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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles More than a Language, a Travel Agency: Ideology and Performance in the Israeli Judeo-Spanish Revitalization Movement A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology by Jill Kushner Bishop 2004 DEDICATION In honor and memory of my grandparents, whose use of Yiddish fascinated me as a child and sparked my interest in Jewish languages as an adult. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction Introduction 1 Language Ideologies 6 Overview 6 Definitions and current perspectives 7 Language and nationalism 10 Performance 16 Approaches to performance 17 Ideology and performance 19 Methods and Fieldwork Overview 21 Plan of Chapters 25 2. History of the Sephardim Introduction 29 Overview of Sephardim in Spain 29 Jews under Christianity 30 Jews under Muslim rule 31 Early pogroms 32 The Expulsion 33 Refuge in the Ottoman Empire 35 Judeo-Spanish Language 36 The language of the Sephardim before the Expulsion 36 The language of the Sephardim following the Expulsion 39 Characteristics of Judeo-Spanish 40 Conservative elements 41 Innovations 43 Internal linguistic variation 44 Persistence of Judeo-Spanish 45 Decline of Judeo-Spanish 47 Political and economic decline 48 The Alliance Israélite Universelle 49 Loss of prestige 50 Nationalism in the Balkans 51 The Holocaust 52 The establishment of Israel 53 Birth of a Nation, Rebirth of a Language 54 Hebrew language Planning 58 The Ulpan 60 Current Israeli Attitudes toward Language 61 Russians: the latest wave of immigrants 62 iv Language among Israeli Sephardim Today 64 The linguistic repertoire of the Sephardim 67 Code-switching 69 Code-switching among the Sephardim 73 Conclusion 76 3. Historical and Current Perspectives on Judeo-Spanish Revitalization Introduction 78 Language Shift 78 Language Revitalization 82 Early Judeo-Spanish Revitalization Efforts 87 Israeli radio and minority language maintenance 87 Judeo-Spanish radio program 89 Judeo-Spanish radio and standardization 92 Project Folklore 96 Judeo-Spanish journal 97 Judeo-Spanish orthography 98 Sefarad organization 101 Official Revitalization Efforts 102 Judeo-Spanish Language Classes 105 Research methods 105 NAL Judeo-Spanish course overview 107 Analysis: Intensive Adult Judeo-Spanish Course 109 Course structure 109 Teaching Judeo-Spanish, teaching about Judeo-Spanish 109 Ways of speaking: formal vs. informal registers 112 Setting goals and expressing hopes 118 Instructor goals: passing the torch 118 Student goals: giving vs. getting 123 Approximating the Sabra image 132 Embarrassment and shame 135 Difference through language 137 Difference through dress 142 Future Perspectives 145 From shame to nostalgia 145 From nostalgia to action 149 4. Sephardic Musical Performance Introduction 155 Language Revitalization through Song 156 Sephardic songs and Judeo-Spanish revitalization 158 Academic collection efforts 162 Non-academic collection efforts 167 Sol and Esther: a focus on the contributors 169 v A la guerra me vo ir: personal pain, communal experience 174 Unintentional consequences: insecurity and standardization 179 Musical Performance in Israel 180 Popular music and nation-building 181 Yehoram Gaon: from Israeli performer to Sephardic performer 183 Current Sephardic Popular Performance 189 Vini Kantaremos 191 Background 191 (Re)creating community 192 Demonstrating legitimacy 194 Focusing on language 199 Focusing on how things used to be 206 Focusing on the songs 209 Songs for the future 216 Conclusion 219 5. Sephardic Narrative Performance Introduction 223 Storytelling and Judeo-Spanish Revitalization 226 Story collection 227 Academic Perspectives on Narrative 231 An agent-centered process 231 A necessary partnership 232 Storytelling in the Classroom 235 Storytelling in the past 237 “Knowing how to tell” 240 The co-construction of a traditional story in the classroom 244 Controlling the telling 247 Storytelling as vocabulary-building 248 Vini Kantaremos: Storytelling in the Public Sphere 259 Storytellers’ Circle: Collaborative Storytelling 264 Group history 266 Language use 268 Of willful children and egg vendors: evaluating the past in light of the present 270 Sol and Esther: Storytelling and Personal Meaning 286 The role of narrative 286 Overview of the four narratives 287 Analysis: reconciling pain and loss 289 Conclusion 298 6. Conclusion The Future of Judeo-Spanish 302 Pessimism or realism? 303 vi Room for optimism? 307 The “trap” of nostalgia? 