruled in ilieir own dghr, oilier reigned jointly with rnale kings, and many g verned also in rhe capaciry of re­ gents. · feanwhile, othe~; women wielded considerable power as priest­ TRADITIONS IN EARLY AFRICAN SOCI­ esses in tbe numerous religious cults observed in Egypt and Nubia. A ETIES. Egyptian kingdoms flourished along l·ew w men al o Gbtained a fo rm I education and worked as scribes. the Nile River as a result of the fertile alluvial soils that made agriculture so productive. Economic Specialization and T1·ade What were some of the distinctive styles of ruling, monument building, and re ligious Wirh the formation of complex, city-based societies, people of che Nile worship in this prosperous agricultural so­ valley were able ro draw on a rapidly expanding srock of hwnan kills. ciety, and why might they have developed Bronze merallmgy made; l,rs way from Mesopotamia w both Egypt and differently than in Nubia? Nubia, and by 1000 l.l.C.E. udanic peoples it'l dependently developed a rechn logy of iron pmducrlon thar evemual.ly spread to most: pam of ub- aharan Africa. Pottery, textile manufactu re, woodworking, leather production sconecurcing, and masonry all became di riner ccupadons in ciries throughout the ile va lley. Specialized lab rand rhe invem:i on of efficient rrans­ porradon technologies encomaged the development of trade networks thac linked the Nile val ley ro a muchJat:ger wo rld.

B R 0 N z E MET A L L U R G Y Nile societies were much slower than their Mesopo­ tamian counterparts ro adopt metal mol and weapons. Whereas che production of bronze flomished in Mesopota.mi.a by 3000 B. C.E., use ofbrotlze implements became widespread in Egypt 0nly after the sevemee nth century B.C.E., when the H yksos relied on bronze weapon t0 impose rhcir auchoriry on the Nile delta. Alth ough Egyprians equ ipped their own forces with bronze weapons after expelling the Hyks s, rh high c st of opper and tin kept bronze our of the hands of most people. Indeed, bronze W< con idered so valu­ able chat offi cer weighed the bronze tools issued to workers ar royal mmbs ro ensure that craftsmen did nor shave slivers off them for personal uses.

r R o N M ETA L L U R G Y Bronze was even less prominent inN ubi an societies than in Egypt. During me centuries after 1000 .B.G.E., however, the southern Nile societies made up for their lack of bronze w.i tl1 rhe emergence of large-scale iron production. Fur­ naces churned our iron implements both in Nubia and in west Mrica at least by 500 B.C.E. Meroe in particular became a site of large-scale iron production. Indeed, archaeologists who excavated Meroe in the early twentieth century c.E. found enormous mounds of slag still remaining from ancient times.

T RAN s Po R TAT I o N Nile craftsmen also worked from the early days of agricul­ tural society ro dcvi e elncienr me:ws of transportation. Before 3500 B.C.E. Egyptians al­ ready travele I up a.nJ down the Nile with ease. . Because the Nile flows north, boats could ride the curren rs {Tom Upper ro Lower Egypt. Meanwhile, prevailing winds blow almost year-round 11: m d1.e nort h, so that by raising a sai l, boats could eas ily make their way upriver from Lovver to Upper Egypt. oon after 3000 n.C.E. Egyptians aile l beyond chc Nile inro the Mediterranean, and by abour 2000 n. c.£. d1ey had also t110roughly explored the waters of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and meweste rn portion of rhe Arabian Sea. Egyptians also made use of Mesopotamian-style wheeled vehicles for local transport as well as donkey caravans for overland transport. In Nubia, navigation on the Nile was less convenient than in Egypt because unnavi­ gable cataracts made it necessary to transport goods overland before continuing on the

Hatshepsut (hat-SHEP-soot)

CHAPTER 2 EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE BANTU MIGRATIONS 37 EGYPTIAN RIVER TRANS· PORT. 1 A wooden model found in a tomb shows how Egyp­ tians traveled up and down the Nile River. Produced about 2000 B.C.E., this sculpture depicts a rela­ tively small boat with a mast, sail, rudder, and poles to push the ves­ sel through shallow waters. Many wall and tomb paintings confirm the accuracy of this model. Why is the figure in front trying to gauge the water's depth?

river. Moreover, sailing ships heading upriver could not negotiate a long stretch of the Nile around the fourth cataract because winds blow the same direction that currents flow. fu a result, Nubian societies had to rely more than Egyptians on overland transport by wheeled vehicles and donkey caravan.

