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Defying the Sunbelt: an Economic and Environmental History of Tampa, 1950-1980

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Defying the Sunbelt: an Economic and Environmental History of Tampa, 1950-1980 DEFYING THE SUNBELT: AN ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF TAMPA, 1950-1980 By BRAD THOMAS MASSEY A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2017 © 2017 Brad Thomas Massey To Lauren, Luke, and Will ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank the faculty and staff of the University of Florida’s Department of History for making me a better historian. I also thank Jack Davis, Joseph Spillane, Jessica Harland-Jacobs, Trysh Travis, and Lillian Guerra for serving on my dissertation committee. I also extend many thanks to my colleagues at Polk State College, where I have taught for the past ten years. As a new faculty member, Jude Ryan’s enduring—yet concealed—belief in innate human goodness and the power of the college experience to uncloak it, helped make my first years as an idealistic history teacher the most professionally fulfilling of my life. My biggest debt of intellectual gratitude goes out to Lj Russum, who I also befriended at Polk State. The interindustrial lens, which is a centerpiece of this dissertation, was conceived through a series of long, meandering, and fruitful conversations with Lj. Lj’s comments and criticisms also vastly improved Chapter 4. More than anyone else, Lj has helped me understand the pleasures, perils, and frustrations of academic pursuits. I also thank Polk State for awarding me the Banking Endowed Teaching Chair in 2011, and for financially supporting this project. The bulk of this dissertation is based on sources archived at the University of South Florida Special Collections, the Hillsborough County public library system, and the City of Tampa Archives. These institutions and their helpful staffs were essential to this study’s completion. I thank USF Special Collections for awarding me the Riordan Fellowship in the summer of 2015. During my time at USF, it was my good fortune to meet Andy Huse, Matt Knight, Jonathan Rodriguez-Perez and other members of the library’s staff, all of who provided much needed assistance. David Parsons and other 4 librarians at the Hillsborough County public library also provided helpful guidance, as did Jennifer Dietz at the City of Tampa Archives. Finally, this dissertation is dedicated to Lauren, Luke, and Will. More than anything, they deserve praise and thanks for patiently supporting me while I wrote and fretted over this dissertation. Their enduring love is why the final spot of these acknowledgements—and this dissertation’s dedication—is reserved for them. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... 8 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: COLD WAR TAMPA AND THE CASE FOR THE INTERINDUSTRIAL LENS ..................................................................................... 12 2 RISE OF THE ROCK: INDUSTRIAL PHOSPHATE’S ENVIRONMENTAL, ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL CONNECTIONS .................................................... 27 Phosphate Industry Growth, 1945 to 1979.............................................................. 29 The Fight over Phosphate’s Pollution and Industrial Footprint, 1960 to 1974 ......... 33 Tampa’s Ties to the Eastern Bloc, 1974 to 1980 .................................................... 48 Reclaimed Land, Cancer Scares, Suburban Collision, 1970 to 1980 ..................... 58 3 LINGERING SMOKE AND LABORING WOMEN: THE FEMINIZATION AND CONTRACTION OF TAMPA CIGAR MANUFACTURING ...................................... 79 Women Cigarworkers, Machines, and Economic Stabilization, 1945 to 1961 ........ 81 The Cuban Embargo and the Last Industry Strike, 1962 to 1964 ........................... 89 The Post-Cuban Tobacco Years, 1964 to 1980 .................................................... 103 4 SEÑORITAS, SOUP, BEER, BIRDS, AND THE DARK CONTINENT: YBOR CITY, BUSCH GARDENS, AND THE TOURIST ECONOMY ............................... 116 The Alcalde Program, Señoritaism and the Latin Plaza, 1945 to 1963 ................. 120 Urban Renewal, Bull Fights, Fires, and Failure, 1964 to 1980 .............................. 133 The Creation and Evolution of Busch Gardens, 1959 to 1980 .............................. 142 5 RANCH HOMES, A RANCID RIVER, AND A POLLUTED BAY: THE POSTWAR GROWTH ECONOMY, THE HILLSBOROUGH RIVER, AND THE UPPER TAMPA BAY ............................................................................................ 168 Drinking, Swimming In, and Polluting Tampa's Waters, 1950 to 1975 .................. 