308 The “Sephardic Yiddish” 310 Yiddish in religious and secular life 312 National Languages and Hegemony 314 An Eye toward the Future 316 Appendix A Judeo-Spanish Orthographic System 321 Appendix B Hebrew Orthographic System 322 Appendix C Transcription Conventions 323 Bibliography 324 vii LIST OF FIGURES #1 “The Melting Pot” poster 66 #2 Yehoram Goan album cover 184 #3 Use of song sheets 213 #4 Spontaneous performance 221 #5 The use of story texts 245 #6 Storytelling from the stage 260 #7 The Storyteller’s Circle 271 #8 The falaka 279 #9 Sol and Esther 287 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Paul Kroskrity and Marjorie Goodwin for nearly a decade of guidance, Yona Sabar for his contributions to the later stages of this dissertation and Vincent Barletta for his invaluable feedback over the years. I thank my parents and brother for their support and encouragement and my husband, Mark, for keeping me going during this process, making sure I was properly fed and so much more. My thanks also go to Jonathan Schachter for his assistance with the Hebrew transliterations and translations and to all the friends who cheered me on, deadline after postponed deadline. This research would not have been possible without the generous support of the Maurice Amado Foundation and UCLA’s Department of Anthropology. Finally, I want to thank the members of the Sephardic community, in particular those mentioned in this text, who opened their lives to me, welcomed me to their activities and shared their stories with me. I have a tremendous amount of respect for their efforts to keep Judeo-Spanish alive and much gratitude for their assistance with this project. ix VITA October 13, 1970 Born, Skokie, Illinois 1992 B.A., Teaching of Spanish University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois 1995-1996 Teaching Assistant Department of Spanish, Los Angeles, California 1996-1998 Teaching Assistant Department of Anthropology, Los Angeles, California 1997 M.A., Anthropology University of California, Los Angeles, California 1999 Field work, Israel 2000-2002 User Researcher Sapient Chicago, Illinois 2003 Anthropology Instructor Robert Morris College Chicago, Illinois 2003 Anthropology Instructor Oakton Community College Des Plaines, Illinois 2003-2004 Culture and Language Regional Consultant Chipotle Mexican Grill Westchester, Illinois x PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS Bishop, Jill Kushner (March 1998). “These are the Words They Don’t Put in these Stories”: The Negotiation of Sephardic Moral Frameworks through Narrative. Paper presented at the American Association for Applied Linguistics. ––––, (June 1999). “It Hurts My Heart”: Language Shift and Language Ideology in the Sephardic Community of Jerusalem. Paper presented at the 11th British Conference on Judeo-Spanish Studies, London. ––––, (November 1999). Reconciling Change: Creating Coherence through Sephardic Narrative. Paper presented at the Invited Presidential Symposium of the 98th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association. ––––, (December 2001). “Are We Not Just an Anachronism?”: Language and Identity among Israeli Sephardim. Paper presented at the Association for Jewish Studies 3rd Annual Conference. ––––, (November 2002). Ideologies of Language Maintenance: The Future of Judeo-Spanish in Israel. Paper given at the 101st Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association. ––––, (forthcoming). From Shame to Nostalgia: Shifting Language Ideologies in the Judeo-Spanish Maintenance Movement. Proceedings of the Eleventh British Conference on Judeo-Spanish Studies. London: Brill. xi ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION More than a Language, a Travel Agency: Ideology and Performance in the Israeli Judeo-Spanish Revitalization Movement by Jill Kushner Bishop Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology University of California, Los Angeles, 2004 Professor Paul V. Kroskrity, Chair The language of Sephardic Jews for centuries, Judeo-Spanish is no longer transmitted to younger generations. After decades of discouraging the use of languages other than Hebrew, the Israeli government has changed its stance toward minority Jewish languages and now actively encourages their maintenance. Recent Judeo-Spanish revitalization efforts in Israel center around language classes, musical performance and storytelling events. This dissertation explores language ideologies among speakers of Judeo-Spanish by focusing on activities in which the language and performance of its verbal art play a central role and, in turn, by situating these ideologies against the backdrop of Israeli xii nationalism and the revitalization of Hebrew. Whereas many Sephardic Jews, as children, associated Judeo-Spanish with shame, through participating in these activities, their feelings have shifted to nostalgia and pride. Rather than merely viewing these activities as a way of bringing them back to the past, participants are now looking for ways to make room for Judeo-Spanish in the present and the future. xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction A Sephardic stand-up comedian named Vitali declared to
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