TRADE NETWoRKs ln both Egypt and Nubia, specialized labor and efficient means of transportation enc uraged rhe development of long-distance trade. By the time of tbe Old Kingd m, rrade fl owed regularly between Egypt and Nubia. Exotic African go ds such a · ivory, ebony, le pard skins, ostrich feathers, gemstones, gold, and slaves went dow11 the il e in exchange for porrety, wine, honey, and finished products from Egypr. Am og d1e most prized Egyptia11 exports were fine linen textiles woven from the flax rhat flourished in the Nile valley well as high-quality decorative and ornamental objects such as boxes, furniture, and Jewehy produced by skilled artisans. Egyptian merchants looked north as well as south. They traded with Mesopotamians as early as 3500 B.C.E., and after 3000 B.C.E. they were active throughout the eastern Mediterranean basin. Since Egypt has very few trees, Egyptian ships regularly imported huge loads from Lebanon. Pharaohs especially prized aromatic cedar for their tombs, and one record from about 2600 B.C.E. mentions an expedition of forty ships hauling cedar logs. In exchange for cedar, Egyptians offered gold, silver, linen textiles, leather goods, and dried foods such as lentils. After the establishment of the New Kingdom, Egyptians also traded through the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden with an east African land they called Punt-probably modern­ day . omalia and Ethiop.ia. From Punr they imported gold, ebony, ivory, cattle, aromatics, and laves. Tbw, a in outhwest Asia, specialization of labor and efficient technologies or rransp rtar:i n not only quickened the economies of complex societies in Egypt and ubia but aL~o encouraged their imeracti n with peoples of distant lands.

38 PART I THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES , 3500 TO 500 s c.E . Early Writing in the Nile Valley

H IE R 0 GLYPH I G WRITING 'Xfriring 'lppeared in Egypt ar least by . 200 B.c. e., pos il>l y as a result f Mesopotamian influence. N; in Me opom.mia, the earllesr Egyptian writing was piccographic but Egypti ans soo.n supplemcnred rheir pictographs wirh symbols represeming und. and idea .. Early Greek vis itor to Egypt marveled ar Lhc large and hand orne pictographs rha r adorned Egyptian mouumems and buildings. ince rbe symbols were panicularl)' prominent on temple~ , the visito rs called them hie.roglyph., from tvJo Gr ek words meaning "h ly in cr.i ptions.'' !-fi erogln hie writi ng also survives on sheets of papyrus, a paper-like material fash ioned from the insida or papyrus reeds, which flourish along the Nile River. The hot, dry climate of Egypt has preserved large numbers of papyrus texts bearing administrative and commercial records as well as literary and religious texts. Although striking and dramatic, hieroglyphs were also omew.h.at umbersome. Egyp­ tians went to the trouble of using hieroglyphs for fi rmal writing and rnonumenral inscrip­ tions, but for everyday affairs they commonly relied on the hi raric ('' priesdy") scri pt, a simplified, cursive form of hieroglyphs. Hierati appeared in the early centuries of the third millennium B.C.E., and Egyptians made extensive usc of the script for more than three thousand years, from about 2600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. Hieratic largely disappeared after the middle of the first millennium c.E., when Egyptians adapted the Greek alphabet to their own language and developed alphabetic scripts known as the demotic ("popular") and Coptic ("Egyptian") scripts.

MER o 1T 1 G w R 1T 1 N G N ubian peoples poke rheir own languages, bur all early wntmg in ubia was Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. Indeed, over the centuries, Egypt wielded great cultural inHuence inN ubia, t;: pecially dmi ng rime.! when Egyp tian political and mi li tary inA.uenct: was srrong in sourhern land . After ahoul the fifth century B.C.E., however, Egyptian cultural in fl uence declined noticeably in Nubia. After the transfer of the Kushite capital from Napata to Meroe, Nubian scribes even devised an alphabetic script for the Meroitic language. They borrowed Egyptian hieroglyphs bur used them to represent sounds rather than ideas and so created a flexible writing system. Many Meroitic inscriptions survive, both on monuments and on papyrus. However, although scholars have ascertained the sound values of the alphabet, the Meroitic language itself is so differ­ ent from other known languages that no one has been able to decipher Meroitic texts. The Development of Organized Religious Traditions

