Sustained by First Nations: European Newcomers' Use of Indigenous Plant
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Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae Journal homepage: pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/asbp INVITED REVIEW Received: 2012.09.24 Accepted: 2012.11.04 Published electronically: 2012.12.12 Acta Soc Bot Pol 81(4):295–315 DOI: 10.5586/asbp.2012.038 Sustained by First Nations: European newcomers’ use of Indigenous plant foods in temperate North America Nancy Jean Turner1*, Patrick von Aderkas2 1 School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, PO Box 3060 STN CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 3R4, Canada 2 Department of Biology, University of Victoria, PO Box 3060 STN CSV, Victoria, BC V8W 3R4, Canada Abstract Indigenous Peoples of North America have collectively used approximately 1800 different native species of plants, algae, lichens and fungi as food. When European explorers, traders and settlers arrived on the continent, these native foods, often identified and offered by Indigenous hosts, gave them sustenance and in some cases saved them from starvation. Over the years, some of these species – particularly various types of berries, such as blueberries and cranberries (Vaccinium spp.), wild raspberries and blackberries (Rubus spp.), and wild strawberries (Fragaria spp.), and various types of nuts (Corylus spp., Carya spp., Juglans spp., Pinus spp.), along with wild-rice (Zizania spp.) and maple syrup (from Acer saccharum) – became more widely adopted and remain in use to the present day. Some of these and some other species were used in plant breeding programs, as germplasm for hybridization programs, or to strengthen a crop’s resistance to disease. At the same time, many nutritious Indigenous foods fell out of use among Indigenous Peoples themselves, and along with their lessened use came a loss of associated knowledge and cultural identity. Today, for a variety of reasons, from improving people’s health and regaining their cultural heritage, to enhancing dietary diversity and enjoyment of diverse foods, some of the species that have dwindled in their use have been “rediscovered” by Indigenous and non-Indigenous Peoples, and indications are that their benefits to humanity will continue into the future. Keywords: ethnobotany, wild food plants, North America, European settlers, edible wild plants Introduction First Peoples, but by newcomer populations during the trade and colonial eras, and right up to the present day as people Many world-class food products originated in the Ameri- everywhere have reclaimed their interest in local, sustainable cas: maize (Zea mays), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), beans food systems [1]. In this paper, we focus on plant foods of (Phaseolus vulgaris), peppers (Capsicum annuum), tomatoes North American First Peoples that were adopted in earlier (Lycopersicum esculentum), pineapples (Ananas comosa), pa- times by Europeans and other immigrants, in some cases out payas (Carica papaya), chocolate (Theobroma cacao) and of necessity, but also because of convenience and appreciation vanilla (Vanilla planifolia), to name just a few. Most of these of their quality, taste and nutritive values. To provide a deeper were introduced to Europe fairly early on by explorers like understanding of the types of situations in which these foods Christopher Columbus, and all of these examples were crops were adopted, we highlight six key species of North American that were domesticated originally from Central and South edible wild plants, with details of their procurement, accep- America. However, North American Indigenous Peoples have tance and adaptation by the European newcomers, including relied for millennia on diverse and nutritious plant foods from their use up to the present time. their own and neighbouring territories. Among these, only a North American First Peoples were known to have used, handful, most notably sunflower (Helianthus annuus), have collectively, somewhere in the neighbourhood of 1800 spread worldwide as domesticated crops. Many others, includ- species as sources of food and beverages [2]. Here we pro- ing wild-growing and locally cultivated species, have been vide an inventory of those most commonly known to have consumed and enjoyed more on a regional scale, not only by been shared with newcomers, and we focus on the era of exploration and settlement of the continent by Europeans and other non-Indigenous populations, rather than on the * Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] more recent harvesting and use of such foods within the past half century or so, as highlighted by authors such as This is an Open Access digital version of the article distributed Fernald and Kinsey [3], Euell Gibbons [4], Erika Gaertner under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License [5,6], Szczawinski and Turner [7] and Turner and Szczawinski (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits redistribution, commercial [8,9], Thayer [10,11], and Kallas [12]. Some of these foods and non-commercial, provided that the article is properly cited. are also featured products of the Slow Food organization, dedicated to preserving the biodiversity and cultural values of © The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society the world’s foods [13]. 