170 Hope at Hooker’s Point and the 1979 Sewage Spill, 1975 to 1980 ....................... 189 6 STRIKE COMMAND AND STRAWBERRIES: THE ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND SOCIETAL IMPACT OF MACDILL AIR FORCE BASE AND BIG AGRIBUSINESS ......................................................................... 202 6 MacDill During World War II and the Early Cold War, 1945 to 1962 ..................... 203 Pollution, Crashes, and Integration, 1962 to 1980 ................................................ 212 Agribusiness in Tampa, 1945 to 1964 .................................................................. 218 Migrant Labor in Agricultural Tampa, 1960 to 1978 .............................................. 224 7 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 243 LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 250 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................... 266 7 LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 1-1 Map of greater Tampa in the 1960s. ................................................................... 25 1-2 Greater Tampa and its eastern hinterlands in the 1980s. ................................... 26 2-1 Map of Tampa-area phosphate deposits. ........................................................... 71 2-2 Phosphate being loaded onto a ship in Port Tampa in 1958. ............................. 72 2-3 A phosphate “moonscape,” replete with slime ponds, created by the American Cyanamid Company in Donner, FL. ................................................... 73 2-4 An aerial view of International Minerals and Chemicals Corporation's phosphate operations near Bartow in 1962. ....................................................... 74 2-5 A phosphate transporting train being loaded in Tampa’s hinterlands in 1952. ... 75 2-6 The new East Bay phosphate-loading location. .................................................. 76 2-7 A phosphate dragline in operation in 1948. ........................................................ 77 2-8 Aerial view of Bayshore Boulevard in 1956, with downtown Tampa and the mouth of the Hillsborough River in the background. ........................................... 78 3-1 Women cigarworkers in 1949. .......................................................................... 113 3-2 Disgruntled cigar worker angered over the Cuban Embargo. ........................... 114 3-3 Women being arrested in front of the Corral-Wodiska cigar factory in 1962 ..... 115 4-1 Postcard of Ybor City during its industrial period.. ........................................... 151 4-2 Promotional card with the Alcalde flag and pledge.. ......................................... 152 4-3 Ybor City Chamber of Commerce flyer. ............................................................ 153 4-4 Señoritas at a promotional event. ..................................................................... 154 4-5 “La Verbena del Tabaco Festival Queens,” 1937. ............................................ 155 4-6 “La Verbena del Tabaco Festival Queens,” 1937. ............................................ 156 4-7 Ybor City promotional pamphlet. ...................................................................... 157 4-8 A picture of an Alcalde election. ....................................................................... 158 8 4-9 Artistic rendering of the Latin Plaza. ................................................................. 159 4-10 Urban renewal in Ybor City. .............................................................................. 160 4-11 Aerial view of Busch Gardens in 1960. ............................................................. 161 4-12 The Busch Gardens bird show and hospitality house in 1960. ......................... 162 4-13 Busch Gardens promotional pamphlet. ............................................................ 163 4-14 A picture of Busch Gardens in the 1970s. ........................................................ 164 4-15 Busch Gardens’ “Dark Continent” theme. ......................................................... 165 4-16 The Python roller coaster. ................................................................................ 166 4-17 A 1977 aerial photo of Busch Gardens. ............................................................ 167 5-1 An early promotional pamphlet for Hillsborough River State Park. ................... 196 5-2 Promotional pamphlet for Hillsborough River State Park. ................................. 197 5-3 Aerial view of the Hillsborough River’s mouth in 1956. ..................................... 198 5-4 A 1977 St. Petersburg Times figure that
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