AMoN AND R E Like their cow1te rpans in other wocld region , Egyptians and ubians believed that deities pl ayed promi11en t ro les in the wodd and d1a c proper cultiva­ tion of the gods was an important commun_i ry responsi.biliry. Th princif?al god revered in ancient Egypt were Amon andRe. Amon was originaUy a local Theban deity as ociated with the sun, creation, fertility, and reproducdv fi rces, andRe was a un god worshiped ar Hdiopolis. Dming th ld Kingdom and rhe Middle 1 ingdom priests increasingly a - s ciated the rwo gods with each other and honored Lhem in the combined cuJt of Amo.n­ Re. At leliopolis a massive temple complex suppotted priests who tended ro the c11lr of Amon-R · and . tudicd rhe heavens for astr n mi al purposes. When Egypt became an imperial power during the New Kingdom, some dev rees uggesred tha1 Amon-Re mighr even be a universal god who presided over all the earth.

hieroglyphics (heye-ruh-GLIPH-iks) hieratic (hahy-uh-RAT-tik) Amon-Re (AH-mohn RAY)

CHAPTER 2 EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE BANTU MIGRATIONS 39 THE CULT OF OSIRIS. Osiris (seated at right) receives a recently deceased individual, while attendants weigh the heart of another individual against a feather. This illustration comes from a papyrus copy of the Book of the Dead that was buried with a royal mummy.

Egyptian Book of the Dead ATE N AND MD N D THEISM For a brief period the cult of Amon-Re faced www.mhhe.com/ a monotheistic challenge from the god Aten, another deity associated with the sun. I! bentleybrief2e Aten' champjon was Pharaoh Amcnhotep IV (reigned 1353-1335 B.C.E.), who changed hi name to Akhenaten in honor of his preferred deity. Akhenaten considered Aten the world' " ole god like whom rhere is no other." This faith represented one of the world's earliest expressions of monotheism-the belief that a single god rules over all creation. As long as Akhenaten lived, the cult of Aten flourished. But when the pharaoh died, tradi­ tional priests mounted a fierce counterattack, restored the cult of Amon-Re to privileged status, and nearly annihilated the worship and even the memory of Aten.

M U M M I F I cAT 1 D N Whereas Mesopotamians believed with Gilgamesh that death brought an end to an individual's existence, many Egyptians believed that death was not an end so much as a transition to a new dimension of exisreu. e. Th yearning for immor­ tality helps ro explain th Egyptian practice f rnw11mif}ring the dead. During the Old Ki ngdom Egyptians believed rhar nly rhe ruling elites would mrvive d1e grave, they mummified only phara h and their close relatives. urjng the Middle and ew King­ doms, however, Egyptians came to think of eternal life as a condition available to normal mortals as well as members of the ruling classes. Mummification never became general practice in Egypt, but with or without preservation of the body, a variety of religious cults promised to lead individuals of all classes to immortality.

c U L T D F" o 5 I R 1 S T he culr of Osiris attracted particularly rrong popular inter­ est. According to the myth urr und.ing the cult, 0 iris's evU brother etb murdered him and scattered his dismembered pan throughout the la.nd bur the vicrim's loya l wile, [ ·is reu·ievcd his pan and gave hcr husband a proper burial. Impressed y hcr devotion, rhe gods resrored Osiri co life. god of the underworld rhe dwelling place of rhe departed. Egyptians also associated Osiris with immorraliry and honored him through religi u cult that demanded observance of high moral tandards. Foil wing their deaths, indi­ vidual souls faced the judgment of Osiris, who had their hearts weighed against a feather ~ymbolizing jusrice. T ho e with heavy hearts carrying a burden of evil and guilt did not merit immorta.liry, whereas those of pure heart and honorable deeds gained the gift of erernall.ife. Thus ·iris's cult held om hope of eternal reward for those who behaved ac­ cording ro high m tal standards.