296 Turner and von Aderkas / Europeans' wild North American food plants Records of earlier use and adoption of Indigenous North wild harvest have received more attention recently as sources American foods by newcomers are found in many sources, of genetic material for crop development. including diaries and journals of early explorers like Captain Medicinal plants used by First Nations were taken up se- James Cook [14]; Simon Fraser [15] and Meriwether Lewis lectively by the colonists and in effect, continue to be taken up and William Clark [16]. Many of these people would not have by their descendants. However, this movement of species was survived without the help and provisions offered by the First not solely of species naturally distributed in North America. Peoples then encountered along their routes. Diaries and ac- Native North Americans had extensive trade networks that had counts of early settlers like Susan Allison [17] also sometimes been operating for millennia. The tobacco speciesNicotiana refer to their adoption of indigenous plant foods, and ethno- rustica, which is native to Central and South America was graphic accounts, local pioneer histories and other sources also introduced to the northeast more than a millennium prior contribute such information [18,19]. Examining the names of to the arrival of Europeans. Although it was rapidly adopted plant species used, by both First Nations and newcomers, can by early colonists, who even grew it for export, N. rustica was also give clues about the adoption and use of these foods by replaced by N. tabacum, which had less nicotine but a more the latter. For example, the fact that there is a name in Chinook desirable taste. In the 1990s, a hybrid between the two species Jargon, a hybrid trade language, for camas – le camas (with the was created. Named Y1, it was much richer in nicotine than French article “le”) – indicates that traders and newcomers other varieties. It became the source of much controversy, were conversing about this plant, and probably about its use until its development was abandoned later in the decade. This in trade and commerce. Other literature sources back up this example illustrates that food or medicine plants that have at- suggestion [20,21]. tracted a lot of human attention will continue to be targets for One aspect of traditional plant food use by Indigenous Peo- drugs, compounds and genes for future breeding programs. ples was not well recognized or appreciated by the newcomer Of course, the newcomers brought many species from populations, namely Indigenous tending and management of Europe and elsewhere that were adopted into the diets and many different species and habitats, to promote and sustain the medicinal pharmacopoeias of Indigenous Peoples. One ex- growth and productivity of plant resources [22–24]. In north- ample is horehound (Marrubium vulgare), which as explained western North America, for example, the Indigenous Peoples by Chestnut [27]: “Where introduced and where the Indians have long been characterized as “hunter-gatherers”, whose came in contact with the white settlers, they used it in a like use of plants was considered to be, at best, somewhat random manner for colds and to stop diarrhea”. Stinging nettle (Urtica and casual. This allowed the colonial officials and settlers to dioica) is another species, which although native to North make the convenient assumption that Indigenous people of America as well as to Europe, evidently was introduced to the region needed very little land, for their sustenance, and Native Americans as an edible cooked green by Europeans. that, as long as they had access to the rivers and oceans for Indigenous Peoples have long used nettles as a source of fishing and shellfish harvesting, and to some forested areas tough fibre for cordage, lines and nets, and as medicine for for hunting, they would be able to survive. At the same time, many purposes, but apparently did not use it as a food before the missionaries and colonial officials of the day set about Europeans and Asian immigrants arrived [28,29]. Nettles to convert the First Nations to a “proper” farming economy, soon became popular as a cooked green, used by Iroquois, and using the more recognized style of European agriculture, with various western Indigenous Peoples including Straits Salish, potatoes, onions, turnips and domesticated fruits, introduced Halkomelem, Sechelt, Nlaka’pamux and others [29–32]. An- from outside the region [20,24,25]. other food apparently brought or adopted by Viking colonists In any case, the Indigenous Peoples throughout North in the distant past, but evidently not used by the Indigenous America were widely regarded as “primitive,” and “savage”. Peoples, is sea lyme grass, or strand-wheat [Leymus arenarius Their foods and lifestyles were seen by many people in this (L.) Hochst.] [33]. light, and there was an assumption of European superiority, even as the newcomers were relying on the very products they were disparaging.