NuB IAN R ELI G 1 D U 5 BELIEF" 5 Nubian peoples observed their own re­ ligious traditions, but very little written information survives to throw light on their re­ ligious beliefs. The most prominent of the Nubian deities was the lion-god Apedemak,

Akhenaton (ahk-eh-NAH -ton)

40 PART I THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES, 3500 TO 500 s.c.E , oFten depicted with a bow and anows who served as war god for rhe kingdom o Kush. Another deity, ebiumeker was a creamr god and di­ vine guardian of his hllln:Hl devocees. Alongside native cradiuons, Egyp­ tian religiou. ul r.s were quit pr minent in Nubia, especially afrer rhe aggressive ph;Haohs of rbe New Kingdom im p sed Egyptian rule on rh so uthern lands. ubian peoples did no mu.mmif)r th e remains of rheir dccea d, bm they built pyramids imilar to tho e of Egypr, alchough ENCOUNTERS IN EARLY AFRICAN SO­ ·mailer, and mcy embraced several Egyptian god . Amon w;ts rhe preem­ CIETIES. Egyptian and Nubian kingdoms inent Egyptian deiry in Nubia as iD Egypt itself. siris was aJso popular were positioned in such a way that they in Nubia, wh ere he omctimes appeared i.n associarlon wirh the native provided crucial links between the Medi­ deity Sebiwneker. However, Egyptian gods did nor displace narlve gods terranean basin on the one hand and sub­ so much as they joined then1 in me Nubian pantheon. Indeed, Nubians Saharan Africa on the other. In what ways often identified Egyptian god · with rheiJ· own deities or endowed the did trade and contact with distant regions foreign gods with traits important in Nubian society. shape Egyptian and Nubian ideas about religion, written expression, technology, and agriculture? BANTU MIGRATIONS AND EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Like rheir ounterparr in outhwesr Asia, Egyptian and Nubian societi es participated in a ffiLi cb larger world of i nteracrion ;tnd exchange. Mesopmamian societies developed under rhe strong inAuence · of long-di. ranee crade, di.ffu ions of re hnological innovations, the spread of culrw:aJ rraditious, and rhe far-flung migrarious of Semitic and Indo-European peoples. irnilady, quite apart frorn rheir dealings wim southwest Asian and Mediter­ ranean peoples, Egyptian and Nubian sociecies developed in the context of widespread interaction and exchange in sub-Saharan Africa. The most prominent processes unfold­ ing in sub-Saharan Africa during ancient times were rbe migrations of Banru-s peaki.ng peoples and the establishment of agriculrural societies in regions where Bantu speakers settled. Just as Sudanic agriculture spread to the Nile valley and pmvided an economic foundation for the development of Egyptian and Nubian societies, ir also spread co mosr other regions of Africa south of the Sahara and supported the emergence of distinctive agricultural societies. The Dynamics of Bantu Expansion

T H E BANTu Among the most influential peoples of sub-Saharan Africa in ancient time. were tbose who spoke Bantu languages. The original Bantu language was one of many related tongues in rhe larger Niger-Congo family of languages widely spoken in west Africa after 4000 B.C.l!. The ea rliest Bantu speakers inhabited a region embracing the eastern part of modern igerla and d1e southern part of modern Cameroon. Members of this community referred w themselves as bantu (meaning "persons" or "people"). The earliest Bantu speakers settled mostly along the banks of rivers, which they navigated in canoes, and in open areas of the region's forests. They cultivated yams and oil palms, and in later centuries they added millet and orghwn. They also kep goars and raised guinea fowl. They lived in clan-based villages headed by hiefs who conductecl religious rituals and represented their communities in dealings with neighboring villages. They traded regularly with hunting and gathering peoples who inhabited the tropical forests. Bantu cultivators provided these forest peoples with pottery and stone axes in exchange for meat, honey, and other forest products.

Sebiumeker (sehb-ih-meh-kur)

CHAPTER 2 1 EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE BANTU MIGRATIONS 41 MAP 2.3 1 Bantu migra­ tions, 2000 s.c. E. -1000 c.E. Note that Bantu migrations proceeded to the south and east of the original homeland of Bantu­ speaking peoples. To what extent do technological considerations help to explain the extent of sAHARA 'DESERT the Bantu migrations? Why did Bantu-speaking peoples not mi­ grate also to the north and west of their homeland?

Agriculture spread to sub-Saharan Africa with the Bantu migrations. ATLANTIC OCEAN

• Bantu homeland ...,_ Bantu migrations • Sites of early iron production

TNDTAN OCEAN sao 1000 ...,; ... nfoo 3000 km Cape of Good Hope

BANTu M 1G RAT 1oN s Unlike most of their neighbors, the Bantu displayed an early readiness to migrate to new territories. By 3000 B.C.E. they were slowly spread­ ing south into the west African forest, and after 2000 B.C.E. they expanded rapidly to the south toward the Congo River basin and east toward the Great Lakes, absorbing local populations of hunting, gathering, and fishing peoples into their own agricultural socie­ ties. Over the centuries, as some groups of Bantu speakers settled and others moved on to new territories, their languages differentiated into more than five hundred distinct but related tongues. (Today more than ninety million people speak Bantu languages, which collectively constitute the most prominent family of languages in sub-Saharan Africa.) Like Lhe Indo-European migrations discussed in chapter 1, the Bantu migrations were not mass movements of peoples. Instead, they were intermittent and incremental processes that resulted in the gradual spread of Bantu languages and ethnic communities, as small groups moved to new territories and established settlements, which then became founda­ tions for further expansion. By 1000 C. E. Bantu-speaking peoples occupied most of Africa south of the equator. The precise motives of the early Bantu migrants are unknown, but it seems likely that population pressures drove the migrations. When settlements grew uncomfortably large and placed strains on available resources, small groups left their parent communities and moved to new territories. As they moved, Bantu migrants placed pressures on the forest dwellers, sometimes clashing with them over land resources but often intermarrying and absorbing them into Bantu agricultural society.

42 PART I THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES, 3500 TO 500 s.c E IRON AND MIGRATION After about 1000 B.C.E., the pace of Bantu migra­ tions quickened, as Bantu peoples began to produce iron wols and weapon . Iron tools enabled Bantu cultivators to clear land and expand the z.one of agriculture more effectively than before, while iron weapons strengthened the han I orBantu groups. gainst adversar­ ies and competitors for land or other resources. Thus iron metallurgy supported rapid population growth among the Bantu while also lending increased momentum to their continuing migrations.

Early Agricultural Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa Several smaller migrations took place alongside the spread of Bantu peoples in sub-Saharan Africa. Between 3500 and 1000 B.C.E., southern Kushite herders pushed into parts of east Africa (modern-day Kenya and Tanzania), while Sudanese cultivators and herders moved into the upper reaches of the Nile River (now southern Sudan and northern Uganda). Meanwhile, Mande-speaking peoples who cultivated African rice established commu­ nities along the Atlantic estuaries of west Africa, and other peoples speaking Niger­ Congo languages spread the cultivation of okra from forest regions throughout much of west Africa.

s P R E A D o F A G R I C U L T u R E Among the most important effects of Bantu and other mi gration was rhe establishment of agricultural societies throughout most of sub- aharan Africa. Bwveen 1000 and 500 B.C.E., cultivators extended the cultivation of yams and grai ns deep into eaBt and south Africa (modern-day Kenya, Malawi, Mozam­ bi Jlle, Zimbabwe, and oud1 Africa) wh ile herders introduced sheep and cattle to the regi n. Abour the same time, Bantu and ther peoples speaking Niger-Congo languages spread rl1e intensive culrivadon f yams, oil palms, millet, and sorghum throughout wesc and cenrral Africa while also introducing sheep, pigs, and cacrle co r.he regio n. By che late centuries B.C.E., agriculture had reached almo ·r all of sub-SaharaJJ Africa except for densely forested regions and deserts. As cultivation and herding spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural peoples built distinctive societies and cultural traditions. Most Bantu and other peoples lived in communities of a few hundred individuals led by chiefs. Many peoples recognized groups known as age sets, or age grades, consisting of individuals born within a few years of one another. Memb rs oF ead1 age er jointly asstuncd re ponsibil iry for rasks appropriate to rl1 eir levels of strength, energy, marurity, alld experience. During rh eir cady years for example, members of an age se r mighr perform ughr public d1o re_.; . Ar matmiry members joinrly w1derwenr elaborate initiation rites rhar introduced them w adul t ociety. Older men cultivated ftclds and provid ed military . ervice, and women tended to domestic chores and sometimes traded at markets. In later years, members of age sets served as community leaders and military officers.

A F R I cAN c U L T IvATo R s African cultivators and herders also developed distinctive cultural and religious traditions. Both Sudanic and Niger-Congo peoples (in­ cluding Bantu speakers), for example, held monotheistic religious beliefs by 5000 B.C.E. Sudanic peoples recognized a single, impersonal divine force that they regarded as the source of both good and evil. They believed that this divine force could take the form of individual spirits, and they often addressed the divine force through prayers to intermedi­ ary spirits. The divine force itself, howcve1·, was ultimately resp nsiblc For rewards and punishments meted out to human beings. For their p:an, Niger-Congo people. recog­ nized a single god originally called yamba wh created th e world and esrabli h d rh principles that would govern its development, th n stepped back and allowed the world co proceed on its own. Individuals did nor generally addre s rhi distant creato r god directly but, rather, offered their prayers to ancestor pirirs and loca l te rritorial spirirs beli eved ro inhabit the world and influence the fortunes of living humans. Prop r attention t these

CHAPTER 2 I EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE BANTU MIGRATIONS 43 spiri ts wOLdd ensure them good fortune, they believed, whereas their neglect would bring pun! hmeur or a.dver icy from disgruntled spirits. lndjvidual communities frequently borrowed religious elements from other communi­ de and adapted th eir belids to hanging cirCLunstance or fresh understandings of the world. Migrations of 13antu and other peoples in pard ular resulted in a great deal of cultuJal mixing and mingling, and rel igio us beli efs often spread to new communities in the wake of popuL1.tioo movements. N 1:er 1000 13.C.K, for example, as they encountered Sudanic peoples and their reverence of a single divine force that was the source of good and evil, many Bantu peoples associated the god Nyamba with goodness. As a result, this formerly distant creator god took on a new moral dimension that brought him closer to the lives of individuals. Thus changing religious beliefs sometimes reflected widespread interactions among African societies.

SUMMARY

Like other world regions, Africa was a land in which peoples of different societies regu­ larly traded, communicated, and interacted with one another from ancient times. African agriculture and herding first emerged in the Sudan, then spread both to the Nile River valley and to arable lands throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural crops and domes­ ticated animals from southwest Asia soon made their way into the Nile valley. With its broad floodplains, Egypt became an especially productive land, while Nubia supported a smaller but flourishing society. Throughout the Nile valley, abundant agricultural sur­ pluses supported dense populations and the construction of prosperous societies with sophisticated cultural traditions. Elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa, populations were less dense, but the migrations of Bantu and other peoples facilitated the spread of agri­ culture, and later iron metallurgy as well, throughout most of the region. Meanwhile, the Nile River served as a route of trade and communication linking Egypt and the Mediterranean basin to the north with the Sudan and sub-Saharan Africa to the south. Only in the context of migration, trade, communication, and interaction is it possible to understand the early development of African societies.

STUDY TERMS

Akhenaton (40) hieratic script (39) New Kingdom (32) Amon-Re (39) hieroglyphics (39) Nile River (29) Archaic Period (31) Hyksos (32) Nubia (27) Aten (40) Kush (32) Old Kingdom (31) Bantu (28) Menes (31) pharaoh (31) Bantu migrations (42) Meroitic writing (39) pyramids (31) cult of Osiris (40) Middle Kingdom (32) Sebiumeker (41) Egypt (29) mummification (27) Tuthmosis III (33) Hatshepsut (37)

4 4 PART I THE EARLY COMPLEX S OC IETIES, 3 500 TO 500 B c . E . FCJR FURTHER READING

Cyril Aldred. The Egyptians. Rev. ed. New York, 1984. A popular, well-illustrated, and reliable survey of ancient Egyptian history. Christopher Ehret. An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.c. to A.D. 400. Charlottesville, Va., 1998. A path breaking volume focusing on eastern and southern Africa and drawing on both linguistic and archaeological evidence. ---. The Civilizations ofAfrica: A History to 1800. Charlottesville, Va., 2001. An important contri­ bution that views Africa in the context of world history. Zahi Hawass. Silent Images: Women in Pharaonic Egypt. New York, 2000. A prominent archaeologist draws on both textual and artifactual evidence in throwing light on women's experiences in an­ cient Egypt. Miriam Lichtheim, ed. Ancient Egyptian Literature. 3 vols. Berkeley, 1973-80. An important collection of primary sources in translation that reflects the results of recent scholarship. Roderick James Mcintosh. The Peoples ofthe Middle Niger: The Island ofGold. Oxford, 1998. Fascinating volume emphasizing the environmental context of west African history. Jan Vansina. Paths in the Rainforests: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa. Madison, 1990. A brilliant synthesis concentrating on central Africa by one of the world's fore­ most historians of Africa. Derek A. Welsby. The Kingdom ofKush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empires. London, 1996. Draws on both written and archaeological sources in tracing the development of ancient Nubia and charting its relationship with Egypt.

CHAPTER 2 EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND THE BANTU MIGRATIONS 45